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Analysis of Electric Machinery and Drive Systems - 2e
Analysis of Electric Machinery and Drive Systems - 2e
Analysis of Electric Machinery and Drive Systems - 2e
0. n the analysis of steady-state operation we are free to select ime zero Is often ‘convenient to select itso that (0) = O; then from (3.8-6) and (3.8-7) we obtain (389)128 REFERENCE FRAME THEORY ‘Thus, in all asynchronously rotating reference frames (« # «,) with 8(0) = 0, the phasor representing the as is equal to the phasor representing the gs variables. For balanced steady-state conditions, the phasor representing the variables of one phase reed only be shifted in order to represent the variables in the other phases. In the synchronously rotating reference frame we have « = «and 0(0) ~ 8,0). I we continue to use uppercase letters to denote the constant steady-state variables inthe synchronously rotaing reference frame, then from (38-4) and 38-5) we obtain Fy, = Rel FM 0-H03) (38-10) Fj, = Re[JV EF elt O-400) (38-11) I we let the tme-zero postion ofthe reference frame be zero, then 8,(0) = 6(0) = 0 and Fi, = VIF c0s0g(0) Gan) Fi = -VIF sind (0) 38:13) ‘Thus, we see from a comparison of (3.8-6) with (3.8-12) and (3.813) that Vib a = Fe -iFi, (68.14) Because Fy = Fey (38-14) is important in that it relates the synchronously rotating reference-fame variables to a phasor in all ther reference frames. Fy, is 8 phasor that represents a sinusoidal quantity; however 3, and Fare not phasors. hey are quantities representing the constant teady-sate variables ofthe synchronously rotating reference frame Example 3 _Itis helpful to discuss the difference between the directions of Jay ns fe, 88 shown in Fig. 3.3-1 and phasors. The relationships shown in Fig. 33-1 irigonometrically illustrate the transformation defined by (G.3-1)~ (G.3-6). Figure 3.3-1 is not a phasor diagram and should not be interpreted as such. It simply depicts the relationships between the directions of fay, fi» Jew fas 0 fas 88 dictated by the equations of transformation regardless of ‘the instantaneous values ofthese variables. On the ther hand, phasors provide an analysis tol for steady-state sinusoidal variables. The magnitude and phase angle of the phasor are directly related to the amplitude of the sinusoidal var iation and its phase position relative to a reference. The balanced set given by G.7-1)-G.7-3) may be written as (3.8-1)-(3.8-3) for steady-state conditions. ‘The phasor representation forthe as variables is given by (3.8-6). The phasor representation for the balanced set is Fy = Fe @c-1) Foy = Felt 0)-203 Gc-2) Fey = Fyelte0)299) ec)[BALANCED STEADY-STATE PHASOR RELATIONSHIPS 128 Figure 30-4 Phasor represen: tation for a3 pte balanced set. ‘The phasor diagram is shown in Fig. 3C-1. For balanced conditions, the pha sors that form an abe sequence are displaced from each other by 120° and each with a phase angle of (0). The dictions of fy, fan a fos in Fi. 33-1, which are fixed by the transformation, are such that fis directed — 120° from fa. However, Fo, is +120° from F,, for balanced conditions (Fig. 3C-). Another important difference is thatthe phasor diagram must be rotated a inthe counterelocksvse direction, and the ral par ofthe pa sors represents the instantaneous values of the phase set. The diagram off, fie df, showin in Fig. 3.3-1 is stationary for Stationary circuits. ‘Phasors can also be used to analyze unbalanced steady-state sinusoidal vat ables. An example ofa steady-state unbalanced 3-phase set is Fy = VE, cos(o4t+2) aca) Fag = 2V2F, sin cont Fe, 3 Figure3C-2_ Phasor representation fora 3-phase unbalanced set.130 REFERENCE-FAAWE THEORY The phasor diagram for this seis shown in Fig. 3-2. tis lea thatthe post tive dieetions of fx fie afin Fig. 33-1 are unchanged 3.9 BALANCED STEADY-STATE VOLTAGE EQUATIONS If the 3-phase system is symmetrical and if the applied voltages form a balance set as given by (3.7-1)-G.7-3), them the steady-state currents will also form a balanced se. ‘For equal resistance in each phase, the steady-state voltage equation in terms ofthe 1 variables is es = Pas (94) For linear, symmetrical inductive elements the steady-state voltage equation may be written as ines (39:2) ‘where /, isan inductance times 7, For linear, symmetical capacitive elements the steady-state current equation becomes le = toe 93) where Q,, is a capacitance times V,,. It is clear that for any combination of linear symmetrical cireuit elements the steady-state voltage equation may be expressed in phasor form as Vos = Zier (3.9.4) Where Z, isthe impedance of each phase of the 3-phase system, For equal resistance in each phase of the circuit, the balanced steady-state voltage equation for the gs variables in all asynchronously rotating reference frames can be ‘written from (34-2) as, rl 395) For linear symmetrical inductive elements, the steady-state gs voltage equation in all, ‘synchronously rotating reference frames may be written from (344-11) as Vo = 08a $110. — oye (396) where the (cx, — 2) factor comes about due to the fact that the steady-state variables in all asynchronously rotating reference frames vary a the frequency corresponding,BALANCED STEADY-STATE VOLTAGE EQUATIONS 181 10 (@, ~ «). From G.8-8), we obtain Ay jAyy; thus (3.9-6) becomes Y= jorky a9) ‘Similarly, fora linear symmetrical capacitive circuit the steady-state gs current pha- sor equation in all asynchronously rotating reference frames may be written from 4-24) a8 er. One (3.98) ‘Thus, for any combination of linear symmetrical circuit elements the steady-state voltage equation in all asynchronously rotating reference frames may be expressed in phasor form as Ven = Zales (399) ‘where, fora given 3-phase system, Z, is the same complex impedance as in (39-4), ‘The fact that the steady-state phasor voltage equations are identical forthe as and {gs variables was actually known beforehand because (3.8-9) tells us that for (4(0) = O the phasors representing the as variables are equal tothe phasors represent ing the gs variables in all asynchronously rotating reference frames; therefore, the as and gs circuits must have the same impedance. Example 3D _Itisinstructive to derive the phasor voltage equation forthe RL. circuit used in Example 3B for balanced steady-state conditions. Three meth ‘ods of deriving this equation are described inthe previous section, We will use all three approaches to arrive atthe same steady-state, phasor voltage equa tion, As the first approach, the as voltage equation may be written for the ‘example RL circuit using steady-state notation 3s Von = ler Explas+ Mpa + MPley (sD.1) For balanced conditions we have cst Fig + Foy = 0 (p22) ‘Thus, (3D-1) may be written as Ver ras * (Ly = M) Plas (3p.3) For steady-state conditions, p is replaced by jv, whereupon (3D-3) ean be ‘written in phasor form as fs = (s+ ela — Ms (op)132 -REFERENCE-FRAME THEORY ‘Comparing (3D-4) with (3.9-2) and (3.94), we see that Ba = (Le M)ler (Gps) and =r + hodL, —M) (806) In the two remaining derivations we will make use ofthe gs and ds voltage ‘equations inthe arbitrary reference frame, Thus, from (3B-13) and (3B-14) we obvain gs = Fagg + Okey + Phys (D7) vey = Fly ~ hey + Bhs (08) where yy = (la Mier aps) Bay = (La = Mya (30-10) FFor the second method, we will start with either the gs-ords-voltage equation in the asynchronously rotating reference frame. Thus, using steady-state notation, (3D-7) may be written Vgg = ridge + ar + Pye (p-11) For balanced steady-state conditions, p may be replaced by j(—) and from (3.8-8), Ag, = jy. Hence Vou = rye + jive (@p-12) Clearly, (9-5) and G.9-7) combine 10 give (30-12), Subsiuing for yy yells Das = Ur tiny — MM, (ap.13) [Because in all asynchronously rotaing reference frames with 0(0) = 0 Pu = Fey (ap-14) we have arrived at the same result as in the fist case where we started with the as-voltage equation, For the third approach, let us write the voltage equations in the synchro- ously rotating reference frame. Thus, using steady-state notation, (3D-7) and (3D-8) may be written in the synchronously rotaing reference frame as Vig = nl + cad, + DNS, Vi, = ral, el + PNG, For balanced steady-state conditions the variables in the synchronously rotat- ing eference frame are constant; therefore p\, and pA, are zero. Therefore,‘VARIABLES OBSERVED FROM SEVERAL FRAMES OF REFERENCE 133 (3D-15) and (3D-16) may be writen as Vi, = lt, Fol, — MV (3D-17) Vig = tig — ella ~ MMi ap-18) wherein Ag, and AG, have been writen as product of inductance and current, Now, @8°i4) is VPs = Fy iF (20.19) Tus Vil = rly + Obs MM ~ slr, Orlly—MYiGl—(3B-20), Now Vila, (3D-21) and IV Blas = Tigi (ap-22) Substituting (3D-21) and (3D-22) into (3D-20) yields the desired equation: Vor = Urs + jell ~ Max (ap-23) 3.10 VARIABLES OBSERVED FROM SEVERAL FRAMES OF REFERENCE Ikis instructive to observe the waveform of the variables of a stationary 3-phase seties RL circuit inthe arbitrary reference frame and in commonly used reference frames. For this purpose we will assume that both r, and L are diagonal matrices, leach with equal nonzero elements, and the applied voltages are of the form va = VIV, cose (104) vm = Viv, 08 (ot - 22) (3.102) va = Viv c0s(o4 +22) (3.10.3) where , is an unspecified constant. The currents, which are assumed to be zero at 1=0, may be expressed as viv, Fal BL een (1128) +c (oe- BEL cttan(a-%) cea(or-ae)] a0 {0824+ 08 (wet —2)] (3.10-4)134 REFERENCE-FRAME THEORY ‘where (3.10.7) G.108) (10-9) It may at fist appear necessary to solve the voltage equations in the arbitrary reference frame in order to obvain the expression for the currents inthe arbitrary reference frame. This is unnecessary because once the solution is known in one reference frame, itis known in all reference frames. In the example at hand, this ‘may be accomplished by transforming (3.10-4)-(3.10-6) to the arbitrary reference frame. For illustrative purposes, let » be an unspecified constant with 0(0) then 0 = oo and in the arbitrary reference frame we have wv, Tal /2V, zi '* eM cos(or a) + cos|(o,—a)t—a}} (3.10410) *Fsin(ot — a) sin|le— 0)t ~ 2}} G.10-11) Cleary, the state of the electric system is independent ofthe frame of reference from which it is observed. Although the variables will appear differently in each reference frame, they will exhibit the same mode of operation (transient of steady state) regardless of the reference frame, In general (3.10-10) and (310-11) contain two balanced sets. One, which represents the electric transient, decays exponentially ata frequency corresponding to the instantaneous angular velocity ofthe arbitrary reference frame. In this se, the gs variable leads the ds variable by 90° when «> 0 ‘and lags by 90° when «» < 0, The second balanced set, which represents the steay- state response, has a constant amplitude with a frequency corresponding to the diff- ‘erence in the angular velocity ofthe voltages applied tothe stationary circuits and the angular velocity of the arbitrary reference frame. In this se, the gs variable lags the dds by 90° when « < or and leads by 90° when «» > «,. This of course leads tothe ‘concept of negative frequency when relating phasors that represent qs and ds vari- ables by 3.88). ‘There are two frames of reference that do not contain both balanced sets. Inthe stationary reference frame we have « = Oand i, = iy. The exponentially decaying balanced set becomes an exponential decay, and the constant amplitude balanced set varies atc. Inthe synchronously rotating reference frame where «=e, the elec- sic transients are represented by an exponentially decaying balanced set varying at ‘9, and the constant amplitude set becomes constant. ‘The waveforms ofthe system variables in various reference frames ate shown by ‘computer simulation in Figs. 3.10-1-3.10-3 [8]. The voltages ofthe form given byVARIABLES OBSERVED FROM SEVERAL FRAMES OF REFERENCE 195 7 NA m VV VY “3 ANW =a Figure 310-1 Variables ofa sttion- ary 3plase system in the stationary rads OH — reference fame, G.10-1)-6.10.3) are applied to the S-phase system with ¥, = 10/V3 ¥, 1, = 0.2160, and wL, = 1.090 with «= 377 rads. The response, for! > 0, of the electric system inte stationary reference frame's shown Fig. 310-1. Because vwehave selected (0) = 0, we obtain oy =f, and the plots of, and, are vy ad ing spectively. The variables forthe same mode of operation ate shown in the y- chonously rotting reference frame in Fig. 3.10-2. Not, from (3.10-1)-.10-3), that we have selected 0(0) =O: thus from (3.7-5) and (7-6) with (0) = 0, we obtain ¥, = 10 Vand vj, =O. In Fig. 3.103, with 0(0) =O the speed ofthe refe- rence frame is switched rom it riginal value of ~377 rads 10 ze and then ramped t 377 rads ‘There are several features worthy of note. The waveform of the instantaneous electric power i the same in all cases. The electric transient is very evident in the waveforms of the instantaneous elecse power an the curensin the synchronously rotating reference trame (Fig. 3.10-2); and because vis zero, is related tothe power by a constant (3/2 v,), In Fig 310-3 we selected (0) © 0 and (0) = “The voltages were applied and we observed the solution ofthe differential equations inthe reference frame rotating clockwise at , (© =~). The reference frame196 REFERENCE.FRAME THEORY . pa Figure 210-2 Variables ofa stationary 3 phase system in synchronously rotating reference frame speed was then stepped from —377 rad/s to zero, whereupon the differential equa tions were solved in the stationary reference frame. However, when switching from ‘one reference frame to another, the variables must be continuous. Therefore, after the switching occurs the solution continues using the stationary reference frame dif ferential equations with the initial values determined by the instantaneous values of the variables inthe previous reference frame (c =~) athe time of switehing. It is important to note the change in frequency ofthe variables asthe reference frame speed is ramped from zero 0 «,. Here the differential equations being solved are continuously changing while the variables remain continuous. When the reference frame speed reaches synchronous speed, the variables have reached steady state; therefore they will be constant corresponding to their valves at the instant © ‘becomes equal to 7. In essence we have applied a balanced 3-phase set of voltages, toasymmetrcal RL circuit, and in Fig, 3.10-3 we observed the actual variables from various reference frames by “jumping” or “running” from one reference frame to anotherREFERENCES 137 Figure 310-3 Variables ofa station fuy Sphase system. First with ~e,sthenisseppedo er followed by a ramp change in reference frame speed 0 REFERENCES: U1] RH. Park, TWo-Reaction Theory of Synchronous Machines—Genealized Method of Analysis, Part, AIEE Transactions, Vol. 48, July 1929, pp. 716-727 2] H.C. Stanley, An Analysis of the Induction Motor, AIEE Transaction, Vol, ST (Supplement), 1938, pp. 751-755. (8) G. Kron, Equialent Circuits of Electric Machinery, John Wiley and Sons, New York, 1931, [41 D.S. Brereton, D.G. Lewis, and C.G. Young, Representation of Induction Motor Loads Daring Power System Stability Studies, AIEE Transactions, Vol. 76, gust 1957, pp.451— 461 {51 P.C. Krause and C. H. Thomas, Simulation of Symmetsce Induction Machinery, EEE Transactions on Power Apparatus and Systems, Nol. 84, November 1965, pp. 1038-1053, (61 P.C Krause, NozariT. L.Skvareina, ad D.W.Olive, The Theory of Neglecting Stator ‘Transients, IEEE Transactions on Power Apparatus and Systems, Vol 98, January! Februaty 1979, pp. 11-148138 REFERENCE.FRAME THEORY 7 E, Chae, Circuit Analysis of A-C Power Systems, Vol. Symmetrical and Related Components, Jon Wiley and Sons, New York, 1943. IS]. C.M.Ong, Dynamic Simulation of Elecrie Machiner; Pretice Hall PTR, Upper Saddle River, NJ, 1998 PROBLEMS. 1 The transformation for 2phase set othe arbitrary reference fame is fs = Balas where (Goat! = Uw fa] (6a) = Ur fin} cos sind w- (To Sol ‘where @ is defined by (3.35) Express the voltage equations inthe arbitrary reference Frame foe a 2phase resistive circuit if (a) ry = 75 = and iC () Pa # 2. Using the transformation given in Problem 1, express the voliage equations in the atbitary reference frame for a 2phase inductive circuit if (@) Ly = Ly = and if Ly # be 3 Using the wansformation given in Problem 1, expres the cuent equations in the asbitry reference frame for 2-phase capaci circuit if (a) Cy = Cy = C and it OCA Ce 4 Thephases ofa 3phase circuit consist of equal resistances, equ inductances, and equal ‘capacitances connected in series. The phases are not coupled. Wit the voltage equations inthe arbitrary reference frame and draw te equivalent circuit. You should be able vo use results fom Problems 1,2, and 3, ‘5 Repeat Problem 4 for the circuit clement in each phase connected in parallel 6 Show that fora symmetrical 2-phase cout the average power expres in as and bs ‘variables is equal othe average power expressed ings and ds variables. 7. Clarke's transformation may be wren as yy = Clase where aml = Ve fe cf idea Relate fn fi fo Si 4 fe2 ry “ 15 16 PRoBLeMs 139 ‘A transformation that is sometimes used inthe ease of synchronous machines is one ‘where fy Heals fy in Fig. 331 by 90° with «= 0 (a) Express the transformation (6) Using tis transformation, write the voltage equations for a 3-phase inductive ‘The inductance mati tat describes the self- and mutual inductances between the stator ‘windings of zphase, saleat-pole, synchronous machine is given below, 1 +Ly—Lyc0s28, “La sin20, ty sin20, Ly + La +L 020, Evaluate Ki,Ls(K5,)~! where Kj, given in Problem 1 A is one reference fame and B ancsber, show that (4K) Equations (.7-1}-G.7-3 form an abe sequence. Express an acb sequence and tansfoxm this set to the arbitrary reference frame using (3.1), Expres figqy(0? = 02) and Kin(o= ey) Devise a transformation that yields ony constans when «= c for balanced 3-phase set with 2 phase sequence of ach Relate Fi and Fi to Fy, and Fy, fora balanced 3-phase set witha time sequence of abe or steady-state balanced conditions the total 3-phase power and reactive power may be expressed as Pe = Wile cos|l(0) ~ 00} Qc = 3¥4, sn{2(0) ~ (0) ‘Show that the folowing expressions are equal to those given above 3 P= 3a + Vola) 3 (Vlas — Va) ‘Write the expressions forthe currents i Figs. 3.104 and 3.10-2, Assume the steady-state abe variables are of the form Fy = VIF, cos oct Fy = VF, <0 (na -2) where Fa Fis and Fz are unequal constants. Show that this unbalanced sst of abe ‘variables forms 2-phase balanced sets of gs adds varisles inthe arbitrary reference140 REFERENGE-FRAME THEORY frame withthe arguments of (ct ~ #8) and (t+). Note the form ofthe gx and ds variables when = «and =~ 17 Repeat Problem 16 with Fu =Vifscoslout +) Fi. = V2F, cos (at + $5) Fe, = VIF, cos (ant +.) here dy, dy and gare unequal constants 18 1s often suggested tat K, shouldbe changed so that (K,)" = (K,)!. For example, cosd) cos(0—3) 08 (0+%) sind sin(0— 3) sin(0-+) ao a then (K.) = (K.)! Show that thsi tre, Also, show that inthis ease BRE B88Chapter 4 SYMMETRICAL INDUCTION MACHINES 4.1 INTRODUCTION ‘The induction machine is used in a wide variety of applications as @ means of eon- vertng electric power to mechanical work. Ics without doubs the workhorse of the electric power industry. Pump, stcel mill, and hoist drives are but a few applications of large multiphase induction motors. On a smaller scale, the 2-phase servomotor is used in postion-follow-up control systems, and single-phase induetion motors are Widely used in household appliances as well as in hand and bench tools. In the beginning of this chaper, classical techniques are used to establish the vol- {age and torque equations fora symmetrical induction machine expressed in terms of machine variables. Next, the transformation to the arbitrary reference frame pre= sented in Chapter 3 is modified to accommodate rotating circuits, Once this eround- work has been laid, the machine voltage equations are writen in the arbitrary reference frame, directly without a laborious exercise in trigonometry with which ‘one is faced when stating from the substitution of the equations of transformations into the voltage equations expressed in machine variables. The equations may then be expressed in any reference frame by appropriate assignment of the reference- frame speed in the arbitrary reference-frame voltage equations rather than perform- ing each transformation individually as in the past. Although the stationary reference frame, the reference frame fixed inthe rotor, and the syachronously rotting tefer- fence frame are most frequently used, the arbitrary reference frame offers a direct ‘means of obtaining the voltage equations in these and all other reference frames, ‘The steady-state voltage equations for an induction machine are oblained from the voltage equations in the arbitrary reference frame by direct application of the ‘material presented in Chapter 3. Computer solutions ate used to illustrate the 8142. SvMMETRICAL NOUCTION MACHINES ‘dynamic performance of typical induction machines and to depict the variables in various reference frames during free acceleration. Finally, the equations for an induction machine ae arranged appropriately for computer simulation. The material ‘resented inthis chapter forms the basis for solution of more advanced problems. In particular, these basic concepts are fundamental to the analysis of induction ‘machines in most power system and variable frequency drive applications. 4.2. VOLTAGE EQUATIONS IN MACHINE VARIABLES. "The winding arrangement fora 2-pole, 3-phase, wye-connected, symmetrical induc tion machine is shown in Fig 15-2. Figure 4.2-1is Fig. 1.5-2 repeated here for con- venience. The stator windings are identical, sinusoidally distributed windings, displaced 120°, with Ny equivalent turns and resistance [1]. For the purpose at hhand, the rotor windings will also be considered as three identical sinusoidally dis tributed windings, displaced 120°, with N, equivalent turns and resistance 7, The positive direction of the magnetic axis of each winding is shown in Fig. 4.2-1. It is important to note that the postive direction of the magnetic axes of the stator ‘windings coincides withthe direction of fs fi, and fy a8 specified by the equations of transformation and shown in Fig. 33-1 ‘The voliage equations in machine variables may be expressed as (421) (422) where (fotes)” = [fern Ser) (423) (aser)” = Lar fir fer} (4.24) In the above equations the s subscript denotes variables and parameters associated with the stator citcuits, and ther subscript denotes variables and parameters asso- ciated with the rotor cicuits. Both x, andr, are diagonal matrices, each with equal nonzero elements. For a magnetically linear system, the flux linkages may be Fea ‘The winding inductances are derived in Section 1.5. In particular, fot te]fte] a2) Lis + Lous hs Hs ns Lay hme — He (426) ns Hane Leet LnVOLTAGE EQUATIONS INMACHINE VARIABLES 143, Ven Me byte Hae (627) eae a cont, con(0, +) con(0,—%) Lay = La | 05 (0, — 8) cos, cos (6, +%8) (428) cos(0,+%8) cos (0, ~%8) ost, In the above inductance equations, Ly, and Lys are, respectively, the leakage and magnetizing inductances of the stator windings; Li, and Im ane for the rotor bois Figure 421 Two.pole, 3-phase, wyecomected symmetrical induction machine,144 svMMETRICAL INOUCTION MACHINES windings. The inductance L,, is the amplitude of the mutual inductances between ator and rotor windings ‘A. majority of induction machines are not equipped with coil-wound rotor ‘windings; instead, the current flows in copper or aluminum bars which are uniformly distributed and which are embedded in a ferromagnetic material with all bars terminated ina common ring at each end of the otor. Tis type of rotor configura tion is refered to as a squirtel-cage rotor. It may at first appear that the mutual {inductance between a uniformly distributed rotor winding and a sinusoidally distrib luted stator winding would not be of the form given by (4.2-8). However, in most ‘cases a uniformly distributed winding is adequately described by its fundamental Sinusoidal component and is represented by an equivalent 3-phase winding. Gener- ally, this representation consists of one equivalent winding per phase: however, the rotor construction of some machines is such that its performance is more accurately described by representing each phase with two equivalent windings connected in parallel. This (ype of machine is commonly referred to as a double-cage rotor machine ‘Another consideration is that in a practical machine, the rotor conductors are ‘often skewed. That is, the conductors are not placed inthe plane ofthe axis of rota- ‘ion ofthe rotr. Instead, the conductors are skewed slightly with the axis of rotation, “This type of conductor arrangement helps to reduce the magnitude of harmonic fo. ques de tothe harmonic content of the MMF waves. Such design features are not considered here, Instead, itis assumed that all effects upon the amplitude of the fun- ‘damental component of the MMF waveform due to skewing and uniformly distrib- uted rotor windings are accounted for inthe value of Ny, The assumption thatthe induction machine isa linear (no saturation) and MMF harmonic-free device is an ‘oversimplifcation that cannot deseribe the behavior of induction machines in all rmiodes of operation. However, ina majority of applications, its behavior can be ade quately predicted with this simplified representation. ‘When expressing the voltage equations in machine variable form, its convenient to refer all rotor variables to the slator windings by appropriate turns ratios: ie (329) Mow (42:10) Ree = Maer (4241) “The magnetizing and mutuel inductances are associated withthe same magnetic flux path therefore ay, Ly ad Ly are related asset forth by (1.5-#4), (15-87), and (5-52). In particular, Ne id (4212)YOLTAGE EQUATIONS IN MACHINE VARIABLES — 145 cost, cas( +38) cos(P, [-«"» cos m3 (4213) 0s (0,+%) c0s(0,—-%8) 080, Also, from (1.5-44) and (15-47), lyr may be expressed as (aon) and if weet 21s) hw Hs (4.2-16) where (4.2-17) ‘The flux linkages may now be expressed as [x] ~ rg tl fel (42-18) ‘The voltage equations expressed in terms of machine variables referred tothe sta- tor windings may now be writen as Crs) [oat oti] Maer] ~ Lathe” +P Laer Seas where (42.20)146 svuetaIcaL inoUcTION MACHINES 4.3. TORQUE EQUATION IN MACHINE VARIABLES. Evaluation ofthe energy stored in the coupling field by (1.3-51) yields the familiar ‘expression for energy stored in a magnetically linear system. In particular, the stored ‘energy isthe sum ofthe sel-inductance of each winding times one-half the square of its current and all mutusl inductances, each times the currents in the two winding coupled by the mutual inductance. Its clear that the energy stored in the leakage vluctances is nota pat of the energy stored in the coupling field, Thus, the energy stored in the coupling field may be writen as late) (Le — Lil Noes + (ates) "Li ater $l) Us — Lelie aan) where Tis the identity matrix. Because the machine is assumed to be magnetically linear, the field energy W; is equal tothe coenergy Wa. Before using the second entry of Table 1.3-1 to express the electromagnetic torque, itis necessary to modify the expressions given in Table 1.3-1 to account {or a P-pole machine, The change of mechanical energy in a rotational system with one mechanical inpat may be written from (1.3-71) as dW, = —Ted Om (432) where T, is the electromagnetic torque positive for motor action (torque output) and nis the actual angular displacement of the rotor. The flux linkages, currents, and W, are all expressed as functions of the electrical angular displacement 0 Because P = (5) tm (433) where P isthe number of poles in the machine, then aw, = ~1.(2) ao, 34) m= -T.(3) a, ‘Therefore to account for a P-pole machine all terms on the right-hand side of ‘Table 13-1 should be multiplied by P/2. Because W, = W, the electromagnetic tor- que may be evalusted from Teli, 8) (emg (433)EQUATIONS OF TRANSFORMATION FOR ROTOR cincUTS 147 ‘The abbreviated functional notation, as used in Table 1.3-1, is also used here forthe currents. Beeause L, and L, are not functions of, substituting W, from (4.3-1) into (43-5) yields the electromagnetic torque in Newton-meters (Nm): PY ar nie T= (5) ila 436) In expanded fom, (43-6) becomes Olle) sole- hai HH) int + Pale allt) 1, ties anew} 437) “The torgue and roto speed are related by 2 neai(3)oacrt a where J is the inertia of the rovor and in some cases the connected load. The first term on the right-hand side is the inertial torque. In (4,3-8) the units of J are kilogram + meter (kg sm?) or joules - second? (J-s"). Often the inertia is given sa quantity called WR? expressed in units of pound mass - fet® (Ibm ft). The load torque 7, is positive fora torque Toad on the shaft of the induction machine. 4.4 EQUATIONS OF TRANSFORMATION FOR ROTOR CIRCUITS In Chapter 3 the concept ofthe arbitrary reference frame was introduced and applied to stationary circuits. However, in the analysis of induction machines it is also desir- able to transform the variables associated with the symmetrical rotor windings tothe arbitrary reference frame. A change of variables which formulates a transformation ‘of the 3-phase variables of the rotor circuits to the arbitrary reference frame is fae = Klis 41) where ave!” = Vr Sir fil (44.2) (Cte) = Ue Soe fel (43) pfcost — coo(h 2 sing sings (aaa : 1 Ba0-0, : G4)148 syuernicaL iNoUCTION MACHINES ‘The angular displacement 0 is defined by (3.3-5)-(3.3-8) and 6, is defined by do, a °, (446) and we realize that (44-6) may be solved for 8, and writen in indefinite or definite integral form as (3.3-7) and (2.3-8), respectively. The inverse is conf sing cos(P=¥)sin(f= 3) 442) cos (+3) sin(B +3) 1 ‘The r subscript indicates the variables, parameters, and transformation associated with rotating circuits. though this change of vatiables needs no physical interpre= lation, it is convenient, as in the case of stationary circuits, t0 visualize these teansformation equations as trigonometric relationships between vector quantities as shown in Fig. 4441, tis clear that the above transformation equations for rotor circuits are the trans- {oration equations for stationary circuits with fused as the angular displacement rather than 6, In fac, the equations of transformation for stationary and rotor circuits are special cases of a transformation for all circuits, stationary or rating. In part cular, if in B, 8 is replaced by A, where aie @ (448) Toe fe [Figure 4.4 Transfration for tating crits portrayed by trigonomece relationshipsVOLTAGE EQUATIONS IN ARBITRARY REFERENCE-FRAME VARIABLES 149) then ©, the angular velocity of the circuits, may be selected to correspond to the circuits being transformed; that is, @ = 0 for stationary cireuits and @, = 0, for rotor circuits. Although this more general approach could have been used in (Chapter 3, it does add to the complexity of the transformation, making it somewhat more difficult 1o follow without deriving any advantage from the generality of the approach because only two types of cieuits, stationary or fixed in the rotor, are ‘considered inthis text follows that all equations for stationary circuits in Sections 3.3 and 3.4 are valid for rotor circuits if 8is replaced by and by w ~ che phasor and steady-state relations for stationary circuits, given in Sections 3.7-3.9, also apply to rotor circuits ‘of an induction machine if we realize that the rotor variables, during balanced, steady-state operation, are ofthe form Figg = VIF 008 (Ce — 0, )t + Beg (O)] (44-9) Fi, = ViFte0s [ow = on 0(0)~3| (4410) F,, = VIF cos [lo -ear + e043] (an, where Ozg(0) isthe phase angle of Fat time zero, 4.5 VOLTAGE EQUATIONS IN ARBITRARY REFERENCE-FRAME VARIABLES Using the information set forth in Chapter 3 and inthe previous section, we know the form of the voltage equations in the arbitrary reference frame without any further analysis (2). In particular, gst = Fda + hay + Phys (4s) Vr = Hy + (0 OR Phare (452) where Orig)” = (hr — Ay 0) iy)” = Be = Ay 9) (45-4) ‘The set of equations is complete once the expressions for the fux linkages are determined, Substituting the equations of transformation, (3.3-1) and (4.4-1 the flux linkage equations expressed in abe variables (4.2- equations for a magnetically linear system: dat KL(K)' KL, (K)'] {oie Moor | [KAM IK)! KL(K,)* into ) yields the fax linkage ' (45-5) Sow150 SYMMETRICAL INDUCTION MACHINES We know from Chapter 3 that for L, of the form given by (4.2-6) we have lytly 00 KL(K,) oO Lis + bw 0 (45-6) o Oy where 3 b= 3h (45.2) Because Ls similar in form to I i follows tat Hil, 0 0 KLIK =] 0 titty 0 (45-8) 0 og {kcan be shown that ly 0 0 KALB) |= KL) (IK) '= | 0 tye 0 (45-9) 0 0 o, ‘The voltage equations are often written in expanded form. From (4.5-1) and (45.2) we obtain qs = Figs + hes + Phy (45-10) Vas = Pls hy + Phas (45-11) oe = ras + Po (4512) Vip = Hig + (0 Ori + Py (4513) Vp = Hig (@- Ory + Bly (45-18) Me = lor + Ply (45:15) Substituting (4.5-6),(4.5-8), and (4.5-9) into (45-5) yields the expressions for the flux linkages. In expanded form we have Lslgs + Latlin + by) (45-16) ay = Lies + Lalies + by) (4517) dag = Laie (45.18) Ha = Eidag + bate + ip) (45-19) Hop = Hil, + bin +t) (45-20) Jy = Lig (4521) ‘The voltage and flux linkage equations suggest the equivalent circuits shown in Fig. 45-1\VOLTAGE EQUATIONS IN AREITRARY REFERENCE-FAAME VARIABLES 151 4g Oe Figure 45.1 Arbitrary referenceframe equivalent cireits for a 3-phase, symmetrical induction machine. [Because machine and power system parameters are nearly always given in ohms ‘or percent or per unit of a base impedance, it is convenient to express the voltage and flux linkage equations in terms of reactances rather than inductances. Hence, (4.5-10-14.5-15) are often written as ve = il + Shae + Fag (45-22) so=la~ 24g Oty (as2y ve = ria + Ey (45-28) Me the (222) i Ey (45.25) My = lig — c Wer Edy (45:26) Var = tly + Ey (45-27)152 syMeTRICAL INDUCTION MACHINES where is the base electrical angular velocity used to calculate the inductive reac tances. Flux linkages (4.5-16)-(4.5-21) now become flux linkages per second with the units of volts: hg + Kull +e) (45-28) a + Kalla ty) (45:29) Kile (45-30) Wee = Nay + Kalle ly) (451) Nil + Xoliae +i) (45-32) nly (45-33) In the above equations the inductive eactances ae obtained by multiplying times ‘dyctance. Ili left to the reader to modify the equivalent circuits shown in Fig. 45-1 to accommodate the use of reactances rather than inductances inthe voltage equations. ‘The voltage equations (4.5-10)-(4.5-15) or (4.5-22)-(4.5-27) are written in terms ‘of currents and flux linkages (ux linkages per second). Clearly, the currents and ux linkages are related and both cannot be independent or state variables. In transfer function formulation and computer simulation of induction machines we will find it desirable to express the volage equations in terms of either currents or fux lin- ‘ages (flux linkages per second). If the currents are selected as independent variables and the flux linkages or ux linkages per second replaced by the currents the voltage equations become “the Bh, 0 Btw ky id wEhe ntet 0 “hxy Bay oo | ['e ae 0 0 n4e% 6 0 o |e Z uu 0 nex, (ele, 0 [e 4 bly 0 o {fe % : tex, | Le 34) where Xo = Xiy + Xe (4.5-38) X= Xi + Xe (4.5-36) “The flux linkages per second may be expressed from (45-28)-(4.5-33) as Ye] Xe 0-0 Xv 0 OD fig val fo x, 0 0 xy offi Yo} ]0 0 x 0 0 Offi. W/— lm 9 0 x, 0 offm vf |o x o 6 x offe wt Lo 9 0 9 0 x JLiTORQUE EQUATION IN ARBITRARY REFERENCE-FRAME VARIABLES 153. If ux linkages or Nu linkages per second are selected as independent variables then (4.5.37) may be solved for currents and written as fe X, 0 0 Xv 0 07 [Ye a 0 xX, 0 0 kw Oly m)_1f] 0 0 2 0 0 Olly, w\~plaw o 6 x, 0 olfy, 4538) iL 0 Xv 0 0 x Off yt, iy o 0 0 0 oO Rhye where D=XuX,,—Xy (45-39) Substituting (4.5-38) for the currents into (4.5-22)-4.5-27) yields the voltage equa- tions in terms of flux linkages per second as given by (4.5-40) ee oT Fe Mas OT | be Mae 0 | | ew % | o [ly Ye 0 |] % Me ye | LM. rk (45-40) 1 is interesting fo note that each q- and d-voltage equation contains two derivatives of current when curents are selected as independent or tate variables, (45:34), When flux linkages are selected as independent variables, (45-40), each g and d-voltage equation contains only one derivative of flux linkage. We will se that this property makes it more convenient to implement a computer simulation of an induction machine with ux linkages as state variables rather than with currents, 46 TORQUE EQUATION IN ARBITRARY REFERENCE-FRAME VARIABLES The expression for the electromagnetic torque in terms of arbitrary reference-frame variables may be obtained by substituting the equations of transformation into (43-6), Thus 1. = ($)U0K) Moa 18) (461)1=() entts 1 (40a) ‘here 7; is postive for motor action. Other equivalent expressions for the electro- ‘magnetic torque of an induction machine are = (Cette say 3 n=( (464) Equations (4.6-3) and (4.6-4) may be somewhat misleading because they seem to imply thatthe leakage inductances are involved in the energy conversion process, ‘This, however, is not the case. Even though the flux linkages in (4,6-3) and (4.644) contain the leakage inductances, they are eliminated by the algebra within the parentheses, The above expressions for torque are also often waitten in terms ‘of flux linkages per second and currents. For example, (46-3) can be written as l= @ (5) (2) (Win — Var) (463) tis lft to the reader to show that in terms of flux linkages per second the elec- tromagnetic torque may be expressed as (DOES) tetie— Wetted (666) where D is defined by (45-39), Tr. 4.7 COMMONLY USED REFERENCE FRAMES Although the behavior of «symmetrical induction machine may be deseribed in any frame of reference, there ae three tha are commonly employed: the stationary ree rence frame first employed by H. C. Stanley (3), the rotor reference frame which is Park's transformation (4] applied to induction machines (Brereton etal. (5), and the synchronously rotating reference frame [6]. The voltage equations for each of these reference frames may be obtained from the voltage equations in the arbitrary refe- rence frame by assigning the appropriate speed to. That is, = O forthe stationary, = 0, for the rotor, and @ = 0% forthe synchronously rotating reference frame. Generally, the conditions of operation will determine the most convenient refer- ence frame for analysis and/or simulation purposes [2]. If, for example, the stator voltages are unbalanced or discontinuous and the rotor applied voltages are balancedPeRUNITSYSTEM — 185 ‘or ero, the stationary reference frame should be used to simulate the performance of the induction machine. If, on the other hand, the external rotor circuits are unba- Janced but the applied stator voltages are balanced, then the reference frame fixed in the rotors most convenient. Either the stationary or synchronously rotating refer ‘ence frame is generally used fo analyze balanced or symmetrical conditions. Line. arized machine equations that are used to determine eigenvalues and to express Iinearized transfer functions for use in control system analysis are obtained from the voltage equations expressed in the synchronously rating reference frame. ‘The synchronously rotating reference frame is also panicularly convenient when incorporating the dynamic characteristics of an induction machine into a digital ‘computer program used to study the transient and dynamic stability of large power systems. The synchronously rotating reference frame may also be useful in variable frequency applications if itis permissible to assume thatthe stator vollages are a balanced sinusoidal set. In this ease, variable frequency operation may be analyzed by varying the speed ofthe arbitrary reference frame to coincide with the electrical angular velocity ofthe applied stator voltages. A word of caution is perhaps appro- priate, Regardless ofthe reference frame being used, the stator and rotor voltages and currents must be properly transformed to and from this reference frame. In ‘most cases these transformations are straightforward and can be accomplished implicitly. However, it may be necessary fo actually include or implement a trans formation in the analysis or computer simulation of an induction machine, where ‘upon special eare must be taken. 4.8 PER UNIT SYSTEM Ie is often convenient to express machine parameters and variables as per unit quantities. Base power and hase voltage ae selected, and all parameters and var- bes are normalized using these hase quanttics, When the machine is beng con- sidered separately, the base power is generally selected the horspower rating ofthe machine in voltamperes (i.e. horsepower times 746). Hon the eter hand, the machine is apart ofa power system and if is desiable to conver the entre system oper unit quantities, then aly one power base (VA base is elected which ‘would mont key be ciferen from the rang of any machine nthe system, Here we wl conde the machine separately with the rating ofthe machine taken a base power. ‘Although we wil violate this convention fom time tome when dealing with ins tantaneous quantities, the mis value ofthe ated phase voliage i generally selected as hase voltage forthe abe variables while the peak vale is generally selected as base voltage forthe qa variables. That is, Vn, isthe cms voltage selected 4 ase voltage forthe abe variables then Vga ~~ ¥V2Vnan. The base power may be expressed a Pp = BV pooja (48)156 SYMMETRICAL INDUCTION MACHINES 15=(2)enonnan as ‘Therefore, because base voltage and base power are selected, base current can be calculated from either (4.8-1) of (48-2). It follows that the base impedance may be expressed as (483) (484) “The gal equations written in terms of reatances, (4.5-22)-(45-33), can be read- ily converted to per unit by dividing the voltages by Vpigny, tbe curents by Iga nd the resistances and reactances by Zp, Note that because aux linkage per second is a volt it is per unitized by dividing by base voltage. Although the voltage and flux linkage per second equations do not change form ‘when per unitized, the torque equation is modified by the per unitizing process. For this purpose the base torque may be expressed as Pa T= BP (485) where comespondsf0 raed orbs frequency ofthe machine. A word of caution is appropriate, in (8-5), Pp is the ated power ouput of the machine, den ase torque a will not be rated torque. We wil ind tha, in the case ofan induction machine, rated power output generally occurs ata speed (Fated. sped) slighty les than synchronous. Hence, Tp wl be ess than rated torque by the ratio of rated speed to synchronous speed TF he torque expression given by (6-8) is divided hy 8-5), with (48-2 ub- stituted for Py the multiplier ()(P/2)(1/0) is eliminated, an wit lt quantities expressed in pe unit, the per unit trgue becomes Te = Wil ~ Ware (486) Ittheclcscal variables are expressed in volts, amperes, and wats, then the inet- ti ofthe rotor i expressed in mks units If, however, he per unit system is used, the inertia is expressed in seconds. This can be shown by first recalling from (43-8) that the inertial torque Tir Fora P-pole machine may be expressed as (3) ae Tr