Mader Inquiry into Life, Thirteenth Edition Chapter Outline

CHAPTER 11: HUMAN ORGANIZATION

11.1 Types of Tissues A tissue is composed of similarly specialized cells that perform a common function in the body. The tissues of the human body can be categorized into four major types: epithelial tissue, connective tissue, muscular tissue, and nervous tissue. Cancers are classified according to the type of tissue from which they arise. Epithelial Tissue Epithelial tissue consists of tightly packed cells that form a continuous layer. Epithelial tissue covers surfaces and lines body cavities. It usually has a protective function but it can also be modified to carry out secretion, absorption, excretion, and filtration. Junctions between Epithelial Cells The cells of a tissue can function in a coordinated manner when the plasma membranes of adjoining cells interact. The junctions between cells help cells function as a tissue. Connective Tissue Connective tissue binds organs together, provides support and protection, fills spaces, produces blood cells, and stores fat. As a rule, connective tissue cells are widely separated by a matrix. Loose Fibrous and Dense Fibrous Tissues Loose fibrous connective tissue supports epithelium and also many internal organs. Tendons and ligaments are made up of dense fibrous connective tissue. Adipose Tissue and Reticular Connective Tissue In adipose tissue, the fibroblasts enlarge and store fat. Reticular connective tissue forms the support meshwork of lymphoid tissue. Cartilage There are three types of cartilage distinguished by the type of fiber in the matrix. Bone Bone is the most rigid connective tissue. It consists of an extremely hard matrix. Blood Blood is unlike other types of connective tissue in that the matrix is not made by the cells. Red blood cells carry oxygen to tissues; white blood cells fight infection. Platelets are involved in clotting. Muscular Tissue Muscle tissue is composed of cells called muscle fibers that contain actin and myosin filaments whose interaction accounts for movement. There are three types of muscle tissue. Nervous Tissue Nervous tissue contains nerve cells called neurons. The nervous system has just three functions: sensory input, integration of data, and motor output. Neuroglia In addition to neurons, nervous tissue contains neuroglia. Their primary function is to support and nourish neurons. 11.2 Body Cavities and Body Membranes The human body is divided into two main cavities: the ventral cavity and the dorsal cavity. The ventral cavity is divided into the thoracic, abdominal, and pelvic cavities.

Body Membranes Body membranes line cavities and the internal spaces of organs and tubes that open to the outside. There are different types including mucous membranes, serous membranes, synovial membranes, and the meninges. 11.3 Organ Systems Organ systems work together in the body. In a sense, it is arbitrary to assign a particular organ to one system when it also assists the functioning of many other systems. Integumentary System The integumentary system contains the skin. It has a protective function, synthesizes vitamin D, collects sensory data, and helps regulate body temperature. Cardiovascular System The cardiovascular system consists of the heart, the blood, and the vessels that the blood moves through. Blood transports nutrients and oxygen and removes waste molecules. Lymphatic and Immune Systems The lymphatic system protects the body from disease by purifying lymph and storing lymphocytes. The immune system consists of all the cells in the body that protect us from disease. Digestive System The digestive system consists of the mouth, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, and large intestine, along with associated organs. It receives food and digests it into nutrient molecules. Respiratory System The respiratory system consists of the lungs and the tubes that take air to and from them. The respiratory system moves oxygen and carbon dioxide. Urinary System The urinary system contains the kidneys, the urinary bladder, and the tubes that carry urine. The system rids the body of metabolic wastes. Skeletal System The bones of the skeletal system protect body parts. In addition, the skeletal system stores minerals and produces blood cells. Muscular System Skeletal, cardiac, and smooth muscle are responsible for contractions that account for movement of the body and its parts. Nervous System The nervous system consists of the brain, spinal cord, and associated nerves that allow us to respond to both external and internal stimuli. Endocrine System The endocrine system consists of the hormonal glands, which secrete chemical messengers called hormones that have a wide range of effects. Reproductive System The reproductive system has different organs in the male and female. It is responsible for the continuance of the species. 11.4 Integumentary System The skin and its accessory organs (nails, hair, oil glands, and sweat glands) are collectively called the integumentary system. Regions of the Skin The skin has two regions: the epidermis and the dermis. The epidermis is made up of epithelium. The dermis is a region of fibrous connective tissue beneath the epidermis. Accessory Organs of the Skin Nails, hair, and glands are structures of epidermal origin.

11.5 Homeostasis Homeostasis is the relative constancy of the bodys internal environment. Negative Feedback Negative feedback is the primary homeostatic mechanism that keeps a variable close to a particular value, or set point. A homeostatic mechanism has at least two components: a sensor and a control center. Mechanical Example A home heating system is often used to illustrate how a more complicated negative feedback mechanism works. Human Example: Regulation of Body Temperature The sensor and control center for body temperature are located in a part of the brain called the hypothalamus. Positive Feedback Positive feedback is a mechanism that brings about an ever greater change in the same direction. Homeostasis and Body Systems All systems of the body contribute toward maintaining homeostasis and, therefore, a relatively constant internal environment. The Transport Systems The cardiovascular system and lymphatic system regulate tissue fluid composition. The Maintenance Systems The respiratory system adds oxygen to and removes carbon dioxide from the blood. The digestive system takes in and digests food. The liver and kidneys help remove toxins from the blood. The urinary system also regulates blood volume, salt balance, and pH. The Support Systems The integumentary, skeletal, and muscular systems protect the internal organs. The Control Systems The nervous system and the endocrine system regulate the other systems of the body. Disease Disease is an abnormality or upset in the bodys normal processes.