AY igen canta MASTERING STRIICTU RES Transforming Ideas into Great ClothMASTERING STRUCTURESDEDICATION This book is dedicated to weavers past, present, and future who g0 to their looms to weave beautiful cloth... and do. Editor: Linda Ligon Technical editor: Sarah Saulson Copy editor: Betsy Strauch Illustrations: Gayle Ford Photography: Joe Coca Photo styling: Ann Swanson Cover design: Susan Wasinget Page design: Marc M. Owens Production: Dean Howes Production assistant: Polly Havins Proofreader: Nancy Amdt Text copyright © 2004 Sharon Alderman Mustrations copyright © 2004 Interweave Press, Inc Photography copyright © 2004 Joe Coca and Interweave Press, Inc. All rights reserved. Interweave Press, Inc. 201 East Fourth Street Loveland, CO 80537-5655 USA www.interweave.com Printedin Singapore by Tien Wah Press (Pte) Limited Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data ‘Alderman, Sharon D. Mastering weave structures / Sharon Alderman. p.cm. ISBN 1-931499-32-2 4. Hand weaving. 2. Textile fabries. | Title TT848.A64985 2003 7461'4--de21 2003001529 1098765432AGE ae CONTENTS ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ~ VI INTRODUCTION ~ 1 PLAIN WEAVE ~ 3 Tus ~ 25 SATIN ~ 63 WAFFLE Weaves ~ 83 THe DistoRTED GRID ~ 95 ComPounn WEAvES ~ 123 Loom-ConTROLLED DoustewEave ~ 157 BeDFORD CoRDS AND Playes ~ 179 LGOM-CONTROLLED PILE WEAVES ~ 189 ‘CREPE WEAVES ~ 201 SOME OF THis, SOME OF THAT ~ 207 INVENTING YOUR OWN Weave STRUCTURES ~ 227 SUMMING IT UP: WHERE To Go FROM HERE ~ 245 APPENDIXA ~ 246 APPENDIX B ~ 248, APPENDIX C ~ 250 BisuioGaary ~ 253 INDEX ~ 254INTRODUCTION en 1 begin co think about a fab- ric that I want to weave, I think about how I want it to look, how I want it to feel, and what it will have to do. One of the steps nec~ ‘essary in going from the cloth taking shape in my mind to having a fabric in my hands is decid- ing what weave structure will provide the char- acteristics I want. “This book was written for you if you want to know more about weave structures. Its purpose isto explore the structure of various weaves in ept so that you will understand how each one Works. [have assumed that you know how your Joom works, how to dress and use it, and how toread a draft When you understand the underlying prinei- piles that govern a particular kind of structure, then you can modify the basic draft to obtain the result you want. For example, when you under- stand how to write a draft for a Bronson I! lace weave, then itis possible for you to write a draft that will produce a cloth with lace where you ‘want it Likewise, when you understand how a Bedford cord is written, you can write a draft that will make the cords the width or widths that ‘you want them to be. The broader purpose of this book, then, isto provide you with an under- ‘standing of weave structures so that you can transform your idea about a fabric you would like to create into a draft that can be used to pro- duce that fabric: The selection or derivation of drafts of course, only one of the steps in pro- dacing the‘loth of your dreams; decisions about fibers and yarns must also be made before you Droduce the fabric. Although the selection of appropriate fibers, yarn sizes, and styles are uiside the scope of this book, some advice on these subjects is also given here. Every book must be limited in its scope, and this one is no exception. I have set limits in ac- cordance with my personal prejudices. There are no interlacements discussed here that require major loom modifications I have included some structures that benefit from the use of a dobby- equipped loom: such 2 loom offers reading flex- ibility that is irresistible) The structures discussed here are those which do not require manipula tions with your fingers there is no pick-up. Like- wise, although there exis threading systems that are interesting from a mathematical point of view, 1 have not included them unless I fee that they produce useful cloth structures that no other threading system can. In other words, if it can be done on a loom without someone's having t0 become a carpenter/enginees, and if it can jus- tify its existence by producing sound, beautiful cloth, then I'm interested. Setting aside twining, split-ply twining, and the like, all weave structures are constructed from a very, very simple fact: either the weft pastes ver the warp ori passes under i, What is marvelous is the wide variety of fabrics we can make based ‘on the combination of which—warp ot weft— is on top at a particular intersection in the cloth! ‘When there is disagreement in standard texts ‘or general usage about nomenclature, have used. Irene Emery's The Primary Structures of Fabrics as the standard, Thope that you will find this book useful. 1 hope that it will help you as you work to trans- form your good ideas into good cloth Sharon AldermanPLAIN WEAVE VARIATIONS ON A THEME Percale, ottoman, faille, bengaline, lawn, batiste, poplin, voile, pongee, taffeta, chambray, limbric, broadcloth, chiffon, cretonne, lingette, muslin, sheeting, organdy, gingham, flannel, calico, cambric, grosgrain, repp, tapestry, dimity, china silk, crepe de chine, challis, madras, rib... hat do these textiles have in common? They are very dif- ferent fabrics: some of them are heavy, some light, some of them sheer, some opaque, some of them stiff, some soft. In spite of their obvious differences, they have one important characteristic in common: they are all woven in plain weave, the interlacement, accord- ing to Fairchld’s Dictionary of Textiles “used in about 80% Of all woven fabrics.” The best place to begin any discussion is at the very beginning; in a discussion of weave structures, plain weave is the “very beginning,” Plain weave, when closely set, is strong because its over-one, under-one structure produces the maximum internal friction in the cloth: the warp and weft resist slippage. Etch time the warp (or efi) goes from the face (ihe side facing you) to the back (ihe other side) it is said to intersect the plane of the cloth. As it travels (0 or from the back of the clot, it _forms another point of friction, which helps to ‘mate the cloth stable and strong, Because intersections occur so frequent- ly in the cloth, the warp threads are held apart by the weft threads; there are never two consecutive warp threads rising and falling4/ Mastesine Weave Staverunss together in ordinary plain weave (If they ‘occur, they are considered a flaw, sometimes called a flac ora skip.) A balanced cloth— ‘one in which the ends per inch (e.p.i.) ‘equal the picks per inch (p.pii)—produced fn this way is stable and strong, and has a lower thread count, that is fewer warp ends and picks per inch, than would a cwill using the same yarns, for instance. The sheerest cloth that can be woven from a given thread {is the one woven plain weave.” “The draft for plain weave, 1-1, is the sim plest draft of all. Ie requires just wo shafis and is woven using only two sheds. “Though itis posable to weave plain weave ‘sing only two shafts, itis a good idea to use more if they are available to avoid croved ing, When the heddles (and thus the warp nds) om a shaft are very crowed, it cam be dificult (depending on how clingy the yarn is} to open the shed cleanly. The fietion of ‘opening and closing sheds when warp ends ate crowded contributes to abrasion of tender ‘warps. So use more shafis—four of even eight if you have them—especially if the setts close Plain weave can be woven in innumerable variations It would be possible, | think, 10 use only plain weave fora lifetime without running out of possibilities. Let's begin by discussing balanced weaves, any fabric in which pi, = epi Fabrics that are woven tn ‘his way are said be balanced weaves, regardless (of ther sracare The frst possibility, and one that we see around us all of the time, is plain weave using the sume warp and weft: same fiber, “An exception is leno, which is shown in (Chapter 5 and page 20, yan style, size, and color. Ths isthe sore of fabric that is easily produced in indus- try, It is usually woven of unbleached, uundyed yarns and then bleached and/or Ayed to suit the customer. This loom-state cloth, cloth as it comes ftom the loom, is known as gray goods, a fair description of its appearance, t00. Although there may be little point in ‘weaving 2 fabric that can be purchased, there are many times when we might want to weave a plain fabric with the same warp and weft. For example, suppose that you have woven the fabric for a patterned jack cet and want a plin fabric fora skit to wear with it, or you have woven a fancy weave for an upholstery fabrie and want to weave plain accent fabrics for pillows, or cloth ‘woven with your choice of eolor oF fiber for yarn style may not be commercially ‘vailable, Handweavers usually weave this sort of fabric out of dyed yarns. Care in weaving such a fabric is important: an uneven beat produces crosswise striations in the cloth Introducing color variations ‘A simple variation of plain weave uses ‘warp and weft that are the same excep¢ that the warp is one color and the weft anoth= ct Chambray and changeable taffeta are two commercial fabries woven this way. Clearly, tis variation must be woven using yarns of the colors desi in the finished cloth; the loth cannot be piece-dyed unless the fibers chosen for warp and weft take dye differently, If the chosen yarns are medium to heavy. then the surface of the loth shows relatively large spots of color; the two colors do not blend visually unless you view the fabric at a distance. Ifthe yarns are fine, then theblend well even under fairly close atin. Colors that may not work well her using heavier yarns can work in es by knowing what will happen, you can selec the right yams to produce the effet that suits your needs. Handwoven plain-weave cloth that uses ‘one color for warp and a second for weft, just like its mill-woven counterpart, gives the Appearance of a color that lies somewhere between those of the warp and weft colors. ‘When the fabric is folded inco soft pleats, the eye perceives the cloth as being mostly \warp-colored or wefi-colored, depending on PLAIN Weave / 5,Plain-weove coon abi. The eth with these white sripe lever fine ond csp. The ch tothe ight irae of 20/2 mercer caton ord 0 le from which ic is viewed. This plain-weave variation enables ws to obtain colors not otherwise available, but it poses the same technical challenge, only more so that we face when the wtp and welt ae the same colo: ifthe best used to weave such a fabric is nor perfec en the weft sri Ic helps 1o weave above will be very prominent, a lot of this sort of Fab sitting because your weaving rhythm tends to become mote even after ‘working for a while, Listening to musie that helps you pace yourself and establish the appropriate rhychm can help, Plain-weave cloth can, of course, be woven with more than two colors, There ean be several colors in the warp, in the wef, 0 n both, Using more than one color in warp lor weft produces streaked or f the yarns of each color are grouped together striped fabric. Using more than one colo in bh warp and weft can produce a plaid fab- i i the colors ate grouped into warp and weft stripes, oF Fabri in which there is an optical mixture of colors if the contrasting yarns are used singly ‘When several colors are used inthe warp bur not arranged in stripes, the colo ef can be rich and beautifal. If smooth color blending is desited, then all the colors ‘ight to be of about the same value {that is all light, all dark, or all similaely in between). Ifthe colors are of different val 1s, then the effect isa strated ot streaky cloth, The darkest colors in the warp appear more prominent when th light. The lightest colors inthe warp stand ‘out when the weft color is dark; they seem 1e weft color is luminous and almost sparkle. When the value of the weft i intermediate between light and dark values in the warp, the cloth shows both light and dark specks, but ne: ther the light nor the dark colors are as prominent 2s in the two preceding exam. ples. The effect s one of a very rch calor with a lot of depth. When the warp colors chosen vary a lot in valuc, the cloth may loak lively or “busy” or speckled, ing on which colors are used. Mills rarely ‘weave this sort of fabric because warping quires more tin those with less complex color schemes. Hiandweavers used to handling each thread and weaving itt individually dont find this a problem (ros of the time anyiay), and welcome being able to weave a special cloth that we can ot busy Ie is important to know what sorts of effects can be achieved by mixing colors in the warp of a plain weave cloth so that you «an use color to obtain the effects you seekThe fare woven on the ame werstd- woo! warp. To the right aplin-weavecleth in which vory dare Blais woven across a deep Bish green warp to produce on iidescent effet. othe left, the same warp irs by abs reproduc rirdesce(SO OZE™/ 2/2 basket weave shown n crs section. To sccesive wef wl follow the path shown here, followed by ewe more meking the ppotte journey under to over tweet. 8/ Mastenine Weave Sraucrunes ‘These cotton aris are woven sing a fg, refie combed peal eten (20/2) a2 Principal wary and wef (Thelowest sal 20/2 weft) Novice how the uncembe, ager (6/2) anmereried cotton rie pout ofthe clth easing shadows nthe mide fabric the effec shelton yas lhl ge clr or the accent yr sight. inealritescntrast ith he 20/2 atom Adding texture Texture is another variable that can be introduced into a plain-weave cloth. When the same yarn is used in both warp and wef, plain weave can be given a third dimension by using two or more threads as one. The fabric produced has textural ines in it were the ends or picks are grouped. This plain ‘weave variation isan easy, relatively inex pensive way to add rextute or depth to a cloth without having to buy another yar. Dimity is 2 mil-woven cloth that is made this way, ‘The number of ends oF picks that a ‘grouped can be varied in the cloth, ton. Stripes consisting for example, of theee ends used as one in some places and five ends used as one in others produce an understated fab- Fic with a lt of va amazing how much variation ina cloth can be achieved without changing either the ‘weave structure or the yarns used, ‘When warp ends are doubled or tebled, they must be threaded in separate eds if they are to lie side by side inthe finished cloth. When grouped ends lie side by side, the ridges they produce in the cloth main- tin a uniform width, Warp ends that are theeade double or tiple theough the hheddle twist around each other as weaving progresses. The heavy wap lines that they produce in the cloth vary just litle bit i thickness: thicker in one place, thinner in another. A cloth that is woven in this way looks a litle les formal than one in which ‘a separate heddle is used for each thread, “The important thing, as always, is knowing how to achieve the effec you want If the grouped ends carried by one hed dle are similar in color value but hhue,a subtle effec almost like ikat can be produced, This is another way to make a cloth that che textile industry isnot likely produce, Grouping ends and/or welis in the cloth at intervals in a plain-weave ground is one way to vary plain weave, but there are other ways to group warp ends or wefis; basket weaves are constructed by using such group- lings throughout the warp. Basket weave is the term used to describe fabrics in which to or more warp and/or wet threads oper ste as one, The groups of warp ends ie side by side, not ewisted together, as shown at lef. In order to weave a cloth with this com struction, each thread must have its own hele, a8 we have seen, dom in its texte. Tis erent inThese worsted-woel fabrics (belo) error plate wee ‘ch lip ends otng at (nein the warp to form rib fos endfor te heer is, ‘irae forthe fneons. Thee 'so regular rope. nthe lower fbr ont ics wore ‘rou ino plain woave ods tomake wah “Ths ssi fabri above) ipa weve with an overcheck formed by placing “ove her ends ide side at regula intervals nthe warp and the weft The = thicker eds cd pcs maybe ort by doubling the yarn or by ein angle “ngs head ifs he tse poper exept iis vero.t q 1202/2 baste wear uo shef 13 Ha basket weave onto ah Weave Sraverunes ‘These structures are described by naming, the number of warp ends that go over and the number of ends that go under a weft in ‘one repeat. Thus, 2 2/2 basket weave is one in which owo wes pas under two warp ends and then over two warp ends. ‘The simplest basket weave, called matt ‘weave in some texts (particularly those in the United Kingdom), is the 2/2 basket weave (1.2a and 1.26), in which two weft picks poss lander two warp ends and then over two warp ‘ends. While itis possible ro weave a 2/2 bas- ket on just wo shaft as in 4.2a, itis usual- ly a good idea to thread it onto four hati to avoid crowding, as shown in 1.2b. 4s its designation says this is a structure In which rwo warp ends move cogether and two welts are entered inthe same shed, one afer the other. Although 2/2 basket weave is usally a balanced weave structure (ppi = epi), the sete will not be the same as for plain weave woven with the same yarn as Single elements. balanced plain weave, the warp ends mus be spaced to permit the weft to ie between the ends. In a balanced 2/2 basket weave there is no need to eave space between the two ends that act together because the weft does not pass between them, A sett that is appropriate fora given warp for plain weave will be too open for 2/2 basket weave, because the cloth woven {in basket weave will ether be weft faced if the weit picks are beaten in firmly, or sleazy if « balance between the warp and weft is maintained. The set that would produce a stable 2/2 twill makes a good 2/2 basket Likewise, you need to set 3/3 and 4/4 basher weaves more closely than thei 2/2 counterparts to produce a stable fabric. In fact, unless the yarns used are very “sticky” oc hairy, the structure of basket weave breaks down when more than three yarns are grouped in warp and weft If the yarn are smooth enough to be free to shift in the cloth, they tend to slide together or “lump” so that the cloth loss its stability. You may depend on it. Weavers can always count on the tendency of yarns in woven cloth to move together if nothing holds them apart (we rely on this tendency to produce lacy effects). I's important, therefore, to weave actual samples of structures that appear to ‘work on graph paper When intetlacements consist of more than one end or pick acting together, as in basket weave, the cloth is thicker than 2 cor responding structure weven of single warps and picks IF a given yarm makes an ordinary plain-weave cloth that is too lightweight oF too sheer for your need, you may use it in basket weave to produce a heavier, more ‘opaque fabric. Itis posible, up toa point, to cause a fine yata to behave like a heavier one by using basket weave. One might expect that balanced 2/2 basket-weave cloth would be the same ‘weight as cloth woven in plain weave with a ‘yar that is twice as heavy. For example, if a balanced 2/2 basket weave were woven with 20/2 cotton and a balanced pli weave were woven with 10/2 cotton, the resulting cloths would weigh the sime, as you might expect; however, the basket-weave cloth would be more supple and would drape better than its plsin-weave counterpart [A variation on basket weave, sometimes called half basket (1.3), is usually woven ‘with doubled warp ends but single picks Vertical ines in the cloth, Formed asthe weft passes over the doubled ends, ae ealled ribs 1 cords. Technically speaking, the fabric ‘may be described as plain-weave cloth with paired warps and single wets. Doubling the ‘wef picks instead of the warp ends wil sso4/1 base neare, uted a uphelean The ightor