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Abulk Carrier
Abulk Carrier
I S S I O N
The mission of the American Bureau of Shipping is to serve the public interest as well as the needs of our clients by promoting the security of life, property and the natural environment primarily through the development and verification of standards for the design, construction and operational maintenance of marinerelated facilities.
Executive Summary
Bulk carrier safety initiatives have received a new sense of urgency, accompanied with a greater sense of liability in the marine industry. The relationship of bulk carrier age to total loss of a vessel cannot be ignored, but other operational considerations also play an important role in maintaining the structural integrity. Statistically, for conventional bulk carriers, those vessels with more than 20 years of operation have a greater total loss probability, in addition to a greater loss of life probability. Capesize (more than 80k dwt) and handysize (10 to 40k dwt) vessels account for the majority of losses at sea. This is a concern as 51 percent of the handysize fleet is 20 years old or greater. There are many operational considerations contributing to the loss of a vessel that must be addressed for the next generation of bulk carriers. ABS SafeHull is the starting point for an ABS approved design. Application of the principles found in ABS SafeHull provide the cornerstone to a structurally sound vessel. Additionally, the ABS SafeShip program follows a vessel from inception through its service life. This information management system allows owners the best method for maintaining their vessels. For further design verification, several analytical tools exist to address unique considerations for the larger bulk carrier designs. Design alternatives to the conventional single sided vessels have been proven in the market to bring added strength, including the double hull or double side skin design. Bulk carriers with double sides are more durable ships bringing added benefits for safety and operations. ABS is a classification society of choice for bulk carriers. With practical experience and unmatched technical capability, ABS offers shipowners and shipbuilders of these vessels the most comprehensive classification services available.
Table of Contents
INTRODUCTION .....................................................................................................................3 ABS STRONG POSITION .......................................................................................................4 MARKET SHARE ..............................................................................................................................................4 RECENT ACTIVITY - DOUBLE SIDE SKIN BULK CARRIERS ...................................................................................4 BULK CARRIER LOSSES.........................................................................................................5 OPERATIONAL CONSIDERATIONS ........................................................................................8 HOLD SIDE FRAME PROBLEMS .........................................................................................................................8 Fatigue ..........................................................................................................................................................8 Corrosion ......................................................................................................................................................9 Damage.......................................................................................................................................................10 GREEN WATER .............................................................................................................................................11 SPONTANEOUS COMBUSTION .........................................................................................................................11 IMPROVING BULK CARRIER SAFETY..................................................................................12 APPLICATION OF ABS SAFESHIP ....................................................................................................................12 APPLICATION OF ABS SAFEHULL ...................................................................................................................12 Bulk Carrier Designs ..................................................................................................................................13 Side Frames ................................................................................................................................................13 Cross Deck Structures .................................................................................................................................14 Corrugated Transverse Bulkheads...............................................................................................................14 TAIL SHAFT BEARING PERFORMANCE .............................................................................................................15 PERMANENT ACCESS FOR SURVEY ..................................................................................................................15 DESIGN ALTERNATIVES ......................................................................................................16 DOUBLE SIDE SKIN BULK CARRIERS ...............................................................................................................16 PARAMETRIC STUDY: DOUBLE SIDE SKIN BULK CARRIERS.................................................................................17 Longitudinal Framing .................................................................................................................................18 Transverse Framing ....................................................................................................................................18 Double Side Space.......................................................................................................................................18 Ship Configurations ....................................................................................................................................18 Operating Costs ..........................................................................................................................................20 HYCON BULK CARRIERS ................................................................................................................................21 APPENDIX 1 DOUBLE SIDE SKIN BULK CARRIERS TO ABS CLASS.........................................................................................22 APPENDIX 2 WEIGHING THE OPTIONS ..............................................................................................................................24
Introduction
In selecting the most appropriate classification society for a new construction project, the client should consider the following: ABS strong position in bulk carrier classification comes from years of experience, backed by advanced technical programs that address the needs of the industry, including shipowners and shipbuilders. ABS stands out as a technology leader committed to continual research and the development of appropriate Rules and Regulations governing the design parameters and vessel life. ABS surveyors experience is further enhanced by a commitment to technology and the analytical programs offered by the engineering department. By responding to clients needs through a worldwide network of offices, clients receive the necessary attention to ensure project success. ABS has programs already in place and personnel with the needed experience to aid in the design and construction of the next generation of bulk carriers. ABS currently has projects for both the latest Dunkerque-max bulk carriers and double side skin (DSS) bulk carriers. ABS has the technology and practical experience necessary to meet the design challenges posed by these vessels.
Based on extensive and varied experience, ABS provides comprehensive classification services fulfilling client needs for any bulk carrier project, whether single or double sided.
____________________________ 1 Source: LLP Seaway, gt based 2 Source: LLP Seaway, Jan 2002
These charts depict that side shell failures are the most likely reason for loss and are more likely to occur to the panamax and capesize bulk carriers that are more than 20 years old.
This chart illustrates the area of the initiating event for a recorded incident leading to total loss. Side shell damage can have a dramatic and sometimes unseen effect on the structural soundness of a bulk carrier.
This chart gives the probability for each type of initiating event, across the various vessel types. Here it depicts that the larger bulk carriers, capesize and panamax, have a higher likelihood of loss.
6 Bulk Carrier Solutions: Safer and Stronger Vessels
Age is a contributing factor in the loss of bulk carriers. Statistically, bulk carriers 20 years and older exhibit a greater chance of total loss than their younger counterparts. Intercargo notes that the actual number of ships and lives lost has fluctuated each year, while the average age profile of lost bulk carriers has remained at around 20 years.3
Many operational factors contribute to the structural soundness of a vessel. These issues must be addressed to ensure that safe operation is maintained and casualties are reduced.
____________________________ 3 Bulk Carrier Casualty Report, 2001 and the Previous Ten Years (1992-2001), Intercargo
Operational Considerations
For the safe operation of a bulk carrier there are many facets that must be identified and considered. The majority of structural problems associated with bulk carriers arise with the side shell. Other issues to address include the effects of green water on deck.
Fatigue
Bulk carriers are susceptible to many modes of cyclic forces that combine with other forces acting upon the vessels structure. Over time these cyclic stresses, can seriously weaken the vessels structural capacity. Three areas on a bulk carrier that are especially prone to fatigue are the hold side frames, the side longitudinals in the upper and lower wing tanks, and the toes of the hatch coaming termination brackets. Cyclic wave pressure acts upon the side frames of the vessel in a constant cycle of loading and unloading forces. For bulk carriers carrying high density cargo, such as iron ore, the side frames do not have an internal pressure to counteract the external forces and the side shell is forced inward by the unbalanced forces. This can result in a weakening of the side frame. Conversely, internal pressures created by lower density cargo impose loads in the opposite direction when a wave trough is encountered. This occurs when the cargo fills the cargo holds and pushes out on the side frame structure. This pressure can also fluctuate and react with the motions of the vessel. Additional fatigue loads on the side frames arise from hull girder shear forces. Bulk carriers with cargo loaded in an alternate hold pattern experience high levels of still water shear forces as the weight of the holds loaded with the cargo are pushing down and the buoyant forces are pushing up the empty holds. These upward and downward acting still water forces combine with the shear forces that fluctuate with the wave motions to impose fluctuating stresses on the side frames.
Similarly, the longitudinal framing of the upper and lower wing tanks is subjected to fluctuating stresses due to the external wave action as well as the internal pressure from the ballast tanks. These longitudinals are also subjected to the fluctuating longitudinal hull girder stresses imposed by the passing wave along the length of the vessel. The toes of the hatch coaming termination brackets are subjected to the fluctuating longitudinal hull girder stresses as well as the torsional wave induced stresses imposed by waves encountered at oblique wave headings.
Corrosion
Certain products, including coal, phosphates and raw sulfur, transported by bulk carriers can rapidly corrode the hold side frames and promote fractures. For a capesize bulk carrier carrying coal and iron ore it has been recorded that a hull web frame, with an original thickness of 10 mm can corrode to only 3 to 5 mm along the bottom portion of the hold in a short period. Additionally, the hold frame does not corrode evenly along the vertical length of the frame.
AREA OF PITTING CORROSION Few >50 percent >100 percent 100 percent
WEB THICKNESS 10 mm 7 9 mm 5 8 mm 3 5 mm
*due to carriage of coal and iron ore The corrosive nature of coal is due to its sulfur content. This occurs as condensation in the cargo hold of the vessel reacts with coal to produce a diluted solution of sulfuric acid, which over time corrodes supporting structures and frames. Corrosion increases the structures susceptibility to fatigue and buckling, and lessens the structural integrity of the vessel, as the web thickness is not sufficient to support the heavy cargo being transported. As a result, the frame can detach from the side shell.
Damage
Side shell problems are prevalent in all sizes of bulk carriers, although there is a higher occurrence for the larger panamax and capesize bulk carriers.
For high-density cargoes the speed of loading may cause damage to the ships structure. Any time the vessel is loaded in an asymmetrical manner, in relation to the central axis, the ship will twist. This will create other stresses within the hull structure. These stresses can have a damaging effect on the hull, even in still water conditions. It is known that the dense nature of iron ore, about 3 tons per cubic meter, generates large stresses on a ships structure. Loading this cargo must be carefully controlled to not exceed allowable stresses. The risk associated with improper cargo loading can be greatly magnified once the vessel encounters the dynamic forces due to wave action. Additionally, careless maneuvering of equipment used by terminals can cause accidental damage to bulk carriers transporting grains, ore and coal. Loading and unloading practices have a very real effect upon the vessels operational life span that can ultimately lead to damage or loss of the side shell plating. The practice of dislodging cargo from side shell frames with jackhammers, removing ore with multi-ton claws, or loading minerals at high rates without considering the physical effect on the ship are common occurrences. Certain types of bulk cargoes require bulldozers to move cargo during unloading, with inevitable damage to frames, bulkheads and plating. Additionally, the concentrated weight distribution of Photo credit: International Dry Bulk Terminals Contact Group (DBTG) lower profile cargoes require special attention. Scrap metal, for example, must be handled carefully to prevent damage to the bottom plating of the hold. Steel coils, if not properly secured, with their large weight concentration may shift during voyage and damage the hull.
These ocurences may cause unseen damage that is manifested over the operational life of the vessel. This can include structural cracks and detached side shell frames. This damage to the vessel hull only accentuates the fatigue and corrosion affects. Side shell deficiencies account for the majority of the bulk carrier losses. The loss of the side shell plating may result in the total loss of the vessel.
Green Water
The flooding of spaces below the main deck due to hatch cover or securing device failure, or failure of other deck fittings, has been linked to green water loads. Failures have been attributed both to direct impact loads of an impinging wave, and to impact by loose gear, deck equipment or fittings that have broken away from their foundations and then been carried by green water. Design options to provide increased reserve buoyancy above the main deck and added bow protection against green sea loads are currently being analyzed to reduce the occurrence and effects of green water on deck. Based on the formal investigation report on the loss of the Derbyshire, new model tests and extreme value predictions for severe wave conditions have been carried out and are being used to reassess strength requirements for hatch covers and foredeck fittings. Preliminary assessment of these model test results indicate that current IACS unified strength requirements for hatch covers are adequate for ships in the intact condition, but that further assessment and refinement may be in order to account for greater forward green water loads if the foremost cargo hold or forepeak spaces were to flood. Work is also proceeding within IACS to evaluate the capacity of foredeck fittings and equipment attachments at the deck to resist the lateral loads of boarding green seas.
Spontaneous Combustion
Additional problems arise in the transportation of coal, which may emit combustible methane gas. Spontaneous combustion may also occur in certain types of coal that are self-heating. Even with the transportation of fishmeal there is a need for special consideration as it too can spontaneously combust.
Side Frames
Side frames are one of the weakest links in a bulk carrier structure. These vertical frames on the side shell connect two highly rigid structures, the double bottom/lower wing tank and upper wing tank. Side frames in dry cargo holds experience maximum stresses when alternate holds are loaded with high-density cargo and the ship is fully loaded. The low cargo profile causes side frames in these holds to experience greater flexure due to the large external pressures that are not counteracted by internal cargo pressures. The flexing is further magnified by the rotation of the rigid lower wing tank caused by the large downward force of the high-density cargo acting on
the double bottom. All these effects contribute to reducing the fatigue life of the connecting brackets of the side frames, sometimes causing their detachment from the side shell.
Design Alternatives
Tragic losses from bulk carrier casualties led many in the marine industry, including ABS, to investigate what design modifications could be made to reduce the risk of further losses. Double side skin bulk carriers, and modifications thereon, are being built to counteract some of the problems associated with single side bulk carriers.
Side Shell
Side Frames Double Hull
Significant savings and economic advantages can be realized through an increase in structural strength. The DSS design not only eliminates exposed damageprone side frames, but also reduces the risk of hold flooding and possible sinking; especially for smaller size bulk carriers with fewer compartments. On the other hand, if the double side space were used as a ballast tank it would require closer attention. The construction cost differential for a DSS bulk carrier is nominal, and higher resale values may be realized. Additionally, the operational advantages translate into economic advantages as the speed of cargo discharge has been improved, time and cost is saved in hold cleaning, and less down time is required for repairs.
Longitudinal Framing
Longitudinal framing in bulk carriers poses additional design concerns that result in increased fatigue. In the longitudinal framing in the double side space system, the horizontal stringer has no impact on longitudinal framing scantlings. The web framing in the double side space could be every third or sixth frame spacing, and fatigue would be a factor in wider frame spacing. In a longitudinal framing system, side pressure is transmitted to the vertical web or the transverse bulkhead. Additionally side pressure loads can cause high shear forces in the webs. Careful consideration needs to be made for this high shear force.
Transverse Framing
Transverse framing is preferred for a variety of reasons. One advantage is that the web frame location is flexible. Additionally, greater buckling strength is found in the side shell plating as it is subject to large vertical direction compressive loads. The web frames support the local scantling requirement, and the side pressure loads go directly to the upper and lower hopper tanks eliminating the high shear problem encountered by the longitudinal system. The ABS study considers a transverse framing system.
Ship Configurations
The ABS study compares DSS and SSS for three typical sizes of bulk carriers: capesize, panamax and handymax. These ships were selected to establish a baseline reference in each of these respective size ranges against which DSS bulk carriers of identical deadweight, cubic capacity and speed would be compared with SSS bulk carriers.
Typical Ship Size of Single Side Bulk Carriers SHIP TYPE Capesize Panamax Handymax SIZE (DWT) 150,000 60,000 45,000 L.B.P. (M) 264.00 212.00 180.00 BREADTH (M) 45.00 32.24 32.00 DEPTH (M) 23.20 17.80 15.80 DESIGN DRAFT (M) 16.90 12.40 10.50
To provide the DSS ships with a cubic capacity equal to that of the single side equivalent, the depth of the DSS ships were increased to compensate for the loss of cargo capacity due to the double sides. The depths of the capesize, panamax and handymax double sided ships were increased by 0.6m, 0.7m and 1.11, respectively. The length and breadth remained the same.
Although larger vessels are now the norm in bulk carrier new construction, the steel weight increase and economic findings can be used as indicators in understanding the difference between single sided and double sided bulk carriers.
Comparing a typical SSS and DSS capesize vessel, there is a weight increase in the cargo block of 419 tons for the DSS bulk carrier. This can be broken down into the various sections in the table below. REGION Longitudinal Members Web Frames Trans. Hold Frames W. T. BHD D. T. BHD Hatch Coamings Cross Deck Bilge Keel Phase B Increase TOTAL
*For a capesize vessel of 150,000 dwt
DSS WEIGHT TONS 8,834 1,831 590 1,416 588 170 360 10 283 14,082
SSS WEIGHT TONS 8,585 1,640 634 1,452 550 170 360 10 262 13,663
By adding the steel necessary beyond the cargo block region, the total structural weight difference of a typical DSS capesize bulk carrier would be 484 tons. TOTAL STRUCTURAL WEIGHT OF EACH SHIP (TONS) Double Hull Cargo Block Weight Total Weight 14,082 17,377 Single Side 13,663 16,893 + 419 + 484
DIFFERENCE (TONS)
*Note: the construction cost is based on $1000 per ton steel (average between Japan and Korea)
Operating Costs
In the study, it was determined that the operating cost difference is small. Although there will be some revenue loss due to port draft restrictions requiring the carriage of less cargo.
ANNUAL COST DIFFERENTIAL CONVENTIONAL VS. DSS DESIGN Capesize Port Charges Canal Tolls Fuel Cost # of total voyages days at sea days at port Cargo Hold Maintenance Cargo Hold Cleaning H & M Insurance Cost P & I Insurance Cost TOTAL ANNUAL COST DIFFERENTIAL
(-) Cost savings for DSS design in 1997 USD
Panamax $13,200 $8,600 $4,700 (13) (264) (72) -$10,400 -$18,000 $8,900 $3,700 $10,700
Handymax $11,800 $11,500 $5,100 (11) (301) (48) -$5,600 -$12,000 $5,800 $4,900 $21,500
$10,000 $1,300 $6,700 (9) (297) (35) -$22,300 -$22,500 $11,400 $5,700 -$9,700
The operating cost savings for a capesize DSS bulk carrier adds up to a total of $194,000 (USD) over a 20-year period. Capesize Cost Differential Initial Cost Differential Operating Difference (-$9,700 per year for 20 years) Total Cost Differential COST DIFFERENTIAL Net Present Value (@ 6 %)
*Note: 1997 USD value
Overall, a DSS bulk carrier offers added structural strength and operational advantages over the conventional SSS bulk carrier, which may eventually translate into economic benefits. The offhire risk of DSS bulk carriers is reduced with better maintenance and efficient operation, resulting in better availability. Repair and maintenance costs can be reduced due to the smooth-side inner hull and protected structural members located in the double side compartment spaces. Owners of DSS bulk carriers can also expect a better resale value for vessels that have had the appropriate repairs and fewer damages.
Appendix 1
Double Side Skin Bulk Carriers to ABS Class
ABS Classification Activity sample of DSS Bulk Carriers built 1995 to 2002.
Oshima Shipyard - Japan Pacific Acadian, Pacific Dolphin, Pacific Emerald, Pacific Mercury, Pacific Primate, Pacific Scorpio 48,400 dwt Owner - Hong Kong Ming Wah Built: 1995 to 1997 to SafeHull standards
Pacific Dolphin
CSBC Shipyard - Taiwan China Steel Trader, China Steel Investor 154,600 dwt Owner - China Steel Express Built: 1997 to SafeHull standards
Oshima Shipyard - Japan Top Sugar, Top Pioneer, Top Progress, Top Explore, Top Reliance 29,600 dwt Owner - Top Glory Built: 1998 to 1999 to SafeHull standards
Top Progress
Oshima Shipyard - Japan Top Leader, Top Knight, Top Beauty, Top Vigour 73,600 dwt Owner - Top Glory Built: 1999 to SafeHull standards
Top Leader
New Century (formerly Jing Jiang) Shipyard - China Clipper Galaxy 51,000 dwt Owner - Galaxy Shipping Built: 2002 to SafeHull standards
Appendix 2
Weighing the Options
There are pros and cons to be considered for an informed decision to be made regarding DSS and SSS bulk carriers.
DSS Bulk Carriers Pros: Safer in structure Flexible in operation Perception Cons: Loss of grain capacity (for handymax vessels)
Cons: Vulnerable to side structure failure Effect of regulations yet to be evaluated Pros: Easy blasting, re-coating and renewing of side structure if necessary Cons: Hold frames are exposed to cargoes with high corrosion rates Pros: Hold structure and hull girder are strengthened against one hold flooding, and easily maintained Cons: If side shell integrity were breached, one hold flooding may lead to a progressive flooding and loss of the ship
Pros: High corrosion resistance, only when double hull is left void Corrosion Cons: Extensive corrosion is envisioned if the hull space were used for ballast Pros: Improved resistance against low energy collision resulting in holds flooding
Pros: Hold side structure is protected from possible mechanical damage Mechanical Damage Cons: Repair work of DSS structure may require hot work in confined space both outer/inner hull
DSS Bulk Carriers Pros: Access to DSS spaces will be facilitated using the hull structure in the absence of ballast Cons: Maintenance work could be more challenging due to DSS spaces being confined Pros: Small difference as long as the strengthening for hold flooding is exempted in SOLAS XII Cons: Heavier than the same size of SSS BCs such effect may become larger of smaller BC
SSS Bulk Carriers Pros: Hold structure and hull girder are strengthened against one hold flooding and easily maintained Cons: Special means of access is necessary (permanent means of access is not feasible) Pros: Lighter than the same size for DSS BCs
Steel Weight
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