UNIT - 1 INTRODUCTION TO IBM PC ARCHITECTURE STRUCTURE

1.0 1.1 1.2 Introduction Objectives An overview of system features and components 1.2.1 Motherboard 1.2.2 Processor 1.2.3 Memory 1.2. Ports 1.2.! "us type and s#ots 1.2.$ Mass stora%e 1.2.$.1 1.2.$.2 1.2.$.3 &#oppy dis' drive (ard dis' drive )ompact dis' drive

1.2.* Add+on cards 1.2., Power supp#y 1.3 -ummary 1. .uestions

1.0 INTRODUCTION
Most systems are simi#ar/ but a few important differences in system architecture have become more apparent as operatin% environments have increased in popu#arity. Operatin% systems such as O-02 1.1 and 2indows 3.1 re3uire at #east a 2,$ )P4 p#atform on which to run. O-02 2.1/ 3.1 52arp6/ and 2indows 7! wi## run on a 3,$ system/ and 2indows 89 .1 re3uires at #east a ,$ )P4 to run.

(ence/ the Persona# )omputers can be c#assified main#y on the basis of differences in system architecture. And the c#assification main#y depends on the type of hardware used such as the type of processor/ motherboard/ hard dis' contro##er/ f#oppy dis' contro##er/ system memory/ seria# ports/ bus types and s#ots etc. :nowin% and understandin% the differences amon% these hardware p#atforms wi## enab#e you to p#an/ insta##/ and use modern operatin% systems and app#ications more optima##y. A## P)+compatib#e systems can be broad#y c#assified as ,+bit 5P)0;9+c#ass6 systems or 1$0320$ +bit 5A9+c#ass6 systems. 9his unit discusses brief#y the various features and components of a computer system. 9he concept re#ated to the processors/ memory/ motherboard/ buses etc are e1p#ained in view of P)+ compatib#e systems.

1.1

OBJECTIVES

At the end of this unit / you wi## be ab#e to 4nderstand the importance of various computer system components such as motherboard/ processor/ memory/ ports/ buses etc. :now the processor wor'in% modes<rea# and protected =escribe memory in terms of physica# and #o%ica# #ayouts =efine terms #i'e > memory ban'/ (MA/ 4MA/ ;MAppreciate the usa%e of I0O ports 4nderstand the construction/ setup and wor'in% of mass stora%e devices 9he type of power supp#y used in computer system 4nderstand the functions of add+on cards

1.2 AN OVERVIEW OF SYSTEM FEATURES AND COMPONENTS

9he )P4/ memory unit and the input0output unit constitute the basic components of a computer system. In order to ma'e these components functiona#/ other supportin% system components and chips such as "IO-/ seria# ports/ para##e# ports/ "uses/ ?A8 cards/ sound cards/ )= @OM drive/ (ard dis' drive etc./ are used. 9hese components determine the capabi#ities of a computin% system. 9he system components are brief#y described be#ow.

1.2.1 MOTHERBOARD
9he most important component in a P) system is the motherboard. It contains the )P4/ possib#y a math processor/ the system c#oc'/ the @OM with the system "IO- routines/ @AM/ 'eyboard contro##er/ #o%ic that re#ates to I0O operations and many more e#ectronics. A## e#ectronic components may not mounted be on a sin%#e motherboard. Instead they may be #ocated on an e1pansion board or an adapter card p#u%%ed into a s#ot. -ome systems use a passive desi%n that incorporates the entire system circuitry into a sin%#e mothercard. 9he mothercard is essentia##y a comp#ete motherboard that is desi%ned to p#u% into a s#ot. 9he mothercard concept a##ows the entire system to be easi#y up%raded by chan%in% one or more cards. &i%ure 1.1 shows the #ayout of a typica# motherboard.

A typica# motherboard has severa# options that ref#ects the hardware confi%uration by settin% the switches or jumpers. 9he settin% is throu%h the -A94P uti#ity and stored in )MO- @AM. 9he fo##owin% are some of the confi%uration options avai#ab#e> Monitor type )#oc' speed "us speed Memory on+board Memory type @OM siBe

1.2.2

PROCESSOR

9he )P4 or processor is the part that ma'es the computer smart. It is a sin%#e inte%rated circuit referred to as a microprocessor. 9he ear#ier microprocessors were Inte# ,0,0 or ,0,$/ they were very s#ow. 9hen came faster mode#s from Inte# such as ,02,$/ ,03,$/ ,0 ,$ and now Pentium processors. Aach of these vary in speed of their operation. 9he A9 compatib#es < ,02,$ onwards/ run in one of the two modes> @ea# mode Protected mode

9he processor comp#e1 is the name of the circuit board that contains the main system processor and any other circuitry direct#y re#ated to it/ such as c#oc' contro#/ cache/ and so forth. 9he processor comp#e1 desi%n a##ows the user to easi#y up%rade the system #ater to a new processor type by chan%in% one card. In effect/ it amounts to a modu#ar motherboard with a rep#aceab#e processor section. ?atest desi%ns a## incorporate the up%radab#e processor. Inte# has desi%ned a## ,$/ Pentium/ Pentium MM;/ and Pentium Pro processors to be up%radab#e to

faster 5sometimes ca##ed Over=rive6 processors in the future by simp#y swappin% 5or addin%6 the new processor chip. )han%in% on#y the processor chip for a faster one is the easiest and %enera##y most cost+effective way to up%rade without chan%in% the entire motherboard.

1.2.3 MEMORY
Memory is the most important component of a computer meant for storin% data and pro%ram instructions. 9he I"M P) architecture does not differentiate between memory used for storin% pro%ram instructions and that used to ho#d data. -o/ the pro%rammer must ensure that a pro%ram does not overwrite parts of itse#f with data. A computer system uses various types of memory such as semiconductor memories/ f#oppy dis'/ hard dis' and )=+@OM etc. =ifferent address schemes and memory contro##ers are a#so used. 9he memory can be described in terms of physica# and #o%ica# #ayouts.

THE PHYSICAL MEMORY

9he )P4 and motherboard architecture dictates a computerCs physica# memory capacity. 9he ,0,, and ,0,$/ with 20 address #ines/ can use as much as 1M 5102 :6 of @AM. 9he 2,$ and 3,$-; )P4s have 2 address #inesD they can 'eep trac' of as much as 1$M of memory. 9he 3,$=;/ ,$/ Pentium/ Pentium+ MM;/ and Pentium Pro )P4s have a fu## set of 32 address #inesD they can 'eep trac' of E of memory/ whi#e the Pentium II with 3$ address #ines can mana%e an impressive $ EF @AM chips can be physica##y inte%rated into the motherboard or adapter board in severa# forms. O#der systems used individua# memory chips/ ca##ed dua# in+#ine pac'a%e 5=IP6 chips/ that were p#u%%ed into soc'ets or so#dered direct#y to a board. Most modern systems use a 30+ or *2+pin memory pac'a%e ca##ed a sin%#e in+#ine memory modu#e 5-IMM ). In addition/ many newer motherboards use a 1$,+pin pac'a%e ca##ed dua# in+#ine memory modu#e 5=IMM ).

MEMORY BANK
A ban' is the sma##est amount of memory that can be addressed by the processor at one time and usua##y corresponds to the data bus width of the processor. Memory chips 5=IPs/ -IMMs/ -IPPs/ and =IMMs6 are or%aniBed in ban's on motherboards and memory cards. In order to add memory to the system./ it is necessary to 'now the ban' #ayout..

THE LOGICAL MEMORY LAYOUT

9here are different 'inds of memory insta##ed on a modern P)/ such as )onventiona# 5"ase6 memory 4pper Memory Area 54MA6 (i%h Memory Area 5(MA6 A1tended memory 5;M-6 A1panded memory 5obso#ete6 Gideo @AM memory 5part of 4MA6 Adapter @OM and -pecia#+Purpose @AM 5part of 4MA6 Motherboard @OM "IO- 5part of 4MA6

&i%ure 1.2 shows the #o%ica# address #ocations for a P)+compatib#e system. If the processor is runnin% in rea# mode/ on#y the first me%abyte is accessib#e. If the processor is in protected mode/ the fu## 1$D /07$D or $!/!3$M are accessib#e. Aach symbo# is e3ua# to 1: of memoryD each #ine or se%ment is $ :D and this map shows the first two me%abytes of system memory. CONVENTIONAL (BASE MEMORY 9he ori%ina# P)0;9+type system was desi%ned to use 1M of memory wor'space/ sometimes ca##ed @AM 5random access memory ). 9his 1M of @AM is divided into severa# sections/ some of which have specia# uses. =O- can read and write to the entire me%abyte/ but can mana%e the #oadin% of pro%rams on#y in the portion of @AM space ca##ed conventiona# memory/ which at the time the first P) was

introduced was !12:. 9he other !12: was reserved for use by the system itse#f/ inc#udin% the motherboard and adapter boards p#u%%ed into the system s#ots. I"M decided after introducin% the system that on#y 3, : was needed for these reserved uses/ and the company be%an mar'etin% P)s with $ 0: of user memory. 9hus/ $ 0: became the standard for memory that can be used by =Ofor runnin% pro%rams/ and is often termed the $ 0: memory barrier. 9he remainin% memory after $ 0: was reserved for use by the %raphics boards/ other adapters/ and the motherboard @OM "IO-.

UPPER MEMORY AREA (UMA)

9he term 4pper Memory Area 54MA6 describes the reserved 3, : at the top of the first me%abyte of system memory on a P)0;9 and the first me%abyte on an A9+type system. &IE. 1.2 shows the #o%ica# memory map of the first 2M. 9his memory has the addresses from A0000 throu%h &&&&&. 9he notations used> . H Pro%ram+accessib#e memory 5standard @AM6 E H Eraphics Mode Gideo @AM M H Monochrome 9e1t Mode Gideo @AM ) H )o#or 9e1t Mode Gideo @AM G H Gideo @OM "IO- 5wou#d be IaI in P-026 a H Adapter board @OM and specia#+purpose @AM 5free 4MA space6 r H Additiona# P-02 Motherboard @OM "IO- 5free 4MA in non+P-02 systems6 @ H Motherboard @OM "IOb H I"M )assette "A-I) @OM 5wou#d be I@I in I"M compatib#es6 h H (i%h Memory Area 5(MA6/ if (IMAM.-J- is #oaded. &i%ure 1.2 #o%ica# memory maps C!"#$"%&!"'( (B')$ M$*!+,:0---1---2---3---4---5---6---7---8---9---A---B---C---D---E---F--000000:................................................................ 010000:................................................................ 020000:................................................................ 030000:................................................................ 040000:................................................................ 050000:................................................................ 060000:................................................................ 070000:................................................................ 080000:................................................................ 090000:................................................................

U..$+ M$*!+, A+$' (UMA :0---1---2---3---4---5---6---7---8---9---A---B---C---D---E---F--0A0000:GGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGG 0B0000:MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCC :0---1---2---3---4---5---6---7---8---9---A---B---C---D---E---F--0C0000:VVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaa 0D0000:aaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaa :0---1---2---3---4---5---6---7---8---9---A---B---C---D---E---F--0E0000:rrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrr 0F0000:RRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbRRRRRRRR

E/%$"0$0 M$*!+,:0---1---2---3---4---5---6---7---8---9---A---B---C---D---E---F--100000:hhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhh

E/%$"0$0 M$*!+, S.$1&2&1'%&!" (3MS M$*!+,:

110000:................................................................ 120000:................................................................ 130000:................................................................ 140000:................................................................ 150000:................................................................ 160000:................................................................ 170000:................................................................ 180000:................................................................ 190000:................................................................ 1A0000:................................................................ 1B0000:................................................................ 1C0000:................................................................ 1D0000:................................................................ 1E0000:................................................................ 1F0000:................................................................

NOTE- 9o save space/ this map is ended after the end of the second me%abyte. In rea#ity/ this map continues to the ma1imum of addressab#e memory. 9he way the 3, : of upper memory is used brea's down as fo##ows> 9he first 12,: after conventiona# memory is ca##ed Gideo @AM. It is reserved for use by video adapters. 2hen te1t and %raphics are disp#ayed on+screen/ the e#ectronic impu#ses that contain their ima%es reside in this

space. Gideo @AM is a##otted the address ran%e from A0000+"&&&&. 9he ne1t 12,: is reserved for the adapter "IO- that resides in read+on#y memory chips on some adapter boards p#u%%ed into the bus s#ots. Most GEA+compatib#e video adapters use the first 32: of this area for their on+ board "IO-. 9he rest can be used by any other adapters insta##ed. Many networ' adapters a#so use this area for specia# purpose @AM ca##ed -hared Memory. Adapter @OM and specia# purpose @AM is a##otted the address ran%e from )0000+=&&&&. 9he #ast 12,: of memory is reserved for motherboard "IO-/ 5the basic input0output system/ which is stored in read+on#y @AM chips or @OM6. 9he PO-9 5Power+On -e#f 9est6 and bootstrap #oader/ which hand#es your system at bootup unti# the operatin% system ta'es over/ a#so reside in this space. Most systems on#y use the #ast $ : 5or #ess6 of this space/ #eavin% the first $ : or more free for re+mappin% with memory mana%ers. -ome systems a#so inc#ude the )MO- -etup pro%ram in this area. 9he motherboard "IO- is a##otted the address ran%e from A0000+&&&&&.

3MS M$*!+,
In an A9 system/ the memory map e1tends beyond the 1M boundary and can continue to 1$M on a system based on the 2,$ or hi%her processor/ E 5 /07$M6 on a 3,$=; or hi%her/ or as much as $ E 5$!/!3$M6 on a Pentium II. A1tended memory is basica##y a## memory past the first me%abyte/ which can on#y be accessed whi#e the processor is in protected mode. 9he e1tended memory specification 5;M-6 was deve#oped in 17,* by Microsoft/ Inte#/ A-9 )orp./ and ?otus =eve#opment to specify how pro%rams wou#d use e1tended memory.

T4$ H&54 M$*!+, A+$' (HMA

is an area of memory 1$ bytes short of $ : in siBe/ startin% at the be%innin% of the first me%abyte of e1tended memory. It can be used to #oad device drivers and memory+resident pro%rams to free up conventiona# memory for use by rea# mode pro%rams. On#y one device driver or memory+resident pro%ram can be #oaded into (MA at one time/ no matter what its siBe.

BIOS
"IO- stands for "asic Input Output -ystem. It is the #ow + #eve# system software that reside on a @ead On#y Memory 5@OM6 chip in the P). 9he "IOpro%rams is a set of routines for dea#in% with input0output devices such as 'eyboard/ disp#ay/ dis's and seria# and para##e# ports. Pro%rams can access these devices by ca##in% the "IO- routines/ and need not be aware of differences between machines that cou#d the way input0output is performed. 9hus/ "IO- enab#es various software to access the P)Ks hardware.

1.2.6 INPUT 7 OUTPUT PORTS

Port is a Lp#aceK for #oadin% and un#oadin% of data in a system. 9he I0O ports resemb#e memory addresses. 9hey a##ow the computer to communicate with periphera# devices such as modem/ 'eyboard. A#on% with data transfer to and from )P4 and periphera#s they are a#so used to set up and contro# the hardware/ and %et information about its status. 9he I0O ports can seria# or para##e# port dependin% on the type of communication.

SERIAL PORT
A seria# port is one throu%h which data is transmitted or received bit by bit. It is a#so referred to as an @-+232) port or communications port. 9he seria# ports are based on a chip ca##ed 4A@9 < 4niversa# Asynchronous @eceiver 9ransmitter. It may be bui#t onto the motherboard or it may be a part of a mu#tifunction

e1pansion card. 9he I"M P) architecture a##ows up to four seria# ports to insta##ed in a P). 9hey are accessed via =O- as )OM1 throu%h )OM .

9he I0O port addresses are> )OM1 > 03&,( < 03&&( )OM2 > 02&,( < 02&&( )OM3 > 03A,( < 03A&( )OM > 02A,( < 02A&( 9his port is the most versati#e I0O port on a P) and it is used for interfacin% modems/ 'eyboard/ seria# printers/ p#otters to the system.

PARALLEL PORT
9his port is used to transmit or receive data bits in para##e#/ at the same time. -o/ they can achieve hi%her data rates than seria# interfaces. 9he para##e# port is essentia##y intended to be a one way path from computer to printer. -ince/ a#most a## P) users consider printer to be essentia#/ most manufacturers now bui#d a para##e# interface on to the motherboard. 9he I"M P) architecture supports up to three para##e# ports. 4nder =O- they are ca##ed ?P91 5or P@86/ ?P92/ and ?P93. 9hese ports have addresses 03")( < 03"A(/ 03*,( < 03*A(/ and 02*,( < 02*A( respective#y.

INTERRUPTS
Interrupt re3uest channe# or the hardware interrupts are used by various devices to re3uest the )P4 for their services

1.2.8 BUS TYPES AND SLOTS

"4- refers to a %roup of wires that carry various si%na#s and interconnect different components in a system. A P) has many 'inds of buses and the main ones are the Processor bus/ memory bus and the I0O bus. 9he bus s#ots determines the 'ind of e1pansion circuit boards that wi## wor' in the system.

A P) has many 'inds of buses/ Processor bus I0O bus Memory bus

THE PROCESSOR BUS

9his bus is used to transfer data between the )P4 and the main system bus or between the )P4 and an e1terna# memory cache. &i%ure 1.3 shows this bus .

CPU

External cache

Main system bus &IE. 1.3 9he processor bus. 9he processor bus is further divided into three types> the address bus/ data bus and contro# bus. 9he '00+$)) 9:) is unidirectiona#/ and used to address the memory and other devices. 9he 0'%' 9:) is a bi+directiona#/ and is used to e1chan%e the data from )P4 to memory or any other device. 9he 1!"%+!( 9:) is used to carry contro# information from )P4 to other devices. Most systems have an e1terna# cache for the )P4D these caches have typica##y been emp#oyed in a## systems that use the Pentium/ Pentium MM;/ Pentium Pro/ and Pentium II chips. In a Pentium+based system/ the processor bus has $ data #ines/ 32 address #ines/ and associated contro# #ines. 9he processor bus operates at the same base c#oc' rate as the )P4 does e1terna##y. 9his can be mis#eadin% as most )P4s these days run interna##y at a

hi%her c#oc' rate than they do e1terna##y. &or e1amp#e/ a Pentium 100 system has a Pentium )P4 runnin% at 100M(B interna##y/ but on#y $$.$M(B e1terna##y.

9o determine the transfer rate for the processor bus often ca##ed the bandwidth of the bus/ the data width 5$ bits for a Pentium chips6 is mu#tip#ied by the c#oc' speed of the bus. A1amp#e/ consider a Pentium chip that runs at a $$M(B motherboard speed/ and its data width of $ bits. 9he ma1imum instantaneous transfer rate is ca#cu#ated by usin% the formu#a> $$M(B 1 $ bits H /22 Mbit0sec /22 Mbit0sec M , H !2,M0sec.

THE MEMORY BUS

9he memory bus is used to transfer information between the )P4 and main memory++the @AM in your system. 9his bus is either a part of the processor bus itse#f/ or in most cases is imp#emented separate#y by a dedicated chipset that is responsib#e for transferrin% information between the processor bus and the memory bus. In virtua##y a## systems that are 1$M(B or faster/ there wi## be a specia# memory contro##er chipset that contro#s the interface between the faster processor bus and the s#ower main memory. 9his chipset typica##y is the same chipset that is responsib#e for mana%in% the I0O bus.

THE ADDRESS BUS

9he address bus actua##y is a subset of the processor and memory buses. In our discussion of the processor bus/ you #earned that a Pentium system bus consists of $ data #ines/ 32 address #ines 53$ in a Pentium Pro or Pentium II6/ and a few contro# #ines. 9hese address #ines constitute the address busD 9he address bus is used to indicate what address in memory or what address on the system bus are to be used in a data transfer operation. 9he address bus indicates precise#y where the ne1t bus transfer or memory transfer wi## occur. 9he siBe of the memory bus a#so contro#s the amount of memory that the )P4 can address direct#y.

THE NEED FOR E3PANSION SLOTS

9he I0O bus or e1pansion s#ots are those that enab#es the )P4 to communicate with periphera# devices. 9he bus and its associated e1pansion s#ots are needed because basic systems cannot possib#y satisfy a## the needs of a## the peop#e who buy them. 9he I0O bus enab#es you to add devices to your computer to e1pand its capabi#ities. 9he most basic computer components/ such as sound cards and video cards/ can be p#u%%ed into e1pansion s#otsD you a#so can p#u% in more specia#iBed devices/ such as networ' interface cards/ -)-I host adapters/ and others. In most modern P) systems/ a variety of basic periphera# devices and chips are bui#t into the motherboard such as/ dua# 5primary and secondary6 I=A contro##ers/ a f#oppy contro##er/ two seria# ports/ and a para##e# port/ video adapter/ -)-I host adapter/ or networ' interfaceD in such a system/ an e1pansion s#ot on the I0O bus is probab#y not needed. 8everthe#ess/ these bui#t+in contro##ers and ports sti## use the I0O bus to communicate with the )P4. In essence/ even thou%h they are bui#t in/ they act as if they are cards p#u%%ed into the systemCs bus s#ots. A#thou%h some P) systems provide on#y a sin%#e e1pansion s#ot/ most provide up to ei%ht s#ots on the motherboard. 9his s#ot typica##y is ca##ed a riser card s#ot. 9he riser card that p#u%s into it in turn has e1pansion s#ots on its sides. -tandard adapter cards are insta##ed in the riser card/ meanin% that the adapter cards end up bein% para##e# to the motherboard rather than perpendicu#ar to it. @iser cards are used when a vendor wants to produce a computer that is shorter in hei%ht than norma#.

BUS MASTERING

8ewer bus types use a techno#o%y ca##ed bus masterin% to speed up the system. In essence/ a bus master is an adapter with its own processor that can e1ecute operations independent#y of the )P4. 9o wor' proper#y/ bus+masterin% techno#o%y re#ies on an arbitration unit/ most often ca##ed an inte%rated system periphera# 5I-P6 chip. 9he I-P enab#es a bus+mastered board to temporari#y ta'e e1c#usive contro# of the system/ as thou%h the board were the entire system. "ecause the board has e1c#usive contro# of the system/ it can perform operations very 3uic'#y. A bus+masterin% hard drive contro##er/ for e1amp#e/ achieves much %reater data throu%hput with a fast drive than can contro##er cards that are not bus+mastered. 9he I-P determines which device %ains contro# by usin% a four+ #eve# order of priority> =MA transfers -ystem+memory refresh/ the )P4 itse#f/ "us masters/

TYPES OF I7O BUSES

-ince the introduction of the first P)/ many I0O buses have been introduced. 9he reason is 3uite simp#e> &aster I0O speeds are necessary for better system performance. 9his need for hi%her performance invo#ves three main areas> 1. &aster )P4s re3uirements Aach of these areas re3uires the I0O bus to be as fast as possib#e. -urprisin%#y/ virtua##y a## P) systems shipped today sti## incorporate the same basic bus architecture I-A of I"M P)0A9. (owever/ most of these systems now a#so inc#ude a second hi%h+speed #oca# I0O bus such as G?+"us or P)I/ which offer much %reater performance for adapters that need it. 9he different I0O buses that can be identified by their architecture are I-A P)I ?oca# "us P) )ard 5former#y P)M)IA6 &ire2ire 5IAAA+137 6 2. Increasin% software demands 3. Ereater mu#timedia

Micro )hanne# Architecture 5M)A6 AI-A 4niversa# -eria# "us 54-"6 GA-A ?oca# "us 5G?+"us6

9he differences amon% these buses consist primari#y of the amount of data that they can transfer at one time and the speed at which they can do it. Aach bus architecture is imp#emented by a chipset that is connected to the processor bus. 9he fo##owin% sections describe the different types of P) buses very brief#y.

THE ISA BUS

I-A/ which is an acronym for Industry -tandard Architecture/ is the bus architecture that was introduced as an ,+bit bus with the ori%ina# I"M P) in 17,1 and #ater e1panded to 1$ bits with the I"M P)0A9 in 17, . I-A is the basis of the modern persona# computer and the primary architecture used in the vast majority of P) systems on the mar'et today. It may seem amaBin% that such a seemin%#y anti3uated architecture is used in todayCs hi%h+performance systems/ but this is true for reasons of re#iabi#ity/ affordabi#ity/ and compatibi#ity/ p#us this o#d bus is sti## faster than many of the periphera#s that we connect to itF 9wo versions of the I-A bus e1ist/ based on the number of data bits that can be transferred on the bus at a time. 9he o#der version is an ,+bit busD the newer version is a 1$+bit bus. 9he ori%ina# ,+bit version ran at .**M(B in the P) and ;9. 9he 1$+bit version used in the A9 ran at $M(B and then ,M(B

THE MICRO CHANNEL BUS

9he introduction of 32+bit )P4/ posed a prob#em to hand#e the data by I-A/ because it can hand#e the data up to 1$+bits on#y. -o/ instead of e1pandin% the I-A bus/ I"M introduced a new bus ca##ed Micro )hanne# "us 5M)A6.

M)A runs asynchronous#y with the main processor/ has no jumpers and switches++neither on the motherboard nor on any e1pansion adapter. It supports bus masterin% which improves its performance over the I-A buses.

THE E3TENDED INDUSTRY STANDARD ARCHITECTURE BUS

9he AI-A bus is a successor to the I-A bus. It provides 32+bit s#ots for use with 32+bit processor. 9his s#ot has many capabi#ities of the M)A adapters and a#so supports o#der adapters of I-A standard. It provides faster hard drive throu%h bus when used with devices such as -)-I bus masterin% hard dis' contro##ers.

THE PERIPHERAL COMPONENT INTERCONNECT BUS (PCI

9he P)I bus uses the system bus/ by passin% the standard bus to increase the bus c#oc' speed and ta'e fu## advanta%e of )P4Ks data+path. It is compatib#e to Pentium systems. Information is transferred across the P)I bus at 33 M(B at the fu## data width of the )P4. 9he P)I bus can operate concurrent#y with the processor bus. (ence an advanta%e with re%ard to the speed of data transfer.

THE PCMCIA BUS

9he Persona# )omputer Memory )ard Internationa# Association bus is used to %ive #aptop and noteboo' computers the re3uired s#ots to add memory e1pansion cards/ fa10modems/ -)-I adapters/ ?A8 cards etc.

1.2.; MASS STORAGE

It inc#udes f#oppy dis's/ hard dis's/ compact dis' @OMs and =G=s a## meant for storin% data. Aach of these device need drive5s6 for accessin% the data. =rive is that hardware which supports these dis's. ?et us describe each one of them brief#y>

1.2.;.1 FLOPPY DISK DRIVES (FDD

&#oppies are secondary stora%e devices/ which are very cost effective to use. 9he f#oppy dis' subsystem consists of various components #i'e f#oppy dis' drive/

a f#oppy dis' contro##er/ the cab#e connectin% the drive to the contro##er board and the f#oppy dis'ettes. =rives and dis's used in P)+compatib#e systems are divided into two c#asses> ! 10 +inch and 3 102+inch. A## f#oppy drives/ re%ard#ess of type/ consist of severa# basic common components. 9o proper#y insta## and service a dis' drive/ you must be ab#e to identify these components and understand their function A f#oppy dis' drive norma##y has two read0write heads one for each side of the dis'/ which ma'es it a doub#e+sided drive. 9he head actuator is a mechanica# motor device that causes the heads to move in and out over the surface of a dis'. 9he -pind#e Motor spins the dis' with the speed of rotation dependin% on the type of drive. 9he circuit boards contains the circuitry used to contro# the head actuator/ read0write heads/ spind#e motor/ dis' sensors/ and any other components on the drive 9he facep#ate is the p#astic piece that comprises the front of the drive. 9hese pieces/ usua##y removab#e/ come in different co#ors and confi%urations A## dis' drives have at #east two connectors++one for power to run the drive/ and the other to carry the contro# and data si%na#s to and from the drive. A &#oppy =is' )ontro##er 5&=)6 is a device contro##er which a##ows the

interchan%e of information between the system memory/ )P4 and the f#oppy dis' drive. 9his device contro##er can support up to four &==s. 9he main functions of &=) is to provide circuitry and contro# functions for interfacin% processor to &==s/ to support doub#e density recordin%/ provide error detection techni3ues and support for writin%/ de#etin%/ see'in% etc. A 1'9($/ usua##y a 3 +wire ribbon connects the &=) to the &==.

REMOVING< CONFIGURING AND INSTALLING FDD)

&#oppy drives can be removed in fo##owin% manner> 1. 2. 3. . 9urn off the power and remove power connection remove screws from mountin% brac'ets remove data connection s#ide the drive out of mountin% bay

Insta##in% &==s re3uires to setup or confi%ure a new f#oppy drive throu%h the fo##owin% steps 5however insta##ation of 3.! inch &==s are s#i%ht#y different6 1. turn off the power and remove the power cab#e from the soc'et. @emove the system unit cover + terminate the drive proper#y 2. remove the b#an'in% p#ate attached to the drive bay 3. set the drive se#ect jumper . se#ect system @eady0=is' chan%e !. s#ide the drive into the case/ connect the drive to the cab#eKs twisted or non+ twisted connector appropriate#y $. attach the power connector *. insta## the mountin% screws ,. rep#ace the system unit cover and power up the system and test the drive 9he usua# causes for the fau#ts in &==s are bad media/ dirty read0write heads/ misa#i%ned drives/ and fau#ty drive e#ectronics or contro##ers. 9o overcome this &==s must be cared proper#y < maintenance.

1.2.;.2 HARD DISK DRIVES (HDD

A hard dis' drive contains ri%id/ dis'+shaped p#atters usua##y constructed of a#uminum or %#ass. 4n#i'e f#oppy dis's/ the p#atters cannot bend or f#e1++hence the term hard dis'. 9he basic structure of a hard dis' is simi#ar to that of a dis'ette/ the major differences between the hard dis' and f#oppy dis' bein% that the hard dis' has more than two sides/ can ho#d much more data and is much more faster. Physica##y/ the hard dis' has severa# dis's or p#atters mounted vertica##y on the spind#e. 9he number of p#atters depend on the type of the hard dis'. Aach p#atter has a two read0write head. Aach side of the p#atter is divided into concentric

trac's. A## of the same trac's on each p#atter are co##ective#y 'nown as cy#inder. &urther/ trac's are divided into sectors. 9he fi%ure 1. shows the main components of (==> p#atters/ @ead02rite heads/ (ead Actuators/ spind#e motor. As with f#oppy dis's/ =O- stores hard dis' fi#es in c#usters or a##ocation units. )#uster siBe on hard dis' varies/ but it is typica##y / ,/ or 1$ sectors. 9o read from 5or write to 6 a fi#e/ =O- must convert the c#uster number to cy#inder/ head/

and sector number. It must then issue a "IO- function ca## with these as parameters. Information about the drive is he#d in a drive tab#e/ which is a part of system "IO-/ and is accessed usin% the drive type number. Many compatib#es have entries for up to $ drive types and many machines even have a user+ definab#e drive type. 9he user can enter the characteristics via the -A94P uti#ity. &i%ure 1. showin% (==

H'+0 D&)= C!"%+!(($+ (HDC Is the hardware which is used to communicate with the hard dis'. 9he speed of the system main#y depends on this. Inte%rated =rive A#ectronics 5I=A6 and -ma## )omputer -ystem Interface 5-)-I6 are the most common type of (ard dis' contro##ers in modern computers. -)-I offers %reat e1pandabi#ity/ cross+p#atform compatibi#ity/ hi%h capacity/ performance/ and f#e1ibi#ity. I=A is #ess e1pensive than -)-I and a#so offers a very hi%h+ performance so#ution/ but e1pansion/ compatibi#ity/ capacity/ and f#e1ibi#ity are more #imited compared with -)-I. -)-I offers some additiona# performance potentia# with a mu#tithreaded O- #i'e 2indows 89 or O-02/ but I=A offsets this with a #ower overhead direct system bus attachment.

FORMATTING A HARD DISK

"efore a hard dis' can be used to store data/ it must under%o three types of preparations ?O2 ?AGA? &O@MA99I8E PA@9IO8I8E (IE( ?AGA? &O@MA99I8E

LOW LEVEL FORMAT

It is performed by the dis' contro##er card. It divides each p#atter into trac's/ each of which contains 1* sectors/ and each sector ho#ds !12 bytes of data. 9his format writes a number of mar's to each sector/ #i'e the sector address/ synchroniBation bytes/ and %ap bytes that comprise the space between the sectors to %ive the dis' contro##er a bit more time to read the sectors. 9he #ow #eve# format imposes a numberin% scheme on the sectors based on the coordinates of side/ cy#inder/ and sector. 9his information is based on the @OM "IO- of the motherboard.

PARTITIONING

9his is done throu%h =O- command 5&=I-:6. 9his pro%ram divides the dis' into one or more partitions. Aach partition has I= fie#d 5=O-/?inu16. One of these is mar'ed as active < boot from this partition. 9hus/ different operatin% system wi## reside in mar'ed partitions.

HIGH LEVEL FORMAT

It is accomp#ished by the &O@MA9 )OMMA8=. 9his command creates the =Oreserved area on the dis' and divides the sector not inc#uded in the reserved area into units ca##ed c#usters. 9he =O- reserved area stores the information on the structure of the dis' and the fi#es on it.

REMOVING< INSTALLING AND CONFIGURING HARD DISKS

9he fo##owin% steps are fo##owed to remove a hard dis' from the system 9urn off the power and disconnect the power cab#e from the soc'et. @emove the system unit cover. @emove the drive mountin% screws and s#ide the drive out @emove the data and power cab#e connections from the drive 9he fo##owin% steps are fo##owed to insta## a hard drive in an I"M+compatib#e system> )onfi%ure the drive )onfi%ure the contro##er or interface Physica##y insta## the drive )onfi%ure the system ?ow+#eve# format the drive 5not re3uired with I=A and -)-I6 Partition the drive (i%h+#eve# format the drive 9o be%in the setup procedure/ you need to 'now severa# detai#s about the hard dis' drive/ contro##er or host adapter/ and system @OM "IO-/ as we## as most of the other devices in the system. 9his information usua##y appears in the various OAM manua#s that come with these devices. -ome common fau#ts associated with (== are =rive not formatted

)MO- @AM drive type incorrect or #ost 5A96 =is' boot error @ead0write error "ad sectors

1.2.;.3 CD-ROM DRIVE (CDD

9he )=+@OM 5compact disc read+on#y memory6 is an optica# stora%e medium capab#e of ho#din% up to $,2M of data 5appro1imate#y 333/000 pa%es of te1t6/ * minutes of hi%h+fide#ity audio/ or some combination of the two. Accessin% data from a )=+@OM is 3uite a bit faster than f#oppy dis' but considerab#y s#ower than a modern hard drive. 9he term )=+@OM refers to both the discs themse#ves and the drive that reads them. 9he )=+@OM drive operations are described in the fo##owin% manner> 1. 9he #aser diode emits a #ow+ener%y infrared beam toward a ref#ectin% mirror. 2. 9he servo motor/ on command from the microprocessor/ positions the beam onto the correct trac' on the )=+@OM by movin% the ref#ectin% mirror. 3. 2hen the beam hits the disc/ its refracted #i%ht is %athered and focused throu%h the first #ens beneath the p#atter/ bounced off the mirror/ and sent toward the beam sp#itter. . 9he beam sp#itter directs the returnin% #aser #i%ht toward another focusin% #ens. !. 9he #ast #ens directs the #i%ht beam to a photo detector that converts the #i%ht into e#ectric impu#ses. $. 9hese incomin% impu#ses are decoded by the microprocessor and sent a#on% to the host computer as data. T4$ CD-ROM 0+&#$ ).$1&2&1'%&!") inc#ude the data transfer rate/ access time/ interna# cache or buffers. 9here are three different types of interfaces avai#ab#e for attachin% a )=+@OM drive to your system. 9hey are> -)-I0A-PI 5-ma## )omputer -ystem Interface/ Advanced -)-I Pro%rammin% Interface6

I=A0A9API 5Inte%rated =rive A#ectronics0A9 Attachment Pac'et Interface6 Proprietary

DVD (D&5&%'( V$+)'%&($ D&)1

9he future of )=+@OM is ca##ed =G= 5=i%ita# Gersati#e =isc6. 9his is a new standard that dramatica##y increases the stora%e capacity of/ and therefore the usefu# app#ications for/ )=+@OMs. 9he prob#em with current )=+@OM techno#o%y is that it is severe#y #imited in stora%e capacity. A )=+@OM can on#y ho#d a ma1imum of about $,0M of data/ which may sound #i'e a #ot/ but is simp#y not enou%h for many up and comin% app#ications/ especia##y where the use of video is concerned.

1.2.> ADD-ON CARDS

)ards #i'e video card/ networ' card/ sound card etc. are inserted motherboard/ app#ications. to the

to increase the capabi#ities of a computer system for varied

VIDEO BOARD
9he video board or video card determines the 'ind of software that can be run on a system and the time re3uired to disp#ay the data on the monitor screen. 9hey decide the co#or and the number of pi1e#s 5picture e#ements6 that can be disp#ayed on the screen. 9he common#y avai#ab#e video boards are Monochrome =isp#ay Adapter 5M=A6/ )o#or Eraphics Adapter 5)EA6/ Anhanced Eraphics Adapter 5AEA6/ Gideo Eraphics Array 5GEA6 etc.

LAN BOARD
9his is an essentia# card that may be inserted into the P)/ when P)Ks need to communicate with each other and share resources over a #oca# area networ'. -ome e1amp#es inc#ude Athernet/ 9o'en @in%/ and A@) 8et.

SOUND CARD
9his card is it is inserted in to the P) and used when it is re3uired to reproduce sound and music on a P). A sound card in combination with a )=+@OM and audio interface/ can p#ay music. 9he sounds are recorded and reproduced either with &M synthesis/ MI=I contro# or wave tab#es.

1.2.? POWER SUPPLY

Most of the computers emp#oy a separate switch mode power supp#y 5-MP-6/ which is connected to the motherboard and other boards via a connector. -MPprovides direct current 5dc6 power supp#ies of N!v to the motherboard and N12v for other #o%ic circuits. (owever/ it a#so supp#ies <!v and <12v for other chips.

1.3

SUMMARY

9his unit e1amined the main components of a P) compatib#e system/ how they fit to%ether/ and how they wor'. 9he concepts re#ated to )P4/ memory/ and I0O ports/ "uses/ motherboard/ add+on cards/ mass stora%e devices/ -MP- etc. were brief#y dea#t. (ardware desi%n is a comp#icated subject to be dea#t in few pa%es. (owever/ this unit has %iven you an insi%ht to a## these.

1.6

@UESTIONS
the importance of a motherboard as an important system

1. "rin% out

component of a computer. 2. 2hat is the difference between physica# memory and #o%ica# memoryO 3. A1p#ain the terms> memory ban'/ "IO-/ conventiona# memory/ (MA/ 4MA/ ;M. 2hat is the importance of seria# and para##e# ports in a P)O !. 2hat is an e1pansion s#otO "rief#y state its use. $. 2hat is "us masterin%O

*. 8ame any two popu#ar bus architecture. ,. 2hat are mass stora%e devicesO Eive e1amp#es. 7. 2hat do you mean by formattin% a hard dis'O =escribe the necessary steps invo#ved. 10. "rief#y e1p#ain the operations invo#ved in a )=+@OM drive. 11. 2hat are add+on cardsO 2hy are they usedO Eive e1amp#es.