ENDI 2010 Framework

FRAMEWORK ENDI 6 WEEK 2010

Thanks to Nick Jeon! FRAMEWORK ENDI ! Week 2010"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""1 ### 1N$ AND O%ER%IEW ###"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""& 1N$ Framework"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""& 1N$ Framework"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""' (T )imits Ke* To Meanin+,-. De/ate""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""! (T 0witch10i2e Ke* To Testin+ I2eas""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""3 (T Testin+ I2eas 4oo2""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""5 (T Ethic O, To.erance""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""6 (T Ethic O, To.erance""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""10 2N$ O7er7iew""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""11 ### FAIRNE00 ###"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""12 2N$ Fairness O-twei+hs E2-cation"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""12 2N$ Fairness O-twei+hs E2-cation"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""1' 2N$ Fairness O-twei+hs E2-cation"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""1! Fairness Tr-st8$oo9eration""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""13 A2: Fairness Is A Ri++e2 4ame ;De.+a2o<""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""15 A2: Fairness Is A Ri++e2 4ame ;De.+a2o<""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""16 A2: Treatin+ De/ate As 4ame Decreases E2-cation"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""21 ### 0WIT$=10IDE DE>ATE 4OOD ###"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""22 0witch10i2e De/ate KT Acti7ism8?o.ic*"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""22 $on7entiona. Research 4oo2"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""2& $on7entiona. Research 4oo2"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""2' 0witch10i2e De/ate KT $ritica. Thinkin+"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""2@ 0witch10i2e De/ate KT $ritica. Thinkin+"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""2! ?.-ra.ism 4oo2 To.erance"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""23 0witch10i2e De/ate KT ?o.itica. En+a+ement"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""25 ### 0TATE1FO$A0 >AD AN0WER0 ###"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""26 2N$ ?o.ic*1Re.e7ant De/ates 4oo2""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""26 2N$ ?o.ic*1Re.e7ant De/ates 4oo2""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""&0 (T $e2e The ?o.itica."""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""&1 (T Theoretica. De/ates $han+e Nothin+"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""&2 A2: Technocratic ?o.itics"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""&& A2: 0erie. ?o.ic* Fai.-re ;Di..on an2 Rei2<"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""&' A2: 0erie. ?o.ic* Fai.-re ;Di..on an2 Rei2<"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""&@ A2: 0tate Foc-s >a2"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""&! A2: 0tate Foc-s >a2"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""&3 A2: 0tate Foc-s >a2"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""&5 A2: 0tate Foc-s >a2"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""'0 ### E($)A0ION AN0WER0 ###"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""'1 A2: $onsens-s >ase2 ?o.itics B ECc.-sionar*"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""'1 A2: $onsens-s >ase2 ?o.itics B ECc.-sionar*"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""'2 A2: $onsens-s >ase2 ?o.itics B ECc.-sionar*"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""'' A2: $onsens-s >ase2 ?o.itics B ECc.-sionar*"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""'@ A2: $ensorshi9"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""'! A2: $ensorshi9"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""'3 A2: We 0ho-.2 09eak From O-r 0-/Dect )ocation"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""'6 A2: We 0ho-.2 09eak From O-r 0-/Dect )ocation"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""@0 A2: We 0ho-.2 09eak From O-r 0-/Dect )ocation"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""@1 A2: Eo- ECc.-2e As80i.encin+ ;$ontent<""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""@2 A2: Eo- ECc.-2e As80i.encin+ ;Techne<"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""@' ### RA$E AR4AMENT AN0WER0 ###""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""@! A2: Eo- )et ?eo9.e 0a* Racist 0t-,,"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""@! A2: Eo- )et ?eo9.e 0a* Racist 0t-,,"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""@5

ENDI 2010 2 Framework A2: A.. Eo-r 0t-,, Is Ma2e A98Racist"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""@6 A2: A.. Eo-r 0t-,, Is Ma2e A98Racist"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""!1 A2: A.. Eo-r 0t-,, Is Ma2e A98Racist"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""!2 A2: Whiteness8Maske2 Ne-tra.it*""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""!' ### $OANTER1INTER? AN0WER0 ###""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""!! A2: A0F4 Is As""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""!! A2: A0F4 Is A0"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""!3 A2: Reso.7e2 Is ?ersona. """""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""!5 A2: The F:G Makes it ?ersona.""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""!6 A2: De/ate Is A/o-t )i/eration"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""30 ### OT=ER AN0WER0 ###"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""32 A2: De/ate Forces mo2eration"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""32 A2: Re.ati7ism""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""3& A2: 09ectator ?henomenon ;%io.ence<""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""3' A2: 09ectator ?henomenon ;%io.ence<""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""3@ A2: 09ectator ?henomenon ;A+enc*80tate<"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""3! A2: 09ectator ?henomenon ;A+enc*80tate<"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""33 A2: =icks An2 4reene ;American ECce9tiona.ism<""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""35 A2: =icks An2 4reene ;American ECce9tiona.ism<""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""36 A2: =icks An2 4reene ;American ECce9tiona.ism<""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""50 A2: =icks An2 4reene ;American ECce9tiona.ism<""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""51 A2: =icks An2 4reene ;American ECce9tiona.ism<""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""5& A2: =icks An2 4reene ;American ECce9tiona.ism<""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""5@ A2: =icks An2 4reene ;American ECce9tiona.ism<""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""5! A2: )oss O, $on7iction""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""53 A2: )oss O, $on7iction""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""55 A2: )oss O, $on7iction""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""60 A2: ?o.itica. $onser7atism"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""61 A2: ?o.itica. $onser7atism"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""6& A2: ?o.itica. $onser7atism"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""6@ A2: ?o.itica. $onser7atism"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""6!

ENDI 2010 Framework

&

*** 1NC AND OVERVIEW *** 1NC FRAMEWORK

A. Interpretation The a ir!ati"e #ho$%& &e en& a topi'a% p%an. A%% a&"anta(e# #ho$%& )e 'a$#a% re#$%t# o the p%an. 1* Fe&era% +o"ern!ent re er# to the nationa% (o"ern!ent. ,art%e- ./6 ;JohnH FAmerican $i7icsGH 9" &6H 4oo+.e ?rint< The term ,e2era. +o7ernment re,ers to the nationa. +o7ernmentH which is centere2 in Washin+tonH D"$" 2* Re#o%"e& !ean# to ena't )- %a0 Wor&# an& 1hra#e# 263 ;?ermanent E2ition< De,inition o, the wor2 Freso.7eHG +i7en /* We/ster is Fto eC9ress an o9inion or 2etermination /* reso.-tion or 7oteI as Jit was reso.7e2 /* the .e+is.at-reIG It is o, simi.ar ,orce to the wor2 FenactHG which is 2e,ine2 /* >o-7ier as meanin+ Fto esta/.ish /* .awG" 4. 1re er o$r interpretation 1* Ma5e# De)ate I!po##i)%e A (o"ern!ent re&$'tion in !i%itar- pre#en'e i# the on%- #ta)%e )a#i# or ne(ati"e (ro$n&. I the- aren.t tie& to &e en&in( tho#e 'han(e# it.# $n%i5e%- 0e 0i%% ha"e an- app%i'a)%e re#ear'h6 0hi'h (i"e# the a a h$(e a&"anta(e. 4ein( (er!ane to the #$)7e't o the re#o%$tion i#n.t eno$(h #in'e the n$!)er o re%e"ant i##$e# i# e8ponentia%%- %ar(er than the n$!)er o &e en#i)%e topi'a% po%i'ie#. 1%$#6 the a)i%it- to $npre&i'ta)%- 'onte8t$a%i9e a&"o'a'ie# thro$(h !o"e!ent#6 &e!an&# or %an($a(e 'riti'i#!# 'ir'$!"ent# o$r (eneri' (ro$n&. 2* ,i7a'5# E&$'ation 1re&i'ta)i%it- i# the )a#i# o ne(ati"e #trate(- 0hi'h i# 5e- to '%a#h an& &epth o &i#'$##ion. The i!pa't i# ri(oro$# te#tin( o po%i'ie# 0hi'h i# the on%- 0a- to tr$%- $n&er#tan& the 0or%&. :appen 23 ;JamesH ?ro," )an+-a+e an2 )iterat-re Rensse.aer ?o.*technic Instit-teH FThe Re/irth o, Dia.o+-e: >akhtinH 0ocratesH an2 the Rhetorica. Tra2itionGH 9" &@1&!< Fina..*H >akhtin 2escri/es the 0ocratic 2ia.o+-e as a carni7a.esK-e 2e/ate /etween o99osin+ 9oints o, 7iewH with a rit-a.istic crownin+s an2 2ecrownin+s o, o99onents" I ca.. this 0ocratic ,orm o, 2e/ate a contestin+ o, i2eas to ca9t-re the 2o-/.e meanin+ o, the 0ocratic 2e/ate as /oth a m-t-a. testin+ o, onese., an2 others an2 a contestin+ or cha..en+in+ o, othersL i2eas an2 their .i7es" >rickho-se an2 0mith eC9.ain that 0ocratesL testin+ o, i2eas an2 9eo9.e is a m-t-a. testin+ not on.* o, others /-t a.so o, himse.,: 0ocrates c.aims that he has /een comman2e2 /* the +o2 to eCamine himse., as we.. as othersI he c.aims that the -neCamine2 .i,e is not worth .i7in+I an2H since he rare.* s-/mits to K-estionin+ himse.,H Mit m-st /e that in the 9rocess o, eCaminin+ others 0ocrates re+ar2s himse., as eCaminin+ his own .i,eH too"M 0-ch a m-t-a. testin+ o, i2eas 9ro7i2es the on.* c.aim to know.e2+e that 0ocrates can ha7e: since neither he nor an*one e.se knows the rea. 2e,initions o, thin+sH he cannot c.aim to ha7e an* know.e2+e o, his ownI sinceH howe7erH he s-/Dects his /e.ie,s to re9eate2 testin+H he can c.aim to ha7e that .imite2 h-man know.e2+e s-99orte2 /* the Min2-cti7e e7i2enceM o, M9re7io-s e.enctic eCaminations"M This m-t-a. testin+ o, i2eas an2 9eo9.e is e7i2ent in the )aches an2 a.so a99ears in the 4or+ias in 0ocratesL testin+ o, his own /e.ie, that co-ra+e is inse9ara/.e ,rom the other 7irt-es an2 in his wi..in+ness to s-/mit his /e.ie, an2 in2ee2 his .i,e to the -.timate test o, 2i7ine D-2+mentH in what >akhtin ca..s a 2ia.o+-e on the thresho.2" The contestin+ or cha..en+in+ o, othersL i2eas an2 their .i7es an2 their rit-a.istic crownin+82ecrownin+ is e7i2ent in the 4or+ias in 0oocratesL s-ccessi7e re,-tations an2 h-mi.iations o, 4or+iasH ?o.-sH an2 $a..ic.es"

ENDI 2010 Framework

'

1NC FRAMEWORK
;. <0it'h=#i&e &e)ate 'reate# to%eran'e or a%ternati"e "ie0point#6 0hi'h pre"ent# !ora% &o(!ati#! an& re#pe't or in&i"i&$a% &i eren'e#. M$ir 2/; ;0tarH ?ro," $omm" De/ateGH 2!;'<H 99" 2551260< 4eor+e Mason A"H ?hi.oso9h* an2 RhetoricH FA De,ense o, the Ethics o, $ontem9orar*

%a.-es c.ari,icationH 0tewart is correct in 9ointin+ o-tH 2oes not mean that no 7a.-es are 2e7e.o9e2" Two 7er* im9ortant 7a.-esN to.erance an2 ,airnessN inhere to a si+ni,icant 2e+ree in the ethics o, switch1si2e 2e/ate" A secon2 9oint a/o-t the char+e o, re.ati7ism is that to%eran'e i# re%ate& to the &e"e%op!ent o rea#one& !ora% "ie0point#. The wi..in+ness to reco+niOe the eCistence o, other 7iewsH an2 to +rant a.ternati7e 9ositions a 2e+ree o, cre2i/i.it*H is a 7a.-e ,ostere2 /* switch1si2e 2e/ate: A.ternate.* 2e/atin+ /oth si2es o, the same K-estion " " "

inc-.cates a 2ee91seate2 attit-2e o, to.erance towar2 2i,,erin+ 9oints o, 7iew" To /e ,orce2 to 2e/ate on.* one si2e .ea2s to an e+o1i2enti,ication with that si2e" H " " The other si2e in contrast is seen on.* as somethin+ to /e 2iscre2ite2 " Ar+-in+ as
9ers-asi7e.* as one can ,or com9.ete.* o99osin+ 7iews is one wa* o, +i7in+ reco+nition to the i2ea that a stron+ case can +enera..* /e ma2e ,or the 7iews o, earnest an2 inte..i+ent menH howe7er s-ch 7iews ma* c.ash with oneLs own" " " " ?romotin+ this kin2 o, to.erance is 9erha9s one o, the +reatest /ene,its 2e/atin+ /oth si2es has to o,,er" @L The acti7it* sho-.2 enco-ra+e 2e/atin+ /oth si2es o, a to9icH reasons Thom9sonH /eca-se 2e/aters are Mmore .ike.* to rea.iOe that 9ro9ositions are /i.atera." It is those who ,ai. to
reco+niOe this ,act who /ecome into.erantH 2o+maticH an2 /i+ote2"MM# Whi.e Theo2ore Roose7e.t can har2.* /e sai2 to /e a27ocatin+ /i+otr*H his e,,orts to t-rn o-t a27ocates con7ince2 o, their ri+htness is not a 9osition im/-e2 with to.erance" At a societa. .e7e.H the 7a.-e o, to.erance is more con2-ci7e to a ,air an2 o9en assessment o, com9etin+ i2eas" John 0t-art Mi.. e.oK-ent.* states the case this wa*: $om9.ete .i/ert* o, contra2ictin+ an2 2is9ro7in+ o-r o9inion is the 7er* con2ition which D-sti,ies -s in ass-min+ its tr-th ,or 9-r9oses o, actionI an2 on no other terms can a /ein+ with h-man ,ac-.ties ha7e an* rationa. ass-rance o, /ein+ ri+ht" " " " the 9ec-.iar e7i. o, si.encin+ the eC9ression o, an o9inion isH that it is ro//in+ the h-man race" " " " I, the o9inion is ri+htH the* are 2e9ri7e2 o, the o99ort-nit* o, eCchan+in+ error ,or tr-th: i, wron+H the* .oseH what is a.most as +reat a /ene,itH the c.earer 9erce9tion an2

At an in2i7i2-a. .e7e.H to.erance is re.ate2 to mora. i2entit* 7ia em9athic an2 critica. assessments o, 2i,,erin+ 9ers9ecti7es" ?a-. 9osits a stron+ re.ationshi9 /etween to.eranceH em9ath*H an2 critica. tho-+ht" Disc-ssin+ the ,-nction o, ar+-ment in e7er*2a* .i,eH he o/ser7es that in or2er to o7ercome nat-ra. ten2encies to reason e+ocentrica..* an2 sociocentrica..*H in2i7i2-a.s m-st +ain the ca9acit* to en+a+e in se.,1re,iecti7e K-estionin+H to reason 2ia.o+ica..* an2 2ia.ectica..*" an2 to Mreconstr-ct a.ien an2 o99osin+ /e.ie, s*stems em9athica..*" M#1 O-r s*stem o, /e.ie,s is" /* 2e,initionH irrationa. when we are inca9a/.e o, a/an2onin+ a /e.ie, ,or rationa. reasonsI that isH when we e+ocentrica..* associate o-r /e.ie,s with o-r own inte+rit*" ?a-. 2escri/es an intimate re.ationshi9 /etween 9ri7ate in,erentia. ha/itsH mora. 9racticesH an2 the nat-re o, ar+-mentation" $ritica. tho-+ht an2 mora. i2entit*H he -r+esH m-st /e 9re2icate2 on 2isco7erin+ the insi+hts o, o99osin+ 7iews an2 the weaknesses o, o-r own /e.ie,s" Ro.e 9.a*in+H he reasonsH is a centra. e.ement o, an* e,,ort to +ain s-ch insi+ht" On.* an acti7it* that reK-ires the 2e,ense o, /oth si2es o, an iss-eH mo7in+ /e*on2 acknow.e2+ement to eC9.oration an2 a27ocac*H can en+en2er s-ch 9ower,-. ro.e 9.a*in+" Re22in+
.i7e.ier im9ression o, the tr-thH 9ro2-ce2 /* its co..ision with error"M# L

eC9.ains that M2e/atin+ /oth si2es is a s9ecia. instance o, ro.e19.a*in+HMMM where 2e/aters are ,orce2 to em9athiOe on a constant /asis with a 9osition contrar* to their own" This ro.e 9.a*in+H >air2 a+reesH is an eCercise in re,.ecti7e thinkin+H an en+a+ement in 9ro/.em so.7in+ that eC9oses weaknesses an2 stren+thsH## Moti7ate2 /* the know.e2+e that the* ma* 2e/ate a+ainst their own caseH 2e/aters constant.* 9ose ar+-ments an2 co-nter1ar+-ments ,or 2isc-ssionH erectin+ 2e,enses an2 then cha..en+in+ these 2e,enses with a 2i,,erent tact" M#L 0-ch

conce9t-a. ,.eCi/i.it*H ?a-. ar+-esH is essentia. ,or e,,ecti7e critica. thinkin+H an2 in t-rn ,or the 2e7e.o9ment o, a reasone2 mora. i2entit*" C. Votin( i##$e. Topi'a%it- i# a prior >$e#tion. Witho$t a(ree!ent on the #$)7e't &e)ate i# i!po##i)%e. <hi"e%- 200 ;R-th )ess.H Former Assistant ?ro," ?o." 0ci" TeCas APMH in F?o.itica. Theor* an2 ?artisan ?o.iticsGH E2" ?ortisH 4-n2ersen an2 0hi7e.*H 99" 1511152< The reK-irements +i7en th-s ,ar are 9rimari.* ne+ati7e" The am/i+-ists m-st sa* MnoM to1the* m-st reDect an2 .imit1some i2eas an2 actions" In what ,o..owsH we wi.. a.so ,in2 that the* m-st sa* M*esM to some thin+s" In 9artic-.arH the* m-st sa* M*esM to the i2ea o, rationa. 9ers-asion" This meansH ,irstH that the* m-st reco+niOe the ro.e o, a+reement in 9o.itica. contestH or the /asic accor2 that is necessar* to 2iscor2" The mistake that the am/i+-ists make here is a common one" The mistake is in thinkin+ that a+reement marks the en2 o, contest1that consens-s ki..s 2e/ate" >-t this is tr-e on.* i, the a+reement is 9er,ect1i, there is nothin+ at a.. .e,t to K-estion or contest" In most casesH howe7erH o-r a+reements are hi+h.* im9er,ect" We a+ree on some matters /-t not on othersH on +enera.ities /-t not on s9eci,icsH on 9rinci9.es /-t not on their a99.icationsH an2 so on" An2 this kin2 o, .imite2 a+reement is the startin+ con2ition o, contest an2 2e/ate "
As John $o-rtne* M-rra* writes: We ho.2 certain tr-thsI there,ore we can ar+-e a/o-t them" It seems to ha7e /een one o, the corr-9tions o, inte..i+ence /* 9ositi7ism to ass-me that ar+-ment en2s when a+reement is reache2" In a /asic senseH the re7erse is tr-e" There can /e no ar+-ment eCce9t on the 9remiseH an2 within a conteCtH o, a+reement" ;M-rra* 16!0H 10< In other wor2sH we cannot ar+-e a/o-t somethin+ i, we are not

comm-nicatin+: i, we cannot a+ree on the to9ic an2 terms o, ar+-ment or i, we ha7e -tter.* 2i,,erent i2eas a/o-t what co-nts as e7i2ence or +oo2 ar+-ment" At the 7er* .eastH we m-st a+ree a/o-t what it is that is /ein+ 2e/ate2 /e,ore we can 2e/ate it" For instanceH one cannot ha7e an ar+-ment a/o-t e-thanasia with someone who thinks e-thanasia is a m-sica. +ro-9" One cannot s-ccess,-..* sta+e a sit1in i, oneLs tar+et a-2ience sim9.* thinks e7er*one is restin+ or i, those 2oin+ the sittin+ ha7e no com9.aints" Nor can one 2emonstrate resistance to a 9o.ic* i, no one knows that it is a 9o.ic*" In other wor2sH contest is meanin+.ess i, there is a .ack o, a+reement or comm-nication a/o-t what is /ein+ conteste2" ResistersH 2emonstratorsH an2 2e/aters m-st ha7e some share2 i2eas a/o-t the s-/Dect an28or the terms o, their 2isa+reements" The 9artici9ants an2 the tar+et o, a sit1in m-st share
an -n2erstan2in+ o, the com9.aint at han2" An2 a 2emonstratorLs a-2ience m-st know what is /ein+ resiste2" In shortH the contestin+ o, an i2ea 9res-mes

ENDI 2010 Framework

some a+reement a/o-t what that i2ea is an2 how one mi+ht +o a/o-t inte..i+i/.* contestin+ it" In other wor2sH contestation rests on some /asic a+reement or harmon*"

ENDI 2010 Framework

?T @IMIT< KEA TO MEANIN+FB@ DE4ATE

Co!!on ra!e0or5 i# a prere>$i#ite to !eanin( $% &e)ate in an- #en#e. Ehni(er .C0 ;Do-+.asH ?ro,"09eech at Ani7ersit* o, IowaH 09eech Mono+ra9hsH FAr+-ment as Metho2: Its Nat-reH Its )imitation an2 Its AsesGH %o.-me &3H 9" 105< I, two ,rien2s 2i,,er on whether the* wi.. +ain +rater satis,action ,rom 2inin+ at Resta-rant A or Resta-rant >H /eca-se the ca-ses are sim9.e an2 imme2iateH the common en2 at which the* aim 11 that o, maCim-m enDo*ment 11 wi.. eChi/it .ike K-a.ities" WhenH on the other han2H as in a 2is9-te concernin+ 9o.itica. 9ers-asions or socia. 9hi.oso9hiesH the ca-ses are /roa2 an2 com9.eCH the en2 aime2 at ma* /e remote or a/stract" A.wa*sH howe7erH some a+ree2 -9on en2 or +oa. m-st /e 9resent to 2e,ine an2 2e.imit the e7a.-ati7e +ro-n2 within which the interchan+e is to 9rocee2" When s-ch ro-n2 is .ackin+H ar+-ment itse.,H .et a.one an* ho9e o, reso.-tion or a+reementH /ecomes im9ossi/.e" The a/sence o, a common.* acce9te2 aim or 7a.-e is what .ies at the root o, man* o, the /reak2owns that occ-rH ,or eCam9.eH in ne+otiations /etween the $omm-nist an2 Western nationsH an2 what acco-nts ,or the we.. known ,-ti.it* o, most 2is9-tes on matters o, 9o.itics or re.i+ion" When 2is9-tants ho.2 2i,,erent 7a.-es their c.aims 9ass witho-t to-chin+H D-st as the* 9ass when 2i,,erent s-/Dects are /ein+ 2isc-sse2" What one 9art* sa*s sim9.* is e7a.-ati7e.* irre.e7ant to the 9osition o, the other"

ENDI 2010 Framework

?T <WITC,=<IDE KEA TO TE<TIN+ IDEA<

De)ate 'a$#e# a re ine& 'on'ept o the tr$th. De)atin( )oth #i&e# o an i##$e he%p# in& the #tron(e#t ar($!ent#. ,arri(an 2D ;$ase*H Associate Director o, De/ate at A4AH MasterQs in $omm-nications Wake Forest A"H FA De,ense o, 0witch 0i2e De/ateGH MasterQs thesis at Wake ForestH De9artment o, $omm-nicationH Ma*H 99"'61@0< The secon2 9remiseH that the tr-th is stren+thene2 thro-+h co..ision with error H is s.i+ht.* more contentio-s /-t -.timate.* correct" 0ome a/so.-tists ha7e maintaine2 that o9enin+ -9 a.. iss-es ,or 2isc-ssion is more .ike.* to 2raw the 9-/.icQs o9inion to the mi22.e than stren+then the ori+ina. correct 9osition" Whi.e em9irica. s-99ort ,or this c.aim is sore.* .ackin+H it can a.so /e re/-ke2 9-re.* on theoretica. +ro-n2s" De/atin+ /oth si2es o, im9ortant iss-es is ,ar more .ike.* to re,ine an2 stren+then the s-99ort ,or tr-th,-. 9ositions than weaken it" Dissent an2 2isa+reement cha..en+e a2herents o, the 2ominant o9inion to constant.* re,ine an2 recon,i+-re their 9ositionH 2ri7in+ it towar2s tr-th" Moreo7erH the risk in7o.7e2 in this 9rocess is s.i+htH /eca-se i, the 2ominant 9osition is more FcorrectG than the minorit*H then the chances that the si.ence2 9osition wo-.2 swa* a .ar+e n-m/er o, 9eo9.e are 7er* s.im" F-rtherH Mi..Qs 9remise here acco-nts ,or a thir2 ;7er* .ike.*< sta+eNthe 9osition where /oth the 2ominant an2 minorit* ar+-ments contain
e.ements o, tr-th an2 error" In this instanceH the co..ision o, the two in 9-/.ic 2e.i/eration wi.. ;ho9e,-..*< 9ro2-ce a com/ination o, o9inions that is more error1,ree than either o, the ori+ina. 9ositions" E7en the re.ati7e.* conser7ati7e Roman $atho.ic $h-rch -n2erstan2s the merits o, s-ch an ar+-mentati7e metho2" Anti. the 9ractice was a/o.ishe2 /* ?o9e John ?a-. II in 165&H the $h-rch wo-.2 s-mmon an in2i7i2-a. to ass-me the ro.e o, the FDe7i.Qs A27ocateHG or A27ocat-s Dia/o.iH to 9resent a.. the ar+-ments a+ainst the canoniOation o, saints" Once a.. o99osin+ ar+-ments were state2H the case ,or canoniOation was o,ten +reater /eca-se it was -n2erstoo2 that no 9ossi/.e ar+-ment co-.2 ren2er the case -nD-sti,ie2" One a22itiona. /ene,it o, ,ree eC9ression that Mi.. 2oes not eC9.icit.* ,ore+ro-n2H *et remains critica. ,or scho.ars o, rhetoricH is the K-estion o, a27ocac*" Not on.* 2oes the re,-sa. to si.ence minorit* 9ositions +enerate a more error1,ree 9ositionH it a.so makes the 9ro9onents o, those 9ositions m-ch more e,,ecti7e in their attem9ts to 9ers-a2e others to acce9t their 7iews" De/aters traine2 to see /oth si2es o, the iss-e .earn the n-ances o, a.. 9ositions an2 -n2erstan2 the stron+est o99osition ar+-ments " Th-sH the* /e+in the 9rocess o, 2e.i/eration a Fste9 ahea2G an2 can 2e,-se their o99osition ,rom the start ;D*/7i+ an2 I7erson<" This insi+ht is cr-cia.: on.* ski..e2 an2 traine2 a27ocates can +enerate the wi2es9rea2 a2herence necessar* to make Fnew,o-n2 tr-thsG meanin+,-." Witho-t stron+ an2 9ers-asi7e o99onentsH e7en the most error1,ree ar+-ments wi.. remain con,ine2 to the mar+ins o, societ*"

ENDI 2010 Framework

?T TE<TIN+ IDEA< +OOD

Ri(oro$# te#tin( o i&ea# i# e##entia% or an open #o'iet- (ro$n&e& in ree &e!o'rati' in#tit$tion#. 4ro0n .; ;KenH A-thorH FThe Ri+ht to )earn: A.ternati7es ,or a )earnin+ 0ociet*GH 9" &0< The inte+rit* o, ?.atoLs 9o.itica. as9irations has /een K-estione2H not .east /eca-se in that work he attri/-tes to 0ocrates a 9ro9osa. that wo-.2 2ecei7e the 9o9-.ation into acce9tin+ the a/so.-te a-thorit* o, a s-9reme c.eris*" Known as the L4o.2enL or LNo/.eL )ie /* those inc.ine2 to eConerate ?.atoH this was a m*th /ase2 on an ana.o+* with 9recio-s an2 7-.+ar meta.s: a ,ew 9eo9.e are nat-ra..* ,it to +o7ernH others to s-99ort themH an2 the rest on.* to ser7e" ?o99er has 2escri/e2 ?.atoLs .ater 9ortrait o, 0ocrates as a /etra*a. 1 an2 0ocrates himse., as the a-thor o, a 2octrine that .ies at the heart o, a ,ree societ*" This is the i2ea that rea. -n2erstan2in+ is achie7e2 on.* /* constant.* testin+ 9o9-.ar m*ths an2 nostr-ms thro-+h 2e/ate an2 ar+-ment" An2 the 9o.itica. coro..ar* o, this e9istemo.o+ica. stance is what ?o99er 2escri/es as Lthe o9en societ*L characterise2 /* an instit-tiona.isation o, ar+-mentH mani,este2 in the kin2 o, 2emocratic instit-tions that 9ro7i2e ,or ,ree inK-ir* an2 eC9ression /* in2i7i2-a.s" ?o99er 2escri/es the contrast /etween 0ocrates an2 ?.ato as /etween two wor.2s: that o, La mo2estH rationa. in2i7i2-a.ist an2 that o, a tota.itarian 2emi1+o2L ;i/i2"H 9" 1&2<" Te#tin( i&ea# i# the on%- o$n&ation o tr$e 5no0%e&(e. @a#'h ./E ;$hristo9herH 0ocia. $ritic an2 A-thorH FThe Re7o.t o, the E.ites an2 the >etra*a. o, Democrac*GH 9" 1301131< T=E RO)E OF the 9ressH as )i99mann saw itH was to circ-.ate in,ormationH not to enco-ra+e ar+-ment" The re.ationshi9 /etween in,ormation an2 ar+-ment was anta+onisticH not com9.ementar*" =e 2i2 not take the 9osition that re.ia/.e in,ormation was a necessar* 9recon2ition o, ar+-mentI on the contrar*H his 9oint was that in,ormation 9rec.-2e2 ar+-mentH ma2e ar+-ment -nnecessar*" Ar+-ments were what took 9.ace in the a/sence o, re.ia/.e in,ormation" )i99mann ha2 ,or+otten what he .earne2 ;or sho-.2 ha7e .earne2< ,rom Wi..iam James an2 John Dewe*: that o-r search ,or re.ia/.e in,ormation is itse., +-i2e2 /* the K-estions that arise 2-rin+ ar+-ments a/o-t a +i7en co-rse o, action" It is on.* /* s-/Dectin+ o-r 9re,erences an2 9roDects to the test o, 2e/ate that we come to -n2erstan2 what we know an2 what we sti.. nee2 to .earn" Anti. we ha7e to 2e,en2 o-r o9inions in 9-/.icH the* remain o9inions in )i99mannLs 9eDorati7e senseNha.,1 ,orme2 con7ictions /ase2 on ran2om im9ressions an2 -neCamine2 ass-m9tions" It is the act o, artic-.atin+ an2 2e,en2in+ o-r 7iews that .i,ts them o-t o, the cate+or* o, Mo9inionsHM +i7es them sha9e an2 2e,initionH an2 makes it 9ossi/.e ,or others to reco+niOe them as a 2escri9tion o, their own eC9erience as we.." In shortH we come to know o-r own min2s on.* /* eC9.ainin+ o-rse.7es to others" The attem9t to /rin+ others aro-n2 to o-r own 9oint o, 7iew carries the riskH o, co-rseH that we ma* a2o9t their 9oint o, 7iew instea2" We ha7e to enter ima+inati7e.* into o-r o99onentsL ar+-mentsH i, on.* ,or the 9-r9ose o, re,-tin+ themH an2 we ma* en2 -9 /ein+ 9ers-a2e2 /* those we so-+ht to 9ers-a2e" Ar+-ment is risk* an2 -n9re2icta/.eH there,ore e2-cationa." Most o, -s ten2 to think o, it ;as )i99mann tho-+ht o, it< as a c.ash o, ri7a. 2o+masH a sho-tin+ match in which neither si2e +i7es an* +ro-n2" >-t ar+-ments are not won /* sho-tin+ 2own o99onents" The* are won /* chan+in+ o99onentsL min2sNsomethin+ that can ha99en on.* i, we +i7e o99osin+ ar+-ments a res9ect,-. hearin+ an2 sti.. 9ers-a2e their a27ocates that there is somethin+ wron+ with those ar+-ments" In the co-rse o, this acti7it* we ma* we.. 2eci2e that there is somethin+ wron+ with o-r own"

ENDI 2010 Framework

?T ET,IC OF TO@ERANCE
De en&in( ar($!ent# -o$ &i#a(ree 0ith i# i!portant or p%$ra%i#! an& ethi'a% )eha"ior. ,arri(an 2D ;$ase*H Associate Director o, De/ate at A4AH MasterQs in $omm-nications Wake Forest A"H FA De,ense o, 0witch 0i2e De/ateGH MasterQs thesis at Wake ForestH De9artment o, $omm-nicationH Ma*H 99" '11'2< A secon2 criticism o, 00D that has recent.* /een 7oice2 is thatH /eca-se the 9ractice 9.aces some restrictions -9on what 2e/aters ma* ar+-e ;/* ,orcin+ them to take the 9osition o, the /oth the a,,irmati7e an2 the ne+ati7e<H it reK-ires st-2ents to /ecome a27ocates ,or certain into.era/.e i2eas that sho-.2 /e Fo,, .imitsG ,or 2isc-ssion" For eCam9.eH the increasin+.* 9re7a.ent -sa+e o, 9ostmo2ern ar+-ments in co..e+iate 2e/ate ro-n2s has ca-se2 man* teams to ar+-e that the* sho-.2 not /e ,orce2 to 2e,en2 the F2irt*G /-rea-cratic 9o.itics o, the ,e2era. +o7ernmen t ;0o.t 200'<" A simi.ar 9henomenon can /e seen in wi2er s9heres o, 2e.i/eration as we.." D-rin+ ra..ies /* the K- K.-C K.anH
man* .i/era. acti7ists who +enera..* 2e,en2 ,ree2om o, s9eech ha7e K-estione2 their ri+ht to s9rea2 their racist messa+e" On the o99osite si2e o, the s9ectr-mH some conser7ati7es ha7e o/Decte2 to Anite2 0tates ne+otiations with the +o7ernment o, North Korea /eca-se o, its 9oor h-man ri+hts recor2H instea2 choosin+ to Fsh-nG the nation thro-+h 2i9.omatic restrictions an2 economic 9ress-re" Each o, the

To a..ow each in2i7i2-a. to 7oice his or her own o9inionH in the most a/so.-te senseH means to accommo2ate e7en those who seek to si.ence others ,rom s9eakin+" To reDect 7iews that man* consi2er into.era/.e or re9-.si7e ma* re9ro2-ce into.erance " >eca-se ar+-mentati7e 9.-ra.ismH as an eC9ression o, o9inion an2 a .itm-s test o, societa. 7a.-esH is cr-cia..* im9ortant ,or a27ancin+ to.eranceH reso.7in+ these
9re7io-s eCam9.es 2emonstrates thatH in certain eCtremesH the 9rinci9.es o, ,ree s9eech an2 9.-ra.ism enco-nter contra2ictions"

2i.emmas in a manner that most e,,ecti7e.* ,aci.itates res9ect ,or 2i,,erence is an essentia. task ,or en+a+e2 citiOens o, .i/era. 2emocratic societies"

<0it'h=#i&e &e)atin( ($arantee# a or$! or &e%i)eration 0hi'h 'reate# to%eran'e o e"en o)7e'tiona)%e "ie0point#. ,arri(an 2D ;$ase*H Associate Director o, De/ate at A4AH MasterQs in $omm-nications Wake Forest A"H FA De,ense o, 0witch 0i2e De/ateGH MasterQs thesis at Wake ForestH De9artment o, $omm-nicationH Ma*H 99"'&1'@< The re.e7ance o, ar+-mentation ,or a27ancin+ to.erant 9o.itics cannot /e -n2erestimate2 " The wi..in+ness to /e o9en to a.ternati7e 7iews has a materia. im9act on 2i,,erence in at .east two 9rimar* wa*s" FirstH the ren2erin+ o, a certain /e.ie, as Fo,, .imitsG ,rom 2e/ate an2 the 9rohi/ition o, i2eas ,rom the rea.m o, contestation is conce9t-a..* in2istinct ,rom the 9h*sica. eCc.-sion o, 9eo9.e ,rom societa. 9ractices " An.ike racia. or +en2ere2 concernsH certain +ro-9s o, 9eo9.e ;the re.i+io-sH minorit* 9o.itica.
9artiesH etc"< are 2e,ine2 a.most eCc.-si7e.* /* the ar+-ments that the* a2here to" To 2eem these 7iews -ns9eaka/.e or irre.e7ant is to ,-nctiona..* 2en* who.e +ro-9s o, 9eo9.e access to 9-/.ic 2e.i/eration" 0econ2H ar+-mentH as in2i7i2-a. a27ocac*H is an eC9ression o, /e.ie," It has the 9otentia. to 9ers-a2e mem/ers o, the 9-/.ic to either s-99ort or o99ose 9ro+ressi7e 9o.itics" >e.ie, itse., is an acc-rate in2icator o, the wa* in2i7i2-a.s wi.. chose to actNwith 7er* rea. im9.ications ,or o9ennessH 2i7ersit* an2 accommo2ation" Th-sH as a 9rec-rsor to actionH ar+-ment is an essentia. startin+ 9oint ,or cam9ai+ns o, to.erance" Ar+-mentati7e 9.-ra.ism can /e 2e,ine2 as the 9ro9er to.erance ,or the eC9ression o, a 2i7ersit* o, i2eas ;0cri7en 163@H 9" !6'<" $ontrar* to monismH 9.-ra.ism ho.2s that there are man* 9otentia. /e.ie,s in

the wor.2 an2 that each 9erson has the a/i.it* to 2etermine ,or himse., or herse., that these /e.ie,s ma* ho.2 tr-e" Re,errin+ /ack to
the o9enin+ eCam9.esH a 9.-ra.ist wo-.2 res9ect the ri+ht ,or the KKK to ho.2 certain /e.ie,sH e7en i, he or she ma* ,in2 the +ro-9 o,,ensi7e" In the ar+-mentati7e conteCtH 9.-ra.ism reK-ires that 9artici9ants

The ke* here is eC9ression: a.tho-+h certain /e.ie,s ma* /e more Ftr-eG than others in the e9istemic senseH each sho-.2 ha7e eK-a. access ;at .east initia..*< to ,or-ms o, 2e.i/eration" It is im9ortant to 2istin+-ish 9.-ra.ism ,rom its common.* con,-se2H /-t on.* .oose.* connecte2H co-nter9artH re.ati7ism" To res9ect the ri+ht o, others to ho.2 2i,,erent /e.ie,s 2oes not reK-ire that the* are a.. consi2ere2 eK-a." 0-ch to.erance en2s at the inte..ect-a. .e7e. o, each
to a 2e/ate or 2isc-ssion reco+niOe the ri+ht o, others to eC9ress their /e.ie,sH no matter how o/Dectiona/.e the* ma* /e" in2i7i2-a. /ein+ a/.e to ho.2 their own /e.ie," In2ee2H as M-ir writesH FIt R9.-ra.ismS im9.ies neither to.erance o, actions /ase2 on those /e.ie,s nor res9ectin+ the content o, the /e.ie,sG ;255<" Th-sH whi.e a 9.-ra.ist ma* acknow.e2+e the ri+ht ,or the K.an to ho.2 eCc.-sionar* 7iewsH he or she nee2 not en2orse racism or anti10emitism itse.,H or the ri+ht to eCc.-2e itse.," E7en when .imite2 to s-ch a narrow rea.m o, 2i7ersit*H ar+-mentati7e 9.-ra.ism ho.2s +reat 9romise ,or a 9o.itics /ase2 on -n2erstan2in+ an2 accommo2ation that r-ns contrar* to the 2ominant ,orces o, economicH 9o.itica.H an2 socia.

?.-ra.ism reK-ires that in2i7i2-a.s acknow.e2+e o99osin+ /e.ie,s an2 ar+-ments /* ,orcin+ an -n2erstan2in+ that 9ersona. con7ictions are not -ni7ersa." Instea2 o, /.in2.* assertin+ a 9osition as an Fo/Decti7e Tr-thHG a27ocates to.erate a m-.ti9.icit* o, 9ers9ecti7esH a..owin+ a more 9anoramic -n2erstan2in+ o, the iss-e at han2 ;Mitche.. an2 0-O-ki 200'H 9" 10<" In 2oin+ soH the a27ocates ,reK-ent.* -n2erstan2 that there are 9ers-asi7e ar+-ments to /e ha2 on /oth si2es o, an iss-e" As a res-.tH instea2 o, a27ancin+ a ca-se thro-+h mora.istic 9ost-rin+ or a99ea.s to a ,a.se.* ass-me2 -ni7ersa.it* ;whichH histor* has shownH ,reK-ent.* /ecome D-sti,ications ,or sca9e1+oatin+ an2 eCc.-sion<H these 9ro9onents /ecome 9-r7e*ors o, reasone2 ar+-ments that attem9t to 9ers-a2e others thro-+h 2e.i/eration" A c.ear eCam9.e o, this occ-rs in com9etiti7e aca2emic 2e/ate" 0witch1 si2e 2e/atin+ has 9ro,o-n2 im9.ications ,or 9.-ra.ism" ?ersona. con7ictions are s-99.emente2 /* con7iction in the 9rocess o, 2e/ate" Instea2 o, /ein+ 9ersona..* in7este2 in the tr-th an2 +enera. acce9tance o, a 9ositionH 2e/aters -se ar+-ments instr-menta..*H as too.sH an2 as 9e2a+o+ica. 2e7ices in the search ,or .ar+er tr-ths" >e*on2 sim9.* reco+niOin+ that more than one si2e eCists ,or each iss-eH switch1 si2e 2e/ate a27ances the .ar+er ca-se o, eK-a.it* /* ,osterin+ to.erance an2 em9ath* towar2 2i,,erence" 0ettin+ asi2e their own Fe+o1
eCc.-sion" i2enti,icationHG st-2ents rea.iOe that the* m-st .isten an2 -n2erstan2 their o99onentQs ar+-ments we.. eno-+h to /ecome a27ocates on /eha., o, them in ,-t-re 2e/ates ;M-ir 166&H 9" 256<" De/aters ass-me the 9osition o, their o99onents an2 -n2erstan2 how an2 wh* the 9osition is constr-cte2 as it is" As a res-.tH the* o,ten come to -n2erstan2 that a stron+ case eCists ,or o9inions that the* 9re7io-s.* 2isre+ar2e2" Recent.*H a27ocates o, switch si2e 2e/atin+ ha7e taken the case o, the 9ractice a ste9 ,-rtherH ar+-in+ that itH Fori+inates ,rom a ci7ic attit-2e that ser7es as a /-.wark a+ainst ,-n2amenta.ism o,

De/atin+ 9ractices that /reak 2own eCc.-si7eH 2o+matic 7iews ma* /e one o, the most ro/-st checks a+ainst 7io.ence in contem9orar* societ*"
a.. stri9esG ;En+.ishH ).anoH Mitche..H MorrisonH Rie, an2 Woo2s 2003H 9" 22'<"

ENDI 2010 Framework

10

?T ET,IC OF TO@ERANCE
The ethi' o 'on"i'tion 'a$#e# #o'ia% 'oer'ion. <0it'h=#i&e &e)ate re#o%"e# thi# pro)%e! )- en'o$ra(e in&i"i&$a%# to e8peri!ent 0ith "ario$# #trate(ie#. M$ir 2/; ;0tarH ?ro," $omm" 4eor+e Mason A"H ?hi.oso9h* an2 RhetoricH FA De,ense o, the Ethics o, $ontem9orar* De/ateGH 2!;'<H 99"25&125'< The ,irst iss-e is one o, e,,ecti7eness: Do c.ari,ication acti7ities achie7e the es9o-se2 +oa.sT 0ocia. coercion an2 9eer 9ress-reH ,or eCam9.eH sti.. occ-r in the +ro-9 settin+H .ea7in+ the in2i7i2-a. choice o, 7a.-es an in2octrination o, sorts "UU )ikewiseH the
,oc-s o, c.ari,ication eCercises is ar+-a/.* .ess ana.*tic than eC9ressi7eH .ess critica. than emoti7e"UU The eC9ression o, in2i7i2-a. 9re,erences ma* /e +-i2e2 /* sim9.e reaction rather than /* rationa. criteria" These 9ro/.ems are minimiOe2 in the 2e/ate settin+H es9ecia..* where

a27ocac* is not a.i+ne2 with 9ersona. /e.ie," 0-ch a27ocac* reK-ires eC9.icit ana.*sis o, 7a.-es an2 the 2ecision criteria ,or e7a.-atin+ them" In contem9orar* 2e/ateH con,ronte2 with a case the* /e.ie7e inH 2e/aters assi+ne2 to the ne+ati7e si2e ha7e se7era. o9tions: 9resent a
morass o, ar+-ments to see what ar+-ments MstickHM conce2e the 9ro/.em an2 o,,er a Mco-nter9.anM as a /etter wa* o, so.7in+ the 9ro/.emH or attack the 7a.-e str-ct-re o, the a,,irmati7e an2 /e more e,,ecti7e in 2e,en2in+ a 9artic-.ar hierarch* o, 7a.-es" Whi.e the ,irst o9tion is certain.* eCercise2 with some ,reK-enc*H the secon2 an2 thir2 o9tions are a.so o,ten -se2 an2 are o, critica. im9ortance in the 2e7e.o9ment o, co+niti7e ski..s associate2 with mora. D-2+ment" For eCam9.eH in attackin+ a case that restricts 9o.ice 9owers an2 -9ho.2s a 9ersona. ri+ht to 9ri7ac*H 2e/aters mi+ht K-estion the reasonin+ o, scho.ars an2 D-stices in raisin+ 9ri7ac* ri+hts to s-ch si+ni,icant hei+hts ;ana.*Oin+ 4riswo.2 7" $onnectic-t an2 other .an2mark cases<H o,,er a.ternati7e 7a.-e str-ct-res ;socia. or2erH 2r-+ contro.<H an2 2e,en2 the criteria thro-+h which s-ch choices are ma2e ;-ti.itarian 7s" 2eonto.o+ica. 9remises<" E7en within the conteCt o, a Msee what sticksM 9ara2i+mH these ar+-ments reK-ire

2e/aters to assess an2 e7a.-ate 7a.-e str-ct-res o99osite o, their own 9ersona. ,ee.in+s a/o-t their ri+ht to 9ri7ac*" 0ocia. coercionH or 9eer 9ress-re to a2o9t certain 7a.-e str-ct-resH is minimiOe2 in s-ch a conteCt /eca-se o, the com9etiti7e 9ress-res" A2o9tin+ a 7a.-e D-st /eca-se e7er*one e.se 2oes ma* /e the s-rest wa* o, .osin+ a 2e/ate"

ENDI 2010 Framework

11

2NC OVERVIEW
O$r interpretation i# that the a ir!ati"e #ho$%& &e en& a topi'a% p%an. An- a&"anta(e #ho$%& )e a 'a$#a% o$t'o!e o the p%an an& nothin( e%#e. The FBnite& <tate# Fe&era% +o"ern!entG re er# to the (o"ern!ent in DC an& Fre#o%"e&G re>$ire# that the- &e en& a %e(a% 'han(e )- the (o"ern!ent T0o rea#on# to pre er o$r interpretation. a* +ro$n& The n$!)er o potentia% a&"o'a'ie# $nre%ate& to the topi' i# %itera%%- $n%i!ite&. E"en )ein( (er!ane to the topi' e8ponentia%%- in'rea#e# the ne(ati"e preparation or )$r&en an& re&$'e# a"ai%a)%e #trate(ie#. For'in( the a ir!ati"e to ha"e a p%an ($arantee# (eneri' %in5# )a#e& on the e&era% (o"ern!ent appea#e!ent6 he(e!on- or 're&i)i%it- &i#a&"anta(e#. There.# no #ta)%e #o$r'e o !eanin( $% o en#e a(ain#t per#ona% a&"o'a'- that 7$#t ta%5# a)o$t the topi' )e'a$#e the #pe'i i'# o the a'tor6 the !a(nit$&e o the 'on#e>$en'e# an& the n$an'e# o the a&"o'a'- "ar- 'on#tant%-. Ne(ati"e (ro$n& i# the 5e- interna% %in5 to airne##. Witho$t &e en#i)%e pre&i'ta)%e (ro$n& to '%a#h 0ith the a 0in per'enta(e# e8p%o&e an& &e)ate %o#e# it# "a%$e a# a 'o!petiti"e (a!e. )* E&$'ation The re#o%$tion i# on%- ($arantee& #o$r'e or '%a#h )e ore the &e)ate. Depri"in( $# o pre&i'ta)%e (ro$n& or '%a#h &e'rea#e# the >$a%it- o ne(ati"e #trate(ie# an& the 'riti'a% thin5in(. Bnprepare& ne(ati"e# &on.t en(a(e in #e'on&=%e"e% #trate(i9in( )e'a$#e the- are #'ra!)%in( or app%i'a)%e ar($!ent#. The &epri"ation o ri(oro$# te#tin( i# the "ita% interna% %in5 to e&$'ation )e'a$#e te#tin( i# the on%- ir! o$n&ation or 5no0%e&(e. That.# :appen. Thi# ,A< to )e a "otin( i##$e. 4e ore 0e 'an ha"e a !eanin( $% &i#'$##ion o an- #$)7e't6 the (ro$n& ha# to )e &e%i!ite&. That.# <hi"e%-. <e"erin( the non=topi'a% part# o their a&"o'a'- 7$#t (et# $# )a'5 to (ro$n& 9ero. ,a"in( to a##$!e the a ir!ati"e 'o$%& 'heat in the 2AC a%rea&- a%tere& 1NC #trate(-. An- a%ternati"e re!e&- 'reate# an in'enti"e or a ir!ati"e# to p%a- a#t an& %oo#e 0ith 0hat the- &e en& a# %on( a# po##i)%e. Ao$ #ho$%& ho%& the %ine on the 1AC e8p%anation. K &e)ate# are a%rea&- ri((e& a(ain#t the ne(ati"e )e'a$#e the 2AR ha# the a)i%it- to #e% =#er"in(%- reinterpret their ar($!ent to #ee! a# rea#ona)%e an& o$r# a# inapp%i'a)%e a# po##i)%e.

ENDI 2010 Framework

12

*** FAIRNE<< *** 2NC FAIRNE<< OBTWEI+,< EDBCATION

Fairne## o$t0ei(h# other theor- i!pa't#. De)ate i# a (a!e an& peop%e 0on.t #tart i the (a!e #ee!# ri((e& or )ia#e&. Fairne## i# the e##en'e o a%% 'o!petiti"e a'ti"it- )e'a$#e the on%- 'o!!ona%it- a'ro## 'o!petition# it that e"er-one ha# an e>$a% 'han'e to 0in 0ithin the r$%e#. Co!petition !a5e# &e)ate $ni>$e a!on( other a'ti"itie# 0ith e&$'ationa% or p$)%i'=#pea5in( )ene it# 0hi'h !ean# pre#er"in( the #tat$# o the 'o!petition o$t0ei(h# other 'on#i&eration#. Fairne## a%#o t$rn# e&$'ation a* Ri(oro$# te#tin( a''e##e# 'riti'a% thin5in(. Witho$t prepare& '%a#h to te#t the 0ea5e#t point# o oppo#in( ar($!ent# 0e 'an.t e#ta)%i#h tr$e 5no0%e&(e. That.# :appen. Criti'a% thin5in( o$t0ei(h# #$)7e't=#pe'i i' thin5in( )e'a$#e 0e a%% enter &i"er#e ie%&# %i5e %a06 !e&i'ine6 #e'$rit- po%i'- or e'ono!i'#6 )$t the a)i%it- to ana%-9e ar($!ent# an& 'on#i&er ar($!ent intera'tion )ene it# a%% peop%e. )* Fairne## !a5e# peop%e 0or5 har&er. The- &o a )etter 7o) an& are !ore #ati# ie&. Cohen=Chara#h an& <pe'tor 21 ;EochiH Associate ?ro," ?s*ch" $ANE >ar-chH an2 ?a-.H Distin+-ishe2 0er7ice ?ro," In2-stria. Or+aniOation ?s*cho.o+* A" 0o-th F.ori2aH Or+aniOationa. >eha7ior an2 =-man Decision ?rocessesH FThe Ro.e o, J-stice in Or+aniOations: A Meta1Ana.*sisGH 5!;2<H No7em/erH 0cienceDirect E.7isar< ?roce2-ra. D-sticeH 2e,ine2 as the ,airness o, the 9rocess /* which o-tcomes are 2etermine2 ;)in2 P T*.erH 1655<H is consi2ere2 to eCist when 9roce2-res em/o2* certain t*9es o, normati7e.* acce9te2 9rinci9.es" For eCam9.eH accor2in+ to )e7entha.Qs ;1650< conce9t-a.iOationH there are siC r-.es whichH when ,o..owe2H *ie.2 9roce2-res that are consi2ere2 to /e ,airer than otherwise wo-.2 ha7e /een the case: ;a< the consistenc* r-.eH statin+ that a..ocation 9roce2-res sho-.2 /e consistent across 9ersons an2 o7er timeI ;/< the /ias1s-99ression r-.eH statin+ that 9ersona. se.,1interests o, 2ecision1makers sho-.2 /e 9re7ente2 ,rom o9eratin+
2-rin+ the a..ocation 9rocessI ;c< the acc-rac* r-.eH re,errin+ to the +oo2ness o, the in,ormation -se2 in the a..ocation 9rocessI ;2< the correcta/i.it* r-.eH 2ea.in+ with the eCistence o, o99ort-nities to chan+e an -n,air 2ecisionsI ;e< the re9resentati7eness r-.eH statin+ that the nee2sH 7a.-esH an2 o-t.ooks o, a.. the 9arties a,,ecte2 /* the a..ocation 9rocess sho-.2 /e re9resente2 in the 9rocessI an2 ;,< the ethica.it* r-.eH accor2in+ to which the a..ocation 9rocess m-st /e com9ati/.e with ,-n2amenta. mora. an2 ethica. 7a.-es o, the 9ercei7er"

T=EE $ONTINAEV Re#$%t# ro! ie%& #t$&ie# #ho0 that 0or5 per or!an'e i# #tron(%- re%ate& to pro'e&$ra% 7$#ti'e6 )$t har&%- to &i#tri)$ti"e an& intera'tiona% 7$#ti'e. This contra2icts most theoriOin+ re+ar2in+ the re.ationshi9 /etween 2istri/-ti7e D-stice an2 9er,ormanceH which has /een consi2ere2 to /e .inke2 ;)in2 P T*.erH 1655<" It ma* /e that when o-tcomes are 2istri/-te2 -n,air.*H 9eo9.e eCamine the 9roce2-re ;>rockner P Wiesen,e.2H 166!< to see i, it was ,airH an2 on.* i, it is not 2o the* withho.2 9er,ormance as a .e+itimate meansH in their 7iewH o, restorin+ eK-it* ;a socia. eCchan+e 9ers9ecti7eI Kono7sk* P $ro9anOanoH 1661<" O-r res-.ts s-99ort the socia. eCchan+e 9re2ictions re+ar2in+ 9roce2-ra. D-stice an2 9er,ormanceH
/-t not the 9re2ictions re+ar2in+ interactiona. D-stice an2 9er,ormance" A99arent.*H 9er,ormance is an or+aniOation1re.ate2H rather than s-9er7isor1re.ate2H /eha7ior" There is a strikin+ 2i,,erence /etween

,ie.2 st-2ies show a stron+ re.ationshi9 /etween 9roce2-ra. D-stice an2 9er,ormanceH res-.ts o, .a/orator* st-2ies show a weak re.ationshi9 /etween the two an2 no re.ationshi9 /etween 2istri/-ti7e D-stice an2 9er,ormance" It ma* /e that in .a/orator*
.a/orator* an2 ,ie.2 st-2ies o-tcomes when 2ea.in+ with work 9er,ormance" Whereas the res-.ts o, settin+H the re.ationshi9 /etween D-stice an2 9er,ormance is m-ch weaker than in ,ie.2 st-2ies /eca-se 9er,ormance is in,.-ence2 /* sit-ationa. 2eman2s that are sa.ient in the .a/orator*H more than in the ,ie.2" The o-tcomes re+ar2in+ D-stice an2 com9.iance with 2ecisions are 2i,,erent than the o-tcomes re+ar2in+ D-stice an2 9er,ormance" To the eCtent D-stice is s-,,icient to a,,ect 9er,ormanceH we wo-.2 eC9ect it to a.so a,,ect com9.iance ;Kim P Ma-/or+neH 166&<H /-t it 2i2 not" Accor2in+ to o-r ,in2in+sH 9roce2-ra. D-stice is on.* mar+ina..* re.ate2 to com9.iance" It mi+ht /e that com9.iance with 2ecisions an2 re+-.ations is 2i,,erent ,rom ro-tine 9er,ormanceH as it si+ni,ies a chan+e in an eCistin+ sit-ation that is t*9ica..* +i7en c.ose scr-tin* /* mana+ement" For eCam9.eH when a smokin+ /an is intro2-ce2H it means somethin+ is +oin+ to chan+e in the norma. co-rse o, e7ents ;4reen/er+H 166'<" Th-sH it is an iss-e ,or ,-t-re researchH to eCamine -n2er what con2itions 9roce2-ra. D-stice a,,ects com9.iance an2

The o-tcomes o, o-r meta1ana.*sis show that 9roce2-ra. an2 2istri/-ti7e D-stice are simi.ar.* re.ate2 to or+aniOationa. citiOenshi9 /eha7iors" It is interestin+ to note that ,acets o, citiOenshi9 /eha7iors ;i"e"H a.tr-ism an2 conscientio-sness< ha7e .esser ma+nit-2es o, re.ations with 9roce2-ra. an2 2istri/-ti7e D-stice com9are2 to or+aniOationa. citiOenshi9 /eha7iors in +enera.H 9erha9s
-n2er what con2itions it 2oes not" J-stice an2 Or+aniOationa. $itiOenshi9 >eha7iors /eca-se the .atter meas-res co7er a .ar+er set o, /eha7iors" We a.so ha7e 2ata re+ar2in+ the re.ationshi9 /etween ,acets o, citiOenshi9 /eha7iors an2 interactiona. D-sticeH showin+ no 2i,,erence in the ma+nit-2e o, the re.ationshi9 as com9are2 to 2istri/-ti7e an2 9roce2-ra. D-stice" There,oreH we can sa* that o-r 9re2iction that a.. three kin2s o, D-stice wi.. /e simi.ar.* re.ate2 to or+aniOationa. citiOenshi9 /eha7iors was s-99orte2" It is im9ortant to note that as m-ch as O$> is in,.-ence2 /* s-9er7isorsQ an2 or+aniOationsQ treatment o, em9.o*ees an2 /* 9roce2-ra. an2 2istri/-ti7e D-sticeH O$> can in,.-ence /eha7iors o, s-9er7isors an2 or+aniOations towar2 em9.o*ees" For eCam9.eH it is 9ossi/.e that em9.o*eeQs wi..in+ness to en+a+e in O$> wi.. e.icit a more consi2erate inter9ersona. treatment /* mana+ers" There,oreH a.tho-+h most O$> an2 D-stice research eCamines O$> as a criterionH it mi+ht a.so /e a 9re2ictor o, D-stice 9erce9tions" We recommen2 ,-t-re st-2ies to ,oc-s on the ca-sa.it* o, these re.ationsH

O-r res-.ts show thatH as 9re2icte2H co-nter9ro2-cti7e work /eha7iors are simi.ar.* re.ate2 to 9roce2-ra. an2 to 2istri/-ti7e D-stice"We co-.2 not e7a.-ate the re.ati7e ma+nit-2e o, the re.ations /etween interactiona.
rather than contin-e to re9.icate the eCistence o, re.ations" J-stice an2 $o-nter9ro2-cti7e Work >eha7iors D-stice an2 co-nter9ro2-cti7e /eha7iors 2-e to the .ow n-m/er o, st-2ies eCaminin+ this 9oint" We a.so wante2 to eCamine i, inter9ersona. con,.ict wi.. /e main.* re.ate2 to interactiona. D-sticeH /-t were not

4enera. Do/ satis,actionH /ein+ an omni/-s meas-reH is simi.ar.* an2 re.ati7e.* hi+h.* re.ate2 to a.. three D-stice t*9es" This is contrar* to the 9re2iction that +enera.
a/.e to con2-ct this eCamination" =owe7erH o-r o-tcomes show that 9roce2-ra. an2 2istri/-ti7e D-stice are simi.ar.* an2 mar+ina..* re.ate2 to con,.ict" J-stice an2 0atis,action

ENDI 2010 Framework

satis,action wi.. /e re.ate2 to 9roce2-ra. D-stice more then to 2istri/-ti7e D-stice" )ikewise 2istri/-ti7e D-sticeH contrar* to o-r eC9ectations"

1& H -nion satis,action is simi.ar.* re.ate2 to 9roce2-ra. D-stice an2 to

;$ohen1$harash an2 09ector contin-eV<

ENDI 2010 Framework

1'

2NC FAIRNE<< OBTWEI+,< EDBCATION

;$ohen1$harash an2 09ector contin-eV<
Res-.ts contra2ictin+ o-r h*9otheses were a.so ,o-n2 re+ar2in+ mana+ement satis,actionH which was a.so simi.ar.* 9re2icte2 /* 2istri/-ti7e an2 9roce2-ra. D-stice rather than main.* /* 9roce2-ra. D-stice" )ikewiseH a.tho-+h we 9re2icte2 s-9er7isor* satis,action to /e main.* re.ate2 to interactiona. D-sticeH o-r ,in2in+s 2o not s-99ort this 9re2ictionH showin+ that s-9er7isor* satis,action is simi.ar.* re.ate2 to a.. three D-stice t*9es" These ,in2in+s are a.so ,o-n2 in .a/orator* eC9erimentsH corro/oratin+ o-tcomes ,rom ,ie.2 st-2ies" Intrinsic satis,action is simi.ar.* re.ate2 to 9roce2-ra. an2 2istri/-ti7e D-stice an2 so is eCtrinsic satis,action" O-r satis,action h*9otheses are s-99orte2H howe7erH re+ar2in+ 9a* satis,actionH which is hi+h.* re.ate2 to /oth 2istri/-ti7e an2 9roce2-ra. D-sticeH /-t si+ni,icant.* more so to 2istri/-ti7e D-sticeH as 9re2icte2" To s-mmariOeH o-r res-.ts concernin+ satis,action meas-res areH ,or the most 9artH not in accor2 with 9roce2-ra. D-stice theor* ;)in2 P T*.erH 1655I 0weene* P McFar.inH 166&<" Rather than ,in2in+ a 2istinction /etween D-stice 9erce9tions an2 satis,action /ase2 on the ,oc-s o, the o/Dect o, satis,action ;or+aniOation wi2eH o-tcome s9eci,icH or re.ations s9eci,ic<H in a.. cases eCce9t one ;9a* satis,action<H we ,o-n2 simi.ar re.ations amon+ a.. D-stice t*9es an2 satis,action" Th-sH to maintain em9.o*eesQ satis,actionH mana+ers sho-.2 take care that 2istri/-tionsH 9roce2-resH an2 interactions wi.. a.. /e ,air" J-stice an2 Or+aniOationa. $ommitment A,,ecti7e commitment ;emotiona. attachment to the or+aniOation< is an or+aniOationwi2e o-tcome an2H henceH -s-a..* 9re2icte2 to /e re.ate2 main.* to 9roce2-ra. D-stice rather than to 2istri/-ti7e D-stice ;Kono7sk* P $ro9anOanoH 1661<" In accor2ance with these 9re2ictionsH o-r res-.ts show a,,ecti7e commitment to /e si+ni,icant.* more stron+.* re.ate2 to 9roce2-ra. D-stice than to 2istri/-ti7e D-stice or to interactiona. D-sticeH a.tho-+h the .atter two are hi+h.* re.ate2 to commitment as we.." $ontin-ance commitment ;attachment to the or+aniOation that is /ase2 on an ina/i.it* to K-it rather than on 9ositi7e en2orsement o, the or+aniOation<H on the other han2H is -s-a..* 9re2icte2 to /e -nre.ate2 to D-stice ;Kono7sk* P $ro9anOanoH 1661<" O-r ,in2in+sH howe7erH show contin-ance commitment to /e ne+ati7e.* re.ate2 to 9roce2-ra. an2 interactiona. D-stice" That isH when em9.o*ees 9ercei7e ,airness in 9roce2-res an2 res9ect,-. treatmentH the* 9ercei7e themse.7es to ha7e more in7estments in the or+aniOation" $on7erse.*H when 9roce2-res an2 treatment are -n,airH the in2i7i2-a. wi.. .ike.* ,ee. that there is .itt.e to .ose /* mo7in+ to a new

It ma* /e that ,air 9roce2-res .ea2 9eo9.e to ,ee. o/.i+e2 to the or+aniOationH a+ainH s-99ortin+ a socia. eCchan+e 7iew o, or+aniOationa. D-stice" In tota.H these ,in2in+s show that m-.ti9.e as9ects o, commitment are re.ate2 to m-.ti9.e D-stice t*9esH in2icatin+ the ro.e D-stice 9.a*s in or+aniOationa. commitment is stron+er than the ro.e -s-a..* ass-me2"
em9.o*er" O-r res-.ts contra2ict some 9re2ictions ;0cha99e P DoranH 1663< an2 s-99ort others ;Te99erH 2000<"

Fairne## i# $n&a!enta% to 7$#ti'e. We ha"e an o)%i(ation to o)e- air #et# o r$%e# )e'a$#e 0e re'ei"e the )ene it# o tr$#t an& !$t$a% 'o!petition in &e)ate. Ra0%# .ED ;JohnH ?h"D" ?hi.oso9h* ?rincetonH Associate ?ro," ?hi.oso9h* $orne..H F-./ri+ht Fe..ow OC,or2H ?hi.oso9hica. Re7iewH FJ-stice as FairnessGH !3:2H A9ri.H 9" 1351151H J0TOR< @" That the 9rinci9.es o, D-stice ma* /e re+ar2e2 as arisin+ in the manner 2escri/e2 i..-strates an im9ortant ,act a/o-t them" Not on.* 2oes it /rin+ o-t the i2ea that D-stice is a 9rimiti7e mora. notion in that it arises once the conce9t o, mora.it* is im9ose2 on m-t-a..* se.,1intereste2 a+ents simi.ar.* circ-mstance2H /-t it em9hasiOes thatH $n&a!enta% to 7$#ti'e6 i# the 'on'ept o airne## 0hi'h re%ate# to ri(ht &ea%in( )et0een per#on# 0ho are 'ooperatin( 0ith or 'o!petin( a(ain#t one anotherH a# 0hen one #pea5# o air (a!e#H ,air com9etitionH an2 ,air /ar+ains" The K-estion o, ,airness arises when ,ree 9ersonsH who ha7e no a-thorit* o7er one anotherH are en+a+in+ in a Doint acti7it* an2 amon+st themse.7es sett.in+ or acknow.e2+in+ the r-.es which 2e,ine it an2 which 2etermine the res9ecti7e shares in its /ene,its an2 /-r2ens" A 9ractice wi.. strike
the 9arties as ,air i, none ,ee.s thatH /* 9artici9atin+ in itH the* or an* o, the others are taken a27anta+e o,H or ,orce2 to +i7e in to c.aims which the* 2o not re+ar2 as .e+itimate" This im9.ies that each has a

" I, one thinks o, the 9rinci9.es o, D-stice as arisin+ in the manner 2escri/e2H then the* 2o 2e,ine this sort o, conce9tion" A 9ractice is D-st or ,airH thenH when it satis,ies the 9rinci9.es which those who 9artici9ate in it co-.2 9ro9ose to one another ,or m-t-a. acce9tance -n2er the a,ore1mentione2 circ-mstances" ?ersons en+a+e2 in a D-stH or ,airH 9ractice can ,ace one another o9en.* an2 s-99ort their res9ecti7e 9ositionsH sho-.2 the* a99ear K-estiona/.eH /* re,erence to 9rinci9.es which it is reasona/.e to eC9ect each to acce9t" It is this notion o, the 9ossi/i.it* o, m-t-a. acknow.e2+ment o, 9rinci9.es /* ,ree 9ersons who ha7e no a-thorit* o7er one another which makes the conce9t o, ,airness ,-n2amenta. to D-stice" On%- i #$'h a'5no0%e&(!ent i# po##i)%e 'an there )e tr$e 'o!!$nit- )et0een per#on# in their 'o!!on pra'ti'e#H other0i#e their re%ation# 0i%% appear to the! a# o$n&e& to #o!e e8tent on or'e" I,H in or2inar* s9eechH ,airness a99.ies more 9artic-.ar.* to 9ractices in which there is a choice whether to en+a+e or not ;e"+"H in +amesH /-siness
conce9tion o, .e+itimate c.aims which he thinks it reasona/.e ,or others as we.. as himse., to acknow.e2+e com9etition<H an2 D-stice to 9ractices in which there is no choice ;e"+"H in s.a7er*<H The e.ement o, necessit* 2oes not ren2er the conce9tion o, m-t-a. acknow.e2+ment ina99.ica/.eH a.tho-+h it ma* make it m-ch more -r+ent to chan+e -nD-st than -n,air instit-tions" For one acti7it* in which one can a.wa*s en+a+e is that o, 9ro9osin+ an2 acknow.e2+in+ 9rinci9.es to one another s-99osin+ each to /e simi.ar.*

Now i, the 9artici9ants in a 9ractice acce9t its r-.es as ,airH an2 so ha7e no com9.aint to .o2+e a+ainst itH there ari#e# a pri!a a'ie &$t- ;an2 a corres9on2in+ 9rima ,acie ri+ht< o the partie# to ea'h other to a't in a''or&an'e 0ith the pra'ti'e 0hen it a%%# $pon the! to 'o!p%- " When an* n-m/er o, 9ersons en+a+e in a 9racticeH or con2-ct a Doint -n2ertakin+ accor2in+ to r-.esH an2 th-s restrict their .i/ert*H those who ha7e s-/mitte2 to these restrictions when reK-ire2 ha7e the ri+ht to a simi.ar acK-iescence on the 9art o, those who ha7e /ene,ite2 /* their s-/mission" These con2itions wi.. o/tain i, a 9ractice is correct.* acknow.e2+e2 to /e ,airH ,or in this case a.. who 9artici9ate in it wi.. /ene,it ,rom it"
circ-mstance2I an2 to D-2+e 9ractices /* the 9rinci9.es so arri7e2 at is to a99.* the stan2ar2 o, ,airness to them" The ri+hts an2 2-ties so arisin+ are s9ecia. ri+hts an2 2-ties in that the* 2e9en2 on 9re7io-s actions 7o.-ntari.* -n2ertakenH in this case on the 9arties ha7in+ en+a+e2 in a common 9ractice an2 knowin+.* acce9te2 its /ene,its"L& It is notH howe7erH an o/.i+ation which 9res-99oses a 2e.i/erate 9er,ormati7e act in the sense o, a 9romiseH or contractH an2 the .ike"1' An -n,ort-nate mistake o, 9ro9onents o, the i2ea o, the socia. contract was to s-99ose that 9o.itica. o/.i+ation 2oes reK-ire some s-ch actH or at .east to -se .an+-a+e which s-++ests it" It is s-,,icient that one has knowin+.* 9artici9ate2 in an2 acce9te2 the /ene,its o, a 9ractice acknow.e2+e2 to /e ,air" This 9rima ,acie o/.i+ation ma*H o, co-rseH /e o7erri22en: it ma* ha99enH when it comes oneLs t-rn to ,o..ow a r-.eH that other consi2erations wi.. D-sti,* not

one 'annot6 in (enera%6 )e re%ea#e& ro! thi# o)%i(ation )- &en-in( the 7$#ti'e o the pra'ti'e on%- 0hen it a%%# on one to o)e-. I a per#on re7e't# a pra'ti'e6 he #ho$%&6 #o ar a# po##i)%e6 &e'%are hi# intention in a&"an'e6 an& a"oi& parti'ipatin( in it or en7o-in( it# )ene it#" Thi# &$t- I ha"e 'a%%e& that o air p%a-6 /-t it sho-.2 /e a2mitte2 that to re,er to it in this wa* isH 9erha9sH to eCten2 the or2inar* notion o, ,airness" As-a..* actin+ -n,air.* is not so m-ch the /reakin+ o, an* 9artic-.ar r-.eH e7en i, the in,raction is 2i,,ic-.t to 2etect ;cheatin+<H /-t takin+ a27anta+e o, .oo91ho.es or am/i+-ities in r-.esH a7ai.in+ onese., o, -neC9ecte2 or s9ecia. circ-mstances which make it im9ossi/.e to en,orce themH insistin+ that r-.es /e en,orce2 to oneLs a27anta+e when the* sho-.2 /e s-s9en2e2H an2 more +enera..*H actin+ contrar* to the intention o, a 9ractice" It is ,or this reason that one s9eaks o, the sense o, ,air 9.a*: actin+ ,air.* reK-ires more than sim9.* /ein+ a/.e to ,o..ow r-.esI what is ,air m-st o,ten /e ,e.tH or 9ercei7e2H one wants to sa*" It is notH howe7erH an -nnat-ra. eCtension o, the 2-t* o, ,air 9.a* to ha7e it inc.-2e the o/.i+ation which 9artici9ants
2oin+ so" >-t

ENDI 2010 Framework

1@

who ha7e knowin+.* acce9te2 the /ene,its o, their common 9ractice owe to each other to act in accor2ance with it when their 9er,ormance ,a..s 2-eI ,or it is -s-a..* consi2ere2 -n,air i, someone acce9ts the /ene,its o, a 9ractice /-t re,-ses to 2o his 9art in maintainin+ it" Th-s one mi+ht sa* o, the taC12o2+er that he 7io.ates the 2-t* o, ,air 9.a*: he acce9ts the /ene,its o, +o7ernment /-t wi.. not 2o his 9art in re.easin+ reso-rces to itI an2 mem/ers o, .a/or -nions o,ten sa* that ,e..ow workers who re,-se to Doin are /ein+ -n,air: the* re,er to them as M,ree ri2ersHM as 9ersons who enDo* what are the s-99ose2 /ene,its o, -nionismH hi+her wa+esH shorter ho-rsH Do/ sec-rit*H an2 the .ikeH /-t who re,-se to share in its /-r2ens in the ,orm o, 9a*in+ 2-esH an2 so on"

ENDI 2010 Framework

1!

2NC FAIRNE<< OBTWEI+,< EDBCATION

On%- )- a''eptin( the &$t- o air p%a- 'an 0e per'ei"e the &i(nit- o the other. Cheatin( re&$'e# the other to a !ere o)#ta'%e to per#ona% #$''e##. Ra0%# .ED ;JohnH ?h"D" ?hi.oso9h* ?rincetonH Associate ?ro," ?hi.oso9h* $orne..H F-./ri+ht Fe..ow OC,or2H ?hi.oso9hica. Re7iewH FJ-stice as FairnessGH !3:2H A9ri.H 9" 152115&H J0TOR< 0imi.ar.*H the acce9tance o, the 2-t* o, ,air 9.a* /* 9artici9ants in a common 9ractice is a re,.ection in each 9erson o, the reco+nition o, the as9irations an2 interests o, the others to /e rea.iOe2 /* their Doint acti7it*" Fai.in+ a s9ecia. eC9.anationH their acce9tance o, it is a necessar* 9art o, the criterion ,or their reco+niOin+ one another as 9ersons with simi.ar interests an2 ca9acitiesH as the conce9tion o, their re.ations in the +enera. 9osition s-99oses them to /e" Otherwise the* wo-.2 show no reco+nition o, one another as 9ersons with simi.ar ca9acities an2 interestsH an2 in2ee2H in some cases 9erha9s h*9othetica.H the- 0o$%& not re'o(ni9e one another a# per#on# at a%%6 )$t a# 'o!p%i'ate& o)7e't# in"o%"e& in a 'o!p%i'ate& a'ti"it-" To reco+niOe another as a 9erson one m-st res9on2 to him an2 act towar2s him in certain wa*sI an2 these wa*s are intimate.* connecte2 with the 7ario-s 9rima ,acie 2-ties" Acknow.e2+in+ these 2-ties in some 2e+reeH an2 so ha7in+ the e.ements o, mora.it*H is not a matter o, choiceH or o, int-itin+ mora. K-a.itiesH or a matter o, the eC9ression o, ,ee.in+s or attit-2es ;the three inter9retations /etween which 9hi.oso9hica. o9inion ,reK-ent.* osci..ates<I it is sim9.* the 9ossession o, one o, the ,orms o, con2-ct in which the reco+nition o, others as 9ersons is mani,este2" These remarks are -nha99i.* o/sc-re" Their main 9-r9ose hereH howe7erH is to ,oresta..H to+ether with the remarks in 0ection 'H the misinter9retation thatH on the 7iew 9resente2H the acce9tance o, D-stice an2 the acknow.e2+ment o, the 2-t* o, ,air 9.a* 2e9en2s in e7er* 2a* .i,e so.e.* on there /ein+ a 2e ,acto /a.ance o, ,orces /etween the 9arties" It wo-.2 in2ee2 /e ,oo.ish to -n2erestimate the im9ortance o, s-ch a /a.ance in sec-rin+ D-sticeI /-t it is not the on.* /asis thereo," The reco+nition o, one another as 9ersons with simi.ar interests an2 ca9acities en+a+e2 in a common 9ractice m-stH ,ai.in+ a s9ecia. eC9.anationH show itse., in the acce9tance o, the 9rinci9.es o, D-stice an2 the acknow.e2+ment o, the 2-t* o, ,air 9.a*"

ENDI 2010 Framework

13

FAIRNE<< TRB<TICOO1ERATION
Fairne## i# a $n&a!enta% "a%$e. It a%%o0# or #ta)%e re%ian'e 0hi'h i!pro"e# 'o!petiti"e a'hie"e!ent an& 'reate# a 7$#t 'o!pen#ation o 'o#t# or )ene it#. ,a& ie%& ./D ;4i..ianH Associate ?ro," )aw A" TorontoH Ani7ersit* o, ?enns*.7ania )aw Re7iewH FAN E(?RE00I%E T=EORE OF $ONTRA$T: FROM FEMINI0T DI)EMMA0 TO A RE$ON$E?TAA)IWATION OF RATIONA) $=OI$E IN $ONTRA$T )AWGH 1'! A" ?a" )" Re7" 12&@H J-neH )8N< An a+ent1centere2 D-sti,ication ,or en,orcementH /* contrastH a22resses the 9artic-.ar a+ent an2 sa*sH ,or eCam9.eH M*o- are o/.i+ate2 to 9a* eC9ectation 2ama+es /eca-se ,airness or correcti7e D-stice reK-ires that *o- not rene+e on the 9romise to /estow the 9romise2 7a.-e on *o-r contractin+ 9artner"M These reasons are a22resse2 to the a+ent 1 the o/.i+ation is ,o-n2e2 in her con2-ctH not mere.* tri++ere2 /* it" These reasons are 9otentia..* 9ers-asi7e to the in2i7i2-a. 1 ,airness or correcti7e D-stice is a 9rinci9.e to which she sho-.2 ho.2 herse., an2 to whichH in an* e7entH the .aw wi.. ho.2 her" The 2istinction /etween instr-menta. an2 a+ent1centere2 D-sti,ications can /e i..-minate2 ,-rther /* a99ea. to John Raw.sLs treatment o, the mora.it* o, 9romisin+" n@0 Raw.s ar+-es that ,or instr- R#12@&S menta. reasonsH a con7ention o, 9romisin+ is 7a.-a/.e /eca-se it a..ows 9eo9.e to re.* on one another an2 hence achie7e more e,,icient +oa.s than the* otherwise co-.2" The con7ention itse., is not reK-ire2 /* the 9rinci9.es o, D-sticeH /-t once esta/.ishe2H the 9romises are /in2in+" Wh*T The 9-re.* instr-menta. answer is that in or&er to a'hie"e it# "a%$a)%e (oa%#6 the 'on"ention o pro!i#in( re>$ire# that pro!i#e# )e )in&in(" Raw.sH howe7erH ha7in+ D-sti,ie2 the con7ention on instr-menta. +ro-n2sH mo7es to an a+ent1centere2 D-sti,ication ,or the a99.ication o, the con7ention to an in2i7i2-a.: A 9artici9ant in the con7ention is /o-n2 to kee9 her 9romise /eca-se ,airness reK-ires that she who in7okes a ;D-st< con7ention an2 /ene,its ,rom it m-st a2here to its r-.es" The D-sti,ication is a+ent1centere2 /eca-se it 2oes not re.* eCc.-si7e.* on instr-menta. reasons ,or the con7ention itse.," RatherH it intro2-ces a new reasonH a reason /ase2 on the ,airness o, the in2i7i2-a." A air in&i"i&$a% 0o$%& a(ree that #he i# )o$n& to p%a- )- the r$%e# o a (a!e #he ha# 'ho#en to p%a-" n@1 Fairne## i# i!portant )e'a$#e a# a #o'ia% "a%$e it pro&$'e# tr$#t an& 'ooperation. Ma'h$ra ./D ;0te,anH 0choo. o, 0ocia. 0ciences A" Wa.esH $ommittee Mem/er o, the 0ocio.o+* o, )aw 0ection 4erman 0ocio.o+ica. AssociationH )aw an2 ?o.ic*H FIntro2-ction: ?roce2-ra. J-sticeH )aw an2 ?o.ic*GH 20;1<H Jan-ar*H Wi.e* Interscience< D-rin+ their socia.iOationH startin+ ,rom ear.* chi.2hoo2H 9eo9.e acK-ire the norms o, the societ*H amon+ them norms ,or a99ro9riateH or XX,airLL 9roce2-res ;i/i2"<" Dai.* enco-nters with a-thorities an2 9roce2-res shar9en 9eo9.esL a/i.ities to 2etect -n,air 9roce2-res" The* 2e7e.o9 a XX,airness he-ristic"LL It ser7es to make D-2+ments a/o-t eC9eriences with a-thorities an2 9roce2-res ;)in2 166'a<"
In,ormation on 9rocess or 9ro1 ce2-re are o,ten more c.ear than in,ormation on res-.ts ;)in2H et a." 166&: 22!I ,or 2e,en2antsH Mach-ra 166!<" The term XX,airnessLL or XX9roce2-ra. D-sticeLL re,ers to a +enera.iOe2 D-2+ment o, s-ch eC9eriences ;)in2 P T*.er 1655<" ?eo9.e can ha7e o9inions on K-a.ities o, a 9roce2-re /e,ore the* know the -.timate o-tcome ;)an2is P 4oo2stein 165!: !52I )in2H et a." 166&: 22!<" Th-sH 9roce2-ra. an2 2istri/-ti7e D-stice can /e re+ar2e2 as two 2i,,erent ,actorsH a.tho-+h the* ha7e /een ,o-n2 to /e re.ate2 in 9roce2-ra. D-stice st-2ies" 0ome o, these st-2ies ha7e shown that

peop%e are !ore %i5e%- to a''ept an $n a"ora)%e o$t'o!e i it i# rea'he& )- a pro'e&$re re(ar&e& a# air ;e"+"H $as9erH T*.er P
Fisher 1655I T*.er 1660: 63H 101<" 4reen/er+ an2 Fo.+er ;165&< ca..e2 this the XX,air 9rocess e,,ect"LL For eCam9.eH a con7ict a,ter his tria. stoo2 an2 eC9resse2 his thanks ,or a ,air tria. a,ter the co-rt en+a+e2 in a serio-s 2isc-ssion o, an2 search ,or a sanction a2a9te2 to his 9ersona. sit-ation ;0ch-nck 1652: 211Y1&<" I, a 9erson has /een treate2 -n,air.* /* an a-thorit*H /-t recei7e2 a ,a7ora/.e o-tcomeH it is .ike.* that the a-thorit* ne7erthe.ess .oses .e+itimac* in the e*es o, the a,,ecte2 in2i7i2-a." ?roce2-ra. D-stice has conseK-ences ,or e7a.-ations o, a-thorities an2 instit-tions" I, a 2e,en2ant recei7es an acK-itta. /-t was to.2 to XX0tan2 -9H *o- monsterHLL /* the D-2+e at the /e+innin+ o, the tria. ;Dahs 1631: @5<H he wi.. 9ro/a/.* ha7e .ow tr-st in co-rts" Z-ite a n-m/er o, em9irica. st-2ies co-.2 /e cite2 ,or in,.-ences o, 9roce2-ra. D-stice on attit-2es to a-thorities an2 instit-tions" J-st a ,ew nee2 /e .iste2 here" In a st-2* on ,e.onsH attit-2es towar2s .aw an2 +o7ernment were more corre.ate2 to 9roce2-ra. D-stice than to 2istri/-ti7e D-stice ;T*.erH $as9er P Fisher 1655<" Tom T*.er ;165'< con2-cte2 inter7iews with 9ett* o,,en2ers who ha2 eC9erience2 a tria. at crimina. co-rt" Their attit-2es towar2s the D-2+e an2 to the co-rt were s-/stantia..* in,.-ence2 /* 9ercei7e2 9roce2-ra. D-stice" %o.kmar =a..er ;1653I =a..er P Mach-ra 166@< -se2 T*.erLs 2esi+n ,or a st-2* with 4erman D-7eni.e 9risoners" ?ercei7e2

There are a.rea2* some st-2ies a/o-t /eha7iora. conseK-ences o, 9ercei7e2 ,air or -n,air treatment" ?aternosterH et a." ;1663< in7esti+ate2 the in,.-ence o, ,air treatment /* the 9o.ice on reci2i7ism o, s9o-se assa-.t" O,,en2ers were .ess .ike.* to /e
9roce2-ra. D-stice ha2 /een the on.* ,actor si+ni,icant.* re.ate2 to e7a.-ations o, the D-2+e" re+istere2 ,or s9o-se assa-.t a+ain when the* ha7e eC9erience2 ,air treatment /* the 9o.ice" In ci7i. 2is9-tesH when hi+h s-ms were at stakeH 9ercei7e2 9roce2-ra. D-stice was ,o-n2 to a,,ect 2ecisions to

T*.er ;1660: 10&< s-mmariOe2 a st-2* o, $hica+o citiOensH statin+ that XXD-2+ments o, 9roce2-ra. D-stice in,.-ence D-2+ments a/o-t the .e+itimac* o, .e+a. a-thoritiesH which in t-rn in,.-ence /eha7iora. com9.iance with the .aw"LL $om9.iance was meas-re2 /* citiOensL se.,1re9orte2 9ett* o,,enses or 2isor2er.* /eha7ior" T*.erLs a99roach has /een -se2 /* Jo1Anne Wemmers ,or a st-2* on 7ictims o, crime in the Nether.an2s ;Wemmers 166!<" A+ain se.,1re9orte2 o/e2ience to .aw has /een ana.*Oe2" Wemmers ,o-n2 that thro-+h its e,,ect on satis,action with 9er,ormance o, a-thorities XX9roce2-ra. D-stice D-2+ments a,,ect oneLs s-99ort ,or a-thorities an2 chan+es in the .e7e. o, s-99ort a,,ect the in2i7i2-a.Ls 9ercei7e2 o/.i+ation to o/e* the .awLL ;i/i2" 20'<" In their st-2* o, ne+otiationH me2iation an2 a2D-2ication ,or sma.. c.aims co-rt
acce9t an ar/itration awar2 ;)in2H et a." 166&<" Tom casesH McEwen an2 Maiman ;165'< conc.-2e2 that 2is9-te reso.-tion 9roce2-res which reK-ire consent .ea2 to a hi+her rate o, com9.iance with case sett.ements" ?erce9tions o, 2istri/-ti7e D-stice seem to /e hea7i.* in,.-ence2 /* o-tcome ,a7ora/i.it* whereas 9erce9tions o, 9roce2-ra. D-stice /* im9ressions on ,air /eha7ior o, the men in a-thorit* ;Mach-ra 166!<" K-.ikH et a." ;166&: 13< s-mmariOe2 their st-2*: XXres-.ts in2icate a c.ear 9attern: /oth men an2 women ten2e2 to em9hasiOe o-tcome iss-es in their ratin+s o, 2istri/-ti7e D-stice an2 re.ationa. iss-es in their ratin+s o, 9roce2-ra. D-stice"LL XXRe.ationa. iss-esLL re,ers to 9eo9.esL /e.ie,s a/o-t moti7es o, a-thorities an2 to 9eo9.esL wish to ha7e a +oo2 re.ation to a-thorities" The conce9t is 9art o, the re.ationa. mo2e. o, a-thorit* in +ro-9sH that wi.. /e 2isc-sse2 now"

ENDI 2010 Framework

15

A2J FAIRNE<< I< A RI++ED +AME KDE@+ADO*

O$r e&$'ation interna% %in5# #ti%% app%-. 1re&i'ta)i%it- i# a prere>$i#ite to &eter!inin( the "a%i&it- o an- o their ar($!ent#6 in'%$&in( in&i't# o the i&ea o airne##. That.# :appen. Thi# e"i&en'e i# not in the 'onte8t o &e)ate. De%(a&o i# ta%5in( a)o$t #e8$a% a##a$%t6 !e&i'ine an& the %a0 #'hoo% hirin( pro'e##. The- nee& to pro"i&e #pe'i i' e8a!p%e# o ho0 &e)ate i# a ri((e& (a!e a(ain#t the!. Thi# ar($!ent !i##e# the point. The r$%e# o &e)ate ARE ar)itrar-. 4BT6 thi# i# tr$e o the r$%e# o an- (a!e. <o''er &oe#n.t ha"e a Frea#onG or pre'%$&in( han&)a%%# an- !ore than )a#5et)a%% ha# a Frea#onG or pre'%$&in( 'har(e# or (oa%ten&in(. It.# #i!p%- that i the $n&a!enta% r$%e# are thro0n o$t the #port 'ea#e# to )e it#e% . The e##en'e o 'o!petiti"e #0it'h=#i&e &e)ate i# '%a#hin( a)o$t topi'a% p%an#. The 'o!p%ian'e 0ith r$%e#6 e"en i ar)itrar-6 i# e##entia% to !a5e the a'ti"it- !eanin( $% )e'a$#e it pre#er"e# re#pe't or the parti'ipant# an& or the re'ipro'a% re>$ire!ent# an& )ene it# o &e)ate. That.# the Ra0%# e"i&en'e a)o"e. Ar)itrarine## i# not the #a!e a# ra'i#!. The a't o $ne>$a% #$''e## &oe#n.t e"i&en'e an- &i#'ri!ination. The r$%e# aren.t $n air i the- are e>$a%%- app%ie&. Far)er an& <herr- ./C ;Danie.H =enr* J" F.etcher ?ro," )aw" A" MinnesotaH an2 0-OannaH Ear. R" )arson ?ro," $i7i. Ri+hts an2 $i7i. )i/erties )aw A" MinnesotaH F>e*on2 A.. Reason: The Ra2ica. Assa-.t on Tr-th in American )awGH 9" !31!5< Ra2ica. m-.tic-.t-ra.ists mi+ht tr* to esca9e the im9.ications o, their critiK-e /* mo2i,*in+ it" The tro-/.e seems to come 9rimari.* ,rom the assertion that stan2ar2s o, merit are the o,,s9rin+ o, racism an2 seCism" 0-99ose the ra2ica.s were to mo7e to the more mo2erate 9osition that the stan2ar2s are mere.* ar/itrar* ;This thesis is one rea2in+ o, Fo-ca-.tLs workH a.tho-+h the .e+a. theorists we are ,oc-sin+ on ten2 not to a2o9t it"< This mo2i,ication mi+ht a..ow them to make an ar+-ment that a7oi2s the char+es o, anti10emitism an2 racism: Jews an2 Asians ha7e mere.* ha2 the +oo2 .-ck to 9ro,it ,rom these ar/itrar* r-.es" 0o ,arH so +oo2" The tro-/.e is that this theor* a.so e.iminates an* /asis ,or criticiOin+ how the stan2ar2s a99.* to /.acks an2 other minoritiesH who are /* the same token mere.* s-,,erin+ ,rom /a2 .-ck" The ar/itrar* r-.es co-.2 D-st as easi.* ha7e ,a7ore2 them rather than the Jews an2 AsiansI thin+s D-st 2i2nLt ha99en to t-rn o-t that wa*" Ra2ica. m-.tic-.t-ra.ism 2oesnLt s-99.* an* /asis ,or criticiOin+ s-ch a sit-ation" To see wh*H .etLs ass-me ,or a moment that stan2ar2s o, merit are ar/itrar*" 0-ccess o,ten inc.-2es an e.ement o, .-ckH an2 /* 9ositin+ ar/itrar* stan2ar2s the ra2ica.s wo-.2 s-++est that +ro-9 s-ccess is entire.* .-ck" In that caseH howe7erH merit stan2ar2s are ,air an2 o/Decti7e: whoe7er 2raws the ri+ht car2s winsH an2 e7er*one has ha2 an eK-a. chance to 2raw" An.ike chessH no one can contro. his own o99ort-nit* to winH /-t neither can he 2ecrease anotherLs chances" The ran2om r-.es ma* /e ine,,icientH /-t the* are not -n,air" The ra2ica.s cannot esca9e this 2i.emma /* ar+-in+ that some +ro-9s 2onLt ha7e an eK-a. chance to win" I, someone is ho.2in+ one +ro-9 /ackH we wo-.2 ca.. that 2iscrimination" >-t ra2ica. m-.tic-.t-ra.ists 2onLt want to a..e+e mere 2iscriminationNan2 an*wa*H we ha7e r-.es ;an2 en,orcement mechanisms< a+ainst that kin2 o, 2iscrimination" No ra2ica. re,orm-.ation o, the .e+a. s*stem is necessar* i, 2iscrimination is the main o/stac.e to s-ccess" The 9ro/.em is that it is har2 to con2emn an o-tcome as ineK-ita/.e i, it is mere.* the ar/itrar* res-.t o, a +ame that isnLt ri++e2" 0-99ose that some +ro-9N.et -s sa*H +enti.esNcom9.ains that c-rrent stan2ar2s are 9ro7i2in+ 2is9ro9ortionate s-ccess to JewsH there/* 2e9ri7in+ their own +ro-9 o, wea.th or 9ower" What res9onses are a7ai.a/.e to this com9.aint i, the stan2ar2s are ran2om or ar/itrar*T One res9onseNthe one most con+enia. to those who /e.ie7e that s-ch conce9ts as D-stice can ha7e no o/Decti7e meanin+Nis that no stan2ar2 is /etter or worse than an* other" I, soH the 2is9ro9ortionate s-ccess rate is not an ar+-ment a+ainst c-rrent stan2ar2s" O, co-rseH there is a.so no ar+-ment in ,a7or o, kee9in+ c-rrent stan2ar2sH an2 ,orce /ecomes the on.* ar/iter" An.ess the* can a99ea. to some stan2ar2 o, D-sticeH a.. the ra2ica.s can 2o is to sa* that the* 9ersona..* 2onLt .ike a 9artic-.ar o-tcome" >-t since the 2ominant societ* a99arent.* 2oes .ike the o-tcomeNan2 /* 2e,inition has more 9ower than its o99onentsNthis is a .osin+ ar+-ment"

ENDI 2010 Framework

16

A2J FAIRNE<< I< A RI++ED +AME KDE@+ADO*

Ao$ #ho$%& to## thi# ar($!ent a# non= a%#i ia)%e. The- re%- on the '%ai! that a%% 'on"entiona% #tan&ar&# o e"a%$ation are ra'i#t. An- &e en#e 0e !a5e o tho#e #tan&ar&# then )e'o!e# tin(e& 0ith ra'i#! 0hi'h e e'ti"e%- in#$%ate# their '%ai!# ro! an- #o$n& )a#i# or 'ha%%en(e. Far)er an& <herr- ./C ;Danie.H =enr* J" F.etcher ?ro," )aw" A" MinnesotaH an2 0-OannaH Ear. R" )arson ?ro," $i7i. Ri+hts an2 $i7i. )i/erties )aw A" MinnesotaH F>e*on2 A.. Reason: The Ra2ica. Assa-.t on Tr-th in American )awGH 9" 123< The ,irst 2e,ense mechanism 2eri7es ,rom the interna. .o+ic o, m-.tic-.t-ra.ismH which can 2e,eat cha..en+es /* 2e9ri7in+ critics o, an* +ro-n2 ,rom which to mo-nt a cha..en+e" We saw in cha9ter ' that concerns a/o-t stor*te..in+ can /e re/-,,e2 this wa*" De,en2ers o, stor*te..in+ nee2 on.* 9oint o-t that the cha..en+ers necessari.* ass-me the 7er* conce9ts o, o/Decti7it* an2 tr-th that the stor*te..ers are attackin+" The critiK-e o, tr-th is 9ec-.iar.* imm-ne ,rom attackN a,ter a..H /* what stan2ar2 co-.2 one D-2+e a critiK-e o, tr-th itse., to he M,a.seMT M-.tic-.t-ra.ist tenets re9e. /* 2iscre2itin+ in a27ance an* e7i2ence a+ainst them" $onsi2er an e,,ort to -se em9irica. in,ormationH s-ch as s-r7e* res-.tsH to re/-,, a ra2ica. m-.tic-.t-ra.ist c.aim" 0-ch a strata+em is s-/Dect to a who.e strin+ o, o/Dections" The /asic conce9ts -se2 in s-r7e*sH s-ch as ran2om sam9.in+ an2 statistica. tests o, si+ni,icanceH reek o, o/Decti,ication" In 2eci2in+ whether to tr-st the res-.ts o, the s-r7e*H we m-st re.* on the com9etence o, the s-r7e*orsN which is a merit 2eterminationH an2 so inherent.* s-s9ect" 4i7en the reDection o, the conce9t o, o/Decti7it*H itLs im9ossi/.e to retain the i2ea o, an -n/iase2 s-r7e* K-estion" The interaction /etween the s-r7e*ors an2 the inter7ieweesH .ike an* other socia. interactionH is 2renche2 in seCism an2 racismH which are +-arantee2 to
war9 the res-.ts" Inter7iewees ma* ha7e acK-ire2 so m-ch o, the 2ominant min2set that the* 2onLt reco+niOe their own o99ression"

Fairne## i# not '$%t$ra%. It.# innate. A%% h$!an# ha"e a #en#e o 7$#ti'e an& re'ipro'it-. ,an# ./3 ;JamesH ?ro," En+.ish Wake Forest A"H FThe 4o.2en MeanGH 9" 1!61131< No one ha2 to teach -s a/o-t ,airnessH e7en i, we a.. ha7e to /e ta-+ht how to /e ,air" A%% o $# ha"e )$i%t into o$r nat$re# a 'are $%%- 'a%i)rate& #en#e o the pattern# o the 0or%& an& ha"e &eter!ine& that ina#!$'h a# inha%e %ea&# to e8ha%e6 #-#to%e to &ia#to%e6 (oo& #ho$%& )e(et (oo& an& )a& #ho$%& en(en&er )a& " We conc.-2e that o-r actions can in2ee2 /e assesse2 /* a 9a*master who wi.. 2etermine how m-ch we sho-.2 ha7e comin+ on the /asis o, what we ha7e 2one" NietOsche ma* won2er how this i2ea o, +oo2 an2 /a2 an2 the s*stem o, recom9ense was intro2-ce2 to the wor.2H /-t it is to /e ,o-n2 in one wa* or another in a.. re.i+io-s s*stems an2 c-.t-resH so it is not a ,-nction o, an* 9artic-.ar Western /ias" Rather it seems to /e re.ate2 to the wa* h-mans eCtract a sense o, rh*thm in the wor.2 an2 seek to esta/.ish the same kin2 o, reci9rocit* within 2omains where it 2oesnQt a99.*" =en2erson te..s -s that we canQt +et awa* ,rom rh*thmH an2 he a.so shows how we ha7e trie2 to a7oi2 the conseK-ences o, meas-re in
some conteCts an2 *et ha7e 2e9en2e2 on them in others" We 2en* the e,,ects o, the rh*thms o, the nat-ra. wor.2 -9on -s e7en as we +ro-n2 o-r sense o, ,air 9.a* in the kin2 o, reci9rocit* that is most easi.* 2iscerne2 in o-r res9irationH o-r wa.kH an2 o-r 9assa+e thro-+h the seasons" At the same timeH we ha7e no tro-/.e re.atin+ to Dah,-Qs remarks a/o-t /.ows an2 can rea2i.* .ink them to 4irar2Qs mimetic 2esire: Man is a creat-re who cannot stan2 sti.. -n2er /.ows" Now take the hoseNhe ne7er nee2s a re7en+e" Nor the oC" >-t man is a creat-re o, re7en+es" I, he is 9-nishe2 he wi.. contri7e to +et ri2 o, the 9-nishment" When he cannot +et ri2 o, 9-nishmentH he heart is a9t to rot ,rom itV" >rother raises a han2 a+ainst /rother an2 son a+ainst ,ather ;how terri/.e!< an2 the ,ather a.so a+ainst the son" An2 moreo7er it is a contin-it*1matterH ,or i, the ,ather 2i2 not strike the son the* wo-.2 not /e a.ike" It is 2one to 9er9et-ate simi.arit*" OhH =en2ersonH man cannot kee9 sti.. -n2er the /.ows" I, he m-stH ,or the timeH he wi.. cast his e*es an2 think in si.ence o, the wa*s to c.ear himse., o, them" Those 9rime1e7a. /.ows e7er*/o2* sti.. ,ee.s" The ,irst was s-99ose2 to /e str-ck /* $ainH /-t how can that /eT In the /e+innin+ o, time there was a han2 raise2 which str-ck" 0o the 9eo9.e are ,.inchin+ *et" A.. wish to ri2 themse.7es an2 ,ree themse.7es an2 cast the /.ow -9on others"@ I ha7e ta-+ht =en2erson an2

We a.. know what it ,ee.s .ike to /e hit /* /.ows that we /e.ie7e to /e -nmerite2H an2 we know what it is .ike to strike o-t at others e7en when the /.ow isnQt rea..* meant ,or them" E7er*one -n2erstan2s that there is in2ee2 a rh*thm hereH one that is as s*mmetrica. an2 9re2icta/.e as =e+e.Qs an2 4irar2Qs acco-nts s-++est: it is one o, the mo2-.ations o, the nat-ra. rh*thms within the h-man comm-nit*"
2isc-sse2 this 9assa+e eno-+h times o7er the *ears to reco+niOe that i, there is one thin+ m* st-2ents wi.. /e a/.e to re.ate to in the entire co-rse it wi.. /e this"

C%ai!# that the (a!e i# ri((e& a(ain#t the! are the a't$a% 'a$#e o $ne>$a% parti'ipation. <hort .DD ;ThomasH Associate ?ro," ?hi.oso9h* Ken*on $o..e+eH Aca2emic Z-estionsH FGDi7ersit*G an2 F>reakin+ the Disci9.inesG: Two New Assa-.ts on the $-rric-.-mGH 1;&<H 0e9tem/erH E/sco< In the ,irst 9.aceH minorit* st-2ies inter,eres with the e2-cation ,or which minorit* st-2ents come to co..e+e" The stan2ar2 c-rric-.-mH remem/erH is in ,act not a c-.t-ra. im9osition /-t im9arts know.e2+e an2 ski..s that /ene,it an*one who recei7es them" That know.e2+e an2 those ski..s are not a 9art o, an* ethnic c-.t-re" Time s9ent on minorit* st-2ies is taken awa* ,rom those tra2itiona. st-2ies that 9re9are the st-2ent ,or a ,-..er 9artici9ation in o-r societ*" Minorit* st-2ies ,or minorit* st-2ents is a wa* o, ens-rin+ that minorities remain onNor +et 9-she2 o-t toNthe mar+ins o, .i,eH /oth in aca2emia an2 in o-r societ*" In a22itionH the a%#e i&ea that the tra&itiona% '$rri'$%$! i# #o!e)o&- e%#e.# F'$%t$reG in'rea#e# !inoritie#. ear o ai%$re an& their ear o ee%in( ($i%t- 0hen #$''e## $%6 an& the#e ear# are the!#e%"e# a !a7or 'ontri)$tin( 'a$#e o ai%$re" Eo- 2o not ha7e to /e /.ack or =is9anic to reca.. the times when *o-r ,ear o, not /ein+ a/.e to -n2erstan2 somethin+ 9re7ente2 *o- ,rom concentratin+ on it or ca-se2 *o- to +i7e -9 the str-++.e

ENDI 2010 20 Framework 9remat-re.*H or the times when *o-r con7enient con7iction that it was not worthwhi.e rationa.iOe2 not tr*in+" Fac-.t* an2 a2ministrators who to.erate or enco-ra+e the m*th o, c-.t-ra. im9eria.ism make themse.7es 9art.* res9onsi/.e ,or the contin-e2 hi+h ,ai.-re rate o, minorit* st-2ents an2 the contin-e2 mar+ina.it* o, some o, AmericaQs minorities"

ENDI 2010 Framework

21

A2J TREATIN+ DE4ATE A< +AME DECREA<E< EDBCATION

Treatin( &e)ate a# a (a!e &oe#n.t &i!ini#h it# e&$'ationa% "a%$e. M$ir 2/; ;0tarH ?ro," $omm" 4eor+e Mason A"H ?hi.oso9h* an2 RhetoricH FA De,ense o, the Ethics o, $ontem9orar* De/ateGH 2!;'<H 99"25'125@< A secon2 o/Dection to 2e/ate as 7a.-es c.ari,icationH consonant with Ehnin+erLs concerns a/o-t +amesmanshi9 H is the se9aration o, the e2-cationa. 9rocess ,rom the rea. wor.2" A si+ni,icant concern here is how s-ch .earnin+ a/o-t mora.it* wi.. /e -se2 in the rest o, a st-2entLs
.i,e" 0ome critics K-estion whether mora. schoo. know.e2+e Mma* /e K-ite se9arate ,rom .i7in+ mora. eC9erience in a simi.ar wa* as 9ro,icienc* in s9eakin+ oneLs nati7e .an+-a+e +enera..* a99ears K-ite se9arate ,rom the know.e2+e o, ,orma. +rammar im9arte2 /* schoo."MUU E2e.stein 2isc-sses two ,orms o, se+mentation: 2i7ision /etween rea.ms o, schoo. know.e2+e ;e"+"H histor* se9arate2 ,rom science< an2 /etween schoo. an2 .i7in+ eC9erience ;instit-tiona. .earnin+ se9arate ,rom e7er*2a* .i,e<" Ehnin+erLs 9ointH that 2e/ate /ecomes a 9astimeH an2 that a99.ication o, these ski..s to so.7in+ rea. 9ro/.ems is 2iminishe2 i, it is 7iewe2 as a +ameH is .ar+e.* a re,.ection on instit-tiona. se+mentation " The !e%&in( o &i erent area# o 5no0%e&(e6 howe7erH i# a parti'$%ar )ene it o &e)ate6 a# it a&&re##e# topi'# o

'on#i&era)%e i!portan'e in a rea% 0or%& #ettin(. Recent co..e+e an2 hi+h schoo. to9ics inc.-2e ener+* 9o.ic*H 9rison re,ormH care ,or the e.2er.*H tra2e 9o.ic*H home.essnessH an2 the ri+ht to 9ri7ac*" These to9ics are nota/.e /eca-se the* eCcee2 the know.e2+e /o-n2aries o, 9artic-.ar schoo. s-/DectsH the* reach into iss-es o, e7er*2a* .i,eH an2 the* are /roa2 eno-+h to ,orce st-2ents to a22ress a 7ariet* o, 7a.-e a99ea.s. The e8p%o#ion o L#>$irre%#6L or sma.. an2 s9eci,ic casesH in the 16!0s an2 1630s ha# ha& the e e't o openin( $p ea'h topi' to !an- &i erent 'a#e approa'he# . Nationa. to9ics are no .on+er o, the one1case 7ariet* ;as in
16@@Ls Mthe A"0" sho-.2 reco+niOe Re2 $hinaM<" On the 9ri7ac* to9icH ,or eCam9.eH cases inc.-2e search an2 seiO-re iss-esH a/ortionH seC-a. 9ri7ac*H tra2eo,,s with the ,irst amen2mentH /irth contro.H in,ormation 9ri7ac*H 9orno+ra9h*H an2 o/scenit*" The m-.ti9.icit* o, iss-es 9a*s s9ecia.

2i7i2en2s ,or 2e/aters reK-ire2 to 2e,en2 /oth si2es o, man* iss-es /eca-se the 7a.-e criteria chan+e ,rom ro-n2 to ro-n2 an2 e7o.7e o7er the *ear" The &e"e%op!ent o %e8i)i%it- in 'opin( 0ith the intert0inin( o i##$e# i# an e##entia% 'o!ponent in the inter'onne'tion o 5no0%e&(e6 an& i# a !a7or rationa%e or #0it'h=#i&e &e)ate "

ENDI 2010 Framework

22

*** <WITC,=<IDE DE4ATE +OOD *** <WITC,=<IDE DE4ATE KT ACTIVI<MI1O@ICA

Ma%'o%! ? pro"e# their ar($!ent i# e&$'ationa%%- )an5r$pt pri#on &e)ate# $n&er#too& #0it'h=#i&e &e)ate a'i%itate& #o'ia% 'han(e an& po%iti'a% 'on#'io$#ne##. 4ranha! ./E ;Ro/ertH ?ro,"Rhetoric at >ates $o..e+eH Ar+-ment an2 A27ocac*H FMI was +one on 2e/atin+M: Ma.co.m (Ls 9rison 2e/ates an2 9-/.ic con,rontationsGH &1;&< WinterH ?roK-est< Nor,o.k ha2 a ,ine .i/rar* o, se7era. tho-san2 7o.-mes an2 9risoners were a/.e to check o-t /ooks o, their choice" Ma.co.m ( /ecame a 7oracio-s an2 critica. rea2erH 2isco7erin+ Mnew e7i2ence to 2oc-ment the M-s.im teachin+sM in /ooks ran+in+ ,rom acco-nts o, the s.a7e tra2e to Mi.tonLs ?ara2ise )ost ;(H 16!@/H 99" 15@115!<" Ma.co.m (Ls M9rison e2-cationH inc.-2in+ E.ah M-hamma2HM writes >arakaH M+i7es him the ,orm with which o7ert.* to com/ine conscio-sness with his act-a. .i,eM ;9" 2!<" As Ma.co.m ( so-+ht new o-t.ets ,or his hei+htene2 9o.itica. conscio-snessH he t-rne2 to the week.* ,orma. 2e/ates s9onsore2 /* the inmate team" MM* rea2in+ ha2 m* min2 .ike steam -n2er 9ress-reHM he reco-nte2I M0ome wa*H I ha2 to start te..in+ the white man a/o-t himse., to his ,ace" I 2eci2e2 to 2o this /* 9-ttin+ m* name 2own to 2e/ateM;16!@/H 9" 15'<" Ma.co.m (Ls 9rison 2e/ate eC9erience a..owe2 him to /rin+ his new.* acK-ire2 historica. know.e2+e an2 critica. i2eo.o+* to /ear on a wi2e 7ariet* o, socia. iss-es" MWhiche7er si2e o, the se.ecte2 s-/Dect was a##i(ne& to !e6 IL2 track 2own an2 st-2* e7er*thin+ I co-.2 ,in2 on itHM wrote Ma.co.m (" MIL2 9-t m*se., in m* o99onentLs 9.ace an2 2eci2e how IL2 tr* to win i, I ha2 the other si2eI an2 then IL2 ,i+-re o-t a wa* to knock 2own those 9ointsM ;16!@/H 9" 15'<" ?re9aration ,or each 2e/ate inc.-2e2 ,o-r or ,i7e 9ractice sessions" De/aters con2-cte2 in2i7i2-a. research an2 a.so worke2 co..a/orati7e.* in research teams ;>en2erH 166&<" %isitin+ 2e/aters Mco-.2 not -n2erstan2 how we ha2 the materia. to 2e/ate with themHM reca..s Ma.co.m Jar7isH Ma.co.m (Ls 2e/ate 9artner at Nor,o.k" MThe* were at the merc* o, 9eo9.e with M"A"s an2 ?h"D"s to teach themHM he eC9.ains" The week.* Nor,o.k 2e/ates attracte2 .ar+e a-2iencesH +enera..* ,i..in+ the three1h-n2re21seat 9rison theater" Most 9risoners atten2e2 an2 the sessions a.so attracte2 c-rio-s 7isitorsH -s-a..* in7ite2 re9resentati7es o, or+aniOations connecte2 to the to9ic -n2er 2isc-ssion" These 2e/ates 9ro7i2e2 Ma.co.m ( with the ,irst .ar+e a-2iences o, his s9eakin+ careerH I wi.. te.. *o- that ri+ht thereH in the 9rison" 2e/atin+H s9eakin+ to a crow2H was as eChi.aratin+ to me as the 2isco7er* o, know.e2+e thro-+h rea2in+ ha2 /een" 0tan2in+ -9 thereH the ,aces .ookin+ -9 at meH the thin+s in m* hea2 comin+ o-t o, m* mo-thH whi.e m* /rain searche2 ,or the neCt /est thin+ to ,o..ow what I was sa*in+H an2 i, I co-.2 swa* them to m* si2e /* han2.in+ it ri+htH then I ha2 won the 2e/ate11once m* ,eet +ot wetH I was +one on 2e/atin+" ;16!@/H 9" 15'< The Nor,o.k 2e/ate 9ro+ram 9ro7i2e2 Ma.co.m ( with a new me2i-m ,or the eC9ression o, his emer+in+ 9o.itica. 9hi.oso9h* an2 with a re+-.ar ,or-m in which he co-.2 /oth a99ea. to ,e..ow 9risoners an2 con,ront white a27ersariesH whether 9risoners or 7isitin+ 2e/aters re9resentin+ 9resti+io-s co..e+es an2 -ni7ersities" Jar7is reca..s that he an2 Ma.co.m ( 2e/ate2 on se7era. occasions a+ainst teams ,rom =ar7ar2 an2 Ea.e" >oston Ani7ersit*H M"I"T"H =o.* $ross an2 other 9rominent New En+.an2 co..e+es he.2 ann-a. 2e/ates with the 9risoners an2 OC,or2 an2 $am/ri2+e /oth 7isite2";2< A-stin Free.e*H who coache2 the >"A" teams that com9ete2 at Nor,o.k 2-rin+ the 16'0sH wrote that these 2e/ates were Mo, the hi+hest K-a.it*M an2 the Nor,o.k 2e/aters ha2 won twice as man* 2e/ates as the* ha2 .ost in 9re7io-s *ears ;9" 2!<" Man* o, the 2e/atin+ 9risoners ha2 .itt.e ,orma. e2-cation" 0e7era. o, the /estH inc.-2in+ Ma.co.m (H were +ra2e schoo. or D-nior hi+h 2ro9o-tsH reca..s coach $o.eman >en2erH *et Mthe* went siC *ears witho-t .osin+ a 2e/ateM a+ainst to9 co..e+iate teams 2-rin+ the 16@0s" For Ma.co.m (H the 9ossi/i.it* ,or 7ictor* in these enco-nters a+ainst 9ri7i.e+e2 white o99onents was a .esson in the im9ortance o, care,-. 9re9aration an2 a testament to the 9ower o, tr-th,-. 7ision ;4am/inoH 9" 13<"

ENDI 2010 Framework

2&

CONVENTIONA@ RE<EARC, +OOD

Re#ear'h=inten#i"e &e)ate a'i%itate# an& i!pro"e p$)%i' parti'ipation )- ri(oro$# e&$'ation. D-)"i( an& I"er#on .00 ;Kristin an2 Joe.H 4ra2-ate 0t-2ents at AriOona 0tateH F$an $-ttin+ $ar2s $ar7e into O-r ?ersona. )i7es: An Ana.*sis o, De/ate Research on ?ersona. A27ocac*GH htt9:882e/ate"-7m"e2-82*/7i+i7erson1000"htm.< A22ressin+ a.. o, these 2i,,erences is /e*on2 the sco9e o, this 9a9er" Instea2H we ,oc-s -9on the research 9rocess in7o.7e2 in the more research intensi7e ,orms o, 2e/ate: Nationa. De/ate To-rnament ;NDT< an2 $ross ECamination De/ate Association ;$EDA< st*.e 2e/ate" We ha7e s-rmise2 that research has se7era. /ene,icia. e,,ects on 2e/aters" Research creates an in12e9th ana.*sis o, iss-es that takes st-2ents /e*on2 their initia. 9res-99ositions an2 a..ows them to tr-.* e7a.-ate a.. si2es o, an iss-e" Not on.* is the research in7o.7e2 in 2e/ate a trainin+ +ro-n2 ,or ski..sH /-t it a.so acts as a moti7ation to act on 9artic-.ar iss-es" It is o-r contention that 2e/ate not on.* +i7es -s the too.s that we nee2 to /e acti7e in the 9-/.ic s9hereH /-t it a.so em9owers some 2e/aters with the im9et-s to act in the 9-/.ic s9here" Conte!porar- #0it'h=#i&e &e)ate pro"i&e# )roa& pra'ti'a%%- re%e"ant 5no0%e&(e. M$ir 2/; ;0tarH ?ro," $omm" 4eor+e Mason A"H ?hi.oso9h* an2 RhetoricH FA De,ense o, the Ethics o, $ontem9orar* De/ateGH 2!;'<H 99" 25'125@< The me.2in+ o, 2i,,erent areas o, know.e2+eH howe7erH is a 9artic-.ar /ene,it o, 2e/ateH as it a22resses to9ics o, consi2era/.e im9ortance in a rea. wor.2 settin+" Recent co..e+e an2 hi+h schoo. to9ics inc.-2e ener+* 9o.ic*H 9rison re,ormH care ,or the e.2er.*H tra2e 9o.ic*H home.essnessH an2 the ri+ht to 9ri7ac*" These to9ics are nota/.e /eca-se the* eCcee2 the know.e2+e /o-n2aries o, 9artic-.ar schoo. s-/DectsH the* reach into iss-es o, e7er*2a* .i,eH an2 the* are /roa2 eno-+h to ,orce st-2ents to a22ress a 7ariet* o, 7a.-e a99ea.s" The eC9.osion o, MsK-irre.sHM or sma.. an2 s9eci,ic casesH in the 16!0s an2 1630s has ha2 the e,,ect o, o9enin+ -9 each to9ic to man* 2i,,erent case a99roaches" Nationa. to9ics are no .on+er o, the one1case 7ariet* ;as in 16@@Ls Mthe A"0" sho-.2 reco+niOe Re2 $hinaM<" On the 9ri7ac* to9icH ,or eCam9.eH cases inc.-2e search an2 seiO-re iss-esH a/ortionH seC-a. 9ri7ac*H tra2eo,,s with the ,irst amen2mentH /irth contro.H in,ormation 9ri7ac*H 9orno+ra9h*H an2 o/scenit*" The m-.ti9.icit* o, iss-es 9a*s s9ecia. 2i7i2en2s ,or 2e/aters reK-ire2 to 2e,en2 /oth si2es o, man* iss-es /eca-se the 7a.-e criteria chan+e ,rom ro-n2 to ro-n2 an2 e7o.7e o7er the *ear" The 2e7e.o9ment o, ,.eCi/i.it* in co9in+ with the intertwinin+ o, iss-es is an essentia. com9onent in the interconnection o, know.e2+eH an2 is a maDor rationa.e ,or switch1si2e 2e/ate" Re#ear'h 'reate# !a8i!$! e&$'ation 0hi'h i# 5e- to e e'ti"e po%i'-=!a5in(. D-)"i( an& I"er#on .00 ;Kristin an2 Joe.H 4ra2-ate 0t-2ents at AriOona 0tateH F$an $-ttin+ $ar2s $ar7e into O-r ?ersona. )i7es: An Ana.*sis o, De/ate Research on ?ersona. A27ocac*GH htt9:882e/ate"-7m"e2-82*/7i+i7erson1000"htm.< The .e7e. o, research in7o.7e2 in 2e/ate creates an in12e9th -n2erstan2in+ o, iss-es" The .e7e. o, research con2-cte2 2-rin+ a *ear o, 2e/ate is K-ite
eCtensi7e" 4oo2man ;166&< re,erences a $hronic.e o, =i+her E2-cation artic.e that estimate2 Mthe .e7e. an2 eCtent o, research reK-ire2 o, the a7era+e co..e+e 2e/ater ,or each to9ic is eK-i7a.ent to the

With this eCtensi7e K-antit* o, researchH 2e/aters attain a hi+h .e7e. o, in7esti+ation an2 ;9res-ma/.*< -n2erstan2in+ o, a to9ic" As a res-.t o, this .e7e. o, -n2erstan2in+H 2e/aters /ecome know.e2+ea/.e citiOens who are ,-rther em9owere2 to make in,orme2 o9inions an2 ener+iOe2 to take action" Research he.9s to e2-cate st-2ents ;an2 coaches< a/o-t the state o, the wor.2" Witho-t the +-i2ance o, a 2e/ate to9icH how man* st-2ents wo-.2 2o in12e9th research on ,ema.e +enita. m-ti.ation in A,ricaH or Anite2 Nations sanctions on IraKT The com9etiti7e nat-re o, 9o.ic* 2e/ate 9ro7i2es an im9et-s ,or st-2ents to research the to9ics that the* are +oin+ to 2e/ate" This in t-rn ,-e.s st-2entsQ awareness o, iss-es that +o /e*on2 their ,ront 2oors" A27ocac* ,.ows ,rom this increase2 awareness" Rea2in+ /ooks an2 artic.es a/o-t the s-,,erin+ o, 9eo9.e tho-san2s o, mi.es awa* or ri+ht in o-r own comm-nities 2ri7es 9eo9.e to /ecome in7o.7e2 in the comm-nit* at .ar+e" Research has a.so ,oc-se2 on how 2e/ate 9re9ares -s ,or .i,e in the 9-/.ic s9here" Iss-es that we 2isc-ss in 2e/ate ha7e ,o-n2 their wa* onto the nationa. 9o.ic* sta+eH an2 trainin+ in interco..e+iate 2e/ate makes -s +oo2 9-/.ic a27ocates" The 9-/.ic s9here is the arena in which we a.. m-st 9artici9ate to /e acti7e citiOens" E7en a,ter we .ea7e 2e/ateH the ski..s that we ha7e +aine2 sho-.2 he.9 -s to /e /etter a27ocates an2 citiOens" Research has .ooke2 at how 2e/ate
amo-nt o, research reK-ire2 ,or a MasterLs Thesis ;cite2 in Mitche..H 1665H 9" @@<" im9acts e2-cation ;Mat.on an2 Kee.e 165'<H .e+a. trainin+ ;?arkinsonH 4is.er an2 ?e.ias 165&H No/.es 165@0 an2 /eha7iora. traits ;Mc4.one 163'H $o./ert 166'<" These works i..-strate the im9act that 9-/.ic 2e/ate has on st-2ents as the* 9re9are to enter the 9-/.ic s9here" The 2e/aters who take acti7e ro.es s-ch as 9rotestin+ sanctions were 9ro/a/.* not acti7e.* en+a+e2 in the iss-e -nti. their research

0ince 2e/aters t*9ica..* enter into a to9ic with on.* c-rsor* ;i, an*< know.e2+e o, the iss-eH the research 9rocess 9ro7i2es eC9os-re to iss-es that were 9re7io-s.* -nknown" EC9os-re to the .iterat-re on a to9ic can createH rein,orce or a.ter an in2i7i2-a.Ls o9inions" >e,ore .earnin+ o, the 0choo. ,or the AmericaLsH ha7in+ an o9inion o, the 9.ace is im9ossi/.e"
2rew them into the to9ic" F-rthermoreH the 9rocess o, intense research ,or 2e/ate ma* act-a..* chan+e the 9ositions 2e/aters ho.2" A,ter hearin+ a/o-t the s*stematic trainin+ o, tort-rers an2 o99ressors in a 2e/ate ro-n2 an2 rea2in+ the researchH an o9inion o, the Mschoo.M was 2e7e.o9e2" In this mannerH eC9os-re to 2e/ate research as the 9erson ,in2in+ the e7i2enceH hearin+ it as the o99onent in a 2e/ate ro-n2 ;or as D-2+e< acts as an initia. s9ark o, awareness on an iss-e" This 9rocess o, 2isco7er* seems to ha7e a simi.ar im9act to watchin+ an in7esti+ati7e news re9ort"

ENDI 2010 Framework

2'

CONVENTIONA@ RE<EARC, +OOD

Rea% Wor%& Re#ear'h <5i%%#. Ke- to in or!e& 'iti9en#hip. M$ir 2/; ;0tarH ?ro," $omm" 4eor+e Mason A"H ?hi.oso9h* an2 RhetoricH FA De,ense o, the Ethics o, $ontem9orar* De/ateGH 2!;'<H 99"25'125@< A secon2 o/Dection to 2e/ate as 7a.-es c.ari,icationH consonant with Ehnin+erLs concerns a/o-t +amesmanshi9 H is the se9aration o, the e2-cationa. 9rocess ,rom the rea. wor.2" A si+ni,icant concern here is how s-ch .earnin+ a/o-t mora.it* wi.. /e -se2 in the rest o, a st-2entLs
.i,e" 0ome critics K-estion whether mora. schoo. know.e2+e Mma* /e K-ite se9arate ,rom .i7in+ mora. eC9erience in a simi.ar wa* as 9ro,icienc* in s9eakin+ oneLs nati7e .an+-a+e +enera..* a99ears K-ite se9arate ,rom the know.e2+e o, ,orma. +rammar im9arte2 /* schoo."MUU E2e.stein 2isc-sses two ,orms o, se+mentation: 2i7ision /etween rea.ms o, schoo. know.e2+e ;e"+"H histor* se9arate2 ,rom science< an2 /etween schoo. an2 .i7in+ eC9erience ;instit-tiona. .earnin+ se9arate ,rom e7er*2a* .i,e<" Ehnin+erLs 9ointH that 2e/ate /ecomes a 9astimeH an2 that a99.ication o, these ski..s to so.7in+ rea. 9ro/.ems is 2iminishe2 i, it is 7iewe2 as a +ameH is .ar+e.* a re,.ection on instit-tiona. se+mentation " The me.2in+ o, 2i,,erent areas o, know.e2+eH howe7erH is a 9artic-.ar /ene,it o, 2e/ateH as it a22resses to9ics o, consi2era/.e im9ortance in a rea. wor.2 settin+" Recent co..e+e an2 hi+h schoo. to9ics inc.-2e ener+* 9o.ic*H 9rison re,ormH care ,or the e.2er.*H tra2e 9o.ic*H home.essnessH an2 the ri+ht to 9ri7ac*" These to9ics are nota/.e /eca-se the* eCcee2 the know.e2+e /o-n2aries o, 9artic-.ar schoo. s-/DectsH the* reach into iss-es o, e7er*2a* .i,eH an2 the* are /roa2 eno-+h to ,orce st-2ents to a22ress a 7ariet* o, 7a.-e a99ea.s" The eC9.osion o, MsK-irre.sHM or sma.. an2 s9eci,ic casesH in the 16!0s an2 1630s has ha2 the e,,ect o, o9enin+ -9 each to9ic to man* 2i,,erent case a99roaches" Nationa. to9ics are no .on+er o, the one1case 7ariet* ;as in 16@@Ls Mthe A"0" sho-.2 reco+niOe Re2 $hinaM<" On the 9ri7ac* to9icH ,or eCam9.eH cases inc.-2e search an2 seiO-re iss-esH a/ortionH seC-a. 9ri7ac*H tra2eo,,s with the ,irst amen2mentH /irth contro.H in,ormation 9ri7ac*H 9orno+ra9h*H an2 o/scenit*" The m-.ti9.icit* o, iss-es 9a*s s9ecia. 2i7i2en2s ,or 2e/aters reK-ire2 to 2e,en2 /oth si2es o, man* iss-es /eca-se the 7a.-e criteria chan+e ,rom ro-n2 to ro-n2 an2 e7o.7e o7er the *ear" The 2e7e.o9ment o, ,.eCi/i.it* in co9in+ with the intertwinin+ o, iss-es is an essentia. com9onent in the interconnection o, know.e2+eH an2 is a maDor rationa.e ,or switch1si2e 2e/ate" The iso.ation o, 2e/ate ,rom the rea. wor.2 is a m-ch more 9otent cha..en+e to the acti7it*" There are in2ee2 MesotericM techniK-esH s9ecia. termino.o+iesH an2 9roce2-ra. constraints that .imit the a99.ica/i.it* o, 2e/ate know.e2+e an2 ski..s to the rest o, the st-2entLs .i,e" The ,irst an2 most o/7io-s reDoin2er is that &e)ate p$t# #t$&ent# into (reater 'onta't 0ith the rea% 0or%& )- or'in( the! to rea&

a (reat &ea% o in or!ation ,rom 9o9-.ar 9erio2ica.sH scho.ar.* /ooks an2 Do-rna.sH +o7ernment 2oc-mentsH re9ortsH news.ettersH an2 2ai.* news9a9ers" De/aters a.so ,reK-ent.* seek o-t an2 K-er* a2ministratorsH 9o.ic* makersH an2 9-/.ic 9ersonae to +ain more 2ata" The constant cons-m9tion o, materia. /*" ,romH an2 a/o-t the rea. wor.2 is si+ni,icant.* constit-ti7e: The in,ormation +ro-n2s the iss-es -n2er 2isc-ssionH an2 the 9rocess sha9es the re.ationshi9 o, the citiOen to the 9-/.ic arena" De/aters can /ecome more in7o.7e2 than -nin,orme2 citiOens /eca-se the* know a/o-t im9ortant iss-esH an2 /eca-se the* know how to ,in2 o-t more in,ormation
a/o-t these iss-es"

De)ate i# rea% 0or%& re#ear'h. Ke- to p$)%i' po%i'-. Win&e# .60 ;R-sse.H Former Dir" De/ate Northwestern A" an2 ?hD $omm an2 0ocia. ?s*chH ?ost1Doc Fe..ow in 0ocia. Re.ations =ar7ar2 A"H 09eech TeacherH F$om9etiti7e De/atin+H the 09eech ?ro+ramH the In2i7i2-a.H an2 0ociet*GH 6;2<H MarchH 9" 103H E/sco< ?ro,essor James A" Ro/insonH o, the De9artment o, ?o.itica. 0cience at Northwestern Ani7ersit* H himse., a ,ormer co..e+e 2e/aterH wrote in the 4a7e. three *ears a+o that 2e/ate 9er,orms an im9ortant ,-nction ,or the in2i7i2-a. /* intro2-cin+ him to 9ro/.ems o, 9-/.ic 9o.ic*H an intro2-ction man* co..e+e st-2ents mi+ht not otherwise +et " The 2e/aterH it is tr-eH s9en2s .ar+e amo-nts o, time 9ro/in+ at +reat .en+th an2 2e9th s-ch 7ita. an2 contem9orar* iss-es as n-c.ear wea9ons 2e7e.o9mentH .a/or1 mana+ement re.ationsH ,orei+n ai2H wor.2 +o7ernmentH an2 str-ct-re o, +o7ernment" Each o, these /i+ to9ics raises s-/si2iar*H /-t
eK-a..* im9ortantH 9-/.ic K-estions" 0t-2* o, s-ch to9ics ser7es as an intro2-ction to the socia. sciences ,or man* -n2er+ra2-ates" ?ro,essor Ro/inson eC9resse2 his /e.ie, that a *earLs research on a 2e/ate 9ro9osition /* a +oo2 2e/ater ma* eK-a. the amo-nt o, time a +ra2-ate st-2ent in7ests in research on a masterLs thesis" Moreo7erH aca2emic 2e/atin+H he s-++este2 is not ,ar remo7e2 ,rom .i,e sit-ations"

ENDI 2010 Framework

2@

<WITC,=<IDE DE4ATE KT CRITICA@ T,INKIN+

<0it'h=#i&e &e)ate en'o$ra(e# 'riti'a% thin5in(. Thi# i# "ita% to re#o%"e e"er&a- an& (o"ern!ent po%iti'a% pro)%e!# that ri#5 e8tin'tion. ,arri(an 2D ;$ase*H Associate Director o, De/ate at A4AH MasterQs in $omm-nications Wake Forest A"H FA De,ense o, 0witch 0i2e De/ateGH MasterQs thesis at Wake ForestH De9artment o, $omm-nicationH Ma*H 99"!16<
A22itiona..*H there are socia. /ene,its to the 9ractice o, reK-irin+ st-2ents to 2e/ate /oth si2es o, contro7ersia. iss-es" Datin+ /ack to the 4reek rhetorica. tra2itionH +reat 7a.-e has /een 9.ace2 on the /ene,it o, testin+ each ar+-ment re.ati7e to a.. others in the market9.ace o, i2eas" )ike those who ar+-e on /eha., o, the e,,icienc*1maCimiOin+ /ene,its o, ,ree market com9etitionH it is /e.ie7e2 that ar+-ments are most ri+oro-s.* teste2 ;an2

concei7a/.* re,ine2 an2 im9ro7e2< when com9are2 to a.. a7ai.a/.e a.ternati7es" E7en ,or /e.ie,s that ha7e seemin+.* /een in+raine2 in consens-s o9inion or in cases where the 9-/.ic at1.ar+e is -n.ike.* to acce9t a 9artic-.ar 9ositionH it has /een ar+-e2 that the* sho-.2 remain o9en ,or 9-/.ic 2isc-ssion an2 2e.i/eration ;Mi..H 163@<" A.on+ these .inesH the +reatest /ene,it o, switchin+ si2esH which +oes to the heart o, contem9orar* 2e/ateH is its in2-cement o, critica. thinkin+" De,ine2 as Mreasona/.e re,.ecti7e thinkin+ that is ,oc-se2 on 2eci2in+ what to /e.ie7e or 2oM ;EnnisH 1653H 9"10<H critica. thinkin+ .earne2 thro-+h 2e/ate teaches st-2ents not D-st how a27ocate an2 ar+-eH /-t how to 2eci2e as we.." Each an2 e7er* st-2entH whether in 2e/ate or ;more .ike.*< at some .ater 9oint in .i,eH wi.. /e 9.ace2 in the 9osition o, the 2ecision1maker" Face2 with com9etin+ o9tions whose costs an2 /ene,its are initia..* -nc.earH critica. thinkin+ is necessar* to assess a.. the 9ossi/.e o-tcomes o, each choiceH com9are their re.ati7e meritsH an2 arri7e at some ,ina. 2ecision a/o-t which is 9re,era/.e" In some instancesH s-ch as choosin+ whether to eat $hinese or In2ian ,oo2 ,or 2innerH the
im9ortance o, makin+ the correct 2ecision is minor" For man* other 2ecisionsH howe7erH the im9.ications o, choosin+ an im9r-2ent co-rse o, action are 9otentia..* +ra7e" As Ro/ert $raw,or2 notesH there are Miss-es o, -ns-r9asse2 im9ortant in the 2ai.* .i7es o, mi..ions -9on mi..ions o, 9eo9.e"""/ein+ 2eci2e2 to a consi2era/.e eCtent /* the 9ower o, 9-/.ic s9eakin+M ;200&<" A.tho-+h the 2a*s o, the $o.2 War are o7erH an2 the risk that MThe neCt ?ear. =ar/or co-.2 /e Lcom9o-n2e2 /* h*2ro+enM ;Ehnin+er an2 >rockrie2eH 1635H 9"&< is +reat.* re2-ce2H the mani9-.ation o, 9-/.ic s-99ort /e,ore

the in7asion o, IraK in 200& 9oints to the contin-in+ necessit* o, trainin+ a we..1in,orme2 an2 critica..*1aware 9-/.ic ;Ware,sk*H 2003<" In the a/sence o, 2e/ate1traine2 critica. thinkin+H i+norant /-t am/itio-s 9o.iticians an2 9ers-asi7e /-t ne,ario-s .ea2ers wo-.2 /e m-ch more .ike.* to 2raw the co-ntr*H an2 9ossi/.* the wor.2H into con,.icts with inca.c-.a/.e .osses in terms o, h-man we..1/ein+" 4i7en the m*ria2 threats o, +.o/a. 9ro9ortions that wi.. reK-ire incisi7e so.-tionsH inc.-2in+ +.o/a. warmin+H the s9rea2 o, 9an2emic 2iseasesH an2 the 9ro.i,eration o, wea9ons o, mass 2estr-ctionH c-.ti7atin+ a ro/-st an2 e,,ecti7e societ* o, critica. 2ecision1makers is essentia." As )o-is Rene >eres writesH Mwith s-ch .earnin+H we Americans co-.2 9re9are"""not as immo/i.iOe2 o/Dects o, ,a.se contentmentH /-t as a-thentic citiOens o, an en2an+ere2 9.anetM ;200&<" Th-sH it is not s-r9risin+
that critica. thinkin+ has /een ca..e2 Mthe hi+hest e2-cationa. +oa. o, the acti7it*M ;?archerH 1665<" Whi.e ar+-in+ ,rom con7iction can ,oster .imite2 critica. thinkin+ ski..sH the e.ement o, switchin+ si2es is necessar* to shar9en 2e/ateLs critica. e2+e an2 ens-re that 2ecisions are ma2e in a reasone2 manner instea2 o, /ein+ 2ri7en /* i2eo.o+*" De/aters traine2 in 00D are more .ike.* to e7a.-ate /oth

si2es o, an ar+-ment /e,ore arri7in+ at a conc.-sion an2 are .ess .ike.* to 2ismiss 9otentia. ar+-ments /ase2 on his or her 9rior /e.ie,s ;M-ir 166&<" In a22itionH 2e/atin+ /oth si2es teaches Mconce9t-a. ,.eCi/i.it*HM where 2ecision1makers are more .ike.* to re,.ect -9on the /e.ie,s that are he.2 /e,ore comin+ to a ,ina. o9inion ;M-irH 166&H 9H260<" EC9ose2 to man* ar+-ments on each si2e o, an iss-eH 2e/aters .earn that 9-/.ic 9o.ic* is characteriOe2 /* eCtraor2inar* com9.eCit* that reK-ires care,-. consi2eration /e,ore action" Fina..*H these ar+-ments are con,irme2 /* 9re9on2erance o, em9irica. research 2emonstratin+ a .ink /etween com9etiti7e 00D an2 critica. thinkin+ ;A..enH >erkowitOH =-nt an2 )o-2enH 1666I $o./ertH 2002H 9"52<"

ENDI 2010 Framework

2!

<WITC,=<IDE DE4ATE KT CRITICA@ T,INKIN+

De)ater# retain 'riti'a% thin5in( #5i%%# . Vita% to rea% 0or%& &e'i#ion=!a5in( an& pro)%e!=#o%"in(. M$ir 2/; ;0tarH ?ro," $omm" 4eor+e Mason A"H ?hi.oso9h* an2 RhetoricH FA De,ense o, the Ethics o, $ontem9orar* De/ateGH 2!;'<H 99"25'1253< A secon2 o/Dection to 2e/ate as 7a.-es c.ari,icationH consonant with Ehnin+erLs concerns a/o-t +amesmanshi9 H is the se9aration o, the e2-cationa. 9rocess ,rom the rea. wor.2" A si+ni,icant concern here is how s-ch .earnin+ a/o-t mora.it* wi.. /e -se2 in the rest o, a st-2entLs
.i,e" 0ome critics K-estion whether mora. schoo. know.e2+e Mma* /e K-ite se9arate ,rom .i7in+ mora. eC9erience in a simi.ar wa* as 9ro,icienc* in s9eakin+ oneLs nati7e .an+-a+e +enera..* a99ears K-ite se9arate ,rom the know.e2+e o, ,orma. +rammar im9arte2 /* schoo."MUU E2e.stein 2isc-sses two ,orms o, se+mentation: 2i7ision /etween rea.ms o, schoo. know.e2+e ;e"+"H histor* se9arate2 ,rom science< an2 /etween schoo. an2 .i7in+ eC9erience ;instit-tiona. .earnin+ se9arate ,rom e7er*2a* .i,e<" Ehnin+erLs 9ointH that 2e/ate /ecomes a 9astimeH an2 that a99.ication o, these ski..s to so.7in+ rea. 9ro/.ems is 2iminishe2 i, it is 7iewe2 as a +ameH is .ar+e.* a re,.ection on instit-tiona. se+mentation " The me.2in+ o, 2i,,erent areas o, know.e2+eH howe7erH is a 9artic-.ar /ene,it o, 2e/ateH as it a22resses to9ics o, consi2era/.e im9ortance in a rea. wor.2 settin+" Recent co..e+e an2 hi+h schoo. to9ics inc.-2e ener+* 9o.ic*H 9rison re,ormH care ,or the e.2er.*H tra2e 9o.ic*H home.essnessH an2 the ri+ht to 9ri7ac*" These to9ics are nota/.e /eca-se the* eCcee2 the know.e2+e /o-n2aries o, 9artic-.ar schoo. s-/DectsH the* reach into iss-es o, e7er*2a* .i,eH an2 the* are /roa2 eno-+h to ,orce st-2ents to a22ress a 7ariet* o, 7a.-e a99ea.s" The eC9.osion o, MsK-irre.sHM or sma.. an2 s9eci,ic casesH in the 16!0s an2 1630s has ha2 the e,,ect o, o9enin+ -9 each to9ic to man* 2i,,erent case a99roaches" Nationa. to9ics are no .on+er o, the one1case 7ariet* ;as in 16@@Ls Mthe A"0" sho-.2 reco+niOe Re2 $hinaM<" On the 9ri7ac* to9icH ,or eCam9.eH cases inc.-2e search an2 seiO-re iss-esH a/ortionH seC-a. 9ri7ac*H tra2eo,,s with the ,irst amen2mentH /irth contro.H in,ormation 9ri7ac*H 9orno+ra9h*H an2 o/scenit*" The m-.ti9.icit* o, iss-es 9a*s s9ecia. 2i7i2en2s ,or 2e/aters reK-ire2 to 2e,en2 /oth si2es o, man* iss-es /eca-se the 7a.-e criteria chan+e ,rom ro-n2 to ro-n2 an2 e7o.7e o7er the *ear" The 2e7e.o9ment o, ,.eCi/i.it* in co9in+ with the intertwinin+ o, iss-es is an essentia. com9onent in the interconnection o, know.e2+eH an2 is a maDor rationa.e ,or switch1si2e 2e/ate" The iso.ation o, 2e/ate ,rom the rea. wor.2 is a m-ch more 9otent cha..en+e to the acti7it*" There are in2ee2 MesotericM techniK-esH s9ecia. termino.o+iesH an2 9roce2-ra. constraints that .imit the a99.ica/i.it* o, 2e/ate know.e2+e an2 ski..s to the rest o, the st-2entLs .i,e" The ,irst an2 most o/7io-s reDoin2er is that 2e/ate 9-ts st-2ents into +reater contact with the rea. wor.2 /* ,orcin+ them to rea2 a +reat 2ea. o, in,ormation ,rom 9o9-.ar 9erio2ica.sH scho.ar.* /ooks an2 Do-rna.sH +o7ernment 2oc-mentsH re9ortsH news.ettersH an2 2ai.* news9a9ers" De/aters a.so ,reK-ent.* seek o-t an2 K-er* a2ministratorsH 9o.ic* makersH an2 9-/.ic 9ersonae to +ain more 2ata" The constant cons-m9tion o, materia. /*" ,romH an2 a/o-t the rea. wor.2 is si+ni,icant.* constit-ti7e: The in,ormation +ro-n2s the iss-es -n2er 2isc-ssionH an2 the 9rocess sha9es the re.ationshi9 o, the citiOen to the 9-/.ic arena" De/aters can /ecome more in7o.7e2 than -nin,orme2 citiOens /eca-se the* know a/o-t im9ortant iss-esH an2 /eca-se the* know how to ,in2 o-t more in,ormation a/o-t these iss-es" A secon2 res9onse to the char+e o, se+mentation is the 9roc.i7it* o, 2e/aters to /ecome in7o.7e2 in 9-/.ic 9o.ic* an2 internationa. a,,airs" A.tho-+h the stereot*9e is that 2e/aters /ecome .aw*ersH st-2ents seekin+ other 9ro,essiona. areas a.so see 7a.-e in the ski..s o, 2e/ate" >-siness mana+ementH +o7ernmentH 9o.iticsH internationa. re.ationsH teachin+H 9-/.ic 9o.ic*H an2 so onH are a.. si+ni,icant career o9tions ,or 2e/aters" In s-r7e*sH eC12e/aters ,reK-ent.* res9on2 that 2e/ate was the sin+.e most e2-cationa. acti7it* o, their co..e+e careers"LM Most c.asses 9ro7i2e in,ormationH /-t 2e/ate com9e.s the -seH assimi.ationH an2 e7a.-ation o, in,ormation that is not reK-ire2 in most c.assrooms" As one 2e/ate a.-mn-s writes: MThe .essons .earne2 an2 the eC9erience +aine2 ha7e /een more 7a.-a/.e to me than an* other as9ect o, m* ,orma. e2-cation"MM It is no won2erH thenH that s-r7e*s o, $on+ress an2 other 9o.ic*1makin+ instit-tions re7ea. a hi+h 9ercenta+e o, eC12e/aters"LU The ar+-ment that 2e/ate iso.ates 9artici9ants ,rom the Mrea. wor.2M is not s-staine2 in 9ractice when 2e/atersH traine2 in researchH or+aniOationH strate+*H an2 techniK-eH are consistent.* e,,ecti7e in inte+ratin+ these ski..s into s-ccess on the Do/" E7en the s9ecia.iOe2 Dar+on reK-ire2 to 9.a* the +ame s-ccess,-..* has /ene,its in terms o, ana.*Oin+ an2 -n2erstan2in+ societ*Ls 9ro/.ems" $onsi2er the termino.o+* o, the M2isa27anta+eM a+ainst the a,,irmati7eLs 9.an: There is a M.inkM /etween the 9.an an2 some e,,ectH or Mim9actMI the .ink can /e actions that 9-sh -s o7er some Mthresho.2M to an im9actH or it can /e a M.inearM re.ationshi9 where each increase ca-ses an increase in the im9actI the .ink ,rom the a,,irmati7e 9.an to the im9act m-st /e M-niK-eHM in that the 9.an itse., is .ar+e.* res9onsi/.e ,or the im9actI the a,,irmati7e ma* ar+-e a Mt-rnaro-n2M to the 2isa27anta+eH c.aimin+ it as an a27anta+e ,or the 9.an" 0-ch s9ecia.iOe2 Dar+on ma* se9arate 2e/ate ta.k ,rom other t*9es o, 2isco-rseH /-t the i2eas re9resente2 here are a.so si+ni,icant an2 -se,-. ,or ana.*Oin+ the re.ati7e 2esira/i.it* o, 9-/.ic 9o.icies" There rea..* are thresho.2 an2 /rink iss-es in e7a.-atin+ 9-/.ic 9o.icies" Tho-+h .istenin+ to 2e/aters ta.k is somewhat 2isconcertin+ ,or a .a* 9ersonH ,ami.iarit* with these conce9ts is an essentia. means o, connectin+ the research the* 2o with the e7a.-ation o, o9tions con,rontin+ citiOens an2 2ecision makers in 9o.itica. an2 socia. conteCts" This ,ami.iarit* is 2irect.* re.ate2 to the moti7ation an2 the a/i.it* to +et in7o.7e2 in iss-es an2 contro7ersies o, 9-/.ic im9ortance" A thir2 9oint a/o-t iso.ation ,rom the rea. wor.2 is that #0it'h=#i&e &e)ate &e"e%op# ha)it# o the !in& an& in#ti%%# a %i e%on( pattern o 'riti'a% a##e##!ent. 0t-2ents who ha7e 2e/ate2 /oth si2es o, a to9ic are /etter 7otersH De.. writesH /eca-se o, Mtheir ha/it o, ana.*Oin+ /oth si2es /e,ore ,ormin+ a conc.-sion"M UU OLNei..H )a*cock an2 0ca.esH res9on2in+ in 9art to Roose7e.tLs in2ictmentH iterate2 the /asic 9osition in 16&1: 0ki.. in the -se o, ,acts an2 in,erences a7ai.a/.e ma* /e +aine2 on either si2e o, a K-estion witho-t re+ar2 to con7ictions" Instr-ction an2 9ractice in 2e/ate sho-.2 +i7e *o-n+ men this ski.." An2 where these matters are 9ro9er.* han2.e2H stress is not .ai2 on +ettin+ the s9eaker to think ri+ht.* in re+ar2 to the merits o, either si2e o, these K-estionsN/-t to think acc-rate.* on /oth si2es"UU Reasons ,or not takin+ a 9osition co-nter to oneLs /e.ie,s ;iso.ation ,rom the Mrea. wor.2HM so9histr*< are .ar+e.* o-twei+he2 /* the /ene,it o, s-ch menta. ha/its thro-+ho-t an in2i7i2-a.Ls .i,e " The Dar+onH strate+iesH an2 techniK-es ma* /e a.ienatin+ to Mo-tsi2ersHM /-t the* are a.so 9ara2oCica..* inte+rati7e as we.." ?.a*in+ the +ame o, 2e/ate in7o.7es certain ski..sH inc.-2in+ research an2 9o.ic* e7a.-ationH that e7o.7e a.on+ with a 2e/aterLs conscio-sness o, the com9.eCities o, mora. an2 9o.itica. 2i.emmas" This conce9t-a.

2e7e.o9ment is a /asis ,or the ,ormation o, i2eas an2 re.ationa. thinkin+ necessar* ,or e,,ecti7e 9-/.ic 2ecision makin+H makin+ e7en the +ame o, 2e/ate a si+ni,icant /ene,it in so.7in+ rea. wor.2 9ro/.ems"

ENDI 2010 Framework

23

1@BRA@I<M +OOD TO@ERANCE

Their a%ternati"e to p%$ra%i#! i# to #i%en'e an& e8'%$&e (ro$p# o peop%e. ,arri(an 2D ;$ase*H Associate Director o, De/ate at A4AH MasterQs in $omm-nications Wake Forest A"H FA De,ense o, 0witch 0i2e De/ateGH MasterQs thesis at Wake ForestH De9artment o, $omm-nicationH Ma*H 9"'&< The re.e7ance o, ar+-mentation ,or a27ancin+ to.erant 9o.itics cannot /e -n2erestimate2" The wi..in+ness to /e o9en to a.ternati7e 7iews has a materia. im9act on 2i,,erence in at .east two 9rimar* wa*s" FirstH the ren2erin+ o, a certain /e.ie, as Fo,, .imitsG ,rom 2e/ate an2 the 9rohi/ition o, i2eas ,rom the rea.m o, contestation is conce9t-a..* in2istinct ,rom the 9h*sica. eCc.-sion o, 9eo9.e ,rom societa. 9ractices" An.ike racia. or +en2ere2 concernsH certain +ro-9s o, 9eo9.e ;the re.i+io-sH minorit* 9o.itica. 9artiesH etc"< are 2e,ine2 a.most eCc.-si7e.* /* the ar+-ments that the* a2here to" To 2eem these 7iews -ns9eaka/.e or irre.e7ant is to ,-nctiona..* 2en* who.e +ro-9s o, 9eo9.e access to 9-/.ic 2e.i/eration " 0econ2H ar+-mentH as in2i7i2-a. a27ocac*H is an eC9ression o, /e.ie," It has the 9otentia. to 9ers-a2e mem/ers o, the 9-/.ic to either s-99ort or o99ose 9ro+ressi7e 9o.itics" >e.ie, itse., is an acc-rate in2icator o, the wa* in2i7i2-a.s wi.. chose to actNwith 7er* rea. im9.ications ,or o9ennessH 2i7ersit* an2 accommo2ation" Th-sH as a 9rec-rsor to actionH ar+-ment is an essentia. startin+ 9oint ,or cam9ai+ns o, to.erance"

ENDI 2010 Framework

25

<WITC,=<IDE DE4ATE KT 1O@ITICA@ EN+A+EMENT

<<D tea'he# ho0 to 0or5 0ith the po%iti'a% #phere &e)atin( ro! 'on"i'tion 'annot 'reate !ateria% 'han(e#. ,arri(an 2D ;$ase*H Associate Director o, De/ate at A4AH MasterQs in $omm-nications Wake Forest A"H FA De,ense o, 0witch 0i2e De/ateGH MasterQs thesis at Wake ForestH De9artment o, $omm-nicationH Ma*H 99"&61'1< Thir2H there is an im9ortant K-estion o, means" E7en the /est acti7ist intentions ha7e .itt.e 9ractica. -ti.it* as .on+ as the* remain 9-re.* cor2one2 o,, in the rea.m o, theoretica. a/stractions" $reatin+ 9ro+rams o, action that seek to 9ro2-ce materia. chan+es in the K-a.it* o, .i,e ,or s-,,erin+ 9eo9.eH not mere wish,-. thinkin+ in the i7or* towers o, aca2emiaH sho-.2 /e the +oa. o, an* re7o.-tionar* 9roDect" FreK-ent.*H ,or strate+ies ,or chan+eH the 2e7i. .ies in the 2etai.s" It is not 9ossi/.e to sim9.* c.ick oneQs r-/* re2 s.i99ers
to+ether an2 wish ,or a.ternati7es to come into /ein+" )ackin+ a 9.a-si/.e mechanism to enact re,ormsH man* ha7e criticiOe2 critica. theor* as /ein+ a F,ata..* ,.awe2 enter9riseG ;Jones 1666<" For acti7istsH .earnin+ the ski..s to s-ccess,-..* ne+otiate haOar2o-s 9o.itica. terrain is

cr-cia." The* m-st know when to an2 when not to com9romiseH ne+otiateH an2 strike 9o.itica. a..iances in or2er to /e s-ccess,-." The 9-re n-m/er o, ,ai.e2 mo7ements in the 9ast se7era. 2eca2es 2emonstrates the se7erit* o, the risk ass-me2 /* +ro-9s who 2o not ,oc-s on re,inin+ their 9re,erre2 means o, chan+e" 4i7en the im9ortance o, strate+ies ,or chan+eH 00D is e7en more cr-cia." De/aters traine2 /* 2e/atin+ /oth si2es are s-/stantia..* more .ike.* to /e e,,ecti7e a27ocates than those eC9erience2 on.* in ar+-in+ on /eha., o, their own con7ictions" For se7era. reasonsH 00D insti..s a series o, 9ractices that are essentia. ,or a s-ccess,-. acti7ist a+en2a" FirstH 00D creates more know.e2+ea/.e a27ocates ,or 9-/.ic 9o.ic* iss-es" As 9art o, the 9rocess o,
.earnin+ to ar+-e /oth si2esH 2e/aters are ,orce2 to -n2erstan2 the intricacies o, m-.ti9.e si2es o, the ar+-ment consi2ere2" De/aters m-st not on.* know how to research an2 s9eak on /eha., o, their own 9ersona. con7ictionsH /-t a.so ,or the o99osite si2e in or2er to 2e,en2 a+ainst attacks o, that 9osition" Th-sH when 9.ace2 in the 9osition o, /ein+ reK-ire2 to 9-/.ic.* 2e,en2 an ar+-mentH st-2ents traine2 7ia 00D are more .ike.* to /e a/.e to 9resent an2 9ers-asi7e.* 2e,en2 their 9ositions" 0econ2H .earnin+ the n-ances o, a.. si2es o, a 9osition +reat.* stren+thens the res-.tin+ con7ictions o, 2e/atersH their a/i.it* to antici9ate o99osin+ ar+-mentsH an2 the e,,ecti7eness o, their attem9ts to .ocate the cr-CH neC-s an2 .oci o, ar+-ments" As is note2 ear.ierH con7iction is a res-.tH not a 9rereK-isite o, 2e/ate" 0witchin+ si2es an2 eC9erimentin+ with 9ossi/.e ar+-ments ,or an2 a+ainst contro7ersia. iss-esH in the en2H makes st-2ents more .ike.* to +ro-n2 their /e.ie,s in a reasone2 ,orm o, critica. thinkin+ that is 2-ra/.e an2 -ns-sce9ti/.e to knee1Derk criticisms" As a res-.tH e7en tho-+h it ma* a99ear to /e inconsistent with a27ocac*H 00D Fact-a..* create2 stron+er a27ocatesG that are more .ike.* to /e s-ccess,-. in achie7in+ their +oa.s ;D*/7i+ an2 I7erson 2000<" ?ro9onents o, a/an2onin+ 00D an2 ret-rnin+ to 2e/atin+ ,rom con7iction sho-.2 take note" An2o-/te2.*H man* o, their i2eas wo-.2 /e /ene,icia. i, enacte2 an2 2eser7e the s-99ort o, acti7ist ener+ies" =owe7erH anti100D critics seem to ha7e +i7en .itt.e tho-+ht to the im9ortant K-estion o, how to trans.ate +oo2 i2eas into 9ractice" >* teachin+ st-2ents to 9ri7i.e+e their own 9ersona. /e.ie,s 9rior to a thoro-+h en+a+ement with a.. si2es o, an iss-eH 2e/atin+ ,rom con7iction 9ro2-ces acti7ists that are more .ike.* to /e 9o.itica..* im9otent" >* 9ositin+ that 2e/aters sho-.2 /rin+ 9rior /e.ie,s to the ta/.e in a ri+i2 manner an2 ass-min+ that com9romisin+ is tantamo-nt to +i7in+ in to coo9tationH the case o, 2e/atin+ ,rom con7iction -n2erc-ts the tactics necessar*

,or ,or+in+ e,,ecti7e coa.itiona. 9o.itics" Witho-t s-ch /roa21/ase2 a..iancesH s-staina/.e 9o.itica. chan+es wi.. .ike.* /e im9ossi/.e ;>est P Ke..ner 2001<"

ENDI 2010 Framework

26

*** <TATE=FOCB< 4AD AN<WER< *** 2NC 1O@ICA=RE@EVANT DE4ATE< +OOD

1o%i'-=re%e"ant &e)ate i# e##entia% to &ea% 0ith threat# o !a## "io%en'e. Ment%e#on 22 ;>r-ceH Dir" Terr* 0an,or2 Instit-te o, ?-/.ic ?o.ic* an2 ?ro," ?-/.ic ?o.ic* an2 ?o." 0ci" D-keH Internationa. 0ec-rit*H FThe Nee2 ,or ?raCis: >rin+in+ ?o.ic* Re.e7ance >ack InGH 2!;'<H 09rin+H 9" 152115&< >rin+in+ 9o.ic* re.e7ance /ack in th-s 2oes not mean 2ri7in+ theor* o-t" Internationa. Or+aniOationH Wor.2 ?o.iticsH Internationa. 0ec-rit*H an2 the American ?o.itica. 0cience Re7iew sho-.2 contin-e to ha7e 2istinct missions ,rom Forei+n A,,airsH Forei+n ?o.ic*H an2 the .ike" >-t that 2istinction sho-.2 /e in terms o, how 9o.ic* 9ro/.ems are a99roache2H not whether attention is 9ai2 to them" 4reater 9ri2e o, 9.ace nee2s to /e +i7en to research K-estions 2e,ine2 in 9o.ic* terms" What 2ri7es terrorismT Which strate+ies can /e most e,,ecti7e in 2eterrin+ itH 2e,eatin+ itH containin+ itT =ow /etter to .ink ,orce an2 2i9.omac*T What a/o-t 9re7entionH an2 K-estions raise2 a/o-t re2-cin+ an2 co-nterin+ the 9o.itica.H socia.H an2 economic 2*namics that ,oster an2 ,ee2 terrorismT >e*on2 D-st +enera. ar+-ments a/o-t -ni.atera.ism an2 m-.ti.atera.ismH what strate+ies an2 str-ct-res can /est achie7e the +oa.s o, 9eaceH sec-rit*H sta/i.it*H an2 D-sticeT These are a.. 0e9tem/er 11 K-estionsN
com9ara/.e 2e.ineations co-.2 /e 2rawn ,or those other areas o, the internationa. a+en2a that were there on 0e9tem/er 10 an2 ha7e not +one awa*" The 2eman2 ,or 9o.ic* re.e7ant research is h-+eI it is the s-99.* that is .a++in+" This sense o, 9raCis a.so nee2s to resha9e +ra2-ate 9ro+rams" A ?h"D" in 9o.itica. science or internationa. re.ations sho-.2 9re9are st-2ents ,or se.ecte2 nonaca2emic 9o.ic* careers as we.. as aca2emic careers" $-rric-.-ms nee2 to ha7e a +reater 2e+ree o, ,.eCi/i.it* an2 9.-ra.ism with 2isci9.inar* trainin+ sti.. at the core /-t a.so +i7in+ +reater wei+ht to s-/stanti7e 2e9th an2 /rea2th o,

" 4reater en+a+ement o-tsi2e the aca2em* nee2s to /e ,ostere2 an2 enco-ra+e2: internshi9s in Washin+ton or with internationa. or+aniOations or non+o7ernmenta. or+aniOationsH 9artici9ation in co..oK-i-ms not D-st with note2 aca2emics /-t
know.e2+e a/o-t 9o.ic* iss-es an2 2omainsH a/o-t re+ions an2 co-ntriesH a/o-t c-.t-res an2 .an+-a+es an2 histories with eminent 9o.ic* eC9ertsH an2 2issertation an2 research 9roDects that .ea2 to immersion in ke* 9o.ic* iss-es whether historica. or contem9orar*" Nor is this D-st a matter o, a2a9tin+ c-rric-.-ms" It is as m-ch a/o-t the messa+es sentH eC9.icit.* an2 im9.icit.*H in the settin+ o, eC9ectations an2 other as9ects o, the socia.iOation that is so m-ch a 9art o, the +ra2-ate schoo. eC9erience" None o, this wi.. ha7e m-ch im9act -n.ess the aca2emic Do/ market a.so shi,ts towar2 com9ara/.e /a.ance an2 9.-ra.ism in the 9ro,i.es /ein+ so-+ht ,or entr*1.e7e. ,ac-.t*" A.soH a st-2ent who takes his or her ?h"D" into a career

" 4reater en+a+ement with an2 eC9erience in the 9o.ic* wor.2 is to /e enco-ra+e2 at a.. sta+es o, a career" There are man* o99ort-nitiesNan2 there can /e moreNto he.9 /roa2en 9ers9ecti7esH /-i.2 re.ationshi9s an2 test an2 shar9en ar+-ments an2 /e.ie,s in
in the 9o.ic* wor.2 nee2s to /e seen as another t*9e o, 9.acement s-ccessH not a 9.acement ,ai.-re constr-cti7e wa*s" The same is tr-e ,or en+a+in+ as a 9-/.ic inte..ect-a. in the wa*s an2 on the terms 2isc-sse2 ear.ier" A.timate.* it is a/o-t an ethicH a/o-t what is 7a.-e2H a/o-t how 9ro,essiona. s-ccess

" I am a+ain remin2e2 o, a statement /* %ac.a7 =a7e.H this 9.a*wri+ht t-rne2 9o.itica. 2issi2ent t-rne2 .ea2er o, his co-ntr*Qs .i/eration ,rom comm-nism an2 mo7e towar2 2emocratiOationH in his 1660 s9eech to a Doint session o, the A"0" $on+ress: FI am not the ,irstH nor wi.. I /e the .astH inte..ect-a. to 2o this" On the contrar*H m* ,ee.in+ is that there wi.. /e more an2 more o, them a.. the time" I, the ho9e o, the wor.2 .ies in h-man conscio-snessH then it is o/7io-s that inte..ect-a.s cannot +o on ,ore7er a7oi2in+ their share o, res9onsi/i.it* ,or the wor.2 an2 hi2in+ their 2istaste ,or 9o.itics -n2er an a..e+e2 nee2 to /e in2e9en2ent" It is eas* to ha7e in2e9en2ence in *o-r 9ro+ram an2 then .ea7e others to carr* that 9ro+ram o-t" I, e7er*one tho-+ht that wa*H 9rett* soon no one wo-.2 /e in2e9en2ent"G&&
an2 9ersona. ,-.,i..ment are 2e,ine2

1$)%i' &e)ate i# e##entia% or e e'ti"e%- 'hanne%in( the#e po%i'- >$e#tion#. @a#'h ./E ;$hristo9herH 0ocia. $ritic an2 A-thorH FThe Re7o.t o, the E.ites an2 the >etra*a. o, Democrac*GH 9" 1!211!&< As ,or the c.aim that the in,ormation re7o.-tion wo-.2 raise the .e7e. o, 9-/.ic inte..i+enceH it is no secret that the 9-/.ic knows .ess a/o-t 9-/.ic a,,airs than it -se2 to know" Mi..ions o, Americans cannot /e+in to te.. *o- what is in the >i.. o, Ri+htsH what $on+ress 2oesH what the $onstit-tion sa*s a/o-t the 9owers o, the 9resi2enc*H how the 9art* s*stem emer+e2 or how it o9erates" A siOa/.e maDorit*H accor2in+ to a recent s-r7e*H /e.ie7e that Israe. is an Ara/ nation" Instea2 o, /.amin+ the schoo.s ,or this 2isheartenin+ i+norance o, 9-/.ic a,,airsH as is the c-stomH we sho-.2 .ook e.sewhere ,or a ,-..er eC9.anationH /earin+ in min2 that 9eo9.e rea2i.* acK-ire s-ch know.e2+e as the* can 9-t to +oo2 -se" 0ince the 9-/.ic no .on+er 9artici9ates in 2e/ates on nationa. iss-esH it has no reason to in,orm itse., a/o-t ci7ic a,,airs" It is the 2eca* o, 9-/.ic 2e/ateH not the schoo. s*stem ;/a2 as it is<H that makes the 9-/.ic i.. in,orme2H not1withstan2in+ the won2ers o, the a+e o, in,ormation" When 2e/ate /ecomes a .ost artH in,ormationH e7en tho-+h it ma* /e rea2i.* a7ai.a/.eH makes no im9ression" What 2emocrac* reK-ires is 7i+oro-s 9-/.ic 2e/ateH not in,ormation" O, co-rseH it nee2s in,ormation tooH /-t the kin2 o, in,ormation it nee2s can /e +enerate2 on.* /* 2e/ate" We 2o not know what we nee2 to know -nti. we ask the ri+ht K-estionsH an2 we can i2enti,* the ri+ht K-estions on.* /* s-/Dectin+ o-r own i2eas a/o-t the wor.2 to the test o, 9-/.ic contro7ers*" In,ormationH -s-a..* seen as the 9recon2ition o, 2e/ateH is /etter -n2erstoo2 as its /*19ro2-ct" When we +et into ar+-ments that ,oc-s an2 ,-..* en+a+e o-r attentionH we /ecome a7i2 seekers o, re.e7ant in,ormation" Otherwise we take in in,ormation 9assi7e.*Ni, we take it in at a.."

ENDI 2010 Framework

&0

2NC 1O@ICA=RE@EVANT DE4ATE< +OOD

An&6 that.# e#pe'ia%%- tr$e in the 'onte8t o IR. Mo-ner .// ;$hristo9herH ?ro," I1)aw 4eor+etown A"H I)0A Jo-rna. o, Internationa. P $om9arati7e )awH FTEA$=IN4 INTERNATIONA) )AW: %IEW0 FROM AN INTERNATIONA) RE)ATION0 ?O)ITI$A) 0$IENTI0TGH @ I)0A J IntL. P $om9 ) &33H 09rin+H )8N< >* assessin+ the ro.e o, internationa. .aw in Anite2 0tates ,orei+n 9o.ic*1 makin+H st-2ents rea.iOe that Anite2 0tates actions 2o not a.wa*s meas-re -9 to internationa. .e+a. eC9ectationsI that at timesH internationa. .e+a. strict-res +et com9romise2 ,or the sake o, 9ercei7e2 nationa. interestsH an2 that conce9ts an2 9rinci9.es o, internationa. .awH .ike 2omestic .awH can /e inter9rete2 an2 twiste2 in or2er to D-sti,* Anite2 0tates 9o.ic* in 7ario-s internationa. circ-mstances" In this wa*H the 2e/ate ,ormat +i7es st-2ents the /ene,its ascri/e2 to sim-.ations an2 other action .earnin+ techniK-esH in that it makes them /ecome acti7e.* en+a+e2 with their s-/DectsH an2 not /e mere 9assi7e cons-mers" Rather than s9ectatorsH st-2ents /ecome .e+a. a27ocatesH o/ser7in+H reactin+ toH an2 str-ct-rin+ 9o.itica. an2 .e+a. 9erce9tions to ,it the merits o, their case" The 2e/ate eCercises carr* se7era. s9eci,ic e2-cationa. o/Decti7es" FirstH st-2ents on each team m-st work to+ether to re,ine a co+ent ar+-ment that com9e..in+.* asserts their .e+a. 9osition on a ,orei+n 9o.ic* iss-e con,rontin+ the Anite2 0tates" In this wa*H the* +ain +reater insi+ht into the rea.1wor.2 .e+a. 2i.emmas ,ace2 /* 9o.ic* makers" 0econ2H as the* work with other mem/ers o, their teamH the* rea.iOe the com9.eCities o, a99.*in+ an2 im9.ementin+ internationa. .awH an2 the 2i,,ic-.t* o, /ri2+in+ the +a9s /etween Anite2 0tates 9o.ic* an2 internationa. .e+a. 9rinci9.esH either /* reworkin+ the ,ormer or creati7e.* reinter9retin+ the .atter" Fina..*H research ,or the 2e/ates ,orces st-2ents to /ecome ,ami.iariOe2 with contem9orar* iss-es on the Anite2 0tates ,orei+n 9o.ic* a+en2a an2 the ro.e that internationa. .aw 9.a*s in ,orm-.atin+ an2 eCec-tin+ these 9o.icies" n5 The 2e/ate th-s /ecomes an eCce..ent 7ehic.e ,or 9-shin+ st-2ents /e*on2 sta.e ar+-ments o7er 9rinci9.es into the rea. wor.2 o, 9o.ic* ana.*sisH 9o.itica. critiK-eH an2 .e+a. 2e,ense" A 2e/ate eCercise is 9artic-.ar.* s-ite2 to an eCamination o, Anite2 0tates ,orei+n 9o.ic*H which in 9o.itica. science co-rses is -s-a..* st-2ie2 ,rom a theoretica.H o,ten hea7i.* rea.9o.itik 9ers9ecti7e" In s-ch co-rsesH internationa. .e+a. consi2erations are -s-a..* +i7en short shri,tH i, 2isc-sse2 at a.." As a res-.tH st-2ents ma* come to /e.ie7e that internationa. .aw 9.a*s no ro.e in Anite2 0tates ,orei+n 9o.ic*1makin+" In ,actH serio-s consi2eration is -s-a..* 9ai2 /* +o7ernment o,,icia.s to internationa. .aw in the ,orm-.ation o, Anite2 0tates 9o.ic*H a./eit sometimes eC 9ost ,acto as a D-sti,ication ,or 9o.ic*H rather than as a /ona ,i2e 9rior constraint on consi2eration o, 9o.ic* o9tions" In a22itionH .aw*ers are 9rominent a27isers at man* .e7e.s o, the ,orei+n19o.ic*1makin+ 9rocess" 0t-2ents sho-.2 a99reciate the re.e7ance o, internationa. .aw ,or 9ast an2 c-rrent A0 actionsH s-ch as the in7asion o, 4rena2a or the re,-sa. o, the Anite2 0tates to si+n the .aw o, the sea treat* an2 .an2mines con7entionH as we.. as ,or R#&53S h*9othetica. ;tho-+h s-/Dect to 9-/.ic 2isc-ssion< Anite2 0tates 9o.ic* o9tions s-ch as h-ntin+ 2own an2 arrestin+ war crimina.s in >osniaH with2rawin+ ,rom the Anite2 NationsH or assassinatin+ 0a22am =-ssein"

ENDI 2010 Framework

&1

?T CEDE T,E 1O@ITICA@

An&6 &i#en(a(e!ent ro! rea%=0or%& pro)%e!=#o%"in( 'e&e# orei(n po%i'- !a5in( to an $nen'$!)ere& e%ite the i!pa't i# 0ar. Wa%t ./1 ;0te9henH ?ro," IR A" $hica+oH Internationa. 0t-2ies Z-arter.*H FThe Renaissance o, 0ec-rit* 0t-2iesGH &@;2<H J-neH 9" 226< A rec-rrin+ theme o, this essa* has /een the twin 2an+ers o, se9aratin+ the st-2* o, sec-rit* a,,airs ,rom the aca2emic wor.2 or o, shi,tin+ the ,oc-s o, aca2emic scho.arshi9 too ,ar ,rom rea.1wor.2 iss-es" The 2an+er o, war wi.. /e with -s ,or some time to comeH an2 states wi.. contin-e to acK-ire mi.itar* ,orces ,or a 7ariet* o, 9-r9oses" An.ess one /e.ie7es that i+norance is 9re,era/.e to eC9ertiseH the 7a.-e o, in2e9en2ent nationa. sec-rit* scho.ars sho-.2 /e a99arent" In2ee2H histor* s-++ests that co-ntries that s-99ress 2e/ate on nationa. sec-rit* matters are more .ike.* to /.-n2er into 2isasterH /eca-se mis+-i2e2 9o.icies cannot /e e7a.-ate2 an2 sto99e2 in time"' [ As in other areas o, 9-/.ic 9o.ic*H aca2emic eC9erts in sec-rit* st-2ies can he.9 in se7era. wa*s" In the short termH aca2emics are we.. 9.ace2 to e7a.-ate c-rrent 9ro+ramsH /eca-se the* ,ace .ess 9ress-re to s-99ort o,,icia. 9o.ic*" '1 The .on+1term e,,ects o, aca2emic in7o.7ement ma* /e e7en more si+ni,icant: aca2emic research can he.9 states .earn ,rom 9ast mistakes an2 can 9ro7i2e the theoretica. inno7ations that 9ro2-ce /etter 9o.ic* choices in the ,-t-re" F-rthermoreH their ro.e in trainin+ the new +eneration o, eC9erts +i7es aca2emics an a22itiona. a7en-e o, in,.-ence" Ass-min+ the* 9er,orm these tasks res9onsi/.*H aca2emics wi.. ha7e a 9ositi7e a./eit +ra2-a.1im9act on how states 2ea. with the 9ro/.em o, war in the ,-t-re" In or!e& &e)ate ($i&e& )- rea%=0or%& pro)%e! #o%"in( 'he'5# e%iti#t 'ontro% 0hi'h 'reate# orei(n po%i'- &i#a#ter#. Wa%t ./1 ;0te9henH ?ro," IR A" $hica+oH Internationa. 0t-2ies Z-arter.*H FThe Renaissance o, 0ec-rit* 0t-2iesGH &@;2<H J-neH 9" 2&112&2< A secon2 norm is re.e7anceH a /e.ie, that e7en hi+h.* a/stract .ines o, inK-ir* sho-.2 /e +-i2e2 /* the +oa. o, so.7in+ rea.1 wor.2 9ro/.ems" >eca-se the 7a.-e o, a +i7en a99roach ma* not /e a99arent at the /e+innin+1+ame theor* is an o/7io-s eCam9.e1we cannot insist that a new a99roach /e imme2iate.* a99.ica/.e to a s9eci,ic research 9-OO.e" On the who.eH howe7erH the /e.ie, that scho.arshi9 in sec-rit* a,,airs sho-.2 /e .inke2 to rea.1wor.2 iss-es has 9re7ente2 the ,ie.2 ,rom 2e+eneratin+ into se.,1in2-.+ent inte..ect-a.iOin+" An2 ,rom the 4o.2en A+e to the 9resentH sec-rit* st-2ies has 9ro/a/.* ha2 more rea.1wor.2 im9actH ,or +oo2 or i..H than most areas o, socia. science" Fina..*H the renaissance o, sec-rit* st-2ies has /een +-i2e2 /* a commitment to 2emocratic 2isco-rse" Rather than con,inin+ 2isc-ssion o, sec-rit* iss-es to an e.ite +ro-9 o, the /est an2 /ri+htestH scho.ars in the renaissance ha7e +enera..* we.come2 a more ,-..* in,orme2 2e/ate" To 9ara9hrase 4.emencea-H iss-es o, war an2 9eace are too im9ortant to /e .e,t so.e.* to insi2ers with a 7este2 interest in the o-tcome" The +rowth o, sec-rit* st-2ies within -ni7ersities is one si+n o, /roa2er 9artici9ationH a.on+ with increase2 a7ai.a/i.it* o, in,ormation an2 more accessi/.e 9-/.ications ,or intereste2 citiOens" A.tho-+h this 7iew is /* no means -ni7ersa.H the renaissance o, sec-rit* st-2ies has /een sha9e2 /* the /e.ie, that a we..1in,orme2 2e/ate is the /est wa* to a7oi2 the 2isasters that are .ike.* when nationa. 9o.ic* is mono9o.iOe2 /* a ,ew se.,1intereste2 9arties" A)&i'atin( &e)ate o"er #tate po%i'- &oe#n.t 'ha%%en(e the #tate )$t &enie# #'r$tin- to the 0or#t o #tate a'tion open &e)ate i# 5e- to &e!o'ra'-. Wa%t ./1 ;0te9henH ?ro," IR A" $hica+oH Internationa. 0t-2ies Z-arter.*H FThe Renaissance o, 0ec-rit* 0t-2iesGH &@;2<H J-neH 9" 225< E,,orts to shie.2 +o7ernment 9o.ic* ,rom o-tsi2e e7a.-ation 9ose a +ra7e threat to scho.arshi9 in the ,ie.2" No 2o-/t some +o7ernment o,,icia.s wo-.2 .ike to 2en* or2inar* citiOens the o99ort-nit* to scr-tiniOe their con2-ctI as a centra. 9art o, that e7a.-ati7e 9rocessH the scho.ar.* 9ro,ession sho-.2 resist this e,,ort who.ehearte2.*" The 2an+er +oes /e*on2 the interests o, an* 9artic-.ar s-/,ie.2I restrictin+ in,ormation threatens the 9-/.ic 2e/ate that is centra. to 2emocrac* an2 essentia. to so-n2 9o.ic*" E7ents as 2i7erse as the >a* o, ?i+s in7asionH the Iran8contra a,,airH an2 the tro-/.e2 2e7e.o9ment o, the >12 /om/er remin2 -s that eCcessi7e secrec* a..ows i..concei7e2 9ro+rams to s-r7i7e -ncorrecte2" Instea2 o, .imitin+ the st-2* o, sec-rit* iss-es to a se.ect +ro-9 o, o,,icia. MeC9ertsHM there,oreH o9en 2e/ate on nationa. sec-rit* matters m-st /e 9reser7e2" 0-ch a 2e/ate reK-ires that scho.ars retain access to a re.ia/.e an2 com9.ete 2ata /ase"

ENDI 2010 Framework

&2

?T T,EORETICA@ DE4ATE< C,AN+E NOT,IN+

We !$#t &e)ate a)o$t (o"ern!ent po%i'- a)#tra't 'riti'i#! theori9e# a'a&e!ia into irre%e"an'e 0hi'h t$rn# their rea% 0or%& 'han(e ar($!ent#. Ment%e#on 22 ;>r-ceH Director o, the Terr* 0an,or2 Instit-te o, ?-/.ic ?o.ic* an2 ?ro,essor o, ?-/.ic ?o.ic* an2 ?o.itica. 0cience at D-keH Internationa. 0ec-rit*H FThe Nee2 ,or ?raCis: >rin+in+ ?o.ic* Re.e7ance >ack InGH %o.-me 2!H Iss-e 'H 9" 1!61130H ?roDect M-se< To /e s-reH 9o.itica. science an2 internationa. re.ations ha7e 9ro2-ce2 an2 contin-e to 9ro2-ce scho.ar.* work that 2oes /rin+ im9ortant 9o.ic* insi+hts" 0ti.. it is har2 to 2en* that contem9orar* 9o.itica. science an2 internationa. re.ations as a 2isci9.ine 9-t .imite2 7a.-e on 9o.ic* re.e7anceNtoo .itt.eH in m* 7iewH an2 the 2isci9.ine s-,,ers ,or it" 1 The 9ro/.em is not D-st the +a9 /etween theor* an2 9o.ic* /-t its chasm.ike wi2enin+ in recent *ears an2 the .imite2 7a.-ation o, e,,ortsH in A.eCan2er 4eor+eLs 9hraseH at M/ri2+in+ the +a9"M 2 The REn2 ?a+e 1!6S e7ents o, 0e9tem/er 11 2ri7e home the nee2 to /rin+ 9o.ic* re.e7ance /ack in to the 2isci9.ineH to seek +reater 9raCis /etween theor* an2 9ractice" This is not to sa* that scho.ars sho-.2 take -9 the a+en2as o, think tanksH Do-rna.istsH acti7istsH or ,ast ,aC o9erations" The aca2em*Ls a+en2a is an2 sho-.2 /e 9rinci9a..* a more scho.ar.* one" >-t theor* can /e 7a.-e2 witho-t 9o.ic* re.e7ance /ein+ so -n2er7a.-e2" DichotomiOation a.on+ the .ines o, MweM 2o theor* an2 Mthe*M 2o 9o.ic* consi+ns internationa. re.ations scho.ars a.most eCc.-si7e.* to an intra2isci9.inar* 2ia.o+-e an2 9-r9oseH with con7ersations an2 know.e2+e /-i.2in+ that whi.e hi+h.* inte..ect-a. are eCcessi7e.* ins-.ar an2 2isconnecte2 ,rom the em9irica. rea.ities that are the 2isci9.ineLs raison 2L\tre" This st-nts the contri/-tions that -ni7ersitiesH one o, societ*Ls most essentia. instit-tionsH can make in 2ea.in+ with the 9ro,o-n2 9ro/.ems an2 cha..en+es societ* ,aces" It a.so is co-nter9ro2-cti7e to the aca2em*Ls own interests" Research an2 scho.arshi9 are /ettere2 /* 9-shin+ ana.*sis an2 .o+ic /e*on2 D-st o,,erin+ -9 a ,ew 9ara+ra9hs on im9.ications ,or 9o.ic* at the en2 o, a ,ort*19a+e artic.eH as i, a Mrit-a.istic a22en2-m"M & Teachin+ is enhance2 when st-2entsL interest in Mrea. wor.2M iss-es is en+a+e2 in wa*s that rein,orce the ar+-ment that theor* rea..* is re.e7antH an2 $NN is not eno-+h" There a.so are +ains to /e ma2e ,or the scho.ar.* comm-nit*Ls stan2in+ as 9ercei7e2 /* those o-tsi2e the aca2emic wor.2H constit-encies an2 co..ea+-es whose o9inions too o,ten are se.,1ser7in+.* 2eni+rate2 an2 2e,ensi7e.* 2isre+ar2e2" It th-s is /oth ,or the hea.th o, the 2isci9.ine an2 to ,-.,i.. its /roa2er societa. res9onsi/i.ities that +reater 9raCis is to /e 9-rs-e2"

ENDI 2010 Framework

&&

A2J TEC,NOCRATIC 1O@ITIC<

1o%i'- &e)ate #$)"ert# te'hno'rati' &o!inan'e o p$)%i' &i#'o$r#e re"er#in( po0er re%ation#. K$%-n-'h ./C ;JessicaH ?ro,essor o, ?o.itica. 0cience at Winthro9 Ani7ersit*H ?o.it*H F?er,ormin+ ?o.itics: Fo-ca-.tH =a/ermasH an2 ?ostmo2ern ?artici9ationGH &0;2< WinterH 9" &''1&'@< When we .ook at the s-ccess o, citiOen initiati7es ,rom a 9er,ormati7e 9ers9ecti7eH we .ook 9recise.* at those moments o, 2e,iance an2 2isr-9tion that /rin+ the in7isi/.e an2 -nima+ina/.e into 7iew" A.tho-+h citiOens were minima..* s-ccess,-. in in,.-encin+ or contro..in+ the o-tcome o, the 9o.ic* 2e/ate an2 eC9erience2 a consi2era/.e .ack o, a-tonom* in their coercion into the technica. 2e/ateH the +oa.1oriente2 2e/ate within the ener+* commissions co-.2 /e seen as a 2e,iant moment o, 9er1,ormati7e 9o.itics" The eCistence o, a +oa.1oriente2 2e/ate within a technica..* 2ominate2 arena 2e,ie2 the norma.iOin+ se9aration /etween eC9ert 9o.ic*makers an2 cons-min+ citiOens" $itiOens momentari.* recreate2 themse.7es as 9o.ic*makers in a s*stem that 2e,ine2 citiOens o-t o, the 9o.ic* 9rocessH there/* re,-sin+ their constr-ction as 9assi7e c.ients" The 2isr-9ti7e 9otentia. o, the ener+* commissions contin-es to 2e,* technica. /-rea-crac* e7en whi.e their 2ecisions are non1/in2in+"

ENDI 2010 Framework

&'

A2J <ERIE@ 1O@ICA FAI@BRE KDI@@ON AND REID*

<erie% po%i'- ai%$re i# an a)#$r& ar($!ent. ,ere.# a %i#t o (%o)a% po%i'ie# that 0ere ,I+,@A e e'ti"e in a'hie"in( their (oa%# = In 1/6C the Wor%& ,ea%th Or(ani9ation %a$n'he& the <!a%%po8 Era&i'ation 1ro(ra!. Cir'%e "a''ination# an& a (%o)a%%- 'oor&inate& in or!ation 'a!pai(n era&i'ate& the &i#ea#e in 1/CC. No 'a#e# #in'e then. = In 1/CD Vietna! in"a&e& Ca!)o&ia an& &epo#e& the Kh!er Ro$(e re(i!e. Thi# e e'ti"e%- en&e& a (eno'i&e that era&i'ate& a h$(e #e'tion o the pop$%ation. = In the 1//0# C%inton a'te& a# a thir& part- to he%p !e&iate the +oo& Fri&a- A''or&6 0hi'h en&e& the tro$)%e# in Ire%an&. De'a&e# o &eath an& terrori#! #toppe& 0ith a 1@ANNED TRAN<ITION o (o"ern!ent. Ao$ #ho$%& re7e't thi# ar($!ent a# non= a%#i ia)%e non#en#e. O 'o$r#e 0e 'an.t 5no0 e"er- po##i)%e o$t'o!e or ran&o! intera'tion )$t the a't that h$!an )ein(# e"er p%an an& #$''ee& in e8e'$tin( e"en the )a#i'# o &ai%%i e pro"e# their ar($!ent i# #i%%-. +%o)a% tren&# pro"i&e #$pport. Vio%en'e i# &e'%inin(. Co$rier Mai% 2C ;Wi..iam WestH Michae. 0tee.eH Mike $.arkeH 4raeme Ro/ertson an2 A.eCan2er TaranH F>a2H /-t itLs not a.. DOOMGH 1211H )8N< Wars are on the 2ec.ine WhatLs ha99enin+: IraKH A,+hanistan an2 terrorism ma* 2ominate the hea2.inesH /-t otherwiseH 9o.itica. 7io.ence has /een hea2e2 2ownhi.. since the ear.* 1660s" The n-m/er o, wars in7o.7in+ statesH an2 the 2eaths the* 2irect.* ca-seH has 2ecrease2 2ramatica..*" The statistics: >etween 1662 an2 200&H the n-m/er o, arme2 con,.icts in7o.7in+ a +o7ernment ,e.. more than '0 9er centH an2 the worst o, those con,.icts with more than 1000 2eaths 2ecrease2 /* 50 9er centH accor2in+ to the =-man 0ec-rit* $entre in $ana2a" An2 the n-m/er o, 2eaths in con,.icts 2ro99e2 ,rom near.* 300H000 in 16@0 to a/o-t 2@H000 in 2002H es9ecia..* remarka/.e since the wor.2Ls 9o9-.ation more than 2o-/.e2 in that time" A.so worth notin+ is that a.tho-+h the n-m/er o, co-ntries has more than tri9.e2 since Wor.2 War IIH inter1nation war now in7o.7es .ess than @ 9er cent o, con,.icts" In ,actH the 9ost116'@ 9erio2 is the .on+est stretch in cent-ries that hasnLt ,eat-re2 a war /etween maDor 9owers" The reasons: The 0o7iet Anion an2 co.onia.ism were swe9t into the 2-st/in o, histor*" With the en2 o, the $o.2 War came the en2 o, 2e7e.o9in+1wor.2 9roC* wars /etween the A00R an2 the Anite2 0tates" As the co.onia. era wane2H so 2i2 the wars o, in2e9en2enceH which acco-nte2 ,or more than !0 9er cent o, internationa. con,.icts ,rom the 16@0s to ear.* 1650s"

ENDI 2010 Framework

&@

A2J <ERIE@ 1O@ICA FAI@BRE KDI@@ON AND REID*

Whi%e 0e &on.t ha"e a )$%%#e-e on !eanin( an& pre&i'tion# the- are $#e $% eno$(h. The tra'5 re'or& o e!piri'a% internationa% #'ien'e i# #o%i&. ,ar"e- ./C ;FrankH Associate ?ro," ?o." 0ci" Da.ho-sie A"H FThe F-t-reQs >ack: N-c.ear Ri7a.r*H Deterrence Theor*H an2 $risis 0ta/i.it* a,ter the $o.2 WarGH 9" 1&511&6< )in+-istic Re.ati7ism" One a99roach o, 9ostmo2ernists is to 9oint to the com9.eC nat-re o, .an+-a+e an2 meanin+ as a critiK-e o, 9ositi7]ismI this critiK-e isH in t-rnH re.e7ant to the o7erwhe.min+ amo-nt o, work in IR ;?hi..i9s 1633I 4i22ens 1636I 4eor+e an2 $am9/e.. 1660<" A.tho-+h a com9rehensi7e assessment o, the .in+-istic re.ati7ism 2e/ate is /e*on2 the sco9e o, this 9roDectH it is 9ossi/.e to a22ress the -n2er.*in+ 9hi.oso9hica. ar+-mentH which is ,air.* strai+ht,orwar2" >-i.2in+ on the work o, Witt+enstein ;16!5<H the .in+-istic 7ariant o, the criticism conten2s that an* attem9t to re2-ce e7er*2a* terms Mto a sin+-.ar essentia.ist meanin+M is 9ro/.ematic +i7en Mthe m-.ti9.icit* o, meanin+ to /e ,o-n2 in socia. acti7it*M ;4eor+e an2 $am9/e.. 1660H 23&<" >* im9.icationH a conce9tH termH wor2H or s*m/o. cannot corres9on2 Mto some """ eCterna..* 2eri7e2 ,o-n2ation or o/DectM an2 -.ti]mate.* is conteCt12e9en2ent" 0imi.ar.*H ?hi..i9s ar+-es that the 7a.i2it* o, theor* cannot /e 2etermine2 /eca-se MThere is no stan2ar2 or o/Decti7e rea.it* ;a.wa*s ,iCe2H ne7er chan+in+< a+ainst which to com]9are a -ni7erse o, 2isco-rse """ nothin+ eCists o-tsi2e o, o-r .an+-a+e an2 actions which can /e -se2 to D-sti,* """ a statementLs tr-th or ,a.sit*M ;1633H 23&<" O, co-rseH it is not entire.* c.ear how this Mm-.ti9.icit* o, meanin+M is s-,,icient to ren2er meanin+.ess an a99roach that ass-mes the eCistence o, an o/Decti7e rea.it*" An im9ortant 2istinction m-st /e 2rawn /etween the assertion that these 2iscre9ancies mi+ht ha7e a si+ni,icant im9act on scienti,ic theoriOin+ an2 the assertion that the* 2o ha7e s-ch an e,,ect" In most casesH errors o, inter9retation an2 +enera.iOation 9ro2-ce2 /* .in+-istic n-ances are re.ati7e.* insi+ni,icant an2 -.timate.* ha7e 7er* .itt.e im9act on the +enera.iOa/i.it* o, socia. theories" There are n-mero-s wor2sH s*m/o.sH conce9tsH an2 i2easH ,or eCam9.eH that are common.* -n2erstoo2H re+ar2.ess o, other .in+-istic 7ariationsH /-t the im9.ications o, this stan2ar2iOe2 conce9]t-a. ,ramework are ,reK-ent.* o7er.ooke2 an2 i+nore2 in the 9ost]mo2ern critiK-e" In an* caseH it is contin+ent -9on the theorist to s9eci,* the 9recise meanin+ o, an* 7aria/.e or s*m/o. that is centra. to a theor*" A.tho-+h 2e,initions ma* 7ar* N 9ossi/.* 9art.*H /-t not entire.*H as a conse]K-ence o, .an+-a+e N scho.ars ne7erthe.ess are more .ike.* than not to -n2erstan2 an2 a+ree on the -n2er.*in+ meanin+ o, most wor2sH s*m/o.s an2 9hrases" The 9oint is that theorists +enera..* 2o ha7e a common startin+ 9oint an2 o,ten s-s9en2H at .east tem9orari.*H co-n]ter9ro2-cti7e 2e/ates o7er meanin+ in or2er to shi,t em9hasis towar2s the stren+th an2 .o+ica. consistenc* o, the theor* itse.,H a more im9ortant iss-e that has nothin+ to 2o with .an+-a+e" E7a.-atin+ the interna. consistenc* o, the centra. ass-m9tions an2 9ro9ositions o, a theor*H that isH criticisin+ ,rom withinH is .ike.* to /e more con2-ci7e to theoretica. 9ro+ress than the a.ternati7eH which is to reDect the i2ea o, theor* /-i.2in+ entire.*" Fina..*H the .ack o, 9-rit* an2 9recisionH another conseK-ence o, .in+-istic re.ati7ismH 2oes not necessari.* im9.* irre.e7ance o, 9-r9ose or a99roach" The st-2* o, internationa. re.ations ma* not /e eCactH +i7en .imitations note2 /* Witt+enstein an2 othersH /-t 9recision is a 9ractica. research 9ro/.emH not an ins-rmo-nta/.e /arrier to 9ro+ress" In ,actH most o/ser7ers who 9oint to the conteCt12e9en2ent nat-re o, .an+-a+e are critica. not so m-ch o, the socia. sciences /-t o, the incorrect a99.ication o, scienti,ic techniK-es to 2eri7e o7er.* 9recise meas-rement o, weak.* 2e7e.o9e2 conce9ts" $.ear.*H o$r $n&er#tan&in( o the 'a$#e# o internationa% 'on %i't N an2 most nota/.* war N ha# i!pro"e& 'on#i&era)%- a# a 'on#e>$en'e o app%-in( #o$n& #'ienti i' !etho&# an& "a%i& operationa%i9ation# ;%asK-eO 1653H 166&<" The a.ternati7e a99roachH im9.icit in m-ch o, the 9ostmo2ern .iterat-reH is to ,-..* acce9t the ina2eK-ac* o, 9ositi7ismH throw oneLs han2s -9 in ,ai.-reH +i7en the com9.eCit* o, the s-/DectH an2 re9-2iate the entire enter9rise" The most re.e7ant K-estion is whether we wo-.2 know more or .ess a/o-t internationa. re.ations i, we 9-rs-e2 that strate+*"

ENDI 2010 Framework

&!

A2J <TATE FOCB< 4AD

Thi# ar($!ent i# !o#t%- irre%e"ant. I #tate o'$# i# )a& than ne(ati"e 'riti>$e# o the #tate #ho$%& pro"e it. A''eptin( a prior po#ition that e8'$#e# the! ro! &e en&in( 0hat the- &on.t %i5e re&$'e# the ri(oro$# >$a%ito their po#ition t$rnin( the tr$th "a%$e o the '%ai! that.# :appen. A%#o6 ethi'# o to%eran'e interna%=%in5=t$rn# their ar($!ent#. I the #tate i# )a& )e'a$#e it i# 'oer'i"e6 the #a!e 'oer'ion i# at 0or5 in the re $#a% to ethi'a%%- p%a- the (a!e. <0it'h=#i&e &e)ate o#ter# to%eran'e 0hi'h 'an 'ra t a %e## "io%ent #tate an& #o%"e their i!pa't. That.# M$ir. <tate o'$# (oo&. Fai%$re to en(a(e the #tate a'i%itate# the ri#e o "io%ent repre##i"e re(i!e# an& 'o%%ap#e# 'i"i% #o'iet-. Wa%%a'e in ./6 ;Wi..iamH ?ro," )on2on 0choo. o, EconomicsH Re7iew o, Internationa. 0t-2iesH MTr-th an2 ?owerH Monks an2 Technocrats: Theor* an2 ?ractice in Internationa. Re.ationsMH 22:&H 9" &031&06< >-t i, we c.in+ to o-r inte..ect-a. chastit* an2 reDect s-ch com9romise2 7ehic.es o, comm-nicationH we are -n.ike.* to reach m-ch o, an a-2ience" It is won2er,-..* am/itio-s to 9roc.aim that Xwor.2 9o.itics is the new meta9h*sicsH a +.o/a. mora. scienceL thro-+h which we wi.. Xrein7ent the ,-t-re """ ,reein+ 9eo9.eH as in2i7i2-a.s an2 +ro-9sH ,rom the socia.H 9h*sica.H economicH 9o.itica. an2 other constraints which sto9 them carr*in+ o-t what the* wo-.2 ,ree.* choose to 2oL" 2' It ,a..s ,ar short o, that am/ition to comm-nicate with the 9eo9.e o, the wor.2 9rimari.* thro-+h Mi..enni-m or the Re7iew o, Internationa. 0t-2iesH or e7en thro-+h the -ni7ersit* .ect-re ha.. an2 t-toria." 0ectarianism1to switch ,rom a $atho.ic to a ?rotestant meta9hor1is a /esettin+ sin o, aca2emic .i,eH each eCc.-si7e +ro-9 se.,ri+hteo-s.* insistin+ that it has 2isco7ere2 the 9ath to tr-th an2 sa.7ation" 2@ Ken >oothLs conc.-2in+ cha9ter to Internationa. Re.ations Theor* To2a* has a.. the 9ower an2 9assion o, an e7an+e.ica. sermonH remin2in+ its sin,-. rea2ers that Xthe enem* is -s LH ca..in+ on -s to re9ent o, o-r cons-merist c-.t-re o, contentment an2 to X ask the 7ictims o, wor.2 9o.itics to rein7ent the ,-t-re L " 2! The 2isco-rse o, 9ostmo2ernist an2 critica. theorists te..s -s m-ch a/o-t their own se.,1c.os-re to the wor.2 o, 9o.ic*" XDissi2enceL an2 XresistanceL are 9ower,-. wor2sH im9.*in+ that the writers .i7e in tr-th ;as =a7e. 9-t it< in a 9o.itica. s*stem /ase2 -9on .iesI 2rawin+ a 2e.i/erate 9ara..e. with the 2issi2ents o, socia.ist centra. E-ro9eH as i, these Western X2issi2entsL ha2 a.so to +ather secret.* in cram9e2 a9artments to hear a .ect-rer sm-++.e2 in ,rom the ,ree -ni7ersities on the XotherL si2e1Noam $homsk*H 9erha9sH or E2war2 0ai2H s.i99in+ into a-thoritarian whom so man* o, o-r *o-n+er +eneration *earnL1tho-+h MaC We/erH who went on to warn that Xaca2emic 9ro9hec* """ wi.. create on.* ,anatica. sects /-t ne7er a +en-ine comm-nit*LH was re,errin+ to a m-ch ear.ier risin+ +eneration" 25 The termino.o+* o, 2issi2ence an2 eCi.e is 2rawn ,rom the 9ost1%ietnam ima+e o, an a-thoritarian an2 ca9ita.ist AmericaH in which he+emonic =ar7ar2 9ro,essors s-99ress the 7iews1an2 st-nt the careers1o, those who 2o not share their 9ositi7ist 2octrines" There is a ten2enc* within American 9o.itica. science towar2s ortho2oC*H with 9ro,essors ,rom .ea2in+ 2e9artments ;.ike Dominicans< ho-n2in+ heretics o,, the ten-re track" 26 >anishment to a secon21c.ass -ni7ersit*H or e7en to $ana2aH is not howe7er K-ite o, the same or2er as the treatment o, inte..ect-a.s in 9ost116!5 $Oechos.o7akiaH to which we are in7ite2 to com9are their sit-ationI the 7ictims o, 9ositi7ist he+emon* 2o not risk arrestH ma* e7en contin-e to teachH to 9-/.ish an2 to tra7e." &0 An2 it wo-.2 /e har2 to ar+-e that an* com9ara/.e ortho2oC* st-nts the careers o, 9romisin+ aca2emics in >ritainH or e.sewhere in Western E-ro9e" The ,ai.-re o, the Weimar Re9-/.ic to esta/.ish its .e+itimac* owe2 somethin+ to the irres9onsi/i.it* o, inte..ect-a.s o, the ri+ht an2 .e,tH 9re,errin+ the 9ri7ate certainties o, their i2eo.o+ica. schoo.s to critica. en+a+ement with the 2i,,ic-.t com9romises o, 2emocratic 9o.itics" The Frank,-rt 0choo. o, A2orno an2 Marc-se were 0a.on/o.schewistenH Xre.ent.ess in their hosti.it* towar2s the ca9ita.ist s*stemL whi.e Xthe* ne7er a/an2one2 the .i,est*.e o, the ha-te /o-r+eoisie L " &1 The ,o..owers o, NietOsche on the ri+ht an2 those o, MarC on the .e,t /oth worke2 to 2eni+rate the .imite2 achie7ements an2 the 9o.itica. com9romises o, WeimarH enco-ra+in+ their st-2ents to a2o9t their own ra2ica..* critica. 9ositions an2 so contri/-te to -n2erminin+ the re9-/.ic" Kar. MannheimH who ha2 attem9te2 in I2eo.o+* an2 Ato9ia to /-i.2 on We/erLs con2itiona. an2 contin+ent socio.o+* o, know.e2+eH was amon+ the ,irst 9ro,essors 2ismisse2 when the NaOis came to 9ower" Inte..ect-a.s who .i7e within re.ati7e.* o9en ci7i. societies ha7e a res9onsi/i.it* to the societ* within which the* .i7e: to act themse.7es as constr-cti7e criticsH an2 to enco-ra+e their st-2ents to contri/-te to the stren+thenin+ o, ci7i. societ* rather than to -n2ermine it"&2

ENDI 2010 Framework

&3

A2J <TATE FOCB< 4AD

The i!pa't i# e8tin'tion. 4o((# ./C ;$ar.H ?ro," 0ocia. 0ciences Nationa. A" ;)os An+e.es<H Theor* an2 0ociet*H FThe 4reat Retreat: Dec.ine o, the ?-/.ic 09here in )ate Twentieth1$ent-r* AmericaGH 2!;!<H Decem/erH 09rin+er)ink< The 2ec.ine o, the 9-/.ic s9here in .ate twentieth1cent-r* America 9oses a series o, +reat 2i.emmas an2 cha..en+es" Man* i2eo.o+ica. c-rrents scr-tiniOe2 here .oca.ismH meta9h*sicsH s9ontaneismH 9ost1 mo2ernismH Dee9 Eco.o+* intersect with an2 rein,orce each other" Whi.e these c-rrents ha7e 2ee9 ori+ins in 9o9-.ar mo7ements o, the 16!0s an2 1630sH the* remain 7er* m-ch a.i7e in the 1660s" Des9ite their 2i^erent o-t.ooks an2 traDectoriesH the* a.. share one thin+ in common: a 2e9o.iticiOe2 eC9ression o, str-++.es to com/at an2 o7er1 come a.ienation" The ,a.se sense o, em9owerment that comes with s-ch mesmeriOin+ im9-.ses is accom9anie2 /* a .oss o, 9-/.ic en+a+ementH an erosion o, citiOenshi9 an2 a 2e9.ete2 ca9acit* o, in2i7i2-a.s in .ar+e +ro-9s to work ,or socia. chan+e" As this i2eo.o+ica. K-a+mire worsensH -r+ent 9ro/.ems that are 2estro*in+ the ,a/ric o, American societ* wi.. +o -nso.7e2 9erha9s e7en -nreco+niOe2 on.* to ,ester more omino-s.* into the ,-t-re" An2 s-ch 9ro/.ems ;eco.o+ica. crisisH 9o7ert*H -r/an 2eca*H s9rea2 o, in,ectio-s 2iseasesH techno.o+ica. 2is9.acement o, workers< cannot /e -n2erstoo2 o-tsi2e the .ar+er socia. an2 +.o/a. conteCt o, internationa.iOe2 marketsH _nanceH an2 comm-nications" ?ara2oCica..*H the wi2es9rea2 retreat ,rom 9o.iticsH o,ten ins9ire2 /* .oca.ist sentimentH comes at a time when a+en2as that i+nore or si2e1 ste9 these +.o/a. rea.ities wi..H more than e7erH /e re2-ce2 to im9o1 tence" In his commentar* on the state o, citiOenshi9 to2a*H Wo.in re,ers to the increasin+ s-/.imation an2 2i.-tion o, 9o.iticsH as .ar+er n-m1 /ers o, 9eo9.e t-rn awa* ,rom 9-/.ic concerns towar2 9ri7ate ones" >* 2i.-tin+ the .i,e o, common in7o.7ementsH we ne+ate the 7er* i2ea o, 9o.itics as a so-rce o, 9-/.ic i2ea.s an2 7isions"3' In the !eanti!e6 the ate o the 0or%& han(# in the )a%an'e" The -n*ie.2in+ tr-th is thatH e7en as the ethos o, anti19o.itics /ecomes more com9e..in+ an2 e7en ,ashiona/.e in the Anite2 0tatesH it is the 7a+aries o, 9o.itica. 9ower that wi.. contin-e to 2eci2e the ,ate o, h-man societies" This .ast 9oint 2eman2s ,-rther e.a/oration" The shrinka+e o, 9o.itics har2.* means that cor9orate co.oniOation wi.. /e .ess o, a rea.it*H that socia. hierarchies wi.. somehow 2isa99earH or that +i+antic state an2 mi.itar* str-ct-res wi.. .ose their ho.2 o7er 9eo9.eLs .i7es" Far ,rom it: the s9ace a/2icate2 /* a /roa2 citiOenr*H we..1in,orme2 an2 rea2* to 9artici9ate at man* .e7e.sH can in ,act /e _..e2 /* a-thoritarian an2 reactionar* e.ites an a.rea2* ,ami.iar 2*namic in man* .esser1 2e7e.o9e2 co-ntries" The ,ra+mentation an2 chaos o, a =o//esian wor.2H not 7er* ,ar remo7e2 ,rom the ram9ant in2i7i2-a.ismH socia. DarwinismH an2 ci7ic 7io.ence that ha7e /een so m-ch a 9art o, the American .an2sca9eH co-.2 /e the 9re.-2e to a 9ower,-. )e7iathan 2esi+ne2 to im9ose or2er in the ,ace o, 2is-nit* an2 atomiOe2 retreat" In this wa* the ec.i9se o, 9o.itics mi+ht set the sta+e ,or a reassertion o, 9o.itics in more 7ir-.ent +-ise or it mi+ht he.9 ,-rther rationa.iOe the eCistin+ 9ower str-ct-re" In either caseH the state wo-.2 .ike.* /ecome what =o//es antici9ate2: the em/o2iment o, those -ni7ersa.H co..ec1 ti7e interests that ha2 7anishe2 ,rom ci7i. societ*"3@

ENDI 2010 Framework

&5

A2J <TATE FOCB< 4AD

Fo'$# on the #tate i# a !ore a$thenti' or! o po%iti'# )e'a$#e it en(a(e# the !e##- 'o!pro!i#e# o &e!o'ra'- to 'reate a %i"a)%e $t$re. E%#htain ./; ;Jean >ethkeH $entennia. ?ro," ?o." 0ci" %an2er/i.t A"H 0ocia. ResearchH F?o.itics Witho-t $.ich`GH !0:&H Fa..H E/sco< When I was in +ra2-ate schoo. in the .ate 16!0sH it was in 7o+-e to mock the warnin+s o, 0ir Isaiah >er.in a/o-t the 2an+ers inherent in man* 7isions o, M9ositi7e .i/ert*HM t-rnin+ as the* 2i2 on nai7e 7iews o, a 9er,ecti/.e h-man nat-re an2 sentimenta. 7iews on the 9er,ecti/i.it* o, 9o.itics" >er.in was acc-se2 o, /ein+ a .i/era. se..o-tH a ,aint1hearte2 com9romiser" 4$t 'o!pro!i#e6 not as a me2iocre wa* to 2o 9o.itics /-t a# the on%- 0a- to &o &e!o'rati' po%iti'#H is itse., an a27ent-re" It .acks the 9anache o, re7o.-tionar* 7io.ence" It !i(ht not #tir the )%oo& in the 0a- a Lnonne(otia)%e &e!an&L &oe#6 )$t it pre#a(e# a %i"a)%e $t$re. In an* 2emocratic 9o.itics there are choices to /e ma2e that in7o.7e /oth +ains an2 .osses" $on,.icts a/o-t mora. c.aims are 9art o, what it means to /e h-manH an2 a 9o.itica. i2ea. stri99e2 o, sentimenta.it* an2 the Ato9ian tem9tation is one committe2 to the notion that 9o.itica. .i,e is a 9ermanent a+on /etween c.ashin+H e7en incom9ati/.e +oo2s" As the 9o.itica. 9hi.oso9her John $ra* recent.* o/ser7e2: >er.in -ttere2 a tr-thH m-ch a+ainst the c-rrent o, the a+eH that remains thoro-+h.* -n,ashiona/.e an2 ,-n2amenta..* im9ortant11RheS c-ts the +ro-n2 ,rom -n2er those 2octrina. or ,-n2amenta.ist .i/era.isms11the .i/era.ism o, NoOick or =a*ek no .ess than o, Raw.s or Ackerman11which s-99ose that the incommens-ra/i.ities o, mora. an2 9o.itica. .i,eH an2 o, .i/ert* itse.,H can /e smoothe2 awa* /* the a99.ication o, some theor*H or tame2 /* some ta.ismanic ,orm-.a" V It is in takin+ its stan2 on incommens-ra/i.it* an2 ra2ica. choice as constit-ti7e
,eat-res o, the h-man con2ition that >er.inLs .i/era.ism most 2i,,ers ,rom the ?an+.ossian .i/era.isms that ha7e in recent times enDo*e2 an anachronistic re7i7a." An.ike theseH >er.inLs is an a+nostic These wor2s mi+ht ha7e /een written a/o-t =a7e." For we .i7e in an era in which we are not we.. ser7e2 /* the o.2 9o.itica. cate+ories as we witnessH to o-r astonishmentH the 9o.itica. rea.ities o, a ha.,1cent-r* cr-m9.e an2 +i7e wa*" The 2rama o, 2emocrac*H o, con,.ict an2 com9romiseH t-rns on o-r ca9acit* ,or !a5in( &i#tin'tion# an& o erin( 7$&(!ent# not c.otte2 an2 /esotte2 with c.ich`2 cate+oriOations" =a7e. insists that /etween the aims o, what he ca..s the M9osttota.itarian s*stemM an2 .i,e in a.. its M9.-ra.it*H 2i7ersit*H in2e9en2ent se.,1constit-tion an2 se.,1or+aniOationM there .ies a M*awnin+ a/*ss"M The 9osttota.itarian s*stemH whate7er its 9o.itica. se.,12e,initionH 9-shes to M/in2 e7er*thin+ in a sin+.e or2er"M =a7e. ca..s this Msocia. a-to1tota.it*HM a s*stem that 2e9en2s on 2emora.iOation an2 cannot s-r7i7e witho-t itH a s*stem that i+nores ,a..in+ .e2+es in ,a7or o, +.orio-s 9roc.amations concernin+ 9ro+ress" >* contrastH 9o.itics /e*on2 c.ich` is ironic an2 ske9tica. /-t no .ess committe211 sim9.* insistent that oneLs own commitmentsH tooH are not eCem9t ,rom ske9tica. e7a.-ation" A 9o.itics /e*on2 c.ich` is a 9o.itics that re,-ses to .i/era.ismH a stoic .i/era.ism o, .oss an2 tra+e2*" For that reason a.oneH i, there is an* .i/era.ism that is now 2e,ensi/.eH it is >er.inLs" 2e9.o* c*nica..* /ase metho2s in or2er to com9.ete an a+en2a" The 9o.itica. a+ent a.wa*s asks MWhat is to comeTM11not MIs this a .e,t1or ri+ht1win+ ar+-mentTM One reco+niOes that one is ne7er 9.a*in+ chess a.oneI the /oar2 a.wa*s inc.-2es other a+ents as in2e9en2ent .oci o, tho-+ht an2 action" Reco+nition o, the st-//orn rea.it* o, the Mother /e,ore meM makes contact with a 9o.itica. 7ision that acknow.e2+es

This ma* seem a weak an2 9ro/.ematic ree2H /-t it isH I /e.ie7eH the 9oint ,rom which we sho-.2 /e+inH ,rom which a.one we enter the wor.2 o, 9o.itics witho-t c.ich`H hence o, 9o.itica. con,.ict an2 2e/ate witho-t en2"
the 7-.nera/i.it* o,H an2 the nee2 to n-rt-reH a.. new /e+innin+sH inc.-2in+ those o, a 9o.itica. sort"

The %i)era% #tate i#n.t that )a&. <i!!on# .// ;Wi..iam ?a-.H Associate ?ro," ?o." 0ci" an2 Dir" MA ?ro+ram in 0ocia. J-stice an2 =-man Ri+hts A0AH ?hi.oso9h* P 0ocia. $riticismH FThe Thir2: )e7inasQ Theoretica. Mo7e From An1Archica. Ethics to the Rea.m o, J-stice an2 ?o.iticsG 2@:!H 0a+e< The state m-st /e constant.* remin2e2 o, its inherent 7io.ence" )e7inas ,in2s D-st s-ch a se.,1critica. state in the mo2ern .i/era. state" The .i/era. state Ja.wa*s asks itse., whether its own D-stice rea..* is D-sticeQ"!' What K-a.ities 2oes the .i/era. state 9ossess that make it se.,1critica.T FirstH there is the ,ree2om o, the 9ressH the ,ree2om to criticiOe the +o7ernmentH to s9eak o-t a+ainst inD-stice" Eo- know the 9ro9hets o, the /i/.eH the* come an2 sa* to the kin+ that his metho2 o, 2is9ensin+ D-stice is wron+" The 9ro9het 2oesnQt 2o this in a c.an2estine wa*: he comes /e,ore the kin+ an2 he te..s him" In the .i/era. stateH itQs the 9ressH the 9oetsH the writers who ,-.,i.. this ro.e"!@ 0econ2H in the .i/era. stateH the .ea2er is not a/o7e the 9eo9.eH /-t is chosen ,rom amon+ the 9eo9.e" A r-.er who is in an ethica. re.ationshi9H sees h-manit* thro-+h the OtherQs e*es" A+ainst the ?.atonic ,orm-.ation that the /est r-.er is the one who is /est in contro. o, himse.,H )e7inas ar+-es that the /est r-.er is the one who is in an ethica. re.ationshi9 with the Other" JThe 0tateH in accor2ance with its 9-re essenceH is 9ossi/.e on.* i, the 2i7ine wor2 enters into itI the 9rince is e2-cate2 in this know.e2+e"Q!! =owe7erH ,or )e7inasH the most im9ortant com9onent o, the .i/era. state is its ca.. ,or a J9ermanent re7o.-tionQ"!3 The )e7inasian .i/era. state is a.wa*s tr*in+ to im9ro7e itse.,H tr*in+ to /e more D-st" It is Ja re/e..ion that /e+ins where the other societ* is satis,ie2 to .ea7e o,,H a re/e..ion a+ainst inD-stice that /e+ins once or2er /e+insQ"!5 A.tho-+h no state can /e 9-re.* ethica.H the .i/era. state at .east stri7es ,or ethics" 0-ch a state is the 2esi2erat-m i, 9o.itics cannot /e ethica." There is no 9o.itics ,or accom9.ishin+ the mora.H /-t there are certain.* some 9o.itics which are ,-rther ,rom it or c.oser to it" For eCam9.eH IQ7e mentione2 0ta.inism to *o-" IQ7e to.2 *othat D-stice is a.wa*s a D-stice which 2esires a /etter D-stice" This is the wa* that I wi.. characteriOe the .i/era. state " The .i/era. state is a state which ho.2s D-stice as the

ENDI 2010 &6 Framework a/so.-te.* 2esira/.e en2 an2 hence as a 9er,ection" $oncrete.*H the .i/era. state has a.wa*s a2mitte2 a.on+si2e the written .aw h-man ri+hts as a 9ara..e. instit-tion" It contin-es to 9reach that within its D-stice there are a.wa*s im9ro7ements to /e ma2e in h-man ri+hts" =-man ri+hts are the remin2er that there is no D-stice *et" An2 conseK-ent.*H I )e%ie"e that it i# a)#o%$te%- o)"io$# that the %i)era% #tate i# !ore !ora% than the a#'i#t #tate6 an& '%o#er to the !ora%%- i&ea% #tate"!6

ENDI 2010 Framework

'0

A2J <TATE FOCB< 4AD

T$rn Inte%%e't$a% Irre#pon#i)i%it- The #tate e8i#t# an& e"en anar'hi#t# nee& to 5no0 ho0 to 'on ront it. 1reten&in( 0e 'an 0i#h a0a- the #tate i# a re'ipe or no a''o!p%i#h!ent an& pro%on(e& #$ erin(. +ate# .00 ;$hristo9herH ?resi2ent o, the Nationa. $i7ic )ea+-eH Nationa. $i7ic Re7iewH FA New A+en2a ,or 0ocia. $han+eGH 56;2<H 0-mmerH 9" 113< Fina..*H the work that we ha7e 2one an2 the rhetoric that we ha7e -se2 o7er the .ast ,i7e or ten *ears /-i.t a wa.. /etween the wor.2s o, ?o.itics an2 9o.itics" We ha7e treate2 them as m-t-a..* eCc.-si7e a.ternati7es: to 2o this or to 2o that" We are +oin+ to either tr* it this wa* or tr* it that wa*I the* canQt coeCist" Those o, -s in this mo7ement nee2 to ,in2 a wa* to tear 2own the wa..s that 2i7i2e the two wor.2s an2 /-i.2 /ri2+es that connect them" The 9o.itics o, 7o.-nteerismH ser7iceH 9hi.anthro9*Nthe sma..19 9o.itics o, comm-nit* acti7ismNis not an a.ternati7e to +o7ernment an2 the 9o.itica. 2ecision1 makin+ 9rocessI it is a com9.iment to them" It a-+ments them" It he.9s -s make 2ecisions an2 he.9s -s +et thin+s 2one" We ha7e to ,in2 a wa* to connect these wor.2s" We nee2 to /e 9art o, /-i.2in+ the /ri2+e /etween these two a99roaches to socia. chan+e" The tr-th is that this con7ersation canQt an2 sho-.2nQt /e a/o-t choosin+ Fthe wa*G that o-r 2emocrac* wi.. work" We canQt choose to sa* weQre not +oin+ to make o-r 2ecisions thro-+h +o7ernment an*moreH weQre +oin+ to 2o it thro-+h 7o.-nteer choice" When we .ook at o-r 2emocrac* in the ,-t-re weQre +oin+ to .ook at a men- o, a99roaches an2 a men- o, a.ternati7esH an2H 2e9en2in+ on the iss-eH weQ.. -se a 2i,,erent mo2e. o, 2emocrac* to 2eci2e that iss-e" ThereQs no 2o-/t that some ,orm o, re9resentati7e 2emocrac* wi.. contin-e to 9re7ai. in this co-ntr*" There wi.. /e iss-es that are either too sma.. or too technica. ,or an*/o2* /-t e.ecte2 o,,icia.s to 2eci2eH an2 we wi..H K-ite wi..in+.* as a societ*H 2e,er to them to make those 2ecisions" <t$&-in( #tate rationa%e# &oe#n.t rein or'e the! it i# 'riti'a% to 'ha%%en(e #tate "io%en'e a)&i'ation o po%i'- 'e&e# po0er to the e%ite#. Wa%t ./1 ;0te9henH ?ro," IR A" $hica+oH Internationa. 0t-2ies Z-arter.*H FThe Renaissance o, 0ec-rit* 0t-2iesGH &@;2<H J-neH 9" 21!< A thir2 reason ,or 2ec.ine was the %ietnam War" Not on.* 2i2 the 2e/ac.e in In2ochina cast 2o-/t on some o, the ear.* work in the ,ie.2 ;s-ch as the techniK-es o, Ms*stems ana.*sisM an2 the a99.ication o, /ar+ainin+ theor* to internationa. con,.ict<H it a.so ma2e the st-2* o, sec-rit* a,,airs -n,ashiona/.e in man* -ni7ersities" The .atter e,,ect was /oth ironic an2 -n,ort-nateH /eca-se the 2e/ate on the war was ,irst an2 ,oremost a 2e/ate a/o-t /asic sec-rit* iss-es" Was the M2omino theor*M acc-rateT Was A"0" cre2i/i.it* rea..* at stakeT Wo-.2 -sin+ mi.itar* ,orce in In2ochina in ,act make the A"0" more sec-reT >* ne+.ectin+ the serio-s st-2* o, sec-rit* a,,airsH o99onents o, the war co-.2 not e,,ecti7e.* cha..en+e the o,,icia. rationa.es ,or A"0" in7o.7ement" 1& The 9ersistent /e.ie, that o99onents o, war sho-.2 not st-2* nationa. sec-rit* is .ike tr*in+ to ,in2 a c-re ,or cancer /* re,-sin+ to st-2* me2icine whi.e a..owin+ research on the 2isease to /e con2-cte2 so.e.* /* to/acco com9anies"

ENDI 2010 Framework

'1

*** E?C@B<ION AN<WER< *** A2J CON<EN<B< 4A<ED 1O@ITIC< N E?C@B<IONARA

Their ar($!ent pre#$ppo#e# that 0e MANDATE 'on#en#$#. The &e%i)erati"e )ene it# o o$r ra!e0or5 'on#i#t o 'reatin( a or$! or rea#one& e8pre##ion 0here 'o!!on 'o!!$ni'ation i# po##i)%e. +Or#P9%O 26 ;F-atH De9t" ?hi." >in+hamton A"H Jo-rna. o, ?o.itica. ?hi.oso9h*H FDe/ate: A+onism an2 De.i/erationN Reco+niOin+ the Di,,erence#GH 13:&< In the secon2 an2 thir2 sections o, his artic.eH Kno9s tries to re,-te Mo-,,eLs c.aim that the rationa. consens-s achie7e2 within a s9here ,ree o, 9ower is not on.* a 9ractica. im9ossi/i.it* /-t a.so a conce9t-a. im9ossi/i.it*" =e 2oes this /* ar+-in+ how the so-rces Mo-,,e -ti.iOes to make her
9ointH in this case Witt+enstein an2 Derri2aH 2o not necessari.* 9rec.-2e rationa. consens-s" A,ter eC9.ainin+ how =a/ermasL 7ersion o, a 2e.i/erati7e theor* o, reasonin+ that mo2e.s comm-nicati7e reasonin+ is com9ati/.e to Witt+ensteinian theor* o, .an+-a+eH he makes the c.aim that M2e.i/erationH an2 rationa. consens-sH can /e seen as a+onisticMH since the -n2erstan2in+s reache2 thro-+h 2e.i/eration or a Witt+ensteinian 9rocess o, eC9.anation an2 .an+-a+e .earnin+ Mare 9artia. an2 2e,easi/.eH ,orme2 ,rom an enco-nter with 2i,,erence"M2@ At this 9oint I t-rn to ?atchen Marke..Ls M$ontestin+ $onsens-s:

that =a/ermasL mo2e. o, the 9-/.ic s9here an2 2isc-rsi7e 9o.itics 2oes not on.* to.erate a+onistic 9o.itica. action /-t a.so reK-ires it"2! In 2oin+ soH Marke.. re9eats the same he+emonic 9attern that Kno9s 2oes /* treatin+ a+onistic 9o.itics as a correcti7e to the 2e.i/erati7e a99roach that he.9s him re7ea. the ,-.. 9otentia. o, 2e.i/erati7e 9o.itics" =owe7erH -n.ike Kno9sL attem9t to assimi.ate a+onistic 9o.itics to the 2e.i/erati7e a99roachH Marke.. takes a more reconci.iator* a99roach /* ,irst reinter9retin+ one o, the core e.ements o, =a/ermasLs theor*H an2 secon2 /* i..-stratin+ how his inter9retation o, =a/ermas can accommo2ate a+onistic 9o.itica. action" Marke.. 9oints o-t that the hi+h.* criticiOe2 as9ect o, =a/ermasL 9-/.ic s9here theor*Nits em9hasis on consens-s Na99.ies on.* i, the 9-/.ic s9here is Mconcei7e2 as a s9ace o, 2ia.o+-e amon+ citiOens in which a.. s9eech is +o7erne2 /* the -.timate te.os o, arri7in+ at consens-s"M For critics o, =a/ermasH Marke.. in2icatesH this -n2erstan2in+ o, 9o.iticsN since it aims at consens-sN2e.e+itimiOes an2 2isco-ra+es 2isr-9ti7e s9eech which cha..en+es a+reements an2 aims to Mreintro2-ce a 9.-ra.it* o, o9inionsH or to +i7e 7oice to 9ers9ecti7es that cannot /e acknow.e2+e2 within the r-.es o, 2isco-rse that +o7ern a +i7en 9-/.ic"M =owe7erH Marke.. ar+-esH =a/ermasL comm-nicati7e action makes it c.ear that what is im9ortant within the 9ractica. 2isco-rse is not achie7in+ consens-sH rather orientation towar2s a+reement re,ers to M,oreswearin+ o, the mechanisms o, coercion an2 in,.-enceNa ,oreswearin+ o, 9er.oc-tionNin the 9-rs-it o, oneLs +oa.s an2 a 'orre#pon&in( 'o!!it!ent to pro"i&e rea#on# or oneQ# '%ai!# i the- are 'ha%%en(e& "M 0oH Marke.. c.aimsH a.tho-+h =a/ermas makes a stron+ normati7e c.aim a/o-t the sha9e the 9rocess o, 2isc-ssion is s-99ose2 to takeH he 2oes not make a stron+ 9henomeno.o+ica. c.aim a/o-t the 9ossi/i.it* o, a+reement itse.," On this rea2in+ o, =a/ermasH a+reement ma* or ma* not /e reache2H /-t what is im9ortant is the con2ition -n2er which the 2isco-rse takes 9.ace" As s-chH Marke.. conc.-2esH =a/ermasL theor* o, the 9-/.ic s9here 2oes not .ea2 to Mthe s-99ression o, a+onistic an2 contestator* s9eech an2 action in the name o, consens-s"M23
Rerea2in+ =a/ermas On the ?-/.ic 09hereM" In this artic.eH Marke.. a27ances a simi.ar c.aim to that o, Kno9s" =e 9oints o-t

ENDI 2010 Framework

'2

A2J CON<EN<B< 4A<ED 1O@ITIC< N E?C@B<IONARA

De%i)erati"e 'o!!$ni'ation i# a )etter o$n&ation or po%iti'a% 'o!!$nit- )e'a$#e o #e'on&=or&er 'on %i't#. On%&e%i)eration ena)%e# $# to re'on'i%e 'ha%%en(e# to to%eran'e it#e% . 4oh!an 2; ;JamesH 0t" )o-is A"H ?o.itica. Theor*H FDe.i/erati7e To.erationGH &1:!H 0a+e< With these reso-rces it is 9ossi/.e to so.7e another 9otentia. 9ara2oC o, to.eration" It is not on.* eK-a. mem/ershi9H /-t a.so the re+-.ati7e i2ea. o, an inc.-si7e 2emocratic comm-nit* that 9ro7i2es the /asis ,or to.eratin+ those whom we D-2+e to /e wron+ or immora."&! >-t this i2ea. is not the act-a. 9o.itica. comm-nit* in which the to.erate2 an2 the to.erator ma* stan2 in a socia. re.ationshi9 o, ineK-a.it* or s-/or2ination" Rather than raise the stan2ar2s o, 2emocrac* so hi+h that on.* a ,-..* e+a.itarian societ* wo-.2 /e 2emocraticH a 2emocratic comm-nit* characteriOe2 /* socia. ineK-a.ities wo-.2 ha7e a D-st re+ime o, to.eration to the eCtent that it ,irst o, a.. 9romotes the 9ro9er attit-2es o, ,ree an2 o9en comm-nication an2 thenH secon2H or+aniOes a ,ramework ,or 2e.i/eration that makes 9ossi/.e the e,,ecti7e 9artici9ation o, a.." 4i7en these normati7e reK-irementsH the tem9tation is to ho.2 certain as9ects o, 2e.i/eration as ,iCe2 an2 th-s to re+ar2 them as the necessar* .imits o, to.eration" Raw.s an2 =a/ermas s-cc-m/ to this tem9tation in 2i,,erent wa*s"&3 I &e%i)eration i# to )e )oth &-na!i' an& p%$ra%i#tH howe7erH it is /etter to a99ea. to the re+-.ati7e i2ea. o, an inc.-si7e comm-nit* that /oth #et# the %i!it# on &e%i)erati"e to%eration an2 o9ens them to 2emocratic cha..en+e" When s-ch cha..en+es are s-ccess,-.H the* mark chan+es in the nat-re o, the 2e.i/erati7e comm-nit*
itse., an2 o, the 2i,,erences re.e7ant to its re+ime o, to.eration" NeCt I want to .ook at the 9rocess o, 2e.i/eration that is initiate2 /* the acce9tance o, a c.aim that the c-rrent re+ime o, to.eration is

7iews that set 2eterminate .imits on to.eration are 9ara2oCica. ,rom the 9oint o, 7iew o, 2emocrac*" The* either s-/or2inate 2emocrac* to some mora. content o, to.eration an2 its attit-2esH or the* s-/or2inate the com9.eC 9ossi/i.ities o, D-sti,ication in 2emocrac* to one 7a.-e or 9rinci9.e that the* consi2er Fmore ,-n2amenta.HG F/asicHG or
-n2emocratic" In2ee2H m* ar+-ment im9.ies that F9riorHG ,or an* n-m/er o, reasons: as an in2e9en2ent stan2ar2H the +-arantor o, the con2itions o, 2e.i/eration or as a necessar* con2ition ,or a 9-/.ic D-sti,icationthat a.. co-.2 acce9t" 4i7en the new ,orm o,

H i, tra2itiona. re.i+io-s comm-nities are to /e inc.-2e2 there are no noncontesta/.e norms that +-i2e 2e.i/eration across .i/era. an2 non.i/era. comm-nities" $ommittin+ an* s-ch ,ramework to a thicker
9.-ra.ism 2escri/e2 a/o7eH no s-ch 9rinci9.e co-.2 /e imm-ne to re,.eCi7e cha..en+e" At the 7er* .east an2 more s9eci,ic 9hi.oso9hica. inter9retation has the 2an+er not on.* o, makin+ 2e.i/eration irre.e7antH /-t a.so o, into.eranceH as can /e seen in the common .i/era. char+e ma2e /* 4-ttmanan 2 Thom9sont hat re.i+io-s reasons are Fnon9-/.icG an2 Fnonreci9roca."G An* re,.eCi7e cha..en+e to the normati7e ,ramework ,or 2e.i/eration asks citiOens to rethink the 7er* nat-re o, the 2emocrac* inwhich the* .i7eH an2 ,or that reason m-.tic-.t-ra.ism o,tenhas .e2 to constit-tiona. 2e/ates an2 re,orm" When consi2erin+ s-ch cha..en+esH the 2e.i/erati7e inter9retation o, 2emocratic norms as ena/.in+ con2itions ,or reso.7in+ con,.icts nee2s to /e +i7en 9rima ,acie 9riorit* o7er the .i/era. inter9retation o, norms as constraints an2 9res-99ositions" As the mem/ershi9 o, the 9o.it* +rows more 2i7erseH anim9ortan t ,eat-re o, 9-/.ic 2e.i/erationwi.. /e the re,.eCi7e critiK-e o, the 7er* normati7e ,ramework that ma2e 2e.i/eration9ossi/.e inthe ,irst 9.ace" I, this sort o, re7isionis not 9ossi/.eH then2e.i/erati 7e 2emocrac* .oses its ca9acit* to accommo2ate 9.-ra.ism an2 co..a9ses into either a com9rehensi7e or a 9o.itica. .i/era.ism" Inwhat ,o..owsH I ,irst consi2er a 9.-ra.ist ,orm o, 2emocratic D-sti,ication as a 2eci2e2.* non1 Raw.sianH 2*namic 9rocess o, re,.ecti7e eK-i.i/ri-m as the metho2 o, mora. .earnin+ that occ-rs thro-+h the a2mission o, new 9ers9ecti7es on the 2e.i/erati7e re+ime o, to.eration an2 then consi2er an im9ortant o/Dection to it" =ow mi+ht a ,orm o, D-sti,icationw ork that is accommo2atin+ o, 9.-ra.ismH *et a.so +-i2e2 /* normati7e stan2ar2sT I ha7e ar+-e2 that i, comm-nicationis the 9ro9er o/Dect o, 2e.i/erati7e to.erationH thenit is 9ers9ecti7es rather than reasons that m-st /e to.erate2 in 2emocratic 2isc-ssion an2 2e/ate" The a99ro9riate ,orm o, D-sti,ication -n2er the con2itions o, 2ee9 con,.ict wo-.2 /e 9.-ra.ist in the sense o, a..owin+ the wi2est 9ossi/.e ran+e o, 9ers9ecti7es to in,orm an2 in,.-ence the 2e.i/eration" It co-.2 2o so on.* /* re+ar2in+ 2emocrac* as a com9.eC i2ea.H that in an* moment o, .e+itimate cha..en+e o-+ht to seek re,.ecti7e eK-i.i/ri-m amon+ its com9etin+ 2imensions" In the MoOert case consi2ere2 a/o7eH the reK-irements o, reci9rocit* or 9-/.icit* that eCc.-2e2 the 9arentsQ 9ers9ecti7e co-.2 /e cha..en+e2 /* the 2eman2 ,or 9o.itica. eK-a.it*H that a.. ha7e eK-a. entit.ement to 9artici9ation in the 2e,inition o, the normati7e ,ramework in which s-ch 2ecisions are ma2e" 0imi.ar.*H c-.t-ra. minorities ma* cha..en+e the re+ime o, to.eration /eca-se the* cannot acce9t it witho-t s-/or2inationI that isH the* ma* cha..en+e some 9artic-.ar instit-tiona. inter9retation o, its reK-irements o, 9-/.icit* in .i+ht o, ,ree2om ,rom 2omination" Th-sH in cases o, 9.-ra.ism citiOens 9artici9atin+ in secon21or2er 2e/ates ma* a99ea. to a 7ariet* o, 2emocratic 7a.-es an2 norms to 2eman2 accommo2ationH inc.-2in+ 9-/.icit*H eK-a.it*H an2 ,ree2om" The sa.ient ,eat-re o, 9.-ra.ist D-sti,ication is not on.* that there is no sin+.e ,orm o, D-sti,icationor set o, reasons that can/e a99ea.e2 to as 2emocratic" In a22itionH these com9onents o, the i2ea. o, 2emocrac* are o,ten o99ose2 to each otherH an2 in that wa* the a99ea. to 7ario-s 2emocratic norms an2 9rinci9.es ma* c-t across the 7ario-s aCes o, a con,.ict" =ar2 cases o, con,.icts o, interest are ,orm-.ate2 an2 a2D-2icate2 in this wa*" The ,ami.iar con,.icts /etween ,ree2om an2 eK-a.it* occ-r when the interests in7o.7e2 are not i2entica.H as when ,ree2om to associate comes into con,.ict with eK-a. treatment in cases o, con,.icts o7er mem/ershi9s in 7ario-s c.-/s" Itwo-.2 /e o22 in2ee2 i, 2e.i/eration a/o-t 2ee9 con,.icts o, 9rinci9.e 2i2 not ha7e a simi.ar or e7en wi2er set o, normati7e reso-rces at its 2is9osa. ,or ,in2in+ wa*s to accommo2ate c.aims to inD-stice /ro-+ht a/o-t thro-+h 2emocratic 9ractices" The i2ea. o, D-sti,icationthat +-i2es the 2e.i/erati7e 9rocess o, re,.ecti7e eK-i.i/ri-m is kee9in+ inc.-si7e an2 m-.ti9ers9ecti7a. 9ractices o, comm-nication ;that are the o/Dect o, to.eration< consistent with a com9.eC an2 e7o.7in+ 2emocratic i2ea.H the o-tcome o, which wo-.2 /e teste2 ,rom a.. 9oints o, 7iew" The achie7ement o, 9ractices that 9ermit m-.ti9.e 9ers9ecti7es a..ows ,or 9ractica.H mora.H an2 e9istemic im9ro7ement to the eCtent that testin+ an2 inno7ation is a matter o, the inter9.a* o, 2i,,erent an2 sometimes new 9ers9ecti7es" $onstit-tiona. re,orm can /e seen as D-st s-ch a .earnin+ 9rocess /* which the 2emocratic i2ea. chan+es as the inc.-sion o, more 9ers9ecti7es shi,ts the 2*namic re,.ecti7e eK-i.i/ri-m o, the 2e.i/erati7e comm-nit*" The ci7i. ri+hts mo7ement is an eCam9.e o, this 9rocessH which +a7e more wei+ht to the 9rinci9.e o, eK-a. 9rotection in .e+a. an2 9o.itica. 2e.i/eration as the 9o.it* /ecame m-.tiracia. rather than se+re+ate2" The 2e,en2er o, a more 2eontic an2 .ess 9.-ra.ist ,orm o, 2e.i/eration mi+ht o/Dect that 9-/.ic reasons ha7e D-sti,icator* ,orce on.* i, the* 9ossess the reK-isite +enera.it* an2 im9artia.it* s-ch that the* are ones that e7er*one co-.2 acce9t" $ertain.*H the critic co-.2 ar+-eH we 2o not know in a27ance which c.aims or +ro-9 9ers9ecti7es co-nt as reasons" We 2o know that the* wi.. 9ossess certain +enera. str-ct-ra. ,eat-res" As 0e*.a >enha/i/ has 9-t itH FReasons co-nt as reasons /eca-se the* co-.2 /e 2e,en2e2 as /ein+ in the /est interests o, a.. -n2erstoo2 as eK-a. mora. an2 9o.itica. /ein+s"G In 2isc-ssin+ the eCam9.e o, the 0-9reme $o-rt o, $ana2aQs a2mission o, tri/a. stories to esta/.ish e7i2ence ,or their .an2 c.aimsH she ar+-es that Fwhat .ent .e+itimac* to the $ana2ian co-rtQs 2ecisionwas 9recise.* their reco+nition o, a s9eci,ic +ro-9Qs c.aims to /e in the /est interest o, a.. $ana2ian citiOens"G&5 E7en i, that were tr-eH on m* acco-ntH it wo-.2 /e incom9.ete" It wo-.2 /e tr-e on.* /eca-se the $o-rt eCercise2 2e.i/erati7e to.eration an2 he.2 that s-ch a 2ecisionre9resen te2 the /est a7ai.a/.e re,.ecti7e eK-i.i/ri-m o, the com9etin+ 2emocratic i2ea.s at stake" Moreo7erH it is im9.a-si/.e to sa* that the interests o, $ana2ians ho.2 constant /e,ore an2 a,ter the 2ecision" A,ter the 2ecision $ana2a is a 2i,,erentH more m-.ti9ers9ecti7a. 9o.it*H D-st as a,ter >rown the Anite2 0tates /ecame a m-.tiracia. 9o.it* that itwas not /e,ore" In /oth casesH what co-nts as a reason an2 a D-sti,ication has chan+e2H 9recise.* /eca-se the co-rts eCercise2 2e.i/erati7e to.erationH shi,te2 the re,.ecti7e eK-i.i/ri-m o, the 9ractica. -n2erstan2in+ o, its com9.eC 2emocratic i2ea.H an2 eC9an2e2 the ran+e o, 9ossi/.e reasons an2 chan+e2 the -n2erstan2in+ o, what it meant to /e treate2 as eK-a." Frank Miche.man ca..s this the F,-.. /.ast con2itionG ,or 2e.i/eration"&6 0ome cha..en+es to to.eration sti.. e7a2e this re,.eCi7e so.-tion an2 th-s ,a.. o-tsi2e o, the 2e.i/erati7e i2ea. o, to.eration" 0ome to.erate2 +ro-9s ma* e7en ask not to /e to.erate2 in the sense that the* 2o not wish to /e 9art o, an inc.-si7e comm-nit*H as is the case ,or the Amish an2 man* in2i+eno-s 9eo9.es" =ere the a99ea. is to some other i2ea.H s-ch as the reco+nition o, their eK-a. ,ree2om to 9-rs-e their 2e,inition o, their own societ*" 0-ch +ro-9s are accommo2ate2 thro-+h the ri+ht not to /e inc.-2e2 inthe common .i,e o, a comm-nit* that the* 2o not wish to ha7e the entit.ement to 2e,ine" The eCistence o, s-ch +ro-9s 2oes not cha..en+e the i2ea. o, to.eration /-t 9resents .imits to its ca9acit* to so.7e 9ro/.ems o, 2i,,erence in a hi+h.* hetero+eneo-s societ*" These +ro-9s attem9t to create a 2i,,erent sort o, socia. re.ationshi9 o, nons-/or2ination o-tsi2e o, ;rather than within< a 2emocratic societ*" >* contrastH into.erant +ro-9s who seek more than accommo2ation cannot c.aim to o,,er a re,.eCi7e cha..en+eH inso,ar as the* can neither o,,er a D-sti,ication /* a99ea. to an* 2emocratic norms an2 7a.-es s-ch as ,ree2om or eK-a.it* at a..H nor 9artici9ate in 9ro7i2in+ a new9ers9ecti7e in the 9rocess o, 2*namic re,.ecti7e eK-i.i/ri-m concernin+ 2emocratic i2ea.s that mi+ht /e the o-tcome o, their cha..en+e" 0ince the 9-r9ose o, the re+ime o, to.eration is 9recise.* to 9rotect the inte+rit* o, comm-nication in the 2e.i/erati7e 9rocess in cases o, 2ee9 con,.ictH it creates at .east the 9otentia. ,or a more 9.-ra.istic comm-nit*" In s-ch a comm-nit*H accommo2ation makes sense on.* as a 2e.i/erati7e res9onse to the inD-stice in the comm-na. s9aces ,or 9ractica. D-2+ment or to the 7io.ation o, 2emocratic norms in instit-tiona. 9ractices o, inc.-sion" 4i7en the ,-.. /.ast con2itionH the entit.ement to a.ter the re+ime o, to.eration eCten2s to a.. citiOensH whether it is nationa. minorities or ethnic immi+rant +ro-9s who seek to enter the 9o.itica. .i,e o, the comm-nit* as eK-a.s witho-t s-/or2ination" '0 On 9ain o, 7io.atin+ norms o, consistenc* an2 2emocrac*H the same sort o, entit.ements an2 constit-tiona. c.aims eCten2 to re.i+io-s +ro-9s as we.." This 2oes not 2en* that 2emocrac* is a common 9o.itica. 9roDectH /-t rather sees it as -n2er+oin+ se.,1correction an2 contin-a. se.,trans,ormation"

The s-9eriorit* o, the 2e.i/erati7e o7er a .i/era. re+ime o, to.erationcon 1 sists in 9ro7i2in+ ,easi/.e so.-tions to the main 9ro/.em o, 2ee9 9.-ra.ism: secon21or2er cha..en+es an2 o7er.a99in+ an2 intersectin+ 2ee9 con,.icts" In a 2e.i/erati7e 2emocrac*H 2e/ates a/o-t the /asic 9rinci9.es o, +o7ernance an2 share2 9o.itica. .i,e /e.on+ on one en2 o, the contin--m o, 2e.i/erati7e 9ro/.em so.7in+" Far ,rom /ein+ a7oi2e2H a99ea.s to ,-n2amenta. 9rinci9.es are ane 7er*2a* occ-rrence ina 2e.i/erati7e 2emocrac*H es9ecia..* when 9.-ra.ism 9ro2-ces con,.icts a.on+ a n-m/er o, 2imensions ;as is the case in 2e/ates a/o-t the wa.. o, se9aration o, ch-rch an2 state an2 the
accommo2ation o, re.i+io-s minorities in schoo.in+H the ri+hts o, immi+rantsH an2 other iss-es concernin+ the nat-re o, the 9o.it* itse.,<" 0-ch 2e/ates can /ecome 9itche2 con,.ictsH whose constant rec-rrence in2icates a .ack o, 9ro/.emso.7in+ ca9acit* in the c-rrent 2e.i/erati7e ,ramework" 09-rre2 /* 9ersistent 2ee9 con,.icts ;an2 not mere.* e7er*2a* 9ersistent 2isa+reement<H 2e/ates a/o-t the ,ramework ,or 2e.i/eration an2 the i2ea. o, 2emocratic comm-nit* can .ea2 to a 9erio2 o, Fconstit-tiona. 9o.iticsG s-ch as was the case in the Reconstr-ction 9erio2 an2 the New Dea. in Anite2 0tates histor* when the 2e.i/erati7e ,ramework o, ri+hts an2 9owers ha2 to shi,t to so.7e 9ro/.ems an2 con,.icts"'1 The re+-.ati7e i2ea. o, an inc.-si7e 9o.itica. comm-nit* o, D-2+ment +-i2es 2e.i/eration a/o-t

ENDI 2010 Framework

trans,ormin+ the o/.i+ations an2 entit.ements o, citiOenshi9"

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;>ohman contin-esV<

ENDI 2010 Framework

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A2J CON<EN<B< 4A<ED 1O@ITIC< N E?C@B<IONARA

;>ohman contin-esV< Re.i+io-s to.erationhas 9.a*e2 a cr-cia. ro.e inthe emer+ence o, mo2ern citiOenshi9" It /ecame the /asis ,or a 2istinct.* -ni7ersa. i2entit* within the 9o.itica. comm-nit* o, a mo2ern nation1state that -nite2 citiOens across socia. an2 c-.t-ra. 2i,,erences" >oth m-.tic-.t-ra.ism an2 cosmo9o.itanism cha..en+e the a2eK-ac* o, this 9artic-.ar inter9retation o, -ni7ersa. i2entit*" De.i/erati7e to.eration.ooks at the 9ro/.em o, inc.-sion,rom the other wa* aro-n2" ?recise.* /eca-se o, the s-ccess,-. inc.-sion o, e7er more citiOens in a nonnat-ra.isticH nonc-.t-ra..*1/ase2 comm-nit* o, D-2+mentH the con,.icts inherent in 2ee9 9.-ra.ism rec-rsi7e.* cha..en+e the same instit-tiona. ,ramework that ma2e this inc.-sion 9ossi/.e" The emer+in+ cha..en+es to the .i/era. re+ime o, to.eratione 7eninits eC9an2e2 m-.tic-.t-ra. ,orm are increasin+.* transnationa.H +i7en the ,act that +.o/a. mi+ration has s9-rre2 new .e7e.s o, 9.-ra.ism in .i/era. 2emocratic societies" This mi+ration wi.. ca.. into K-estion the reK-irements o, citiOenshi9H as 9eo9.e no .on+er .i7e their .i7es within the /o-n2aries o, a 9artic-.ar nation1state" =ere we mi+ht consi2er the eCtent to which tra2itiona. .i/era. an2 re9-/.ican conce9tions can sti.. 9ro7i2e the /asis ,or m-t-a. to.eration amon+ 2i7erse citiOens" As Raw.s 9-t itH .i/era. to.eration a99.ie2 in the internationa. s9here Fasks o, other societies on.* what the* can reasona/.* +rant witho-t s-/mittin+ to a 9osition o, in,eriorit* or 2omination"G'2 4i7enthe ,act o, 2ee9 9.-ra.ismH cosmo9o.itanism now/e+ins at home" It ma* we.. /e that the 2e.i/erati7e ,ramework insocieties characteriOe2 /* mi+rationan 2 2ee9 9.-ra.ism wi.. ha7e to incor9orate interactions amon+ man* 2i,,erent inc.-si7e comm-nities" The re7i7a. o, the 2e/ate a/o-t re.i+io-s i2entities in the 9-/.ic s9here is one more in2ication o, the ,act that 2emocracies are no .on+er the eC9ression o, a sin+.e 9o.itica. s-/Decti7it*" In s-ch an emer+in+ m-.ti9ers9ecti7a. 9o.it*H into.erance is e7i2ence2 in the ina/i.it* o, citiOens to raise 7ita. an2 si+ni,icant concerns in 2e.i/erationH in the eCc.-sion o, re.e7ant reasonsH an2 in the i..icit an2 -ns9oken +enera.iOation o, the 2ominant or maDorit* 9ers9ecti7e" De.i/erati7e to.eration 2oes not mere.* aim at m-t-a..* +rante2 ri+hts an2 imm-nities ,rom inter,erenceH /-t at the i2ea. o, a 2emocratic comm-nit* o, 2e.i/eration an2 D-2+ment" 4-i2e2 /* its 9ractica. orientation to s-ccess,-. 9-/.ic comm-nication an2 the re+-.ati7e i2ea. o, an inc.-si7e comm-nit*H to.eration /ecomes re,.eCi7e an2 th-s /oth a means an2 an en2 ,or ,-rtherin+ 2emocratiOation in a sit-ation o, -n2iminishe2 9.-ra.ism" To.eration is th-s the attit-2e o, 9ers9ecti7e takin+ that makes s-ch 2isa+reements ,r-it,-. ,or 2e.i/erationH in that the* are necessar* to 9romote a rich.* com9.eC i2ea. o, 2emocrac* in .ar+eH 2i7erseH an2 increasin+.* 9oro-s 9o.ities"

ENDI 2010 Framework

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A2J CON<EN<B< 4A<ED 1O@ITIC< N E?C@B<IONARA

Thi# or! o e8'%$#ion i# ne'e##ar- or &e!o'ra'- to $n'tion. 1o%iti'# i# i!po##i)%e 0itho$t it. Ta-%or ./D ;$har.esH ?ro," ?hi." Mc4i..H Jo-rna. o, Democrac*H FThe D*namics o, Democratic ECc.-sionGH 6:'H ?roDect M-se< )i/era. 2emocrac* is a +reat 9hi.oso9h* o, inc.-sion" It is r-.e o, the 9eo9.eH /* the 9eo9.eH an2 ,or the 9eo9.eH an2 to2a* the M9eo9.eM is taken to mean e7er*/o2*H witho-t the -ns9oken restrictions that ,ormer.* eCc.-2e2 9easantsH womenH or s.a7es" $ontem9orar* .i/era. 2emocrac* o,,ers the s9ectac.e o, the most inc.-si7e 9o.itics in h-man histor*" Eet there is a.so somethin+ in the 2*namic o, 2emocrac* that 9-shes towar2 eCc.-sion" This was a..owe2 ,-.. rein in ear.ier 2emocraciesH as amon+ the ancient re9-/.icsH /-t to2a* is a ca-se o, +reat ma.aise" I want to eC9.ore this 2*namicH an2 then to .ook at 7ario-s wa*s o, com9ensatin+ ,or it or minimiOin+ it" What is the so-rce o, this thr-st towar2 eCc.-sionT We mi+ht 9-t it this wa*: Democrac* is inc.-si7e /eca-se it is the +o7ernment o, a.. the 9eo9.eI /-t 9ara2oCica..*H this is a.so the reason that 2emocrac* ten2s towar2 eCc.-sion" The eCc.-sion is a /*19ro2-ct o, the nee2H in se.,1+o7ernin+ societiesH o, a hi+h 2e+ree o, cohesion" Democratic states nee2 somethin+ .ike a common i2entit*" We can see wh* as soon as we 9on2er what is in7o.7e2 in se.,1+o7ernment" The /asic mo2e o, .e+itimation o, 2emocratic states im9.ies that the* are ,o-n2e2 on 9o9-.ar so7erei+nt*" NowH ,or the 9eo9.e to /e so7erei+nH it nee2s to ,orm an entit* an2 ha7e a 9ersona.it*" This nee2 can /e eC9resse2 in the ,o..owin+ wa*: The 9eo9.e is s-99ose2 to r-.eI this means that its mem/ers make -9 a 2ecision1makin+ -nitH a /o2* that takes Doint 2ecisions thro-+h a consens-sH or at .east a REn2 ?a+e 1'&S maDorit* 7oteH o, a+ents who are 2eeme2 eK-a. an2 a-tonomo-s" It is not M2emocraticM ,or some citiOens to /e -n2er the contro. o, others" This mi+ht ,aci.itate 2ecision makin+H /-t it is not 2emocratica..* .e+itimate" To ,orm a 2ecision1makin+ -nit o, the t*9e 2eman2e2 hereH its mem/ers m-st not on.* 2eci2e to+ether /-t 2e.i/erate to+ether" A 2emocratic state is constant.* ,acin+ new K-estionsH an2 it as9ires to ,orm a consens-s on these K-estionsH not mere.* to re,.ect the /a.ance o, in2i7i2-a. o9inions" A Doint 2ecision emer+in+ ,rom Doint 2e.i/eration reK-ires that each 9ersonLs o9inion /e a/.e to take sha9e or /e re,orme2 in the .i+ht o, 2isc-ssion with others" This necessari.* im9.ies a 2e+ree o, cohesion" To some eCtentH the mem/ers m-st know one anotherH .is1ten to one anotherH an2 -n2erstan2 one another" I, the* are not m-t-a..* acK-ainte2H or i, the* cannot rea..* -n2erstan2 one anotherH how can the* tr-.* en+a+e in Doint 2e.i/erationT I,H ,or eCam9.eH a s-/+ro-9 o, the MnationM consi2ers that the others are not .istenin+ to it or are -na/.e to -n2erstan2 its 9oint o, 7iewH it wi.. imme2iate.* consi2er itse., eCc.-2e2 ,rom Doint 2e.i/eration" ?o9-.ar so7erei+nt* 2eman2s that we sho-.2 .i7e -n2er .aws that 2eri7e ,rom s-ch 2e.i/eration" An*one who is eCc.-2e2 can ha7e no 9art in the 2ecisions that emer+eH an2 these conseK-ent.* .ose their .e+itimac* ,or him" A s-/+ro-9 that is not .istene2 to is in some res9ects eCc.-2e2 ,rom the nationH /-t /* this same token it is no .on+er /o-n2 /* the wi.. o, that nation" Th-sH to ,-nction .e+itimate.*H a 9eo9.e m-st /e so constit-te2 that its mem/ers e,,ecti7e.* .isten to one anotherH or at .east come c.ose eno-+h to that con2ition to war2 o,, 9ossi/.e cha..en+es to its 2emocratic .e+itimac* ,rom s-/+ro-9s" In 9racticeH e7en more is norma..* reK-ire2" O-r states aim to .astH so we want an ass-rance that we sha.. contin-e to /e a/.e to .isten to one another in the ,-t-re" This 2eman2s a certain reci9roca. commitment" In 9racticeH a nation can on.* ens-re the sta/i.it* o, its .e+itimac* i, its mem/ers are stron+.* committe2 to one another /* means o, a common a..e+iance to the 9o.itica. comm-nit*" It is the share2 conscio-sness o, this commitment which creates con,i2ence on the 9art o, the 7ario-s s-/+ro-9s that the* wi.. in2ee2 /e hear2" In other wor2sH a mo2ern 2emocratic state 2eman2s a M9eo9.eM with a stron+ co..ecti7e i2entit*" Democrac* o/.i+es -s to show m-ch more so.i2arit* an2 m-ch more commitment to one another in o-r Doint 9o.itica. 9roDect than was 2eman2e2 /* the hierarchica. an2 a-thoritarian societies o, *ester*ear" In the +oo2 o.2 2a*s o, the A-stro1=-n+arian Em9ireH the ?o.ish 9easant in 4a.icia co-.2 /e a.to+ether o/.i7io-s o, the =-n+arian co-ntr* sK-ireH the /o-r+eois o, ?ra+-eH or the %iennese workerH witho-t this in the s.i+htest threatenin+ the sta/i.it* o, the state" This con2ition o, thin+s /ecomes -ntena/.e on.* when i2eas a/o-t 9o9-.ar +o7ernment start to circ-.ate" This is the moment when REn2 ?a+e 1''S s-/+ro-9s that wi.. notH or cannotH /e /o-n2 to+ether start to 2eman2 their own states" This is the era o, nationa.ismH o, the /reak1-9 o, em9ires" Thinkers in the ci7ic h-manist tra2itionH ,rom Aristot.e thro-+h =annah Aren2tH ha7e note2 that ,ree societies reK-ire a hi+her .e7e. o, commitment an2 9artici9ation than 2es9otic or a-thoritarian ones" $itiOens ha7e to 2o ,or themse.7esH as it wereH what the r-.ers wo-.2 otherwise 2o ,or them" >-t this wi.. ha99en on.* i, these citiOens ,ee. a stron+ /on2 o, i2enti,ication with their 9o.itica. comm-nit*H an2 hence with their ,e..ow citiOens" 0imi.ar.*H ,ree societies reK-ire a stron+ commitment to 2oin+ the common work" >eca-se a sit-ation in which some carrie2 the /-r2ens o, 9artici9ation whi.e others D-st enDo*e2 the /ene,its wo-.2 /e into.er1a/.eH ,ree societies a.so reK-ire a hi+h .e7e. o, m-t-a. tr-st" The* are eCtreme.* 7-.nera/.e i, some citiOens /e.ie7e that others are not rea..* ,-.,i..in+ their commitments11,or eCam9.eH that the* are not 9a*in+ their taCesH or are cheatin+ on we.,areH or are /ene,ittin+ as em9.o*ers ,rom a +oo2 .a/or market witho-t ass-min+ an* o, the socia. costs" This kin2 o, mistr-st creates eCtreme tensionH an2 threatens to -nra7e. the who.e skein o, mores that 2emocratic societies nee2 to o9erate"

ENDI 2010 Framework

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A2J CEN<OR<,I1
Thi# ar($!ent i# o)"io$#%- #i%%-. <a-in( there are %i!it# on the 'onte8t o a pri"ate &e)ate )- ree%- a##o'iatin( in&i"i&$a%# i# "er- &i erent ro! the (o"ern!ent 'ra'5in( #5$%%# an& #i''in( the tho$(ht po%i'e on prote#t (ro$p#. The- ha"e the opport$nit- to e8pre## their opinion#6 i not a)o$t the topi'6 an-0here in the p$)%i' #phere. The- 'an tr- to 'on"in'e $# o$t#i&e a &e)ate ro$n& an& the- 'an prote#t the (o"ern!ent an-0a- 0athe- #ee it. 1ri"ate a##o'iation# nee& the a)i%it- to %i!it 'ontent in their &i#'$##ion#. It 0o$%& )e i&ioti'6 or e8a!p%e6 i a (ro$p prote#tin( the Ira> 0ar opene& their #ta(e to an-one 0ith a pro=0ar point o "ie06 or i a %iterar- #o'iet- ha& to a&!it a ho!e%e## per#on 0ho 0ante& to ta%5 a)o$t CIA #p- #ate%%ite#. Cen#or#hip i# (oo& or &e!o'ra'-. 4$t%er i# 0ron(. Bn#traine& #pee'h &e(ra&e# the !ora% #ha!e an& #e% =re#traint that pre"ent# &e!o'ra'- ro! 'o%%ap#in( in on it#e% . 4ern# .C1 ;Wa.terH ?ro," ?o." ?hi." 4eor+etown A"H Nationa. A,,airsH F?orno+ra9h* %0" 2emocrac*: the case ,or censorshi9GH 22H WinterH htt9:88www"nationa.a,,airs"com89-/.icainterest82etai.89orno+ra9h*17s12emocrac*1the1case1,or1 censorshi9< To s9eak in a manner that is more o/7io-s.* 9o.itica.H there is a connection /etween se.,1restraint an2 shameH an2 there,ore a connection /etween shame an2 se.,1+o7ernment or 2emocrac*" There isH there,oreH a 9o.itica. 2an+er in 9romotin+ shame.essness an2 the ,-..est se.,1eC9ression or in2-.+ence" To .i7e to+ether reK-ires r-.es an2 a +o7ernin+ o, the 9assionsH an2 those who are witho-t shame wi.. /e -nr-.* an2 -nr-.a/.eI ha7in+ .ost the a/i.it* to restrain themse.7es /* o/ser7in+ the r-.es the* co..ecti7e.* +i7e themse.7esH the* wi.. ha7e to /e r-.e2 /* others" T*rann* is the nat-ra. an2 ine7ita/.e mo2e o, +o7ernment ,or the shame.ess an2 se.,1in2-.+ent who ha7e carrie2 .i/ert* /e*on2 an* restraintH nat-ra. an2 con7entiona." 0-chH in2ee2H was the ar+-ment ma2e /* 9o.itica. 9hi.oso9hers 9rior to the 20th cent-r*H when it was +enera..* -n2erstoo2 that 2emocrac*H more than an* other ,orm o, +o7ernmentH reK-ire2 se.,restraintH which it wo-.2 inc-.cate thro-+h mora. e2-cation an2 im9ose on itse., thro-+h .awsH inc.-2in+ .aws +o7ernin+ the manner o, 9-/.ic am-sements" It was the t*rant who co-.2 -s-a..* a..ow the 9eo9.e to in2-.+e themse.7es" In2-.+ence o, the sort we are now witnessin+ 2i2 not threaten his r-.eH /eca-se his r-.e 2i2 not 2e9en2 on a citiOenr* o, +oo2 character" An*one can /e r-.e2 /* a t*rantH an2 the more 2e/ase2 his s-/Dects the sa,er his
r-.e" A case can /e ma2e ,or com9.ete ,ree2om o, the arts amon+ s-ch 9eo9.eH whose 9.eas-res are 2eri7e2 ,rom acti7ities 2i7orce2 ,rom their .a/ors an2 an* 2-ties associate2 with citiOenshi9" Amon+ them a theatreH ,or eCam9.eH can ser7e to 2i7ert the search ,or 9.eas-re ,rom what the t*rant re+ar2s as 2an+ero-s or 9ernicio-s 9-rs-itsT 0-ch an ar+-ment was not -nknown amon+ tho-+ht,-. men at the time mo2ern 2emocracies were /ein+ constit-te2" It is to /e ,o-n2 in Jean1JacK-es Ro-ssea-Ls )etter to M" 2LA.em/ert on the Theatre" Its 9rinci9.es were known /* Washin+ton an2 Je,,ersonH to sa* nothin+ o, the anti,e2era.istsH an2 .ater on /* )inco.nH a.. o, whom insiste2 that 2emocrac* wo-.2 not work witho-t citiOens o, +oo2 character" An2H -nti. recent.*H no D-stice o, the 0-9reme $o-rt an2 no man in 9-/.ic .i,e 2o-/te2 the necessit* ,or the .aw to make at .east a mo2est e,,ort to 9romote that +oo2 characterH i, on.* /* 9rotectin+ the e,,ort o, other instit-tionsH s-ch as the ch-rch an2 the ,ami.*H to no-rish an2

The case ,or censorshi9H at ,irst +.anceH was ma2e who..* with a 7iew to the 9o.itica. +oo2H an2 it ha2 as its 9remise that what was +oo2 ,or the arts an2 sciences was not necessari.* +oo2 ,or the 9o.it*" There was no i..-sion amon+ these thinkers that censorshi9 .aws
maintain it" wo-.2 /e eas* to a2ministerH an2 there was a reco+nition o, the 2an+er the* re9resente2" One o/7io-s 2an+er was that the .awmakers wi.. 2eman2 too m-chH that the Anthon* $omstocks who are a.wa*s with -s wi.. /ecome the a+ents o, the .aw an2 2eman2 not mere.* 2ecenc* /-t sanctit*" Maca-.a* state2 the 9ro/.em in his essa* on Restoration $ome2* ;mi.2 ,are com9are2 to that re+-.ar.* eChi/ite2 in o-r 2a*<: It m-stH in2ee2H /e acknow.e2+e2H in D-stice to the writers o, whom we ha7e s9oken th-s se7ere.*H that the* were to a +reat eCtent the creat-res o, their a+e" An2 i, it /e aske2 wh* that a+e enco-ra+e2 immora.it* which no other a+e wo-.2 ha7e to.erate2H we ha7e no hesitation in answerin+ that this +reat 2e9ra7ation o, the nationa. taste was the e,,ect o, the 9re7a.ence o, ?-ritanism -n2er the $ommonwea.th" To 9-nish 9-/.ic o-tra+es on mora.s an2 re.i+ion is -nK-estiona/.* within the com9etence o, r-.ers" >-t when a +o7ernmentH not content with reK-irin+ 2ecenc*H reK-ires sanctit*H it o7erste9s the /o-n2s which mark its 9ro9er ,-nctions" An2 it ma* /e .ai2 2own as a -ni7ersa. r-.e that a +o7ernment which attem9ts more than it o-+ht wi.. 9er,orm .ess """" An2 so a +o7ernment whichH not content with re9ressin+ scan2a.o-s eCcessesH 2eman2s ,rom its s-/Dects ,er7ent an2 a-stere 9iet*H wi.. soon 2isco7er thatH whi.e attem9tin+ to ren2er an im9ossi/.e ser7ice to the ca-se o, 7irt-eH it has in tr-th on.* 9romote2 7ice" The tr-th o, this was am9.* 2emonstrate2 in the Anite2 0tates in the ?rohi/ition eraH when the attem9t was ma2e to en,orce a/stemio-sness an2 notH .a/e.s to the contrar*H tem9erance" In a wor2H the 9rinci9.e sho-.2 /e not to attem9t to era2icate 7ice111ae means /* which that mi+ht concei7a/.* /e accom9.ishe2 are incom9ati/.e with ,ree +o7ernment /-t to make 7ice 2i,,ic-.tH knowin+ that whi.e it wi.. contin-e to ,.o-rish co7ert.*H it wi.. not /e o9en.* eChi/ite2" An2 that was tho-+ht to /e im9ortant" It o-+ht to /e c.ear that this o.2 an2 .ar+e.* ,or+otten case ,or censorshi9 was ma2e /* men who were not insensiti7e to the /ea-t* o, the arts an2 the no/.e ro.e the* can 9.a* in the .i7es o, men" Ro-ssea- a2mitte2 that he ne7er wi..in+.* misse2 a 9er,ormance o, an* o, Mo.i!reLs 9.a*sH an2 2i2 so in the 7er* conteCt o, ar+-in+ that a.. theatrica. 9ro2-ctions sho-.2 /e /anne2 in the 2ecent an2 se.,1+o7ernin+ 9o.it*" )ike ?.ato he wo-.2 /anish the 9oetsH *et he was himse., a 9oet11a m-sicianH o9era com9oserH an2 no7e.ist11 an2 2emonstrate2 his .o7e ,or an2 know.e2+e o, 9oetr*111or as we wo-.2 sa*H the arts11in his works an2 in his .i,e" >-t he was a/o7e a.. a thinker o, the hi+hest rankH an2 as s-ch he knew that the /asic 9remise o, the .ater .i/era.ism is ,a.se" A cent-r* .ater John 0t-art Mi.. co-.2 no .on+er concei7e o, a con,.ict /etween the intrinsic an2 there,ore .e+itimate 2eman2s o, the sciences an2 the intrinsic an2 there,ore .e+itimate 2eman2s o, the 9o.it*" Ro-ssea- ha2 ar+-e2 that the MrestorationM o, the arts an2 sciences 2i2 not ten2 to 9-ri,* mora.sH /-t thatH on the contrar*H their restoration an2 9o9-.ariOation wo-.2 /e 2estr-cti7e o, the 9ossi/i.it* o, a +oo2 ci7i. societ*" =is contem9oraries were shocke2 an2 an+ere2 /* this teachin+ an2 eCc.-2e2 Ro-ssea- ,rom their societ*I an2 ta-+ht /* them an2 more 2irect.* /* Mi.. an2 his ,o..owers11J-stice Do-+.asH ,or eCam9.e11we mi+ht ten2 to 2ismiss it as the teachin+ o, a ma2man or ,oo." Are weH howe7erH sti.. 9re9are2 to stan2 with Mi.. an2 his 9re2ecessors a+ainst Ro-ssea-H to ar+-e that what is +oo2 ,or science is necessari.* +oo2 ,or ci7i. societ*T Or ha7e certain terri/.e e7ents an2 con2itions 9re9are2 -s to reconsi2er that iss-eT I, soH an2 es9ecia..* in the .i+ht o, certain .iterar* an2 theatrica. e7entsH we mi+ht /e 9re9are2 to reconsi2er the iss-e o, whether what is +oo2 ,or the arts is necessari.* +oo2 ,or ci7i. societ*"

ENDI 2010 Framework

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A2J CEN<OR<,I1
Their ra!e0or5 re>$ire# a or! o '%o#$re 0hi'h %in5# to 'en#or#hip. E"en a''eptan'e o ra&i'a% &i#'o$r#e# re>$ire# %i!itation# to pre#er"e the openne## o p$)%i' #pa'e. <hi"e%- 200 ;R-th )ess.H Former Assistant ?ro," ?o." 0ci" TeCas APMH in F?o.itica. Theor* an2 ?artisan ?o.iticsGH E2" ?ortisH 4-n2ersen an2 0hi7e.*H 99" 1351136< The ,irst 9oint here is that am/i+-ists cannot em/race a.. 2isr-9ti7e actions or resist a.. attem9ts to cate+oriOe acti7ities in terms o, M+oo2M an2 M>a2HM M.e+itimateM an2 Mi..e+itimateHM Mci7i.M an2 M-nci7i."M For i, their aim is to +i7e 7oice to those who ha7e /een si.ence2 or mar+ina.iOe2H the* m-stH at the 7er* .eastH 2istin+-ish /etween acti7ities that si.ence an2 mar+ina.iOe 7ers-s those that 2o not" The* m-st te.. -sH ,or eCam9.eH what makes an act an act or resistance rather than o, cr-e.t* or t*rann*H or what 2e,ines /eha7ior as contestation as o99ose2 to mere /-..*in+ or ostraciOation" The* 2o not te.. -s these thin+sH o, co-rseH since their own ass-m9tions reK-ire them to resist s-ch attem9ts at c.os-re an2 cate+oriOation" EetH an answer is im9.ie2" It is im9.icit in their 2emocratic 7ision o, societ* an2H in2ee2H in an* 2emocratic 7ision o, societ*" M4oo2M 9o.itica. acts 1 acts o,
.e+itimate resistance an2 contest 1 areH ,or themH as ,or most other 9eo9.eH ci7i. acts: meanin+H essentia..*H acts that are res9ect,-. o, the +oo2s o, 2emocrac* an2 .i/ert*I acts that are non7io.ent an2 2esi+ne2

For eCam9.eH no am/i+-ists ;in m* rea2in+s< seek or sanction acts o, McontestM that in7o.7e /eha7iors .ike /-rnin+ crosses on 9eo9.eLs .awnsH .*in+ to the 9-/.icH sho-tin+ others into si.enceH hittin+ or ki..in+ or threatenin+ 9o.itica. o99onentsH or the .ike" RatherH their 9o.itica. eCam9.es -ni,orm.* s-++est that the eC9ansions o, contest wo-.2 in7o.7e on.* ci7i. kin2s o, resistance an2
to increase othersL ,ree2om an2 know.e2+e " s-/7ersion: thin+s .ike teachin+H 9rotestin+H 2emonstratin+H ar+-in+H raisin+ awarenessH K-estionin+ an2 the .ike" A,ter a..H the 9oint o, /ein+ in the am/i+-ist cam9 in the ,irst 9.ace is to 9rotest acts o, t*rann* an2 com9-.sion" 0oH 2es9ite stron+ rhetoric a/o-t 2isr-9tin+ a.. or2ers an2 -n2erminin+ a.. r-.esH the* cannotH an2 2o notH contest or -n2ermine /asic r-.es o, ci7i.it* ;r-.es which I wi.. 2e,ine ,-rther

M* 9oint here is not D-st to sa* that the am/i+-ists are nice 9eo9.e who ha99en to reDect 7io.ent an2 t*rannica. tactics" It is to sa* that their (oa%# i!p%- an& re>$ire thi#" For certain s-/7ersi7e or 2isr-9ti7e 9o.itica. acti7ities 1 .ike threatenin+ others with 7io.ence or sho-tin+ o99onents into si.ence 1 are s-ch that the* wi.. -n2ermine an* ,-rther s-/7ersions an2 2isr-9tions" In this senseH some 2isr-9tions t-rn o-t to so.i2i,* the stat-s K-o an2 some s-/7ersions t-rn o-t to /e co-nter1s-/7ersi7e" Which is wh* the am/i+-ists m-st sto9 short o, ce.e/ratin+ a.. 2i,,erences or 2isor2ersH ,or what wo-.2 /e the 9oint o, reDectin+ the o.2 s*stem ,or its s-99ose2 t*rannies 1 its /-..*in+ an2 si.encin+ tactics 1 on.* to take -9 more o, the sameT To 9-t this 9oint another wa*H it t-rns o-t that to /e o9en to a.. thin+s isH in e,,ectH to /e o9en to nothin+" Whi.e the am/i+-ists ha7e commen2a/.e reasons ,or wantin+ to a7oi2 c.os-re1to a7oi2 s9eci,*in+ what is not a..owe2 or ce.e/rate2 in their 9o.itica. 7ision 1 the- nee& to #a- LnoL to #o!e thin(# in or&er to )e open to thin(# in (enera% " The*
in a moment<" In kee9in+ with their 2emocratic am/itionsH the* 2o not seek to annihi.ate or si.ence o99ositionH /-t to 2i7ersi,* an2 increase its 7oices an2 o99ort-nities" nee2 to sa* MnoM to certain ,orms o, contestH i, on.* to 9rotect contest in +enera." For i, one is to /e o9en to the 9rinci9.es o, 2emocrac*H ,or eCam9.eH one m-st /e 2o+matica..* c.ose2 to the 9rinci9.es o, ,ascism" I, one wo-.2 em/race to.eranceH one m-st ri+i2.* reDect into.erance" I, one wo-.2 s-99ort o9enness in 9o.itica. s9eech an2 actionH one m-st /an the acts o, 9o.itica. intimi2ationH 7io.ence o, recrimination that sK-e.ch that o9enness" I, one wo-.2 eC9an2 2e.i/eration an2 2isr-9tionH one m-st set -9 strict .e+a. 9rotections aro-n2 s-ch acti7ities" An2 i, one wo-.2 ens-re that citiOens ha7e reason to

o9enness reK-ires certain c.ear .imitsH r-.esH c.os-re" An2 to make matters more com9.eCH these str-ct-res o, o9enness cannot sim9.* /e 9-t into 9.ace an2 ,or+otten" The* nee2 to /e ta-+ht to new +enerations o, citiOensH to /e reta-+ht an2 reen,orce2 amon+ the o.2H an2 as the 9o.itica. wor.2 chan+esH to /e shore2 -9H retho-+htH
en+a+e in 9o.itica. contest 1 that it has 9ractica. meanin+ an2 im9ort ,or them 1 one m-st esta/.ish an2 maintain the r-.es an2 re+-.ations an2 .aws that 9rotect 2emocrac*" In shor tH a2a9te2H an2 a99.ie2 to new 9ro/.ems an2 new sit-ations" It wi.. not 2oH thenH to sim9.* ass-me that these str-ct-res are 9ermanent.* 7ia/.e an2 sec-re witho-t si+ni,icant work or D-sti,ication on o-r 9artI

the* are s-ch 7a.-a/.e an2 *et 7-.nera/.e +oo2s that the* reK-ire the most -n,.a++in+ an2 ,irm s-99ort that we can +i7e them"
nor wi.. it 2o to ta.k a/o-t resistin+ or s-/7ertin+ them" In2ee2H

Re $#a% to %i!it the &i#'$##ion )e'o!e# an en&or#e!ent o the #tat$#=>$o. 1ro(re##i"e po%iti'# &e!an&# the 'on"er#ation )e %i!ite&. <hi"e%- 200 ;R-th )ess.H Former Assistant ?ro," ?o." 0ci" ?ortisH 4-n2ersen an2 0hi7e.*H 99" 99" 1501151< TeCas APMH in F?o.itica. Theor* an2 ?artisan ?o.iticsGH E2"

Th-s ,arH I ha7e ar+-e2 that i, the am/i+-ists mean to /e s-/7ersi7e a/o-t an*thin+H the* nee2 to /e conser7ati7e a/o-t some thin+s" The* nee2 to /e stea2,ast s-99orters o, the str-ct-res o, o9enness an2

that i, the am/i+-ists mean to stretch the /o-n2aries o, /eha7ior 1 i, the* want to /e re7o.-tionar* an2 2isr-9ti7e in their ske9ticism an2 iconoc.asm 1 the* nee2 ,irst to /e ,irm /e.ie7ers in somethin+" Which is to sa*H a+ainH the* nee2 to set c.ear .imits a/o-t what the* wi.. an2 wi.. not s-99ortH what the* 2o an2 2o not /e.ie7e to /e /est" As 4"K" $hesterston o/ser7e2H the tr-e re7o.-tionar* has a.wa*s wi..e2 somethin+ M2e,inite an2 .imite2"M For eCam9.eH MThe Jaco/in co-.2 te.. *o- not on.* the s*stem he wo-.2 re/e. a+ainstH /-t ;what was more im9ortant< the s*stem he wo-.2 not re/e. a+ainst"""M =e M2esire2 the ,ree2oms o, 2emocrac*"M =e Mwishe2 to ha7e 7otes an2 not to ha7e tit.es"""M >-t M/eca-se the new re/e. is a ske9ticM 1 /eca-se he cannot /rin+ himse., to wi.. somethin+ 2e,inite an2 .imite2 1 Mhe cannot /e a re7o.-tionar*"M For Mthe ,act that he wants to 2o-/t e7er*thin+ rea..* +ets in his wa* when he wants to 2eno-nce an*thin+M ;$hesterton 16@6H '1<" Th-sH the most ra2ica. ske9ticism en2s in the most ra2ica. conser7atism" In other wor2sH a re,-sa. to D-2+e amon+ i2eas an2 acti7ities isH in the en2H an2 en2orsement o, the stat-s K-o" To em/race e7er*thin+ is to /e -na/.e to em/race a 9artic-.ar 9.an o, actionH ,or to em/race a 9artic-.ar 9.an o, action is to reDect a.. othersH at .east ,or that moment" Moreo7erH
2emocrac*: wi..in+ to sa* MnoM to certain ,orms o, contestI wi..in+ to set -9 certain c.ear .imitations a/o-t acce9ta/.e /eha7ior" To thisH ,ina..*H I wo-.2 a22 as o/ser7e2 in o-r 2isc-ssion o, o9ennessH to em/race e7er*thin+ is to em/race se.,1contra2iction: to ho.2 to /oth oneLs 9-r9oses an2 to that which 2e,eats oneLs 9-r9oses 1 to to.erance an2 into.eranceH o9en1

the am/i+-istsL re,-sa.s to wi.. somethin+ M2e,inite an2 .imite2M -n2ermines their re7o.-tionar* im9-.ses" In their re,-sa. to sa* what the* wi.. not ce.e/rate an2 what the* wi.. not re/e. a+ainstH the* 2en* themse.7es ;an2 e7er*one e.se in their 9o.itica. wor.2< a 9artic-.ar 9.an or +ro-n2 to work ,rom" >* re,-sin+ to 2en* inci7i.it*H the* 2en* themse.7es a ci7i. 9-/.ic s9ace ,rom which to s9eak " The* cannot sa* MnoM to the
min2e2ness an2 c.ose1min2e2nessH 2emocrac* an2 t*rann*" In the same mannerH then H

ENDI 2010 '5 Framework terrorist who wo-.2 si.ence 2issent" The* cannot t-rn their /acks on the /-..*in+ o, the white s-9remacist" An2H as s-chH in re,-sin+ to /ar the tactics o, the anti12emocratH the* re,-se to s-99ort the tactics o, the 2emocrat" In shortH thenH to /e a tr-e am/i+-ist H there m-st /e some .imit to what is am/i+-o-s" To ,-..* s-99ort 9o.itica. contestH one m-st ,-..* s-99ort some -nconteste2 r-.es an2 reasons" To +enera..* reDect the si.encin+ or eCc.-sion o, othersH one m-st sometimes si.ence or eCc.-2e those who reDect ci7i.it* an2 2emocrac*"

ENDI 2010 Framework

'6

A2J WE <,OB@D <1EAK FROM OBR <B4MECT @OCATION

O$r ra!e0or5 a%%o0# &e)ater# to #pea5 ro! their #$)7e't %o'ation a# %on( a# the- &o it to &e en& a topi'a% po%i'-. Thi# i# the )e#t !i&&%e (ro$n& )e'a$#e the- 'an #ti%% a&"o'ate parti'$%ar t-pe# o e"i&en'e a# !ore i!portant a&"o'ate or pro(re##i"e #o'ia% 'han(e )$t it o er# the ne(ati"e a pre&i'ta)%e point o &epart$re or re#ear'h 0hi'h i# the po%i'- )ein( propo#e&. Their interpretation &e#tro-# &e!o'rati' &e%i)eration. 1rioriti9in( the i&entit- o the #pea5er rather than the 'ontent o their #pee'h re&$'e# &e)ate to na5e& po0er=po%iti'# )a#e& on (a!in( '$%t$ra% )a'5(ro$n&#. 1o#t ./1 ;Ro/ertH ?ro," )aw A$ >erke.e*H Wi..iam P Mar* )aw Re7iewH FFREE 0?EE$= AND RE)I4IOA0H RA$IA)H AND 0E(AA) =ARA00MENT: RA$I0T 0?EE$=H DEMO$RA$EH AND T=E FIR0T AMENDMENTGH &2 Wm an2 Mar* )" Re7" 2!3H WinterH )8N<
The thir2 ar+-ment ,or restrainin+ racist s9eech 2oes not t-rn on the characteriOation o, 9-/.ic 2isco-rse as irrationa.H /-t rather as coerci7e" Recent .iterat-re contains searin+ 2oc-mentation o, the 9ro,o-n2 9ersona. inD-r* o, racist s9eechH an2 this inD-r* ma* in 9artic-.ar circ-mstances /e so shockin+ as to .itera..* 9reem9t res9onsi7e s9eech" A.tho-+h the ana.o+o-s harm o, -nci7i. s9eech is ran2om.* scattere2 thro-+ho-t the 9o9-.ationH the 2isa/i.ities atten2ant -9on racist s9eech are concentrate2 -9on mem/ers o, 7ictim +ro-9s" =enceH where mem/ers o, 2ominant +ro-9s 9ercei7e Miso.ate2 inci2entsHM n165

mem/ers o, 7ictim +ro-9s 9ercei7e instea2 a s-,,ocatin+ an2 inesca9a/.e Mracism that is a 9ersistent an2 constit-ent 9art o, the socia. or2erH wo7en into the ,a/ric o, societ* an2 e7er*2a* .i,e"M n166 An2er s-ch con2itions it is to /e eC9ecte2 that mem/ers o, 2ominant an2 7ictim +ro-9s ma* we.. come to con,.ictin+ D-2+ments a/o-t whether racist s9eech shocks si+ni,icant se+ments o, 7ictim +ro-9 9o9-.ation into si.ence" The recent .iterat-re 9ro9osin+ restraints on racist s9eech is e.oK-ent on the nee2 to M.istenRS to the rea.
7ictimsM o, s-ch s9eech an2 to 2is9.a* Mem9ath* or -n2erstan2in+ ,or their inD-r*"M n200 An2 o, co-rse an* ,air an2 D-st 2etermination a/o-t the re+-.ation o, 9-/.ic 2isco-rse wo-.2 reK-ire eCact.* this kin2

there R#&06S is a.so a ten2enc* in recent .iterat-re to mo7e ,rom the 9ro9osition that a ,air 2etermination cannot /e ma2e -n.ess Mthe 7ictims o, racist s9eech are hear2HM n201 to the 7er* 2i,,erent 9ro9osition that s-ch a 2etermination o-+ht to -se Mthe eC9erience o, 7ictim1+ro-9 mem/ers RasS a +-i2e"M n202 The %atter propo#ition #ee!# to !e p%ain%a%#e. The iss-e on the ta/.e is whether irrationa.it* an2 coercion ha7e so tainte2 the me2i-m o, 9-/.ic 2isco-rse as to reK-ire shrinkin+ the sco9e o, se.,1+o7ernment" That iss-e si+ni,icant.* a,,ects e7er* citiOenH an2 its reso.-tion there,ore cannot /e ce2e2 to the contro. o, an* 9artic-.ar +ro-9" In ,act I 2o not see how the iss-e can /e a2eK-ate.* reso.7e2 at a.. -n.ess some notion o, ci7ic mem/ershi9 is in7oke2 that transcen2s mere +ro-9 i2enti,ication " Bn%e## 0e 'an #tri"e to &e%i)erate to(ether a# 'iti9en#6 &i#tan'in( o$r#e%"e# ro! ;/-t not a/an2onin+< o$r #pe'i i' '$%t$ra% )a'5(ro$n&#6 the i##$e 'an )e re#o%"e& on%- thro$(h the e8er'i#e o na5e& (ro$p po0er6 a #o%$tion not at a%% a&"anta(eo$# to the !ar(ina%i9e& an& oppre##e&" n20& ?ara2oCica..*H there,oreH the K-estion o, whether 9-/.ic 2isco-rse is irretrie7a/.* 2ama+e2 /* racist s9eech m-st itse., -.timate.* /e a22resse2
o, sensiti7it*" >-t thro-+h the me2i-m o, 9-/.ic 2isco-rse" >eca-se those 9artici9atin+ in 9-/.ic 2isco-rse wi.. not themse.7es ha7e /een si.ence2 ;a.most /* 2e,inition<H a hea7*H ,r-stratin+ R#&10S /-r2en is 2e ,acto 9.ace2

those who wo-.2 tr-ncate 9-/.ic 2isco-rse in or2er to sa7e it" The* m-st re9resent themse.7es as Ms9eakin+ ,orM those who ha7e /een 2e9ri7e2 o, their 7oice" >-t the ne(ati"e #pa'e o that #i%en'e rei(n# in#'r$ta)%e6 neither 'on ir!in( nor &en-in( thi# '%ai!" An2 the more e.oK-ent the a99ea.H the .ess com9e..in+ the c.aimH ,or the more accessi/.e 9-/.ic 2isco-rse wi.. then a99ear to eCact.* the 9ers9ecti7es racist s9eech is sai2 to re9ress" E7en i, this /-r2en is .i,te2H howe7erH an2 it is sim9.* acce9te2
on that mem/ers o, 7ictim +ro-9s are intimi2ate2 into si.enceH it wo-.2 sti.. not ,o..ow that restraints on racist s9eech within 9-/.ic 2isco-rse are D-sti,ie2" One mi+ht /e.ie7eH ,or eCam9.eH that s-ch si.encin+

MThe 9ro/.emHM as the $hairman o, the >.ack 0t-2ies De9artment o, New EorkLs $it* $o..e+e recent.* remarke2 a9ro9os o, the racist comments o, an aca2emic co..ea+-eH 2oes not .ie with s9eci,ic comm-nicati7e actsH /-t rather with MracismM itse.,H Minsi2io-s in o-r societ* an2 /-i.t into o-r c-.t-re"M n20' I, that were tr-eH re#traint# on ra'i#t #pee'h 0o$%& i!pair p$)%i' &i#'o$r#e 0itho$t at the #a!e ti!e repairin( the #i%en'e o "i'ti! (ro$p#" A.ternati7e.*H one mi+ht /e.ie7e that racist s9eech si.ences 7ictim +ro-9s 9rimari.* /eca-se o, its Mi2easHM /eca-se o, its messa+es o, racia. in,eriorit*H
occ-rs chie,.* thro-+h the str-ct-ra. con2itions o, racismH rather than s9eci,ica..* thro-+h the shock o, racist s9eech" rather than /eca-se o, its inci7i.it*" The 2istinction is im9ortant ,or the ,o..owin+ reason: a.tho-+h it is consistent with the interna. .o+ic o, 9-/.ic 2isco-rse to eCcise in eCtreme circ-mstances certain kin2s

?-/.ic 2isco-rse is the me2i-m within which o-r societ* assesses the 2emocratic acce9ta/i.it* o, i2easI to eCc.-2e certain i2eas as 9rima ,acie Mcoerci7eM an2 hence 2estr-cti7e o, 9-/.ic 2isco-rse is to contra2ict 9recise.* this ,-nction" There,ore MharmM to 9-/.ic 2isco-rse cannot D-sti,* restraints on racist i2eas on the +ro-n2s that s-ch i2eas are 9ercei7e2 to /e threatenin+ or coerci7e" n20! R#&11S There are a.so other 9ossi/i.ities" One mi+ht /e.ie7eH ,or eCam9.eH that /eca-se it is 2i,,ic-.t to 2istin+-ish i2eas ,rom inci7i.it*H an2 /eca-se it is 7ita..* im9ortant to co..ecti7e
o, -nci7i. s9eech that are eC9erience2 as coerci7eH n20@ it is ,-n2amenta..* incom9ati/.e with 9-/.ic 2isco-rse to eCcise s9eci,ic i2eas /eca-se the* are Mana.o+o-s.*M 2eeme2 to /e coerci7e" se.,12etermination to 9rotect a.. i2easH the .aw wi.. as a 9ractica. matter /e a/.e to restrain on.* a sma.. cate+or* o, /.atant racist e9ithetsH whichH a.tho-+h 2ee9.* o,,ensi7e an2 .ackin+ in i2eationa. contentH ha7e re.ati7e.* .itt.e to 2o with the more wi2es9rea2 9henomenon o, si.encin+" Or one mi+ht /e.ie7e that racist s9eech si.ences 9rimari.* when shockin+ racist e9ithets are -se2 in the ,ace1to1,ace con,rontations characteristic o, the M,i+htin+ wor2sM 2octrine o, $ha9.insk*H n203 so that the essentia. insi+ht o, the ar+-ment ,rom si.encin+ is a.rea2* re,.ecte2 within ,irst amen2ment 2octrine" M* own conc.-sionH in .i+ht o, these a.ternati7e consi2erationsH is that the case has not *et /een ma2e ,or circ-mscri/in+ 9-/.ic 2isco-rse to 9re7ent the kin2 o, 9reem9ti7e si.encin+ that occ-rs when mem/ers o,

e7en i, the em9irica. c.aim o, s*stematic 9reem9ti7e si.encin+ were acce9te2 ;an2 I am not s-re that I 2o acce9t it<H it is in m* 7iew most 2irect.* the res-.t o, the socia. an2 str-ct-ra. con2itions o, racismH rather than s9eci,ica..* o, racist s9eech" >eca-se the .o+ic o, the ar+-ment ,rom 9reem9ti7e si.encin+ 2oes not im9each the necessit* o, 9reser7in+ the ,ree eC9ression o, i2easH n205 9-/.ic 2isco-rse co-.2 at most /e re+-.ate2 in a .ar+e.* s*m/o.ic manner so as to 9-r+e it o, o-tra+eo-s racist e9ithets an2 names" It seems to me hi+h.* im9.a-si/.e to c.aim that s-ch s*m/o.ic re+-.ation wi.. e.iminate the 9reem9ti7e si.encin+ that is sai2 to D-sti,* restraints on 9-/.ic 2isco-rse"
7ictim +ro-9s eC9erience M,earH ra+eH Ran2S shock"M I sa* this with some hesitationH an2 with consi2era/.e am/i7a.ence" >-t

ENDI 2010 Framework

@0

A2J WE <,OB@D <1EAK FROM OBR <B4MECT @OCATION

Thi# ar($!ent i# o en#i"e an& #i%%-. 1eop%e #pea5 an& o)tain "a%$e a# in&i"i&$a%# not !e!)er# o a (ro$p. ,einri'h# ./D ;Terr*H Associate ?ro," ?o." 0ci" Eork A"H A./erta )aw Re7iewH F$ensorshi9 as Free 09eech! Free EC9ression %a.-es an2 the )o+ic o, 0i.encin+ in R" 7" Kee+straGH &! A.ta" )" Re7" 5&@H )8N< &2 The $o-rtLs entire a99roach to the ,ree eC9ression 7a.-e o, se.,1,-.,i..ment raises the K-estion whether its ,oc-s is on the in2i7i2-a. 9er seH or on the in2i7i2-a. on.* inso,ar as he is a mem/er o, a 9re,erre2 i2enti,ia/.e +ro-9" As note2 ear.ierH those theorists who ha7e ar+-e2 the case ,or ,ree eC9ression ,rom the 7anta+e 9oint o, the 7a.-e o, se.,1,-.,i..ment a.. ha7e ,oc-se2 on the in2i7i2-a. sim9.iciter" In so 2oin+H these theorists certain.* 2i2 not mean to 2en* that +ro-9 mem/ershi9s can /e an im9ortant 9art o, an* in2i7i2-a.Ls i2entit*H or that the* 9.a* an im9ortant ro.e in the 2*namics o, se.,1,-.,i..ment" For i, the* 2i2H the* wo-.2 co-rt the rather o/7io-s o/Dection that e7en hate s9eakers ha7e +ro-9 mem/ershi9sH some o, them sometimes o, a 7er* stron+ nat-re"3& >-t whi.e none o, these theorists wo-.2 2en* the im9ortant 9art 9.a*e2 /* +ro-9 mem/ershi9s in i2entit*1,ormation or in2i7i2-a. ,-.,i..mentH none o, them wo-.2 a..ow that the in2i7i2-a. is ,-.,i..e2 on.* as a mem/er o, a +ro-9H an2H in2ee2H +i7en the shi,t in the $o-rtLs ,oc-sH on.* as a mem/er o, an i2enti,ia/.e +ro-9" >-t the $o-rt 2oes"3' && The c.aim that in2i7i2-a.s are ,-.,i..e2 on.* as mem/ers o, +ro-9s 11 no matter the 7ariet* 11 is entire.* antithetica. to the se.,1,-.,i..ment rationa.e whichH ,aith,-..* a2here2 toH 9ertains on.* to in2i7i2-a.s as s-ch" Moreo7erH the i2ea that mem/ers o, i2enti,ia/.e +ro-9s are ,-.,i..e2 on.* to the eCtent that the* i2enti,* with their i2enti,ia/.e +ro-9 is not on.* s9-rio-s socio.o+*H it is a.so 2ee9.* ins-.tin+ to those the $o-rt wo-.2 inc.-2e within the i2enti,ia/.e +ro-9 cate+or*I ,or it ass-mes that the*H -n.ike those o, -s ostensi/.* ,rom non1i2enti,ia/.e +ro-9sH are ine7ita/.* an2 ineCora/.* 9risoners o, their i2enti,ia/.e +ro-9 i2entities"3@ E7en more than thisH howe7erH it 9.aces the $o-rt ri+ht in the center o, i2enti,ia/.e +ro-9 Mi2entit*M 9o.itickin+" For s-re.* the $o-rt cannot /e -naware o, the .ike.ihoo2 that there wi.. /e more than one M9re,erre2M conce9tion o, an* s-ch +ro-9Ls M9ro9erM i2entit*H an2H there,oreH +enera..* more than one com9etitor within an* 9artic-.ar +ro-9 7*in+ ,or the ri+ht to 2etermine this i2entit* /oth a-thoritati7e.* an2 9ermanent.*" =owe7erH /* ,oc-sin+ on the i2entities o, +ro-9 mem/ers rather than o, in2i7i2-a.s 9er seH the $o-rtLs ar+-ment nai7e.* s-99orts whate7er 9ower1 o-tcome c-rrent.* o/tains amon+ i2enti,ia/.e +ro-9 i2entit*12eterminin+ com9etitors"3! A22in+ ins-.t to inD-r*H its a-thoritati7e 9ron-nciation ine7ita/.* en,orces this o-tcome as we.." The 9ros9ect o, s-ch an e7ent-a.it* can on.* 2e9ress those who /e.ie7e that ,ree2om o, eC9ression is essentia. to in2i7i2-a. se.,1,-.,i..ment"

ENDI 2010 Framework

@1

A2J WE <,OB@D <1EAK FROM OBR <B4MECT @OCATION

A ir!in( i&entit- a# the )a#i# o #pee'h "a%$e entren'he# ra'i#! )e'a$#e it t$rn# '$%t$ra% e8perien'e into a '$rren'- that (et# tra&e& or the ri(ht to #pea5. @ito0it9 ./C ;Do-+.asH JD Northwestern an2 ?hD )o*o.a A" $hica+oH Ani7ersit* o, Notre Dame )aw Re7iewH F0OME $RITI$A) T=OA4=T0 ON $RITI$A) RA$E T=EOREGH 32 Notre Dame )" Re7" @0&H )8N< 0i+m-n2 Fre-2 once -se2 the eC9ression Mnarcissism o, minor 2i,,erencesM to 2enote how 7ario-s ethnic +ro-9s 9roc.aim their -niK-eness an2 s-9eriorit* o7er other ethnicities /ase2 -9on a han2,-. o, i2ios*ncratic traitsH when in ,act the* are not 7er* 2i,,erent ,rom the other +ro-9s" n&' Fre-2Ls termino.o+* seems to ,it m-ch o, the work /ein+ 2one in $RT to the eCtent that man* critica. race theorists en2 -9 writin+ a/o-t themse.7es on the +ro-n2 that their 9ersona. eC9erience is -niK-e an2 that there is somethin+ s9ecia. that the* can contri/-te /eca-se the* are /.ackH )atinoH AsianH an2 so on" 0o instea2 o, writin+ an artic.e on wh* a 9artic-.ar .aw is wron+ or -nconstit-tiona.H the critica. race scho.ar 9ro7i2es a Mrace2M or Msit-ate2M ana.*sis a.on+ the .ines o,: The >.ack %iew o, $ase (H or The )atino ?ers9ecti7e on 0tat-te E" Ine7ita/.* the a-thors o, these t*9es o, artic.es
write a/o-t the 9ers9ecti7e o, those who share their ethnicit*" I m-st a2mit some reser7ations a/o-t the -.timate 7a.-e o, this scho.arshi9" In $ritica. Race Theor* we ,in2 Jenni,er R-sse.. writin+ a/o-t what it is .ike to /e a /.ack woman .aw 9ro,essorI n&@ Mar+aret Monto*a ;a R#@13S )atina .aw 9ro,essor< writin+ a/o-t what it is .ike to +row -9 )atina an2 to atten2 =ar7ar2 )aw 0choo.I n&! Ro/ert $han+ writin+ a/o-t what it is .ike to /e an Asian1American .e+a. writin+ instr-ctorI n&3 an2 A.an Freeman ;a white .aw 9ro,essor< writin+ a/o-t how his whiteness is an Minesca9a/.e ,eat-reM an2 an M-ncrossa/.e +a9M which mi+ht ren2er him inca9a/.e o, tr-.* contri/-tin+ to $RT" n&5 Man* o, these writers are writin+ a/o-t themse.7esH an2 not D-st a/o-t how this or that e7ent has in,.-ence2 them ;,or eCam9.eH how +rowin+ -9 /.ack has moti7ate2 someone to /e a ci7i. ri+hts .aw*er<H /-t writin+ a/o-t 2ee9.* 9ersona. e7ents that are seemin+.* -nre.ate2 to .e+a. K-estions" For eCam9.eH two a-thors in this co..ection 2isc-ss in 2etai. how the* wear their hairH one artic.e startin+ with the re,rainH MI want to know m* hair a+ainH to own itH to 2e.i+ht in it a+ain"M n&6 4enera..* s9eakin+H artic.es in this 7ein ha7e a

: ,irst a series o, 9ersona. stories an2 memoirsH then a 2isc-ssion o, cases an2 stat-tes ,rom 13@0 to 16@0 in which co-rts ha7e /een insensiti7e to the tar+et +ro-9H an2 then a conc.-sion which states that 9reD-2ice is sti.. a.i7e an2 we.. to2a*" In most artic.es there is .itt.e 2isc-ssion o, the .aw as it is nowH a.tho-+h a/ominations .ike Dre2 0cott 7" 0an2,or2H n'0 ?.ess* 7" Fer+-sonH n'1 an2 Koremats- 7" Anite2 0tates n'2 are re9eate2.*
simi.ar ,ormat mentione2" An2 when recent cases are mentione2H the* are o,ten 2isc-sse2 witho-t an e,,ort /* the a-thor to see /oth si2es o, the iss-e 1 to see how the co-rt co-.2 ha7e reache2 its 2ecision" $RTLs messa+e

one (et# the i!pre##ion that 0ritin( the#e pie'e# i# a re%ati"e%- ea#- (a!e to p%a-6 that a%% one nee&# i# an an(%e6 a per#ona% trait 0hi'h 'an #er"e a# an entran'e into the (a!e I an2 i, one 9ossesses se7era. an+.esH she can write a/o-t
a/o-t the .e+ac* o, racism is im9ortantH /-t how these ,acets intersectH that isH what it is .ike to .ie R#@15S at the Mintersectiona.it*M o, /.ackness an2 ,emininit*H n'& or to /e )atino an2 +a*" I am not a critica. race scho.ar /-t I co-.2 9ro/a/.* 9ro2-ce a man-scri9t in this 7ein in a re.ati7e.* short time /* ,o..owin+ the stan2ar2 ,ormat" I wo-.2 /e+in with a stor* a/o-t what it was .ike to +row -9 JewishH how I went to tem9.eH ce.e/rate2 ?asso7erH +ot ri2ic-.e2 /* ki2s at schoo.H hear2 9eo9.e re,er to Jews as MkikesHM went to 4erman* an2 /ecame 2e9resse2 a/o-t the =o.oca-stH how I see swastikas in the /athrooms at the schoo. where I teachH an2 so on" I co-.2 then 2isc-ss how Jews were 2iscriminate2 a+ainst here in AmericaH how we co-.2nLt atten2 certain schoo.sH co-.2nLt 7acation in certain 9.aces" An2 I co-.2 conc.-2e /* sa*in+ that anti10emitism sti..

4$t 0e nee& to a#5 0here the#e #torie# an& narrati"e# %ea& in the %a0 H es9ecia..* constit-tiona. .aw" The an#0er i# no0here. The rea#on or thi# i# that in !o#t 'a#e# the %a0 &oe# not t$rn on !pri"ate #tor- a)o$t (ro0in( $p Me0i#h6 nor &oe# it t$rn on an-)o&-Q# per#ona% a''o$nt o )ein( )%a'56 ,i#pani'6 an& #o onJ these are 9ri7ate iss-esI the .aw t-rns on 9-/.ic iss-es" To see thisH consi2er what wo-.2 ha99en i, I ;or an* other Jew< were aske2 to 2etermineH ,irst as a JewH then as a D-2+eH the in,amo-s case
eCists to2a* an2 that we sho-.2 /e on the .ooko-t ,or it" %i..a+e o, 0kokie 7" Nationa. 0ocia.ist ?art* o, America" n'' =ow wo-.2 m* sit-ate2 9ers9ecti7e as a Jew 2i,,er ,rom m* 9ers9ecti7e as a D-2+e in reachin+ an answer to the K-estion whether the NaOis ha7e the ri+ht to march in a 9re2ominant.* Jewish s-/-r/T Wo-.2 m* raise2 conscio-sness as a Jew somehow trans,orm m* D-2icia. o9inion ,rom a +eneric o9inion into a Jewish o9inionT ?erha9s I am nab-m ic7eH /-t it seems that m* stat-s as a Jew rea..* 2oesnLt matter when it comes time to r-.e on the constit-tiona.it* o, the or2inance in 0kokieH /eca-se that iss-e t-rns on a 9-/.ic K-estion a/o-t the $onstit-tion as it a,,ects a.. AmericansH not on the 9ri7ate K-estion a/o-t what it is .ike ,or me to /e a Jew" $ertain.*H as a Jew I ha7e some insi+hts into the horrors o, NaOismH /-t thisH stan2in+ a.oneH 2oes not +i7e me a 9ri7i.e+e2 inter9retation o, the $onstit-tion as it a,,ects Jews an2 NaOis" I, an*thin+H it mi+ht 2istort m* 7iew o, the $onstit-tionH makin+ me a 9oor D-2+e o, the .aw" M* Mraise2 conscio-snessM is -se,-. in the sense that I wi.. /e -n.ike.* to ho.2 mistaken /e.ie,s a/o-t JewsH /-t m* 2ecision in this case wi.. come 2own R#@16S to constit-tiona. 2octrineH an2 the ri+ht 2ecision in

M-ch $RT scho.arshi9 seems to /e in,-se2 with the mistaken notion that /.acks ha7e a -niK-e a/i.it* to write a/o-t how the .aw a,,ects /.acksH that on.* =is9anics can rea..* see how the .aw a,,ects =is9anicsH that white D-2+es canLt act as +oo2 D-2+es in cases in7o.7in+ these Mo-t1+ro-9s"M <o the !o"e!ent 'an ea#i%- ra't$re into a 'o!po#ite o &i"er#e peop%e 0ho 0rite a)o$t the!#e%"e# an& their o$t=(ro$pH each 9erson c.aims a
0kokie is the ri+ht 2ecision ,or -s a.. 1 /.ackH whiteH JewH AsianH an2H I s-99oseH NaOi" scho.arshi9 interest in his own ethnicit* or +en2er or /oth" The notion that each race has a -niK-e 7iew o, the .aw is common in $RTH as we can see ,rom the ,o..owin+ rea2in+ o, ?.ess* an2 >rown 7" >oar2 o, E2-cation n'@ /* a /.ack $RT scho.ar: MFrom a white 9ers9ecti7eH it is -nc.ear what is wron+ with se9arate /-t eK-a.H /-t when one takes a /.ack 9ers9ecti7eH it is eas* to see wh* ?.ess* was wron+ an2 wh* >rown was constit-tiona..* ri+ht"M n'! This 9assa+e i+nores the 9oint that the $onstit-tion ;an2 other .aws< are 9-/.ic 2oc-ments that a,,ect a.. o, -s re+ar2.ess o, o-r race 1 so ?.ess* was wron+ ,rom

1art o the pro)%e! here i# that CRT #ee!# to a%% "i'ti! to )a%5ani9ation6 a #p%interin( e e't in 0hi'h ea'h ra'ia%6 ethni'6 or (en&er 'ate(or)e'o!e# a $nitar- o'$#6 to the ne(%e't o the ra(i%e o"er%appin( 'on#en#$# 0hi'h )in&# $#. Th-s ?a-.ette $a.2we.. contri/-tes A =air
an* 2ecent 9ers9ecti7eH an2 >rown was ri+ht ,rom an* 9ers9ecti7eI it is not a K-estion o, /.ack an2 whiteH /-t a K-estion o, ri+ht an2 wron+" ?iece n'3 which +oes into +reat 2etai. a/o-t her own hair as a wa* o, eC9.orin+ the iss-es raise2 in a ,e2era. case which -9he.2 the ri+ht o, American Air.ines to 9rohi/it a /.ack em9.o*ee ,rom wearin+ her hair in /rai2s" n'5 The co-rt ,o-n2 that the com9an*Ls r-.e a+ainst /rai2e2 hair a99.ie2 ne-tra..* to /oth /.acks an2 whites ;at the timeH the mo7ie M10M ha2 9o9-.ariOe2 /rai2e2 hair ,or white women<H an2 the co-rt a.so 9ointe2 o-t that the r-.e 2i2 not 2iscriminate a+ainst an imm-ta/.e racia. characteristic o, /.acksH s-ch as /-sh* hair or 2ark skin" This was a contro7ersia. 2ecisionH an2H .ike $a.2we..H I 2isa+ree with the co-rtLs r-.in+I /-t the wron+,-.ness o, the 2ecision is not rea..* a,,ecte2 in an* wa* ;nor is an* .i+ht she2 on the 2ecision< /* ,in2in+ o-t how $a.2we.. wears her own hair" The im9.ication

we 2onLt nee2 an ar+-ment a+ainst a /a2 2ecision ,rom a /.ack 9ers9ecti7eI we nee2 an ar+-ment that works ,rom a.. reasona/.e 9ers9ecti7esH es9ecia..* i, we want to con7ince 9eo9.e who are o-tsi2e o-r race an2 ethnicit*"
,rom $a.2we..Ls 2isc-ssion o, her hair is that she has s9ecia. know.e2+e o, R#@20S this case /eca-se she is /.ackH a s9ecia. a/i.it* to see that the co-rt was wron+" >-t

ENDI 2010 Framework

@2

A2J AOB E?C@BDE B<I<I@ENCIN+ KCONTENT*

O)"io$#%- 0e e8'%$&e #o!e 'ontent. Ao$ nee& a topi'a% p%an )$t there.# %ot# o 0a-# to in'orporate 'riti'a% a&"o'a'into po%i'- &e)ate. Ao$ 'an ta%5 a)o$t the e e't# o o"er#ea# &ep%o-!ent on !inoritie# or ho0 it perpet$ate# i!peria%i#!. Ao$ 'an !a5e ar($!ent# a)o$t 0hat e"i&en'e i# "a%i& to pro"e a point an& o'$# on narrati"e or per#ona% e8perien'e a# the on%- "a%i& 7$#ti i'ation )- &e en&in( #tan&point epi#te!o%o(-. The-.%% #a- the#e ar($!ent# ne"er 0in6 )$t that i#n.t 7$#ti i'ation or in'%$&in( the!. I the ar($!ent i# (oo&6 7$&(e# "ote or it. The a't that the#e ar($!ent# $#$a%%- %o#e i# 7$#t e"i&en'e that the- are )a& ar($!ent#. A##$!in( a priori that -o$r ar($!ent i# 'orre't6 then #%appin( an-one 0ho &i#a(ree# 0ith a %a)e% o ra'i#! i# anti=e&$'ationa% an& 'ontrar- to the "er- i&ea o re#o%"in( &i#p$te# thro$(h rea#one& ar($!ent#. C%ai!# o #i%en'in( or e8'%$#ion are 7$#t 0hinin( to &i#($i#e the a't that peop%e &on.t a't$a%%- 'are. ,einri'h# ./D ;Terr*H Associate ?ro," ?o." 0ci" Eork A"H A./erta )aw Re7iewH F$ensorshi9 as Free 09eech! Free EC9ression %a.-es an2 the )o+ic o, 0i.encin+ in R" 7" Kee+straGH &! A.ta" )" Re7" 5&@H )8N< 12@ The si.encin+ ar+-mentH thir2.*H /es9eaks a certain resentment o7er the ,act that re.ati7e.* ,ew 9ersons seem to ha7e /o-+ht into the i2eo.o+ica. 9ositions a27ance2 /* its 9artic-.ar 9ro9onentsH an2 an arro+ance o, attit-2e to match 9erha9s ,-e.e2 /* this ,act" MWhat we /e.ie7e is tr-eHM so the reasonin+ seems to +oH Mthere,ore somethin+ m-st /e wron+" Either the +ame was ri++e2 a+ainst -s ,rom the start so that o-r messa+es ne7er +ot thro-+h to those who nee2e2 to hear them ;or +ot
thro-+h /-t on.* in a 2istorte2 7ersion<H or i, these messa+es 2i2 +et thro-+h c.ear.* an2 -nam/i+-o-s.*H somethin+ a/o-t the a-2itors themse.7es m-st ha7e ren2ere2 them inca9a/.e o, seein+ s-ch o/7io-s tr-ths" ?erha9s the* ha7e /een /rainwashe2 /* the L,.oo2L o, 9orno+ra9h*H hate s9eechH etc"H in circ-.ation" >-t whate7er the ca-seH it is c.ear that their conscio-snesses are ,a.se an2 nee2 raisin+"222 >*

it is the arro+ance o, s-ch thinkin+ that .e2 Mc)ach.in J" to sa* that ,ree2om o, eC9ression 2oes not inc.-2e Mthe ri+ht to /e /e.ie7e2HM22' an2 it was this se.,same arro+ance that J"0" Mi.. terme2 an Mass-m9tion o, in,a..i/i.it*"M22@ Whate7er the .a/e.H the one
Lsen2in+ messa+esL a/o-t what one can an2 cannot sa*H .aws .ike s" &16;2< 2o D-st that"M Whi.e s-ch reasonin+ is certain.* common coin ,or man* o, those who ar+-e the si.encin+ caseH22& 9ossi/i.it* the thesis cannot co-ntenance is the one 9ossi/i.it* that makes the most sense: name.*H that in re.e7ant 9art an*wa*H their ar+-ments ha7e /een /oth hear2 an2 -n2erstoo2 11 an2 reDecte2" An2

Mwhat in the wor.2 are these 9eo9.e ta.kin+ a/o-tTM o The* cannot .itera..* mean that their messa+es are 2rowne2 o-t in the sense that those who wish to hear them cannot" It is not as i, the networks or The Wa.. 0treet Jo-rna. were act-a..* Dammin+ the /roa2castin+ o, an*oneLs 7iews" What these 9eo9.e rea..* mean is that not man* 9eo9.e are intereste2I or are not intereste2 ,or .on+I orH .ike m*se.,H i, intereste2 are not at a.. 9ers-a2e2" In this res9ect these critics are .ike anno*in+ chi.2ren who whine at their 9arentsH M*o-Lre not .istenin+ to meHM when what the* mean isH Mhowe7er m-ch I +o onH *o- 2onLt think ILm ri+ht"M This whinin+ is 2resse2 -9 in the se.,1ser7in+ Dar+on o, ,a.se conscio-snessH 2ominationH an2 c-.t-ra.1 he+emonism """ a.. o, which is inten2e2 to show how the 7-.+arit* o, the com9etin+ me2ia is at ,a-.t ,or ca-sin+ 9eo9.e to i+nore the .e,tLs more wei+ht* messa+e" What this comes toH o, co-rseH is that what some on the .e,t ha7e to sa* is so /orin+ or so -ncon7incin+ that 9eo9.e wo-.2 rather watch Whee. o, Fort-ne" >-t is that rea..* Whee. o, Fort-neLs ,a-.tT22!
tho-+h I ,in2 it 7er* har2 to /e.ie7e that a s9eech s-99ressi7e strate+* is strict.* an2 necessari.* a .e,t1win+ 9henomenonH $har.es Frie2 9-t the 9oint we.. when he aske2

<erio$#%-6 the p$)%i' #phere i# #at$rate& 0ith pro(re##i"e !ea##a(e#. Wein#tein ./D ;JamesH Ame.ia )ewis ?ro," $onstit-tiona. )aw an2 Fac-.t* Fe..ow $enter ,or the 0t-2* o, )awH 0cienceH P Techno.o+* A0AH )aw an2 ?hi.oso9h*H FTakin+ )i/erties with the First Amen2mentGH 13:2H MarchH J0TOR< Ass-min+ ,or the sake o, ar+-ment that some women are si.ence2 /* 9orno+ra9h* an2 some minorities /* hate s9eechH what i2eas mi+ht we s-99ose ha7e /een s-99resse2 /* s-ch si.encin+T )ike.* can2i2ates are messa+es o, +en2er an2 racia. eK-a.it*" 4$t it 'annot #erio$#%- )e !aintaine& that the#e !e##a(e# are !i##in( ro! 'onte!porar- p$)%i' &i#'o$r#e. Nor i# thi# &i#'o$r#e )ere t o ra&i'a% per#pe'ti"e# ro! 0o!en an& !inoritie# " The 7oices o, $atharine MacKinnonH An2rea DworkinH )o-is FarrakhanH Ma.co.m (H an2 other ra2ica.s contin-e to /e hear2" ?erha9s there are 9ers9ecti7es that the 9-/.ic has /een
2e9ri7e2 o, 2-e to the si.encin+ e,,ects o, hate s9eech an2 9orno+ra9h*H /-t Fiss o,,ers no he.9 in i2enti,*in+ these missin+ 9ers9ecti7es" Fiss cham9ions the si.encin+ ar+-ment /eca-se he /e.ie7es that it

,rom an em9irica. 9oint o, 7iew the si.encin+ ar+-ment is e7en weaker than the more ,ami.iar ar+-ment that hate s9eech an2 9orno+ra9h* ca-se 2iscrimination an2 7io.ence a+ainst minorities an2
honors ,ree s9eech 7a.-es /etter than conten2in+ theories ,or /annin+ hate s9eech an2 9orno+ra9h*" >-t women" ?ro9onents o, this ar+-ment at .east i2enti,* the s9eci,ic harm an2 a22-ce some anec2ota. e7i2ence" A22itiona..*H c.ose eCamination o, the mechanics o, the a..e+e2 si.encin+ -n2erc-ts FissLs c.aim that the si.encin+ theor* a7oi2s the 9it,a.. o, re+-.atin+ s9eech /eca-se o, its 9ers-asi7e 9ower" Accor2in+ to FissH hate s9eech an2 9orno+ra9h* /oth M2isa/.eRS an2 2iscre2itRS a wo-.21/e s9eakerM ;9" 2@<

@ /annin+ s9eech /eca-se it M2iscre2itsM others is har2.* a rationa.e that a7oi2s re.iance on the 9ers-asi7e 9ower o, s9eech" =ate s9eech an2 9orno+ra9h* can Mim9air RtheS cre2i/i.it*M o, minorities an2 womenH 2e9ri7e their wor2s o, Ma-thorit*HM an2 make it as Mtho-+h the* sai2 nothin+M ;9" 1! <H on.* i, s-ch eC9ression has 9ers-a2e2 others to see women as seC o/Dects an2 minorities as secon2 c.ass citiOensH or in some other 2emeane2 stat-s" >-t as e7en Fiss reco+niOes e.sewhereH! s9eech that 9ers-a2es others to 7iew the wor.2 an2 those in
;em9hasis a22e2<" >-t whate7er mi+ht /e sai2 a/o-t /annin+ s9eech /eca-se it M2isa/.esM others ,rom s9eakin+H

ENDI 2010 Framework it in a 9artic-.ar wa*H .ies at the heart o, First Amen2ment 9rotection"

@&

ENDI 2010 Framework

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A2J AOB E?C@BDE B<I<I@ENCIN+ KTEC,NE*

E"en i the 7ar(on i# ina''e##i)%e it 'reate# !o&e# o ana%-#i# that are 'riti'a% to ana%-9in( p$)%i' po%i'- an& e"a%$ation o$t#i&e &e)ate. M$ir 2/; ;0tarH ?ro," $omm" 4eor+e Mason A"H ?hi.oso9h* an2 RhetoricH FA De,ense o, the Ethics o, $ontem9orar* De/ateGH 2!;'<H 99" 25!< E7en the s9ecia.iOe2 Dar+on reK-ire2 to 9.a* the +ame s-ccess1,-..* has /ene,its in terms o, ana.*Oin+ an2 -n2erstan2in+ societ*Ls 9ro/.ems" $onsi2er the termino.o+* o, the M2isa27anta+eM a+ainst the a,,irmati7eLs 9.an: There is a M.inkM /etween the 9.an an2 some e,,ectH or Mim9actMI the .ink can /e actions that 9-sh -s o7er some Mthresho.2M to an im9actH or it can /e a M.inearM re.ationshi9 where each increase ca-ses an increase in the im9actI the .ink ,rom the a,,irmati7e 9.an to the im9act m-st /e M-niK-eHM in that the 9.an itse., is .ar+e.* res9onsi/.e ,or the im9actI the a,,irmati7e ma* ar+-e a Mt-rnaro-n2M to the 2isa27anta+eH c.aimin+ it as an a27anta+e ,or the 9.an" 0-ch s9ecia.iOe2 Dar+on ma* se9arate 2e/ate ta.k ,rom other t*9es o, 2isco-rseH /-t the i2eas re9resente2 here are a.so si+ni,icant an2 -se,-. ,or ana.*Oin+ the re.ati7e 2esira/i.it* o, 9-/.ic 9o.icies" There rea..* are thresho.2 an2 /rink iss-es in e7a.-atin+ 9-/.ic 9o.icies" Tho-+h .istenin+ to 2e/aters ta.k is somewhat 2isconcertin+ ,or a .a* 9ersonH ,ami.iarit* with these conce9ts is an essentia. means o, connectin+ the research the* 2o with the e7a.-ation o, o9tions con,rontin+ citiOens an2 2ecision makers in 9o.itica. an2 socia. conteCts" This ,ami.iarit* is 2irect.* re.ate2 to the moti7ation an2 the a/i.it* to +et in7o.7e2 in iss-es an2 contro7ersies o, 9-/.ic im9ortance" T$rn Mar(on (oo&. It i# e##entia% to a'i%itate the (ro0th o 5no0%e&(e thro$(h #pe'ia%i9ation an& $%ti!ate%- $e%# 'ro##=&i#'ip%inar- intera'tion. Mont(o!er- 23 ;0cottH 0cienceH FO, TowersH Wa..sH an2 Fie.2s: ?ers9ecti7es on )an+-a+e in 0cienceGH 2123H &0&;@!!2<H E>0$O< WhatH thenH o, o-r secon2 themeH the +rowth an2 conseK-ence o, Dar+onT Near.* e7er* scientist has ,ami.iarit* in this area too" $onsi2er the entomo.o+ist ,ace2 with an iss-e o, ?h*sics To2a* or $e..H the +ra2-ate st-2ent in oceano+ra9h* 2oin+ /att.e with an artic.e in Atmos9heric Research" These are not im9ossi/.e or e7en im9ro/a/.e enco-ntersH /-t the* wo-.2 .ike.* /e 2i,,ic-.t ones" E7en within sin+.e ,ie.2sH /o-n2aries o, termino.o+* ma* seem to ho9e.ess.* 2i7i2e s9ecia.ties an2 s-/s9ecia.tiesH whose n-m/ers +row +reat.* with each 9assin+ 2eca2e" =ow ,ar has this 9rocess +oneT $a..in+ onese., a M+ra7itationa. wa7e 9h*sicistM or an MeC9ert on .e+ anatom* o, Ear.* $retaceo-s sa-ro9o2sM is not at a.. eCtraor2inar*" In the meantimeH M/io.o+*M an2 M+eo.o+*M ha7e e7o.7e2 into the M.i,e sciencesM an2 Mearth an2 9.anetar* sciences"M O-rs is the era o, s-ch 9.-ra.iOations" The*H tooH are 9art o, the .an+-a+e o, science" The /irth o, new ,ie.2sH an2 th-s new 7oca/-.ariesH has /een a 2e,inin+ as9ect o, scienti,ic 9ro+ress" <pe'ia%i9ation re"ea%# it#e% a# a !ar5 o inte%%e't$a% "i(or6 the hi#tori'a% #i(n that in or&er to e8pan& an& &eepenH nat-ra. science has ha2 to 2i7ersi,* an2 concentrate" It has ha2 to 9-rs-e new s-/Dect matterH en+a+e in +reater 9recisionH work at sma..er or .ar+er .e7e.s o, o/ser7ationa. an2 ana.*tica. sca.eH take -9 hi+her mathematicsH an2 2e7e.o9 im9ro7e2 .a/orator* techno.o+iesH a.. the whi.e in7entin+ new terms an2 9hrases to eC9ress the new know.e2+e an2 new 9ractices +aine2" On the s-r,aceH these new 7oca/-.aries ha7e seeme2 to t-rn science into a +.itter o, 2isconnecte2 rea.msH se.,1containe2 .in+-istic +a.aCies s9innin+ o-twar2H e7er a9art" Eet this 9erce9tionH howe7er commonH misses somethin+ critica. a/o-t the nat-re o, each ,ie.2Ls 2i.emma N an2H 9erha9sH the 2i.emma o, its nat-re" Increasin+ s9ecia.iOationH rather than ca-sin+ on.* a s9ira..in+ 2is9ersa. has res-.te2 in new connections o, its ownH new cross1o7er" 4rowin+ s9ecia.iOation has +enerate2 an e7er1+reater ran+e o, o99ort-nities N e7en 2eman2s N ,or the sharin+ o, .an+-a+e" For instanceH the 9ower to eCamineH ana.*OeH an2 mani9-.ate 9henomena at sma..er an2 sma..er sca.es has /ro-+ht the 9ro7ince o, the mo.ec-.arH once reser7e2 ,or chemistsH into imme2iate re.e7ance ,or /otan*H Ooo.o+*H me2icineH meteoro.o+*H man* areas o, +eo.o+*H en+ineerin+H an2 so on" This has meant the a2o9tion o, termino.o+ies a99ro9riate to s-ch sca.es o, o/ser7ation an2 ana.*sis" $ommin+.in+ has a n-m/er o, so-rces" Inte+ration o, com9-ter techno.o+* into near.* e7er* as9ect o, science is one" The a2a9ti7e -se o, other techno.o+ies ;e"+"H n-c.ear ma+netic resonanceH .aser o9ticsH an2 ne-ra. network a99.ications< is another" EC9.orin+ 9henomena ,rom a m-.ti2isci9.inar* 7anta+e N the h-man +enomeH ,or instanceH or the s-r,ace o, Mars N contin-es to /e a maDor 9art o, science" MTrans2isci9.inar* researchHM as o,ten sai2H has /ro-+ht o9tions an2 o99ort-nities to e7er* ,ie.2" Former.* se9arate areas ha7e /een -nite2: /io9a.eo+eo+ra9h*H 9s*chone-roimm-no.o+*H 9.anetar* +eo9h*sicsH an2 chemica. anthro9o.o+*H amon+ man* others" At e7er* ste9 is the increase2 sharin+ o, termino.o+ies" O-rs is in2ee2 an era o, 9.-ra.ismsH /-t a ,r-it,-. era as we.." The .an+-a+e o, scienceH in conseK-enceH re7ea.s 9atterns o, 2i7er+ence an2 con7er+ence /oth" This .an+-a+eH as it e7o.7esH is hea2e2 neither towar2 -.timate -nit* nor -tter 2ias9ora" >arriers set -9 /* s9ecia.iOe2 Dar+on eCistH witho-t 2o-/tH as the* ha7e ,or some time" Eet man* ha7e /ecome increasin+.* 9oro-sH a..owin+ ,.ow in /oth

ENDI 2010 Framework 2irections" 0-ch wi.. -n2o-/te2.* contin-e N science is to2a* the most acti7e area o, .an+-a+e creation"

@@

ENDI 2010 Framework

@!

*** RACE AR+BMENT AN<WER< *** A2J AOB @ET 1EO1@E <AA RACI<T <TBFF
A%% o$r i!pa't 'o!pari#on on the o"er"ie0 pro"e# that airne## o$t0ei(h# %$'t$ation# in ar($!ent 'ontent. A%#o the 1ROCE<< o #0it'h=#i&e &e)ate en'o$ra(e# to%eran'e or other peop%e an& their "ie0point# 0hi'h o$t0ei(h# #pe'i i' in#tan'e# 0here ra'i#t "ie0point# are e8pre##e&. A%#o6 thi# ar($!ent i# (ro##%- o"er#tate&. ,ate #pee'h an& ra'ia% #%$r# &o happen )$t on'e or t0i'e in a -ear. Main#trea! ar($!ent# %i5e he(e!on- (oo& or i!peria%i#! (oo& &on.t &ire't "er)a% "io%en'e at &e)ater parti'ipant#. T0o rea#on# it.# (oo& to ha"e the#e ar($!ent# in &e)ate == a* We 'an on%- 5no0 0h- ra'i#! i# )a& i 0e ha"e the a)i%it- to atta'5 it an& ri(oro$#%- te#t the i&ea. That.# :appen. )* E"en i 0e 5no0 it i# )a&6 0e #ho$%& #harpen the #0or& )- 'on#tant%- &e)atin( it. ,einri'h# ./D ;Terr*H Associate ?ro," ?o." 0ci" Eork A"H A./erta )aw Re7iewH F$ensorshi9 as Free 09eech! Free EC9ression %a.-es an2 the )o+ic o, 0i.encin+ in R" 7" Kee+straGH &! A.ta" )" Re7" 5&@H )8N< 22 =owe7erH e7en ass-min+ with Dickson $"J" that hate s9eech is o, no 7a.-e in the search ,or tr-thH it 2oes not ,o..ow that hate s9eech is o, no 7a.-e at a.. in re%ation to tr$th" For one thin+H as J"0" Mi.. 9ointe2 o-t .on+ a+oH e7en i, we are con7ince2 that we ha7e the tr-thH it i# (oo& to ha"e an a&"er#ar- in the ,ie.2 to pre"ent $# ro! a%%in( into Lthe &eep #%$!)er o &e'i&e& opinion.M@3 For anotherH e7en i, we are con7ince2 o, the +enera. ,a.sit* o, the /e.ie,s at iss-eH it i# #ti%% !ore $#e $% to ha"e the! 'ir'$%atin( in the %i(ht o &a- than e#terin( $n&er(ro$n& " E7en i, we think them 9atent.* ,a.seH the* sti.. s9eak a Mtr-thM concernin+ Mwho /e.ie7es what a/o-t whomM in societ* that is certain.* im9ortant an2 -se,-. to know 11 9artic-.ar.* in a 2emocrac*"@5 The )ene it# o a%%o0in( ra'i#t %an($a(e o$t0ei(h the 'o#t#. Their ar($!ent i# paterna%i#ti' to0ar&# !inoritie# an& pre"ent# 'o$nter=!o)i%i9ation. <tro##en ./0 ;Na2ineH ?ro," )aw NEAH D-ke )aw Jo-rna.H FFRONTIER0 OF )E4A) T=OA4=T II T=E NEW FIR0T AMENDMENT: RE4A)ATIN4 RA$I0T 0?EE$= ON $AM?A0: A MODE0T ?RO?O0A)TGH 1660 D-ke )"J" '5'H J-neH )8N< There is a thir2 reason wh* .aws that 9roscri/e racist s9eech co-.2 we.. -n2ermine +oa.s o, re2-cin+ /i+otr*" As ?ro,essor )awrence
reco+niOesH R#@!0S +i7en the o7erri2in+ im9ortance o, ,ree s9eech in o-r societ*H an* s9eech re+-.ation m-st /e narrow.* 2ra,te2" n&61 There,oreH it can a,,ect on.* the most /.atantH cr-2est ,orms o,

" %irt-a..* a.. wo-.2 a+ree that no .aw co-.2 9ossi/.* e.iminate a.. racist s9eechH .et a.one racism itse.," I, the market9.ace o, i2eas cannot /e tr-ste2 to winnow o-t the hate,-.H then there is no reason to /e.ie7e that censorshi9 wi.. 2o so" The most it co-.2 9ossi/.* achie7e wo-.2 /e to 2ri7e some racist tho-+ht an2 eC9ression -n2er+ro-n2H where it wo-.2 /e more 2i,,ic-.t to res9on2 to s-ch s9eech an2 the -n2er.*in+ attit-2es it eC9resses" n&62 The >ritish eC9erience con,irms this 9re2iction" n&6& The 9ositi7e e,,ect o, racist s9eech 11 in terms o, makin+ societ* aware o, an2 mo/i.iOin+ its o99osition to the e7i.s o, racism 11 are i..-strate2 /* the wa7e o, cam9-s racist inci2ents now -n2er 2isc-ssion" A+.* an2 a/omina/.e as these eC9ressions areH the* -n2o-/te2.* ha7e ha2 the /ene,icia. res-.t o, raisin+ 9-/.ic conscio-sness a/o-t the -n2er.*in+ societa. 9ro/.em o, racism" I, these eC9ressions ha2 /een chi..e2 /* 7irt-e o, -ni7ersit* sanctionsH then it is 2o-/t,-. that there wo-.2 /e s-ch wi2es9rea2 2isc-ssion on cam9-sesH .et a.one more +enera..*H a/o-t the rea. 9ro/.em o, racism" n&6' $onseK-ent.*H societ* wo-.2 /e .ess mo/i.iOe2 to attack this 9ro/.em" ?ast eC9erience con,irms that the 9-/.ic airin+ o, racist an2 other ,orms o, hate s9eech cata.*Oes comm-na. e,,orts to re2ress the /i+otr* that -n2er.ies s-ch eC9ression an2 to sta7e o,, an* 2iscriminator* con2-ct that mi+ht ,o..ow ,rom it" n&6@ R#@!1S >annin+ racist s9eech co-.2 -n2ermine the +oa. o, com/atin+ racism ,or a22itiona. reasons" 0ome /.ack scho.ars an2 acti7ists maintain that an anti1racist s9eech 9o.ic* ma* 9er9et-ate a 9aterna.istic 7iew o, minorit* +ro-9sH s-++estin+ that the* are inca9a/.e o, 2e,en2in+ themse.7es a+ainst /iase2 eC9ressions" n&6! A22itiona..*H an anti1
racism" The more s-/t.eH an2 hence 9otentia..* more in7i2io-sH racist eC9ressions wi.. s-r7i7e

ENDI 2010 @3 Framework hate s9eech 9o.ic* st-.ti,ies the can2i2 inter+ro-9 2ia.o+-e concernin+ racism an2 other ,orms o, /ias that constit-tes an essentia. 9recon2ition ,or re2-cin+ 2iscrimination" In a re.ate2 7einH e2-cationH ,ree 2isc-ssionH an2 the airin+ o, mis-n2erstan2in+s an2 ,ai.-res o, sensiti7it* are more .ike.* to 9romote 9ositi7e inter+ro-9 re.ations than are .e+a. /att.es"
The r-.es /arrin+ hate s9eech wi.. contin-e to +enerate .iti+ation an2 other ,orms o, contro7ers* that wi.. eCacer/ate inter+ro-9 tensions" Fina..*H the censorshi9 a99roach is 2i7ersionar*" It makes it easier ,or comm-nities to a7oi2 comin+ to +ri9s with .ess con7enient an2 more eC9ensi7eH /-t -.timate.* more meanin+,-.H a99roaches ,or com/atin+ racia. 2iscrimination"

ENDI 2010 Framework

@5

A2J AOB @ET 1EO1@E <AA RACI<T <TBFF

The a't that 0e a%%o0 ra'i#t #pee'h &oe#n.t !ean 0e #$pport it. For e8a!p%e6 the a't that Ro)ert M$(a)e i# anti= ra'i#t an& 5i%%e& a )$n'h o peop%e an& 0re'5e& the e'ono!- it &oe#n.t !ean that e"er- anti=ra'i#t per#on i# a !$r&erer. ,einri'h# ./D ;Terr*H Associate ?ro," ?o." 0ci" Eork A"H A./erta )aw Re7iewH F$ensorshi9 as Free 09eech! Free EC9ression %a.-es an2 the )o+ic o, 0i.encin+ in R" 7" Kee+straGH &! A.ta" )" Re7" 5&@H )8N< 61 I,H as the $o-rt sa*sH the 9romotion o, hatre2 a+ainst i2enti,ia/.e +ro-9s -n2ermines eK-a.it*H 2estro*s m-.tic-.t-ra.ismH an2 Mm-OO.es the 7oice o, tr-thHM then to.eratin+ the 9romotion o, hatre2 when it co-.2 9roscri/e the acti7it* mi+ht /e sai2 to make the +o7ernment com9.icito-s in /rin+in+ a/o-t these 7er* 2is/ene,its" To to.erate the 9romotion o, hatre2 wo-.2 then a99ear to /e tantamo-nt to 9romotin+ it onese.," I, it wereH then on the /asis o, )EAFLs ar+-ment which the maDorit* sai2 it acce9tsH130 ?ar.iament wo-.2 /e s9onsorin+ +ro-9 hatre2 an2H th-s in 7io.ation o, s" 1@" >-t i, this is the $o-rtLs reasonin+H then it wo-.2 a.so a99ear to /e reco+niOin+ an a,,irmati7e constit-tiona. 2-t* to 9roscri/e hate s9eech" For i, the 7a.-es attacke2 /* the 9romotion o, hatre2 are man2ate2 /* the $harter as the $o-rt /e.ie7es the* areH an2 i, +i7in+ M,ree rein to the 9romotion o, hatre2M has the e,,ects the $o-rt /e.ie7es it hasH then there is eC h*9othesi a 9ositi7e o/.i+ation on the 9art o, ?ar.iament to 9roscri/e it"131 Whi.e in Kee+stra the $o-rt ne7er eC9.icit.* reco+niOes s-ch a 2-t* an2 .imits its ho.2in+ sim9.* to sanctionin+ the constit-tiona.it* o, s" &16;2<H its reasonin+ im9.icit.* 2oes" 62 >-t is the mere to.eration o, hate s9eech in e,,ectH e7en i, not in intentionH tantamo-nt to the 9romotion o, hatre2T Wh*H in a re+ime which 9rotects e7er*oneLs ri+ht to s9eakH sho-.2 it /e ass-me2 that the mere act o, to.eration 9romotes an* 9artic-.ar 7iewT ?erha9s /eca-se the $o-rt /o-+ht into Mari Mats-2aLs contention thatH o To /e hate2H 2es9ise2H an2 a.one is the -.timate ,ear o, a.. h-man /ein+s" =owe7er irrationa. racist s9eech ma* /eH it hits ri+ht at the emotiona. 9.ace where we ,ee. the most 9ain" The a.oneness comes not on.* ,rom the hate messa+e itse.,H /-t a.so ,rom the +o7ernment res9onse o, to.erance" When h-n2re2s o, 9o.ice o,,icers are ca..e2 o-t to 9rotect racist marchersH when the co-rts re,-se re2ress ,or racia. ins-.tH an2 when racist attacks are o,,icia..* 2ismisse2 as 9ranksH the 7ictim /ecomes a state.ess 9erson" Tar+et1+ro-9 mem/ers can either i2enti,* with a comm-nit* that 9romotes racist s9eechH or the* can a2mit that the comm-nit* 2oes not inc.-2e them"132 =owe7erH /esi2es im9.*in+ that to.erant +o7ernments are hate 9romotersH the contention that tar+et1+ro-9 mem/ers are ,orce2 either to Mi2enti,* with a comm-nit* that 9romotes racist s9eechHM or to Ma2mit that the comm-nit* 2oes not inc.-2e themHM po0er $%%- in#$%t# the inte%%i(en'e o tar(et=(ro$p !e!)er#. For i, mere to.erance o, hate s9eech were eno-+h to make them /e.ie7e that the comm-nit* is racistH then the* wo-.2 a.so ha7e to /e.ie7e that /eca-se the +o7ernment to.erates the marches o, Trotsk*istsH the +o7ernment is Trotsk*istI /eca-se it 9rotects the 9ersons o, M.es/i+a*sHM it is .es/ianH +a* an2 /iseC-a. a.. ro..e2 into oneI /eca-se it re,rains ,rom Dai.in+ NaOisH it is ,ascistI orH ,or that matterH /eca-se it to.erates the eCistence o, e7i.H that it is e7i.! 0-,,ice it to sa* that an* s-ch ar+-ment misses the rather o/7io-s thir2 o9tion 11 name.*H that mere to.eration o, eC9ression in a re+ime 2e2icate2 to the ,ree eC9ression o, o9inion 'arrie# no ne'e##ar- i!p%i'ation# 0hate"er o #$pport or an- parti'$%ar (ro$p or ca-se to.erate2"13&

ENDI 2010 Framework

@6

A2J A@@ AOBR <TBFF I< MADE B1IRACI<T

We."e (i"en 0arrant# or e"er- ar($!ent a)o"e. A "a($e a##ertion #ho$%&n.t tr$!p #o$n& e8p%anation. I 0e !a5e a 're&i)%e a##ertion the )$r&en o re7oin&er i# on the! to &e!on#trate 0h- ea'h ar($!ent o o$r# i# a ra'i#t %ie. Ao$ #ho$%& $#e o)7e'ti"it- an& a%#i ia)i%it- to &eter!ine tr$th. A##ertin( ra'ia% )ia# or '%ai!in( that #$)7e't %o'ation in %$en'e# tr$th $n&er!ine# an- po##i)i%it- o !eanin( $% 5no0%e&(e. Ep#tein ./; ;Richar2H James ?arker =a.. Distin+-ishe2 0er7ice ?ro," )aw A" $hica+oH 0tan,or2 )aw Re7iewH F)e+a. E2-cation an2 the ?o.itics o, ECc.-sionGH '@ 0tan" )" Re7" 1!03H J-.*H )8N< One so-rce o, eCc.-si7it* is an attem9t to re2e,ine the re.ationshi9 /etween eC9erience an2 know.e2+e" An2er the tra2itiona. 7iewH there is the c.ass o, necessar* tr-thsH /-t these are concerne2 with mathematica. i2easH s*..o+ismsH an2 2e,initions" In an2 o, themse.7esH the* te.. -s .itt.e a/o-t the eCterna. wor.2H e7en tho-+h the* s-99.* the ana.*tica. too.s an2 the conce9t-a. ,ramework that are in2is9ensa/.e ,or -n2erstan2in+ the wor.2 that .ies /e*on2 their ken" Once shar9ene2H these too.s m-st /e a99.ie2 to 2ata that is +aine2 thro-+h a com/ination o, o/ser7ationH testin+H an2 critica. inte..i+ence a/o-t some nat-ra. or socia. 9henomenon" >* insistin+ that know.e2+e is acK-ire2 thro-+h eC9erienceH c.assica. 9hi.oso9hers -n2erstoo2 the .imits o,
9-re 2e2-cti7e reasonin+: Nothin+ co-.2 /e ,o-n2 in the conc.-sion that was not a.rea2* containe2 in the 9remises" n25 =-man eC9erience +a7e the .ink to the eCterna. wor.2" An inte+ra. com9onent o, the

" There was no hint o, eCc.-sion" The 9ower o, .an+-a+e an2 science was that eC9erientia. in,ormation co-.2 /e -n2erstoo2 /* a.." 4rante2H 2i,,erences in /ack+ro-n2 an2 eC9erience ma* we.. .ea2 9ersons to ha7e sin+-.ar insi+hts or o/ser7ations a/o-t the eCterna. wor.2I /-t the !oti"ation 0here)- the- o)taine& in or!ation a)o$t the 0or%& ha& %itt%e to &o 0ith the "eri i'ation o the in or!ation the- o)taine&H which itse., co-.2 /e checke2 thro-+h ne-tra. 9rocesses an2 com9are2 with the o/ser7ations an2 theories o, others in the
ro.e o, eC9erienceH howe7erH was that a.. h-man eC9erience mattere2 re.e7ant ,ie.2" n26 The he-ristics an2 /iases o, 7ario-s 9ersons co-.2 on.* enrich the sco9e o, know.e2+e /* o9enin+ -9 a set o, ana.o+ies an2 eC9eriments that no one 9ersonH howe7er insi+ht,-. or c.e7erH

H it was 9ossi/.e to ha7e se9arate an2 i2ios*ncratic wa*s o, acK-irin+ the tr-th whi.e ha7in+ -ni7ersa. means ,or -n2erstan2in+ an2 7eri,*in+ what constit-te2 that tr-th" n&0 The 2i7ersit* o, R#1!15S 9ers9ecti7es there,ore enriche2 the 2ia.o+-e an2 showe2 the stren+th o, o9en com9etition" In the mo2ern wor.2 o, race an2 +en2er st-2iesH this conce9tion is re+ar2e2 as who..* a.ien to the a.. im9ortant socia. inK-iries" The tho-+ht that 9rinci9.es o, 7eri,ication can /e ne-tra. an2 -ni7ersa. has /een re9.ace2 /* a notion that tr-thsH .ike 9eo9.eH are socia..* sit-ate2 an2 constr-cte2" ?ersons not 9ossessin+ the reK-isite set o, 9ersona. eC9eriences are tho-+ht to /e o-tsi2e the .oo9: Whi.e the* mi+ht /e a/.e to -n2erstan2 what
co-.2 2e7e.o9 a.one" In short insi2ers know or ,ee.H the* can ne7er eCercise in2e9en2ent inte..i+ence to 2eci2e whether a c.aim is tr-e or ,a.se" I, one wants to -n2erstan2 what is meant /* o99ressionH in2i+nit*H /r-ta.it* or in2i,,erenceH the ar+-ment +oesH then one m-st /e the 7ictim o, those eC9eriencesH or at .east share the same race or seC o, those who are" A statement o, Mari Mats-2a i..-strates this 9osition: This artic.e s-++ests that those who ha7e eC9erience2 2iscrimination s9eak with a s9ecia. 7oice to which we sho-.2 .isten o, the .i/era. 9romise 1

n&1 This /rie, 9assa+e re7ea.s m-ch o, what is wron+ with mo2ern critica. race theor*" It /e+ins with a 9.ea that MweM sho-.2 .isten to those who s9eak with a Ms9ecia. 7oice"M Eet /* the neCt sentenceH the MweM /ecomes Mcritica. scho.arsHM not the +enera. comm-nit* o, aca2emics" The know.e2+e that the 2isa27anta+e2 9ossess is o/taine2 /* eC9erienceH /-t it is a99arent.* imm-ne to cross1eCaminationH ,or Mthe ,a.sit* o, the .i/era. 9remiseM is somethin+ that the* ha7e Mseen an2 ,e.tM an2 th-s rises /* ass-m9tion to the stat-s o, a se.,1e7i2ent certit-2e /e*on2 cha..en+e /* o-tsi2ersH e7en those who starte2 at the /ottom an2 ma* ha7e risen /* 2int o,

" )ookin+ to the /ottom 1 a2o9tin+ the 9ers9ecti7e o, those who ha7e seen an2 ,e.t the ,a.sit* can assist critica. scho.ars in the task o, ,athomin+ the 9henomeno.o+* o, .aw an2 2e,inin+ the e.ements o, D-stice"

Mats-2aLs 9assa+e a.so a99ears to reDect the 9ossi/i.it* o, inte..i+ent em9ath*H where/* one can think creati7e.* a/o-t her own eC9eriences to ima+ R#1!16S ine the 9re2icament o, others" n&2 It s-++ests that those witho-t ,irst1
har2 work" Fina..*H e7en the task o, M2e,inin+ D-sticeM a99ears to /e one that ,a..s to the critica. scho.arsH as i, the rest o, -s are -na/.e to a22 an*thin+ o, moment to the 2e/ate"

han2 eC9erience can neither 2isc-ss its im9.ications nor e7a.-ate the 7ario-s 9ro9osa.s that are 2esi+ne2 to correct whate7er im/a.ances are 9ercei7e2" Th-sH 9eo9.e .ike m*se., who were .-ck* to +row -9 in

There isH in shortH a s-staine2 e,,ort to eCc.-2e o-tsi2ers ,rom the 2e/ateH a..owin+ on.* those with 9re,erre2 wis2om an2 insi+ht to enter a socia. 2isco-rse" Forms o, scho.arshi9 s-ch as Mat-s2aLs are /-t one ,orm o, attack on the tra2itiona. as9iration to -ni7ersa. know.e2+e" 0o tooH I /e.ie7eH is the rise o, narrati7e acco-nts
9ri7i.e+e2 ,ami.* circ-mstances cannot e7en re.* on their own o/ser7ation o, other in2i7i2-a.s an2 other comm-nities to a27ance their own -n2erstan2in+ or 9ers-a2e others"
e7i2ence" Other a-thors ha7e 2i,,erent 7oices an2 9ers9ecti7esH an2

/* ,eminist an2 critica. race scho.arsH o, which ?ro,essor De.+a2oLs contri/-tion to this s*m9osi-m is t*9ica." n&& In narrati7eH the a22ress is 9ersona. an2 .iterar*" The characters are o, the a-thorLs own in7ention an2 can /e easi.* en2owe2 with whate7er stren+ths an2 weaknesses /est ser7e to a27ance the ta.e" The -se o, this art ,orm c-ts o-t an* a99ea. to K-antitati7e 2ata or +enera. theor*H an2 is a.wa*s con+enia. to stron+ eC9ressions o, 9ersona. /e.ie," >eca-se narrati7e a2o9ts the 9ers9ecti7e an2 7oice o, a sin+.e a-thorH it cannot /e easi.* re,-te2 /* the -s-a. ,orms o, socia. science

there is no contra2iction /etween the 9ro9osition that MA /e.ie7es (HM an2 M> /e.ie7es not1(HM H hi# narrati"e &oe# not %en& it#e% to re $tation )- the or!# o e"i&en'e an& ar($!ent that 'an )e rai#e& a(ain#t !ore tra&itiona% or!# o #'ho%ar%- &i#'$##ion" When the +oin+ +ets to-+hH the narrati7e /ecomes an art ,ormH an eCercise o, .iterar* ima+ination" When the waters are ca.mH it is trans,orme2 into an i2ea.iOe2 acco-nt o, a wi2es9rea2 socia. 9ro/.em" Either wa* H the narrati"e a&&# it# #tren(th to the po%iti'# o e8'%$#ion )pre#entin( a !o"in( tar(et to !ore tra&itiona% pra'titioner# o the a'a&e!i' art" The 2an+ers o, s-ch an eCc.-sionar* a99roach sho-.2 /e a99arent to a..H /-t too o,ten the* are not" The most im9ortant K-estions o, race an2 seC +enera..* 2o not concern intra+ro-9 re.ationshi9s" RatherH the* a22ress the re.ationshi9s /etween 9ersons o, 2i,,erent +ro-9s: men an2 womenH /.ack an2 whiteH an2 so on" One cannot
e7en i, there is a contra2iction /etween ( an2 not1(" The a-thor can hint that in his 7iew the narrati7e 2oes eC9ress some .ar+er tr-th entit.e2 to res9ect in its own ri+ht" Eet /* the same token consi2er ra9e to /e strict.* a womanLs K-estion when the ra9ist is ma.e an2 when the r-.es +o7ernin+ the crime o, ra9e a,,ect men who act with honora/.e intentions as we.. as those who 2o not" In2ee2H on the critica. K-estion o, consent to char+es o, ra9eH no com9.ete acco-nt can i+nore the /eha7ior an2 9erce9tions o, /oth in2i7i2-a.sH R#1!20S es9ecia..* when miscomm-nications can easi.* arise" n&' 0imi.ar.*H in 2ea.in+ with iss-es s-ch as the 2istri/-tion o, 7otin+ ri+htsH the contro. o, crimina. an2 ci7i. D-riesH or the o9eration o, harassment or 2iscriminationH interactions take 9.ace /etween 9ersons o,

" I, one ass-mes that on.* those with -niK-e eC9eriences can 9artici9ate in the 2ia.o+-eH then no one can s9eak with inte..i+ence a/o-t these iss-esI ,or each o, -s 9ossess on.* 9artia. know.e2+eH .ea7in+ o9en the 9ossi/i.it* o, /oth error an2 /ias" On.* /* a2mittin+ a.. intereste2 9ersons into the aca2emic 2isco-rse can we miti+ate the inacc-racies ca-se2 /* this sam9.in+ /ias" F-rthermoreH eCc.-sionar* 9ractices can .ea2 to a ,ra+mentation o, the 9o.itica. s*stem" Man* 9eo9.e now ha7e stron+ an2 en2-rin+ reasons to 2istr-st the o9inions o, others so.e.* ,or reasons o, their raceH re.i+ionH ethnic ori+in an2 the .ike" No matter how it is s.ice2 H an- e8'%$#ionar- #-#te! ha# to %ea& to a #5epti'i#! that i# ini!i'a% to the 'entra% a'a&e!i' !i##ion o an- $ni"er#it- or %a0 #'hoo% " I, each si2e can c.aim the -niK-eness o, its own insi+htsH then there is no wa* to /roker 2i,,erences amon+ 9ersons who come ,rom 2i,,erent /ack+ro-n2s or /e+in with 2i,,erent /e.ie,s " The ,orm o, re.ati7ism that a..ows ,or the s9ecia. 2i+nit* o, the /.ack eC9erience or the ,ema.e eC9erience makes it im9ossi/.e to eC9.ain to ske9tica. o-tsi2ers wh* those
a.. races an2 /oth seCes

ENDI 2010 !0 Framework insi+hts sho-.2 comman2 s9ecia. res9ect" Moreo7erH this 9hi.oso9hica. a99roach im9.ies that e7er* narrati7e 1 inc.-2in+ that o, the white ma.eH or e7en the ,rin+e .-natic 1 sho-.2
/e eCem9t ,rom o-tsi2e scr-tin*" >-t no one is entit.e2 to the com,ort o, a risk1,ree 9osition in 9-/.ic 2isco-rse" The 2i7ersit* o, eC9erience an2 the 2istincti7eness o, 9erce9tions is /oth an o99ort-nit* ,or -n2erstan2in+ an2 an o/stac.e to it" Ne7erthe.essH the -s-a. reK-irements o, coherence in ar+-mentH artic-.ation o, theor*H an2 the marsha..in+ an2 e7a.-ation o, e7i2ence m-st remain intact i, the aca2emic mission o, a -ni7ersit* or .aw schoo. is to /e ,-.,i..e2"

ENDI 2010 Framework

!1

A2J A@@ AOBR <TBFF I< MADE B1IRACI<T

Their e"i&en'e or ra'i#t #'ho%ar#hip i# terri)%e. Mo#t o their a$thor# are 7$#t 'itin( the #a!e a##ertion in ear%ier 7ar(on=%a'e& %e t- #pe'ia%t- 7o$rna%#6 then )a'5in( it $p 0ith terri)%e i#o%ate& e8a!p%e#. <hort .DD ;ThomasH Associate ?ro," ?hi.oso9h* Ken*on $o..e+eH Aca2emic Z-estionsH FGDi7ersit*G an2 F>reakin+ the Disci9.inesG: Two New Assa-.ts on the $-rric-.-mGH 1;&<H 0e9tem/erH E/sco< Thir2H as soon as the secon2 error has /een 2is9atche2H we are to.2 that we ha7e misse2 the rea. 9ointH which is that the .i/era. artsH /eca-se the* ha7e /een create2 /* white menH em/o2* a white an2 ma.e an2 ;as is o,ten a22e2< heteroseC-a. 9oint o, 7iew" This is a 9oint o, 7iewH the ar+-ment contin-esH ,rom which white 9atriarch* is seen as ine7ita/.e an2 as ri+ht" To im9ose that 9oint o, 7iew on womenH /.acksH =is9anic Americans homoseC-a.sH etc"H is to make them interna.iOe the rationa.e ,or their own 2omination /* white ma.e heteroseC-a.s" The /.ack man who is FwhiteG insi2e wi..in+.* coo9erates in his own eC9.oitation /* white societ*H D-st as women ha7e /een ta-+htH an2 there,ore sincere.* /e.ie7eH that their ri+ht,-. ro.e is s-/or2inate to men" An2 so on" It is a remarka/.e s*m9tom o, the 9resent eCtraor2inar* sit-ation in hi+her e2-cation that one se+ment o, the aca2emic comm-nit* re+ar2s s-ch 7iewsH so ,ar as the* are acK-ainte2 with them at a..H as sheerest nonsenseH an2 re,-ses to /e.ie7e that an*oneH .east o, a.. their co..ea+-esH co-.2 take that nonsense serio-s.* or that it wi.. /e taken serio-s.* .on+ eno-+h or /* eno-+h 9eo9.e to 9ose a rea. threatH whi.e another ra9i2.* +rowin+ se+ment is /-si.* e.a/oratin+ these i2eas an2 teachin+ them to their st-2ents" Those in the ,ormer cam9 are -r+e2 to +.ance thro-+h the assi+ne2 rea2in+s in the womenQs st-2ies co-rses on their cam9-ses or rea2 thro-+h some o, the treatises written on /.ack st-2ies 9e2a+o+*" The 7iews D-st s-mmariOe2Nan2H i, an*thin+H -n2erstate2Nare Fs-99orte2G /* the recent ,.oo2 o, 9o.iticiOe2 an2 sho22* scho.arshi9 which serio-s scho.ars 2o not want to 2i+ni,* /* reasone2 re9.*" An,ort-nate.*H re9.* is now -r+ent.* nee2e2" For this Fscho.arshi9G has /een +i7en s9-rio-s .e+itimac* /* the creation o, aca2emic Do-rna.s that 9rint it an2 aca2emic s9ecia.ties that teach itH /* the /ook .ists o, re9-ta/.e 9-/.ishersH an2 /* 9a+e1 co-ntin+ a2ministrators who +rant ten-re on the /asis o, s-ch 9-/.ications" There is no room here ,or critica. eCamination o, that .iterat-re" =owe7erH e7en a K-ick re7iew re7ea.s that its 9retensions are not /orne o-t /* its accom9.ishments" It 9reten2s to show that white 9atriarch* is a 2ee9.* /-rie2 9res-99osition o, a.. the sciences an2 a.. the 7ario-s 2e9artments o, tra2itiona. scho.arshi9" To esta/.ish thisH it re.ies sometimes on a/stract ar+-ment an2 sometimes on eCam9.es o, racist or seCist /ias" The a/stract ar+-ment is ine7ita/.* circ-.arI it consists o, restatin+ the conc.-sion in one or another o, the tren2* an2 o/,-scator* Dar+ons o, the 9resent 2a*H e"+"H the writin+s o, the French ,eminists re.*in+ on )acanian 9s*choana.*sis an2 2econstr-ction" As ,or the eCam9.es o, /ias that ha7e /een cite2H the* are ,ew in n-m/erH tho-+h en2.ess.* re9eate2H an2 ,a.. into three c.asses" FirstH there are those are D-st as 2-/io-s as the +enera.iOations the* are s-99ose2 to s-99ort" 0econ2H there are -tter.* tri7ia. eCam9.es" That %ir+i. mistook the K-een /ee ,or a kin+ ma* in2icate his 9roc.i7it* ,or 9atriarch*H /-t it 2oes not show an* /.in2in+ 9reD-2ice an*where: e7en ma.e a9iarists can i2enti,* e++s" Thir2H there are serio-s eCam9.es o, /iasH /-t the* are D-st where one mi+ht eC9ect themNin areas o, research that im9in+e 2irect.* on socia. 9o.ic*H s-ch as theories an2 meas-rements o, inte..i+ence" >iase2 conc.-sions o, those t*9es are i2enti,ie2 an2 correcte2 /* the -s-a. metho2s o, science an2 scho.arshi9H an2 ha7e /een i2enti,ie2 an2 correcte2 most.* /* white ma.es" =enceH no 9reD-2ices /-i.t into the 7er* nat-re o, scho.arshi9 are 2emonstrate2" The theories these sho22* ar+-ments are s-99ose2 to s-99ort are in an* case im9.a-si/.e" It is their im9.a-si/i.it* that makes them seem to some 9eo9.e to /e eCcitin+H so9histicate2H or 9ro,o-n2" =owe7erH this same im9.a-si/i.it* 9-ts the /-r2en o, 9roo, on those who s-/scri/e to these 2octrinesH an2 that /-r2enH as we ha7e D-st seenH has not /een /orne" ECcitement is not eno-+h reason to D-sti,* the 7iew that there is a racist or seCist /ias in s-/Dects ha7in+ nothin+ to 2o with either seC or race" An2 where we co-.2 9.a-si/.* eC9ect a racia..* or seC-a..* con2itione2 9ers9ecti7e to make a 2i,,erenceH in the 9arts o, .iterat-re that 9ro/e socia. re.ationsH there are contri/-tions o, /.acks an2 women ha7e /een 9artic-.ar.* note2" Fina..*H the histor* o, the .i/era. arts is inconsistent with the i2ea that the* ,ront ,or white 9atriarch* ;m-ch .essH as is o,ten s-++este2H ca9ita.ist FeC9.oitationG<" The .i/era. arts ha7e /een the creation o, 9eo9.e o, a.. sorts o, com9.eCionsH inc.-2in+ man* women an2 a re.ati7e.* hi+h 9ercenta+e o, homoseC-a.sH workin+ an2 writin+ -n2er the +reatest 9ossi/.e 7ariet* o, 9o.itica. re+imesH an2H in the case o, 9o.itica. theoristsH 9oetsH an2 9hi.oso9hersH o,ten writin+ a+ainst 9o.itica. o99ression" I, there is one theme -n2er.*in+ the .i/era. artsH it is .i/eration"

ENDI 2010 Framework

!2

A2J A@@ AOBR <TBFF I< MADE B1IRACI<T

No ra'i#!. Ro#en ./6 ;Je,,re*H ?ro," )aw 4WH New Re9-/.icH FThe >.oo2s an2 the $ritsGH 1216H )8N< In a cha9ter ca..e2 MAneK-a. J-stice in the 0tate $rimina. J-stice 0*stemHM =i++in/otham re9eats his eC9.osi7e thesis: MTo -se $orne. WestLs ,e.icito-s 9hraseH Race matters"L""" An,ort-nate.*H I remain con,i2ent that e7en to2a* there are man* cases whose o-tcome can /e eC9.aine2 on.* /* wa* o, racia. consi2erations"M >-t a+ain =i++in/otham 9oints to no contem9orar* cases to s-99ort his assertion" As an eCam9.e o, MA9arthei2 in the $o-rtho-seH M he cites a case concernin+ se+re+ate2 seatin+ in the co-rtroom ,rom 16'5I /-t then he acknow.e2+es that it was o7ert-rne2 in 16!&" In a section ca..e2 M O7ert Discrimination /* J-2+es in the $o-rtroomHM he cites a case ,rom 16!& in which a tria. D-2+e he.2 a /.ack witness in contem9t a,ter she re,-se2 to answer a 9rosec-tor who a22resse2 her /* her ,irst nameI /-t then he acknow.e2+es that the contem9t D-2+ment was s-mmari.* re7erse2 /* the 0-9reme $o-rt" =i++in/othamLs most recent eCam9.e o, D-2icia. miscon2-ct is a $a.i,ornia s-9erior co-rt D-2+e whoH in 1652H ma2e racist comments o,, the /enchI /-t then =i++in/otham himse., conce2es that the D-2+e was 9-/.ic.* cens-re2 /* the $a.i,ornia 0-9reme $o-rt" =ow a.. o, this a22s -9 to what =i++in/otham ca..s Ma D-ris9r-2entia. c-.t-reM o, M/.ack in,eriorit*M in the state crimina. D-stice s*stem to2a* is har2 to 2iscern" 1re er thi# ar($!ent it.# #$pporte& )- #$r"e- e"i&en'e +o!e9 an& Wi%#on 26 ;>ra2H Assistant ?ro," ?o." 0ci" A" 0o-th $aro.inaH an2 J" MatthewH Associate ?ro," ?o." 0ci" 0o-th $aro.inaH Jo-rna. o, ?o.iticsH F Rethinkin+ 0*m/o.ic Racism: E7i2ence o, Attri/-tion >iasGH !5:&H Wi.e* Interscience< A"

A critica. com9onent o, whitesL attit-2es towar2 /.acks is their /e.ie,s a/o-t the ca-ses o, 9o7ert* in the /.ack comm-nit* an2 socia. ineK-a.it* /etween the races more +enera..*"1 These attit-2es contri/-te si+ni,icant.* to whitesL 9ositions on 9-/.ic 9o.icies +eare2 to ame.iorate racia. ineK-itiesH s-ch as a,,irmati7e action ;e"+"H =-+hes an2 T-ch 2000I 0ni2erman et a." 165!< an2 we.,are ;4i.ens 166!<" For some whitesH the o/ser7e2 2is9arit* /etween the races is a ,-nction o, s*stemic ca-sesH s-ch as -neK-a. e2-cationa. an2 Do/ o99ort-nities or a .e+ac* o, 2iscrimination ;Mstr-ct-ra.ist attri/-tionsMI Fea+in 1632<" $on7erse.*H other whites 7iew racia. 2is9arities as a 9ro2-ct o, traits stereot*9ica..* associate2 with in2i7i2-a. A,rican AmericansH s-ch as a 9oor work ethic or a .ack o, inte..i+ence ;Min2i7i2-a.istic attri/-tionsM<" ?re7io-s researchNin 9o.itica. science an2 other 2isci9.inesNhas shown thatH whi.e /oth str-ct-ra.ist an2 in2i7i2-a.istic attri/-tions contri/-te to whitesL racia. 9o.ic* attit-2esH the ,ormerH tho-+h .ess commonH 9.a* a more 9ower,-. ro.e than the .atter in 9re2ictin+ these attit-2es ;e"+"H =-nt 166!I K.-e+e. an2 0mith 165!<" In2i7i2-a.s who acce9t str-ct-ra.ist eC9.anations ,or /.ack 9o7ert* are more s-99orti7e o, 9o.icies inten2e2 to assist /.acks" Eet man* K-estions remain -nanswere2 a/o-t how str-ct-ra.ist an2 in2i7i2-a.istic attri/-tions themse.7es are ,orme2" 0ome scho.arsH most nota/.* K.-e+e. an2 0mith ;165!<H 9ro7i2e a socio.o+ica. eC9.anationH ar+-in+ that socioeconomic stat-s stron+.* sha9es in2i7i2-a.sL eC9.anations ,or 9o7ert*" >* this acco-ntH the 2i,,erence in attri/-tion 9atterns ma* mere.* /e a ,-nction o, socia. c.assNthe Mha7esM think the Mha7e1notsM are .aO*H whi.e the .atter think the ,ormer /ene,it 2is9ro9ortionate.* ,rom socia. arran+ements" ?erha9s the 2i7er+ence r-ns 2ee9erH stemmin+ ,rom 9s*cho.o+ica. 2i,,erences inherent in the constr-ction o, ca-sa.it*" A,ter a..H inter9ersona. attri/-tions are a ,-n2amenta. com9onent o, socia. co+nition ;Fiske an2 Ta*.or 1661<" This raises a ke* K-estion: Does an in2i7i2-a.Ls co+niti7e com9.eCit* increase his or her .ike.ihoo2 o, makin+ certain ca-sa. .inka+esH whi.e miti+atin+ the 9ercei7e2 im9ortance o, com9etin+ eC9.anator* ,actorsT

H we a27ance a theor* o, hetero+eneo-s attri/-tionH wherein in2i7i2-a. 2i,,erences in co+niti7e so9histication within a re.e7ant 2omain con2ition the ten2enc* to attri/-te res9onsi/i.it* to 9roCima. ;in2i7i2-a.istic< or more +.o/a. ;str-ct-ra.ist< ca-ses" We ar+-e that in2i7i2-a.s .ow in 9o.itica. so9histicationH contro..in+ ,or other ,actors s-ch as i2eo.o+* an2 racia. anim-sH are -n.ike.* to attri/-te res9onsi/i.it* ,or racia. ineK-a.it* to socia. ca-ses" 4i7en a more .imite2 com9rehension o, the socio9o.itica. wor.2H .ow so9histicates ha7e a 2ecrease2 9ro9ensit* to constr-ct /roa2 socia. eC9.anations an2H corres9on2in+.*H to 2e7ise8 acknow.e2+e socia. so.-tions" =i+h 9o.itica. so9histicatesH who are more .ike.* to -n2erstan2 the com9.eCit* o, the socio9o.itica. wor.2H 2o ha7e the co+niti7e ca9acit*Na .ar+e store o, inte+rate2 9o.itica. re,erents in associati7e memor* ;e"+"H Mc4raw an2 ?inne* 1660I Tet.ock 166@<Nto make str-ct-ra.ist attri/-tionsH an2 are th-s more .ike.* to 2o so" In shortH we conten2 that 7ariation in whitesL attri/-tions re+ar2in+ the ca-ses o, /.ack 9o7ert* an2 socia. 2isa27anta+e is a ,-nction not sim9.* o, economic se.,1interest an28or racia. 9reD-2iceH /-t a.so o, co+niti7e st*.e" Whi.e the co+niti7e ,o-n2ations o, attri/-tions ,or racia. ineK-a.it* are in themse.7es im9ortantH o-r work a.so has rami,ications ,or the wi2e.* -se2 an2 o,ten 2e/ate2 conce9t o, s*m/o.ic racism" Recent work /* Tarman an2 0ears ;200@< 2emonstrates that the ,actoria. str-ct-re o, the tra2itiona. s*m/o.ic racism sca.e is /est eC9.aine2 /* the str-ct-ra.ist an2 in2i7i2-a.ist attri/-tion conce9ts" $onseK-ent.*H we reeCamine s*m/o.ic racism an2 its e,,ect on 9o.ic* attit-2es in .i+ht o, the theor* o, hetero+eneo-s attri/-tion" 0im9.* 9-tH we ar+-e that in2i7i2-a. res9onses to the /atter* o, s-r7e* items +enera..* -se2 to create the s*m/o.ic racism meas-re ma* /e /iase2 /* co+niti7e a/i.it* an2 sha9e2 /* ,actors com9.ete.* in2e9en2ent o, the -n2er.*in+ racia. anim-s that the sca.e seeks to ca9t-re" This attri/-tion /ias a,,ects 9.acement on the s*m/o.ic racism sca.eH since those who res9on2 9ositi7e.* to the str-ct-ra.ist items are consi2ere2 .ow in s*m/o.ic racismH whi.e in2i7i2-a.ist res9on2ents are score2 hi+h" I, the theor* o, hetero+eneo-s attri/-tion is acc-rateH in2i7i2-a.s .ow in 9o.itica. so9histication ma* /e /iase2 a+ainst acce9tin+ the str-ct-ra.ist items an2 in ,a7or o, the in2i7i2-a.ist ones ,or reasons who..* a9art ,rom racia. hosti.it* or i2eo.o+*" Th-sH .ow so9histicatesH a.. thin+s eK-a.H r-n a +reater risk o, /ein+ incorrect.* c.assi,ie2 as Ms*m/o.ic racists"M A,ter 2emonstratin+ an em9irica. re.ationshi9 /etween 9o.itica. so9histication an2 s*m/o.ic racismH we ree7a.-ate the .atter conce9tLs im9act on racia. 9o.ic* attit-2es" We 9ro9ose that an Merrors in 7aria/.esM correction /e -se2 when s*m/o.ic racism is em9.o*e2 as an in2e9en2ent 7aria/.e in mo2e.sH an2 show that the e,,ect o, s*m/o.ic racism as an eC9.anation ,or racia. 9o.ic* attit-2es ma* /e +ross.*
In this 9a9er

ENDI 2010 Framework eCa++erate2"

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ENDI 2010 Framework

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A2J W,ITENE<<IMA<KED NEBTRA@ITA

Whitne## i#n.t &i#($i#e& ne$tra%it-. Fran5en)er( 21 ;R-thH Associate ?ro," American 0t-2ies A$ Da7isH in MThe Makin+ an2 Anmakin+ o, WhitenessMH E2" >ir+it >ran2er Rasm-ssenH 9" 3&13@< Meanwhi.eH where was whiteness in this merci,-..* /rie, .ist o, sa2 o.2 stereot*9esT An o/7io-sH sim9.e answer to this K-estion wo-.2 /e to 9ro9ose that it is in7isi/.eH or -nmarke2H as -s-a." =owe7erH it is a.. too eas* to -ni7ersa.iOe the 9artic-.arH to re9eat the +est-res o, he+emon*H when eCaminin+ race" =ence the c.aim that Mwhiteness is in7isi/.eM is o,ten ma2e as tho-+h re9resentati7e o, a time.ess certit-2e" For one o, the tr-isms a/o-t whiteness with which scho.ar.* critics o, whiteness ,reK-ent.* o9erate at the 9resent time is the i2ea that whiteness is an -nmarke2 cate+or*" It is in2ee2 one with which I m*se., worke2 ,or a n-m/er o, *ears" The !ore one #'r$tini9e# it6 ho0e"er6 the !ore the notion o 0hitene## a# $n!ar5e& nor! i# re"ea%e& to )e a !ira(e or in&ee&6 to p$t it e"en !ore #tron(%-6 a 0hite &e%$#ion " The neCt interestin+ K-estion isH then what is the nat-reH the character an2 the ori+in o, this 2e.-sionH an2 when an2 how 2oes its o99ositeH the markin+ o, whiteness come a/o-tT In ,actH it seems to me that the makin+ an2 markin+ o, whiteness nee2s to /e acco-nte2 ,or /e,ore one can /e+in to -n2erstan2 its occasiona.H 9artia.H an2 tem9orar* -nmarkin+ in the .ate twentieth cent-r*" In ,actH whiteness is in a contin-a. state o, /ein+ 2resse2 an2 -n2resse2H o, markin+ an2 c.oakin+" It has /een so since the time
when the term was ,irst -se2 racia..*H 9artwa* thro-+h ha., a mi..enni-m o, E-ro9ean im9eria.iOin+ tra7e. thro-+hH sett.ement inH an2 eC9ro9riation ,rom the AmericasH A,ricaH 9arts o, AsiaH A-stra.iaH an2 the ?aci,ic re+ion" I wi.. notH hereH 2etai. the enormo-s.* 7ario-s an2 com9.icate2 9rocesses /* means o, which co.oniOation /ecame a s9eci,ica..* racia. 9roDect"5 0-ch work has /een 2one e.sewhere an2 2eser7es ,ar more s9ace an2 attention than I can o,,er it here"6 I wi..H tho-+hH note se7era. o, the res-.ts o, that histor* es9ecia..* 9ertinent to this 2isc-ssion" FirstH it is critica. to remem/er in eCaminin+ the term MwhitenessM that in the conteCt o, co.oniOationH the constr-cts i2enti,ie2 as M9eo9.e;s<HM MnationsHM Mc-.t-resHM an2 MracesM /ecame com9.eC.* interwo7en" This is wh*H in the 9resentH the* contin-e to

the term MraceM was a re.ati7e .atecomer on the .in+-istic sceneH10 as was the name MwhiteHM an2 that in2ee2 /oth terms were /irthe2 /* im9eria.ism" It is not the caseH thenH that the 9re7io-s.* ne-tra. wor2 MraceM was Mcorr-9te2M /* co.onia.ism" )ikewiseH it is not tr-e that a somehow /eni+n notion o, MwhitenessM was then ma2e ma.i+nant /* the march o, histor*" Neither constr-ct eCiste2 9rior to co.onia.ism" This makes -tter.* mis9.ace2H entire.* ,a.se.* 9remise2H the i2ea o, a Mret-rnM to racia. innocence" EK-a..* im9ractica. is the attem9t to care o-t s9aces within the terrain o, whiteness -ns9oi.e2 /* the re.ations o, co.onia.ism" For that matterH the same is tr-e o, the terms /.acknessH AsiannessH Nati7enessH $hicana8o1)atina8o1nessH an2 so on" In shortH we are a.. immerse2 in the waters o, histor*H an2 those waters are 9rett* m-rk*" Thir2H we m-st note thatH .ike the wor2 MraceM an2 .ike Mracia. namesM
/.ee2 into one another in racist termsH with MAmericanM a9t to /e taken to mean MwhiteHM ,or eCam9.e" 0econ2H we m-st remin2 o-rse.7es that ;whitenessH /.acknessH an2 so on<H the wor2s Mc-.t-reHMH MnationHM an2 M9eo9.e;s<M contin-e to /e or+aniOe2 /* hierarchica. rankin+ s*stems 2atin+ /ack to the 7er* /e+innin+ o, the western E-ro9ean co.onia. 9roDect" In the co.onia. conteCtH the namin+ o, Mc-.t-resM an2 M9eo9.esM was 7er* m-ch .inke2 to namin+ an2 markin+ o-t a host o, Others as /ein+s 2eeme2 .esser than the Mnationa.M 0e.7es who so-+ht to 2ominate them" F-rtherH those Others were name2 in terms that D-sti,ie2H at .east in the min2s o, mara-2in+ nationsH the .e+itimac* o, co.oniOation" In this conteCt it is har2.* s-r9risin+ that MwhiteM emer+es as /are.* marke2H a+ain i, on.* ,orm the stan29oints o, white 9eo9.e themse.7es" An2 it is a.so not s-r9risin+ that 9art o, the 9roDect o, namin+ whiteness wo-.2 res-.t in a seK-ence somethin+ .ike the ,o..owin+: a99earH se.,1nameH 7io.ateH 9.-n2erH a99ro9riateH an2 /ecome a99arent.* in7isi/.e" Or was that in7inci/.eT Merci,-..*H not so" This s*stem o, namin+ an2 e7asion mi+ht e7en ha7e worke2H /-t ,or the ,act that the co.oniOe2 were watchin+ c.ose.* thro-+ho-tH /-t ,or the rea.it* o, 2i,,erences within whiteness an2 res-.tant /o-n2ar* 2is9-tes ,or entr* into the cate+or*H an2 /-t ,or the eCistence o, some

MwhitenessM is 9ositione2 as*mmetrica..* in re.ation to a. other racia. an2 c-.t-ra. termsH a+ain ,or reasons whose ori+ins are co.onia." WhitenessH or white 9eo9.eH I s-++estH ha7e thro-+h histor* main.* name2 themse.7es in or2er to sa* MI am not that Other"M Whiteness isH whi.e as re.ationa. as its othersH .ess c.ear.* marke2 eCce9tH ironica..* in
9eo9.e o, a.. races with a.ert min2sH heartsH an2 s9irits" Fo-rth an2 .inke2 to a.. o, the a/o7eH terms o, its not1Otherness" As IH an2 co..ea+-esH ha7e ar+-e2 e.sewhereH there are times when whiteness seems to mean on.* a 2e,iant sho-t o, MI am not that Other!M11 This in2ee2 is wh*H to the cha+rin o, some white 9eo9.eH it /ecomes eCtraor2inari.* 2i,,ic-.t ,or white 9eo9.e to name whitenessH an2 wh* whiteness has a ha/it1anno*in+ ,or those who are tr*in+ to name it1o, s.i2in+ into c.ass an2 nationa.it* a.. the time"12 In2ee2H it is ,or the same reason that e7en wor2s .ike Mh-manit*M an2 MManM ;-99ercacse MMM< are 7er* easi.* e.i2e2 into whitenessH th-s +i7in+ it the a99earance o, /ein+ -n/o-n2e2"

Err ne(. A%!o#t none o their %iterat$re on 0hitene## ha# )een e!piri'a%%- te#te&. ,art!ann et a% 2/ ;Do-+.asH ?ro," 0oc" A" MinnesotaH Jose9h 4erteisH Assistant ?ro," 0oc" A" MinnesotaH an2 ?a-. R" $ro..H Assistant ?ro," 0oc" A-+-stana $o..e+eH 0ocia. ?ro/.emsH FAn Em9irica. Assessment o, Whiteness Theor*: =i22en ,rom =ow Man*TG @!:&H A-+-st< With on.* a ,ew eCce9tions ;e"+"H >-sh 200'I =e.ms 1660<H em9irica. work on whiteness in the Anite2 0tates has /een historica.H case /ase2H an2 K-a.itati7e" The %a'5 o attention to !ea#$re!ent an& the e!piri'a% (enera%i9a)i%it- o 'ore '%ai!# an& a##$!ption# ha# a't$a%%- )een a #o$r'e o r$#tration to #o!e o the #tron(e#t proponent# o 0hitene## #'ho%ar#hip 0ithin the #o'ia% #'ien'e#. Ash.e* DoaneH ,or eCam9.eH writes that one FmaDor shortcomin+ o, m-ch o, the eCistin+ .iterat-re on whiteness is its .ack o, em9irica. +ro-n2in+G ;Doane an2 >oni..a1 0i.7a 200&:13<"' Monica McDermott an2 Frank 0amson ;200@< 9oint o-t that the .ack o, meas-rement has im9ortant theoretica. im9.ications: FRASttem9ts at s9eci,*in+ concrete wa*s in which the 9rocess o, white racia. i2entit* ,ormation 7aries or eC9eriences o, whiteness 2i,,er ha7e /een consi2era/.* .ackin+ " " " $onseK-ent.*H we ha7e no stan2ar2 wa* o, c.assi,*in+ how whitenessH or an* other 2ominant +ro-9 i2entit*H is eC9erience2G ;9" 2@!<" These 9ro/.ems c-t two 2i,,erent an2 2istinct wa*s" On the one han2H the .ack o, concrete s-99ortin+ e7i2ence an2 ana.*sis a..ows whiteness scho.arshi9 to /e 2ismisse2 /* ske9tics an2 remain mar+ina.iOe2 ,rom mainstream scho.ars o, race an2 ethnic re.ations who eC9ect a certain amo-nt an2 t*9e o, em9irica. e7i2ence to s-99ort an2 a27ance theories" At the same timeH 2ata .imitations serio-s.* im9e2e the a/i.it* o, whiteness st-2ies as a ,ie.2 to c.ari,* an2 eCten2 certain theoretica. c.aims" Th-sH scho.ars o, whiteness ,or+o the

ENDI 2010 Framework re,inements an2 im9ro7ements that come when theories an2 ,acts con,ront each other on eK-a. ,ootin+"

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ENDI 2010 Framework

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*** COBNTER=INTER1 AN<WER< *** A2J B<F+ I< B<

The B<F+ i#n.t $#. It.# the (o"ern!ent )a#e& in DC. That.# ,art%e-. A%% o$r #tan&ar&# are rea#on# to re7e't thi# interpretation. There.# no pre&i'ta)%e %iterat$re a)o$t the! a# the e&era% (o"ern!ent. We 'an.t re#ear'h the 'han(e in per#pe'ti"e )- one per#on6 an& e"en i 0e 'an it 'han(e# per#on to per#on 0hi'h i# #i!p%- too %ar(e in 'o!pari#on to a #in(%e #ta)%e (o"ern!ent a'tor. 1%$# or po%i'-= !a5in( (oo& ar($!ent# are a%% i!pa't t$rn# to thi#. We #ho$%& 'on'ei"e o the #tate a# e8terna% to o$r o0n ethi'a% re#pon#i)i%itie#. Thi# i# the on%- 0a- to 'reate a 7$#t #o'iet- to 'on ront the pro)%e! o "io%en'e to0ar&# the thir& other. Fa(ana 2/ ;Ma2e.eineH ?hD $an2i2ate in IntQ. ?o." De9t" A/er*stw*th A"H $ontem9orar* ?o.itica. Theor*H FThe Inse9era/i.it* o, Ethics an2 ?o.itics: Rethinkin+ the Thir2 in Emman-e. )e7inasGH 5H 2oi:10"10@38c9t"2005"20< =owe7erH we can ne7er .i7e -9 to what the Other 2eman2s o, -s" We can ne7er ,-.,i. o-r res9onsi/i.itiesH ne7er /e ass-re2 that we ha7e taken the res9onsi/.e co-rse o, actionH L2one the ri+ht thin+L" The 2eman2s o, the Other -9on -s are a.rea2* in,initeH /eca-se we are char+e2 e7en with their res9onsi/i.ities to OthersH an2 we are a.wa*s con,ronte2 a.so with o-r in,inite res9onsi/i.ities to the Thir2" I, the ,ace1to1,aceH m* com9.ete res9onsi/i.it* to the OtherH is necessari.* a one1on1 one sit-ationH the 9resence o, a Thir2 imme2iate.* mo7es re.ations into a 2i,,erent rea.mH ,or in a/so.-te res9onsi/i.it* to the ,irst 9erson I /etra* m* 2-t* to the secon2H an2 so on" The Thir2 ,or )e7inas creates a 9ro/.em ,or the i2ea o, in,inite res9onsi/i.it* in the ,ace1to1,ace re.ation: Lres9onsi/i.it* ,or the Other R"""S is tro-/.e2 an2 /ecomes a 9ro/.em when a thir2 9art* entersL ;200'H 9" 1@3<" I, the Thir2 is imme2iateH this
9ro/.ematiOation o, res9onsi/i.it* is imme2iate" What this shi,t in ,oc-s 2oes is to em9hasiOe the wa* in which we are a.wa*s o/.i+ate2 to one Other an2 to a.. the other OthersH the +enera.it*H r-.esH instit-tions an2 norms" These 2eman2s areH necessari.*H incom9ati/.eH /eca-se res9on2in+ to the one Other 7ia 2-t*H r-.es or .aw is imme2iate.* to 2o 7io.ence to their a.terit* /* a99roachin+ them as an instance o, a t*9e an2 to 2en* the imme2iac* o, the ,ace an2 its 2eman2s" This isH em9hatica..*H not to sa* that the +enera.H -ni7ersa.H r-.esH normsH .aw an2 so on ha7e no 9.ace in )e7inasLs tho-+ht" Nor are the* in an* wa* secon2ar*" What is ke* a/o-t )e7inasLs a99roach is the inter9enetration o, the +enera. an2 the 9artic-.ar he is concerne2 with LTota.it* an2 In,init*L Rem9hasis a22e2S rather than a

The Thir2 means that o-r o/.i+ations are not c.earI we can ne7er ,-.,i. them /eca-se the in,inite res9onsi/i.it* we ha7e to the Other an2 to the Thir2 are necessari.* com9.ete.* incom9ati/.e /eca-se o, the eCcessi7e nat-re o, these res9onsi/i.ities" We areH thenH a.wa*s irres9onsi/.e in an* attem9t to /e res9onsi/.e" The 2i,,ic-.t* arises in the ,act that there is
hierarch* or choice /etween the two termsH as s-++este2 /* Doo.e* ;2001H 9" '&<" a.wa*s more than one Other or that the Other is not a -nitar* se.,1i2entica. s-/DectH which means that an* takin+ -9 o, res9onsi/i.it* in res9onse to one Other is necessari.* a 2ere.iction o, 2-t* with re+ar2 to another Other" It is a.soH /* eCtensionH a 2ere.iction o, 2-t* to the +enera.it* o, r-.es an2 norms which wo-.2 a2D-2icate /etween the c.aims o, the Other an2 the other Others" We are in this sense a.wa*s t-rnin+ awa* ,rom the ,ace o, the OtherH sacri,icin+ them an2 rene+in+ on o-r res9onsi/i.it* to themH in 9art /eca-se what is 2eman2e2 o, -s is in,inite an2 eCcessi7e /-t a.so /eca-se the 2eman2 itse., an2 the str-ct-re o, the wa* that 2eman2s are re.a*e2 to -s are a.wa*s im9ossi/.e /eca-se the Thir2 is a.rea2* thereH in the 2eman2H in the ,ace o, the Other" An2H im9ortant.*H this im9ossi/i.it* is not a .imitH weaknessH or o7ersi+ht in )e7inasLs work" It is the 7er* ,act that the ca.. o, the Other 2oes not 2etermine a 9artic-.ar res9onse an2 that it is a.wa*s in com9etition with the incom9ati/.e ca..s o, other Others an2 9ro7i2es no wa* o, a2D-2icatin+ /etween these 2eman2s that means that the 9ossi/i.it* o, res9onsi/i.it*H rather than the 7io.ence o, an o/session with the one OtherH or a c.ear know.e2+e o, what we sho-.2 2oH is maintaine2" F-rtherH )e7inasLs a99roach o, a.i+nin+ res9onsi/i.it* with the choice to res9on2 to the Other as ,ace rather than in a tota.iOin+ wa* means that e7en in some h*9othetica. ,ace1to1 ,ace re.ationshi9 witho-t the Thir2H L/ein+ res9onsi/.eL wo-.2 not /e 9ossi/.e" In a ,ace1to1,ace witho-t the Thir2 there wo-.2 /e no 9ossi/i.it* o, 2ecision an2 as s-ch no 9ossi/i.it* o, res9onsi/i.it*" It is the 9ossi/i.it* o, the a99roach o, 9rocee2in+ ,rom -ni7ersa.it*H enterin+ into a tota.iOin+ re.ation with the Other that con2itions the 9ossi/i.it* o, the res9onse not /ein+ 9re12etermine2I we co-.2 a99roach the ,ace as ,ace or we co-.2 a99roach it in a tota.iOin+ wa*" This 9ossi/i.it* o, there /ein+ a 2ecision on.* ha99ens when the Thir2 enters ;otherwise we wo-.2 /e com9.ete.* comman2e2 an2 o-r res9onse 2etermine2 /* the ,ace o, the one Other<H so the e.ement o, choice that )e7inas seems to see as necessar* ,or res9onsi/i.it*H or +oo2nessH is on.* 9ossi/.e with the Thir2I it wo-.2 not /e 9ossi/.e to /e res9onsi/.e in this sense in the ,ace1to1,ace" In the ,ace1to1,ace we wo-.2 know what to 2oH o-r o/.i+ations wo-.2 /e c.ear" >-t the Thir2 is a.wa*s a.rea2* there in the ,aceH o-r o/.i+ations are ne7er c.earH an2 rather than makin+ res9onsi/i.it* im9ossi/.e it is this which con2itions its 9ossi/i.it*" Res9onsi/i.it* ;in terms o, a res9onsi/.e res9onse rather than in terms o, o/.i+ation< as a conce9t on.* makes sense with an a99reciation o, the Thir2 in )e7inasLs work" It is the Thir2 which con2itions the 9ossi/i.it* o, res9on2in+ in some -n19re2etermine2 wa*H o, res9on2in+ res9onsi/.*H /-t the Thir2 sim-.taneo-s.* makes this res9onsi/i.it* im9ossi/.e /eca-se there is no res9onse which co-.2 meet m* res9onsi/i.ities to /oth the Other an2 the Thir2" It is in this sense that )e7inas m-st /e seen as con,rontin+ an a9oria o, res9onsi/i.it* an2 in this sense that he 2oes not attem9t to o,,er a wa* o-t o, the a9oriaH not /eca-se o, a ,ai.-re o, his theoriOin+ at this 9ointH /-t thro-+h an acknow.e2+ement that it is the a9oria itse.,H an2 9erha9s its ,ore+ro-n2in+ an2 reco+nitionH which con2itions the 9ossi/i.it* o, res9onsi/i.it*" As s-chH the i2ea o, )e7inasLs ,ace1to1,ace re.ation as 9ro7i2in+ the horiOon or +ro-n2in+ ,or thinkin+ a/o-t res9onsi/i.it* an2 9o.itics /ecomes 9ro/.ematic" ?ro/.ematiOin+ Ethics an2 ?o.itics: The Ethico1?o.itica. This inter9enetration o, the res9onsi/.e an2 the irres9onsi/.e in the ,i+-re o, the Thir2 is mirrore2 in )e7inasLs 2isc-ssion o, ethics an2 9o.itics" )e7inas is sometimes rea2 as ca..in+ ,or a critiK-e or 2isr-9tion o, the 9o.itica. in the name o, the ethica. ;$ritch.e*H 1662H 9" 22&I 0immonsH 1666H 9" 65I $ritch.e*H 200'H 9" 152I ThomsonH 200@H 9" 101<" 0imi.ar.*H the i2ea o, the 9assa+e or mo7ement ,rom ethics to know.e2+eH the Other to the Thir2 an2 so on characteriOes m-ch o, the 2e/ate re+ar2in+ )e7inasLs 9o.itica. -ti.it* ;$ritch.e*H 1662H 9" Ci7I 0immonsH 1666H 9" 6!<" =owe7erH this a99roach re.ies on a 2istinctionH /oth cate+orica. an2 tem9ora.H /etween these rea.msH which I 2o not think is to /e ,o-n2 in m-ch o, )e7inasLs work" =is -n2erstan2in+ o, ethics an2 9o.iticsH charit* an2 D-stice isH I ar+-eH more com9.eC than this se9aration s-++ests an2 can /e more -se,-..* characteriOe2 /* the i2ea o, the

)e7inasLs a99roach to 9o.itics concerns the nee2 to create instit-tionsH r-.esH -ni7ersa.iOa/.e an2 +enera.iOa/.e str-ct-res as reK-ire2 /* the Thir2" It a.so encom9asses a more tra2itiona.H concrete -n2erstan2in+ o, 9o.iticsH a22ressin+ iss-es s-ch as the state an2 2emocrac*H a.tho-+h these iss-es arise o-t o, the same concerns" It i# 7$#ti'e that &e!an&# in#tit$tiona%i9ation an& po%iti'# or @e"ina#. =e is 2e,inite a/o-t the reK-irement ,or D-sticeH which ,or him is in the rea.m o, the +enera.H a/stract an2 -ni7ersa.iOa/.e: LJ-stice is necessar*H that isH com9arisonH coeCistenceH contem9oraneo-snessH assem/.in+H or2erH thematisationH the 7isi/i.it* o, ,acesL ;)e7inasH 200'H 9" 1@3<" J-stice isH he ar+-esH the on.* wa* to re+-.ate re.ations with other OthersH the mechanism /* which the c.aims o, Others are com9are2 an2 D-2+e2" J-sticeH as ca.c-.ation an2 .e+is.ationH 9.a*s an im9ortant ro.e: La+ainst the 9ersec-tion which tar+ets Others an2 es9ecia..* those c.ose /*H one has to ha7e reco-rse to D-sticeL ;)e7inas an2 Ro//insH 2001H 9" 100<" J-stice is necessar* /eca-se o, the Thir2H imme2iate.* 9resent in the ,ace o, the
ethico19o.itica." Other" In a99roachin+ the OtherH LA thir2 9art* is a.so a99roache2I an2 the re.ationshi9 /etween the nei+h/o-r an2 the thir2 9art* cannot /e in2i,,erent to me when I a99roach" There m-st /e a D-stice amon+ noncom9ara/.e onesL ;)e7inasH 200'H 9" 1!<" The 2eman2 ,or res9onsi/i.it* to the Thir2H an2 in this to a m-.ti9.icit* o, OthersH reK-ires that what ma* seem initia..* a commitment to in,inite res9onsi/i.it* to one Other is in ,act in )e7inasLs work an ar+-ment that there m-st /e a com9arison /etween incom9ara/.es"

;Fa+ana contin-esV<

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!3

A2J B<F+ I< B<

;Fa+ana contin-esV< It is this com9arison an2 ca.c-.ationH in the ,orm o, D-sticeH that makes charit* or res9onsi/i.it* 9ossi/.e amon+ man* Others: LD-stice an2 the D-st state constit-te the ,or-m ena/.in+ the eCistence o, charit* within the h-man m-.ti9.icit*L ;)e7inas an2 Ro//insH 2001H 9" 2&0<" =owe7erH it is a.so this ca.c-.ation an2 com9arison which threatens this 9ossi/i.it*H i, se9arate2 ,rom a contin-e2 concern with the in,inite res9onsi/i.it* o, the ,ace1to1,ace ;as 2isc-sse2 /e.ow<" )e7inasLs intro2-ction o, the Thir2 then reK-ires a consi2eration o, D-sticeH which 2eman2s 9o.itics" The Thir2 means that D-stice an2 com9arison are reK-ire2H in the name o, in,inite res9onsi/i.it*H an2 it is the state which instit-tiona.iOes this necessit* ,or )e7inas an2 Ro//ins ;2001H 9" !!<I QThi# !$%tip%i'it- o h$!an )ein(# !$#t )e or(ani#e&6 'a%'$%ate&. I 'an 'e&e !re#pon#i)i%it- 0ithin a #o'iet- or(ani#e& in a <tate6 in 7$#ti'eQ " The state is not 9-t ,orwar2 as 9-re.* 9ositi7e or ne+ati7eH as ethica. or -nethica. ;a.tho-+h these cate+ories are themse.7es 9ro/.ematic in this conteCt<" The Thir2 /oth eCten2s an2 .imits o-r res9onsi/i.it* an2 this 7er* 2i,,ic-.t* is re,.ecte2 in the state an2 in instit-tions" It isH ,or )e7inas an2 Ro//ins ;2001H 9" !3<H Lnecessar* in or2er to make com9arisonsH D-2+eH ha7e instit-tions an2 D-ri2ica. 9roce2-resH which are necessar*L" =owe7erH as we.. as /ein+ necessar*H the state is -na7oi2a/.* 7io.entH as a.. .imits to in,inite res9onsi/i.it* to one sin+-.ar Other are 7io.ent: LEo- ,in2 R"""S the necessit* o, the state"
%io.enceH o, co-rseH in re.ation to the charit* ren2ere2 necessar* 9recise.* /* the charit* ins9ire2 /* the ,ace o, the nei+h/o-rL ;)e7inas an2 Ro//insH 2001H 9" !3<" The state /oth s-99.ements an2 2enies the Lwork o, inter9ersona. res9onsi/i.it*L ;)e7inas an2 Ro//insH 2001H 9" !3<" As s-chH the state or instit-tiona.iOation are not necessari.* a corr-9tion o, some ethica. re.ationshi9 which nee2s to /e interr-9te2 in the name o, that re.ationshi9I the re.ationshi9 /etween ethicsH charit* an2 9o.itics or D-stice is more com9.eC than this" )e7inas is howe7er concerne2 with an a99roach which se9arates 9o.itics an2 D-stice o-t ,rom concerns o, charit*" A.tho-+h charit* ,or )e7inas an2 Ro//ins ;2001H 9" 151< is im9ossi/.e witho-t D-stice an2 the stateH D-stice is Lwar9e2L witho-t charit*" It is in this sense that )e7inas criticiOes the state an2 D-sticeH as 9ro/.ematic when a99roache2 as s-,,icient inH or .e+itimiOe2 /*H themse.7es" A+ainH this is a re,.ection o, the a9oria o, the ethico19o.itica. re.ationH the ins-,,icienc* o, either the ,ace1

M$#ti'e6 ta5en )- it#e% 6 in#epara)%e ro! or!a%i9e& an& #e&i!ente& in#tit$tion# or the Qp$reQ po%iti'# 'riti'i9e& a)o"e Qri#5# 'a$#in( $# to !i#re'o(ni#e the a'e o the other !anQ ;)e7inas an2 Ro//insH 2001H 9" 22&<" The D-2+ement reK-ire2 /* D-stice isH ,or )e7inas an2 Ro//ins ;2001H 9" 11@<H 7io.entH in that it trans,orms ,aces into MROS/Decti7e an2 9.astic ,ormsH into ,i+-res which are 7isi/.e /-t 2e,ace2H the a99earin+ o, menH o, in2i7i2-a.sH who are -niK-e /-t restit-te2 to their +enera" With intentions to scr-tinise an2 acts to remem/er"M It is in res9onse to this ;-na7oi2a/.e< 7io.ence that )e7inas ar+-es that L.o7e m-st a.wa*s watch o7er D-sticeLH in or2er to 9ro7i2e a ,oi. to its 9ossi/.e tota.iOin+ ten2enciesH to ne+otiate the 7io.ence 2one in its name ;a.tho-+h in the name o, another 7io.ence aime2 at the Thir2< ;)e7inas an2 Ro//insH 2001H 9" 1!6<" J-stice is ,or )e7inas an im9ossi/.e conce9tH 9recise.* /eca-se o, its 9osition with re+ar2 to the com9etin+ 2eman2s o, the Other an2 the Thir2" J-sticeH )e7inas ar+-esH Lremains D-stice on.* in a societ* where there is no 2istinction /etween those c.ose an2 those ,ar o,,H /-t in which there remains the im9ossi/i.it* o, 9assin+ /* the c.osestL ;200'H 9" 1@6<" J-stice is then in a sense the 7er* im9ossi/i.it* at the heart o, the ethico19o.itica. re.ation where/* we are -n2er o/.i+ation /oth to the imme2iate a/so.-te 2eman2 o, the Other an2 to the +enera.it*H r-.es an2 norms which a2D-2icate /etween Others" The com9.eCit* o, the re.ationshi9 /etween D-stice an2 charit* is what com9.icates )e7inasLs a99roach to 9o.itics an2 the state" )e7inas 2oes not see a.. 9o.itics as tota.iOin+H as inimica. to a concern with the ethica." WhatH I ar+-eH )e7inas is concerne2 to em9hasiOe is the 2an+er in some kin2 o, i2ea o, 9-re 9o.iticsH o, +enera.iOationH -ni7era.iOationH a concern on.* with the Thir2 in an a/stract sense: L?o.itics .e,t to itse., /ears a t*rann* within itse.,I it 2e,orms the I an2 the Other who ha7e +i7en rise to itH ,or it D-2+es them accor2in+ to -ni7ersa. r-.esH an2 th-s as in a/sentiaL ;)e7inasH 200@H 9" &00<" For himH this a99roach 2oes not make senseH in the same wa* that a L9-reL ethics 2oes not" ?o.itics is a.wa*s a.rea2* a/o-t a ne+otiation /etween the Other an2 the Thir2H a.wa*s a.rea2* the ethico19o.itica." )e7inas contrasts the .i/era. state with a tota.iOin+ state ar+-in+ that one .ea7es s9ace ,or charit* an2 the inter9ersona. where the other attem9ts to /rin+ e7er*thin+ within L9-reL 9o.itics or instit-tiona.iOation" A.tho-+h )e7inasLs commitment to the .i/era. state is 9ro/.ematicH e7en ;or es9ecia..*< on his own termsH this K-estion o, the re.ati7e merits o, 7ario-s t*9es o, state is not centra. to this sta+e o, the ar+-ment /ein+ ma2e here"1 )e7inasLs work on the .i/era. state is re.e7ant in this conteCt /eca-se o, the wa* he -ses it to hi+h.i+ht the im9ortance o, charit* within D-sticeH in contrast to the tota.itarian state which he sees as an attem9t at c.osin+ 2own this 2imension o, charit* an2 the inter9ersona. /-t whichH im9ortant.*H a.wa*s ,ai.s in this task" =is 2isc-ssion o, the tota.iOin+ state a.so acts to i..-strate his concern with the ,ra+i.it* o, charit* in the ,ace o, tota.iOin+ L9-reL D-stice an2 9o.itics" Whether )e7inas is correct in his a99roach to 7ario-s ,orms o, state 2oes not im9act on the conc.-sions re+ar2in+ the re.ationshi9 /etween D-stice an2 charit* in his work" )e7inas s-++ests that the .i/era. state reco+niOesH at .east to an eCtentH the im9ossi/i.it* o, the conce9t o, L9-reL 9o.itics" >eca-se the state is an instit-tiona.iOation o, the a9oretic ethico19o.itica. inter9ersona. re.ationshi9 it contains within itse., contra2ictor* e.ementsH an2 so an o9enness: s9ace ,or the 9ersona. an2 the instit-tiona. an2 an acknow.e2+ement o, the sin+-.ar an2 9artic-.ar as that which 2eman2s the -ni7ersa. an2 +enera. an2 the .i/era. state reco+niOes this" For )e7inas an2 Ro//ins ;2001H 9" !6< there i# Qan appea% to !er'- )ehin& 7$#ti'eQ in the %i)era% #tate6 an a'5no0%e&(e!ent o the &$t- 0e ha"e to the Other at the #a!e ti!e a# o$r &$tie# to the Thir& an& the (enera%it-6 that i#6 to 7$#ti'e. The state is 7iewe2 not as a res-.t o, some Lwar o, a.. a+ainst a..LH a .imitation o, 7io.enceH /-t rather as a too. to contro. an2 .imit o-r eCcessi7e res9onsi/i.ities ;)e7inasH 165@H 9" 50<" A state which reco+niOes this has the 9ossi/i.it*H ,or )e7inasH o, not eCc.-2in+ charit*H it is an acknow.e2+ement o, Lthe 9resence o, the sin+-.ar in the -ni7ersa.L ;)e7inas an2 Ro//insH 2001H 9" !6<"
to1,ace or the re.ation to the Thir2 to the 2eman2s o, res9onsi/i.it*"

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A2J RE<O@VED I< 1ER<ONA@

Co$nter=interpretationJ Re#o%"e& i# the #tan&ar& or!at or 0ritin( a re#o%$tion. It propo#e# the topi' a# a po%i'>$e#tion. 1ar'her .1 ;Je,,H Former De/ate $oach at 4eor+etownH FRe: Je,, ?11Is the reso.-tion a K-estionTGH htt9:88www"n2tce2a"com8archi7es820010280360"htm.< ;1< ?ar2on me i, I t-rn to a so-rce /esi2es >i.." American =erita+e Dictionar*: Reso.7e: 1" To make a ,irm 2ecision a/o-t" 2" To 2eci2e or eC9ress /* ,orma. 7ote" &" To se9arate somethin+ into consti-tent 9arts 0ee 0*ns at #ana.*Oe# ;em9hasis in or+ina.< '" Fin2 a so.-tion to" 0ee 0*ns at #0o.7e# ;em9hasis in ori+ina.< @" To 2is9e.: reso.7e a 2o-/t" 1 n 1" Frimness o, 9-r9oseI reso.-tion" 2" A 2etermination or 2ecision" ;2< The 7er* nat-re o, the wor2 Mreso.-tionM makes it a K-estion" American =erita+e: A co-rse o, action 2etermine2 or 2eci2e2 on" A ,orma. statemnt o, a 2eciionH as /* a .e+is.at-re" ;&< The reso.-tion is o/7io-s.* a K-estion" An* other conc.-sion is -tter.* inconcie7a/.e" Wh*T $onteCt" The 2e/ate comm-nit* em9owers a to9ic committee to write a to9ic ,or A)TERNATE si2e 2e/atin+" The committee is not a ran2om +ro-9 o, 9eo9.e comin+ to+ether to Mreser7eM themse.7es a/o-t some iss-e" There is conteCt 1 the* are em9owere2 /* a comm-nit* to 2o somethin+" In their 2e.i/erationsH the to9ic comm-nit* attem9ts to cra,t a reso.-tion which can /e AN0WERED in either 2irection" The* ,oc-s on iss-es .ike +ro-n2 an2 ,airness /eca-se the* know the reso.-tion wi.. ser7e as the /asis ,or 2e/ate which wi.. /e reso.7e2 /* 2eterminin+ the 9o.ic* 2esirea/.i.it* o, that reso.-tion" ThatLs not on.* what the* 2oH /-t itLs what we REZAIRE them to 2o" We 2onLt D-st sen2 the to9ic committtee somewhere to a2o9t their own +ro-9 reso.-tion" ItLs not the en2 9oint o, a reso.-tion a2o9te2 /* a /o2* 1 itLs the 9re.imanar* wor2in+ o, a reso.-tion sent to others to /e answere2 or 2eci2e2 -9on" ;'< F-rther conteCt: the wor2 reso.7e2 is -se2 to em9hasis the ,act that itLs 9o.ic* 2e/ate" Reso.7e2 comes ,rom the a2o9tion o, reso.-tions /* .e+is.ati7e /o2ies" A reso.-tion is either a2o9te2 or it is not" ItLs a K-estion /e,ore a .e+is.ati7e /o2*" 0ho-.2 this statement /e a2o9te2 or not" 1re er o$r interpretation a* A''o$nt# or 'onte8t. The- ha"e propo#e& an a%ternati"e )$t not &e initi"e rea&in( o the ter!. O$r# a''o$nt# or the &ep%o-!ent prior to a propo#e& e&era% (o"ern!ent a'tion. 1re&i'ta)%e interpretation# are 5e- to '%a#h an& re#ear'h. That.# a)o"e. )* A%% o$r ar($!ent# a)o"e pro"e 0h- &e)atin( (o"ern!ent po%i'- i# e&$'ationa%%- "a%$a)%e an& airer or the ne(ati"e )e'a$#e it a"oi&# the nee& to re#ear'h e"er- in&i"i&$a% or #et o po##i)%e 'on"i'tion#. E"en i the- 0in thi# ar($!ent 0e #ho$%& 0in the &e)ate. The re#o%$tion #ti%% a#5# the >$e#tion o 0hether the e&era% (o"ern!ent #ho$%& a't. I 0e 0in the- #ho$%&n.t6 than #a-in( #o i# a )a& per#ona% 'on"i'tion an& -o$ #ho$%& "ote a(ain#t it.

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!6

A2J T,E FJG MAKE< IT 1ER<ONA@

The 'o%on i# !eanin(%e##. What 'o!e# a ter it i# i!portant. We)#ter.# +$i&e to +ra!!ar an& Writin( .00 ;htt9:88ccc"commnet"e2-8+rammar8marks8co.on"htm< Ase o, a co.on /e,ore a .ist or an eC9.anation that is 9rece2e2 /* a c.a-se that can stan2 /* itse.," Think o, the co.on as a +ateH in7itin+ one to +o onV I, the intro2-ctor* 9hrase 9rece2in+ the co.on is 7er* /rie, an2 the c.a-se ,o..owin+ the co.on re9resents the rea. /-siness o, the sentenceH /e+in the c.a-se a,ter the co.on with a ca9ita. .etter" Thi# i# a )etter interpretation a* +ro$n& an& airne##. A%% o$r &e en#e o the e&era% (o"ern!ent a# e&$'ationa%%- "a%$a)%e an& e##entia% to !eanin( $% re#ear'h are e8p%aine& a)o"e )* Thi# o$t0ei(h# (ra!!ar. E"en i it i# #%i(ht%- %e## (ra!!ati'a%%- 'orre't6 o"er 100 -ear# o &e)ate 'on"ention in"o%"e# &e)atin( (o"ern!ent po%i'-6 not per#ona% po%i'-6 e"en 0ith 'o%on. Thi# pro"e# o$r interpretation i# pre&i'ta)%e 0hi'h #o%"e# the ter!ina% i!pa't to (ra!!ar. Their ar($!ent i# )a'50ar&#. 1eop%e or! (ra!!ar ro! !eanin(6 not the other 0a- aro$n&. The #enten'e FMe Tar9an6 Ao$ ManeG i# $n(ra!!ati'a% )$t it !a5e# #en#e nonethe%e##.

ENDI 2010 Framework

30

A2J DE4ATE I< A4OBT @I4ERATION

@i)eration i# a >$e#tion o ho0 the 7$&(e #ho$%& e"a%$ate po%i'ie#6 not the #$)7e't !atter o the &e)ate. Ao$ 'an ta%5 a)o$t !i%itar- pre#en'e topi'a%%- an& !a5e an ar($!ent that %i)eration o the oppre##e& i# the appropriate 0a- to e"a%$ate that po%i'-. It.# entire%- 'on#i#tent 0ith o$r ra!e0or56 0hi'h !ean# thi# i#n.t o en#e or the!. I the- #a- the- 'an ta%5 a)o$t an-thin( a# %on( a# it &ea%# 0ith %i)eration than it i# har& to i!a(ine a %e## pre&i'ta)%e interpretation. The- 'o$%& ta%5 a)o$t in'rea#in( 0ea%th ta8e#6 a)o%i#hin( pri#on#6 en&in( &r$( %a0#6 !a5in( ,IV !e&# a"ai%a)%e to e"er-one6 en&in( En(%i#h=on%- e&$'ation6 #i(nin( CEDAW6 ha"in( O)a!a apo%o(i9e or A!eri'an 'o%onia%i#!. @i)erator- po%i'ie# ha"e no $ni -in( (ro$n& an& no pre&i'ta)%e threa& o re#ear'h. O$r i!pa't# to pre&i'ta)i%it- an& the "a%$e o &e)atin( (o"ern!ent po%i'- pro"e 0h- thi# i# a horri)%e "ie0 o &e)ate. O$r airne## ar($!ent# are a (ate0a- i##$e. E"en i the 7$&(e #ho$%& 'on#i&er %i)eration 0e 'an on%- ha"e a pro&$'ti"e6 e&$'ationa% or air &e)ate a)o$t ho0 to %i)erate i 0e ha"e re#ear'he& their po%i'- propo#a%#. Thi# t$rn# their a'ti"i#! ar($!ent# #in'e a (oo& a'ti"i#t 'an on%- a'hie"e #$''e## i the- are prepare& to an#0er the !o#t 're&i)%e 'ha%%en(e# to their propo#a%#. Co$nter=interpretation. 1o%i'- &e)ate #ho$%& )e a)o$t the (reate#t (oo& or the (reate#t n$!)er. A%ternati"e# to $ti%itariani#! are $n0or5a)%e &$e to Dar0inian i!perati"e#6 an& an- 7$#ti i'ation or their interpretation $%ti!ate%- 'o%%ap#e# into $ti%it-. Ratner .D; ;)eonar2H )e+ion )eC ?ro," )aw A0$H =o,stra )aw Re7iewH FT=E ATI)ITARIAN IM?ERATI%E: AATONOMEH RE$I?RO$ITEH AND E%O)ATION#GH 5 =o,stra )" Re7"32!H =ein On.ine< As .on+ as h-mans ha7e .i7e2 to+etherH the* ha7e /een +ro9in+ ,or the so-rce an2 -.timate +oa. o, /eha7ior stan2ar2sH i"e"H o, mora. 7a.-es" Ear.* 2eri7ation o, those stan2ar2s ,rom transcen2enta.H s-9ernat-ra.H or m*stica. ;i"e"H noneC9erientia.< so-rces an2 +oa.s +enera..* accom9anie2 ear.* re.iance on s-ch so-rces an2 +oa.s ,or eC9.anations o, nat-ra. 9henomena"1 The -se,-.ness o, transcen2enta. eC9.anations an2 +-i2e.ines has 2iminishe2 with eC9an2e2 in,ormation a/o-t the 9h*sica. an2 socia. en7ironment" 2 The -ti.itarian 9erce9tion o, Mthe +reatest ha99iness o, the +reatest n-m/erM s as the +oa. o, mora. con2-ct was en+en2ere2 /* the em9iricist i2enti,ication o, eC9erience as the so-rce o, know.e2+e' an2 rein,orce2 /* the 9ra+matist1conseK-entia.ist 9re,erence ,or em9irica..* ascertaine2 e,,ects on h-man we.,are as the meas-re o, ethica. /eha7ior"@ The -ti.itarian 9erce9tion has /een im9.emente2 /* the maDoritarian instit-tions! that ha7e emer+e2 ,rom antece2ent ,orms o, socia. or+aniOation" The 0ocia. $om9act conce9t-a.iOes +o7ernment as the a+ent o, the +o7erne2H with the ,-nction o, restrainin+ in2i7i2-a.s an2 a..ocatin+ reso-rces ,or the +enera. we.,are 3 1a conce9t re,.ecte2 in the ?ream/.e to the $onstit-tion o, the Anite2 0tates" $.assica. -ti.itarianismH howe7erH 2i2 not c.ari,* Mha99inessM ;or M9.eas-reM< an2 s-++este2 no e,,ecti7e metho2 ,or maCimiOin+ itH i"e"H ,or assi+nin+ 9riorities to com9etin+ ha99iness 9re,erences"5 The res-.t has /een a 9ersistent attack on -ti.itarian mora.it*H as inca9a/.e o, 2istin+-ishin+ socia. ,rom asocia. ha99inessH an2 a res-r+ence o, transcen2enta. mora.it* in the +-ise o, a 9riori or innate Mri+htsM eCistin+ in2e9en2ent.* o, h-man nee2s an2 re7ea.e2 /* a m*stica. int-ition"6 0-ch ri+hts are o,,ere2 as the a.ternati7e to a -ti.itarian K-est ,or the +enera. we.,are" An em9irica. /asis ,or the assi+nment o, +enera.1we.,are 9riorities is 9ro7i2e2 /* the Darwinian 9rocess o, nat-ra. se.ectionH which trans.ates ha99iness into nee28want ,-.,i..ment an2 i2enti,ies .on+r-n s-r7i7a. as the o7erri2in+ +oa. o, s-ch ,-.,i..ment"HM >eha7ior that ,aci.itates s-r7i7a. is +enera..* 9re,erre2 /* h-mansH /eca-se h-man str-ct-re an2 ,-nction are 9ro2-cts an2 ,aci.itators o, the s-r7i7a. 9rocess"11 Darwin 9ercei7e2 the re.e7ance o, e7o.-tion to the mora.it* o, /eha7ior /-t ha2 2i,,ic-.t* reconci.in+ the s-r7i7a. 7a.-e o, stren+th an2 a++ression ;i"e"H o, -ninhi/ite2 a-tonom*< with s-ch tra2itiona. 7irt-es as s*m9ath* an2 a.tr-ism"1 2 Those 7irt-es 9romote h-man reci9rocit*HL& /-t the s-r7i7a. 7a.-e o, reci9rocit* as a mo2i,ier o, a-tonom* was then in2istinct"1' The res-.t was a schiOo9hrenic e7o.-tionar* ethic that 2iscerne2 the in,.-ence o, nat-ra. se.ection on the 2e7e.o9ment o, socia. traits /-t 9osite2 a Mno/.eM h-man ca9acit* ,or Ms*m9ath*"M1@ The s-r7i7a. ro.e o, reci9rocit* in the 9rocess o, socio/io.o+ica. e7o.-tion is now esta/.ishe2"1! Reinter9rete2 as 9art o, that 9rocessH -ti.itarianism reconci.es a-tonom* an2 reci9rocit*H s-rmo-nts the stri2ent int-itionist attackH an2 eC9oses the -ti.itarian -n2er9innin+ o, a 9riori ri+hts"M In the conteCt o, the in,ormation 9ro7i2e2 /* /io.o+*H anthro9o.o+*H economicsH an2 other 2isci9.inesH a ,-nctiona. 2escri9tion o, e7o.-tionar* -ti.itarianism i2enti,ies enhance2 9er ca9ita nee28want ,-.,i..ment as the .on+1term -ti.itarian1maDoritarian +oa.H i..-minates the critica. re.ationshi9 o, se., interest to that +oa.H an2 2isc.oses the tria.1an21error 9rocess o, accommo2ation an2 9riorit*

ENDI 2010 31 Framework assi+nment that im9.ements it"15 The 2escri9tion con,irms that 9rocess as ar/iter o, the tension /etween in2i7i2-a. we.,are an2 +ro-9 we.,are ;i"e"H /etween a-tonom* an2 reci9rocit*<1 6 an2 s-++ests a -ti.itarian im9erati7e: that -ti.itarianism is -na7oi2a/.eH that mora.it* rests -.timate.* on -ti.itarian se., interestH that in the ,ina. ana.*sis a.. o, -s are 9ersona. -ti.itarians an2 most o, -s are socia. -ti.itarians"

ENDI 2010 Framework

32

*** OT,ER AN<WER< *** A2J DE4ATE FORCE< MODERATION

<<D &oe#n.t !o&erate )e%ie #. E"en i it &i&6 it.# )e'a$#e the !o&erate po#ition i# a )etter option than the e8tre!e option. ,arri(an 2D ;$ase*H Associate Director o, De/ate at A4AH MasterQs in $omm-nications Wake Forest A"H FA De,ense o, 0witch 0i2e De/ateGH MasterQs thesis at Wake ForestH De9artment o, $omm-nicationH Ma* &51&6< 0econ2H the .ink /etween 2e/atin+ /oth si2es an2 the mo2eration o, st-2entQs /e.ie,s is ,ar ,rom c.ear" A2mitte2.*H there has /een .itt.e to no ,orma. em9irica. research in7esti+atin+ this connection" EetH it seems eK-a..* .ike.* that 00D ma* /o.ster the ori+ina. /e.ie,s o, 2e/aters ;es9ecia..* i, the* he.2 /e.ie,s that are ,o-n2 to /e 2esira/.e a,ter a.. re.ate2 iss-es ha7e /een 2isc-sse2< /* a..owin+ him or her to 2e7e.o9 tho-+ht,-. res9onses to the /est ar+-ments a+ainst their ori+ina. 9osition" I, a 2e/aterQs /e.ie,s are a.tere2 /eca-se he or she rea.iOes that he or she has ma2e an error in their initia. con7ictionH then that seems to /e a c.ear /ene,itH rather than a 2raw/ackH o, 00D" Inci2enta..*H i, a 9osition is so weak that 2e/aters are .ike.* to a.ter their o9inion a/o-t it as a res-.t o, mere.* tem9orari.* 9ositionin+ themse.7es as a27ocates o, itH then the -ti.it* o, s-ch a 7iew m-st s-re.* /e he.2 with a hi+h 2e+ree o, ske9ticism" Moreo7erH e7en i, 00D 2oes mo2erate the /e.ie,s o, 2e/atersH this a.one is not e7i2ence
o, an insi2io-s 9.ot to -n2ermine ra2ica. acti7ism" The statistica. notion o, re+ression to the mean can eC9.ain a +reat 2ea. o, this 9henomenon"

Re,errin+ to the 9-re.* statistica. ten2enc* ,or eCtreme res-.ts to /ecome more mo2erate o7er timeH it eC9.ains howH when /e+innin+ ,rom inte..ect-a..* eCtreme 9ositionsH 2e/aters can on.* /ecome more mo2erate o7er time" Th-sH an* ,orm o, 2e/atin+N,rom con7iction or 00DNis .ike.* to ha7e the same mo2eratin+ e,,ect an2 00D sho-.2 not /e s-/Dect to -niK-e criticism
on these +ro-n2s a.one"

ENDI 2010 Framework

3&

A2J RE@ATIVI<M
<0it'h=<i&e &e)ate re#pe't# &i"er(ent )e%ie # )$t &oe#n.t $ni"er#a%%- en&or#e the!. Thi# i# )e#t or '$%ti"atin( ethi'# )e'a$#e it i!)$e# re#pe't or parti'ipant# an& &i#a(ree!ent 0itho$t a'tin( on i!!ora%it-. M$ir 2/; ;0tarH ?ro," $omm" 4eor+e Mason A"H ?hi.oso9h* an2 RhetoricH FA De,ense o, the Ethics o, $ontem9orar* De/ateGH 2!;'<H 99"2531255< A ,ina. in2ictment o, 7a.-es c.ari,ication e2-cation is that it enco-ra+es re.ati7ism H 0tewartH ,or eCam9.eH sees 7a.-e c.ari,ication as
in2i7i2-a.isticH 9ersona.H an2 sit-ationa."UL =e a.so characteriOes 7a.-es c.ari,ication as 9ossessin+ a hi22en set o, 7a.-es ;an Ma/so.-te re.ati7ismM< that inc.-2es 9-r9ose,-.nessH stron+ /e.ie,sH an2 tho-+ht,-.nessH amon+ others" This Mhi22en c-rric-.-mM o, 7a.-es c.ari,ication ,orm-.ates res9onses to sit-ations whi.e 2ecr*in+ s-ch 9re1D-2+ment" In o/7io-s wa*sH switch1si2e 2e/ate i..-strates the same 2i.emma: No one 7a.-e is seen as correct an2 -nassai.a/.eH *et certain 7a.-es +et 9.ace2 a/o7e others as a matter o, 9roce2-re" >oth ,eat-res nee2 to /e eC9.icit.* a22resse2 since /oth re,.ect 2irect.* on 2e/ate as a too. o, mora. 9e2a+o+*" The ,irst res9onse to the char+e o, re.ati7ism is that #0it'h=#i&e &e)ate re#pe't# the e8i#ten'e o &i"er(ent )e%ie #6 )$t o'$#e# attention on a##e##in( the "a%i&it- o oppo#in( )e%ie #-#te!# " 0cri7en ar+-es that the Mcon,-sion o, 9.-ra.ismH o, the 9ro9er to.erance ,or 2i7ersit* o, i2easH with re.ati7ism Nthe 2octrine that there are no ri+ht an2 wron+ answers in ethics or re.i+ionN is 9erha9s the most serio-s i2eo.o+ica. /arrier to the im9.ementation o, mora. e2-cation to2a* " MU The 9rocess o, ethica. inK-ir* is centra. to s-ch mora. e2-cationH /-t the a..owance o, D-st an* 9osition is not" =ere is where co+niti7e1 2e7e.o9ment 2i7er+es ,rom the ,orma. aims o, 7a.-es c.ari,ication" Where c.ari,ication ostensi/.* a..ows an* 7a.-e 9ositionH co+niti7e12e7e.o9ment 9ro+resses ,rom in2i7i2-a.ism to socia. con,ormit* to socia. contract theor* to -ni7ersa. ethica. 9rinci9.es" A 9.-ra.istic 9e2a+o+* 2oes not im9.* that a.. 7iews are acce9ta/.e: It is mora..* an2 9e2a+o+ica..* correct to teach a/o-t ethicsH an2 the ski..s o, mora. ana.*sis rather than 2octrineH an2 to set o-t the ar+-ments ,or an2 a+ainst to.erance an2 9.-ra.ism" A.. o, this is -n2one i, *o- a.so im9.* that a.. the 7ario-s incom9ati/.e 7iews a/o-t a/ortion or 9orno+ra9h* or war are eK-a..* ri+htH or .ike.* to /e ri+htH or 2eser7in+ o, res9ect" ?.-ra.ism reK-ires res9ectin+ the ri+ht to ho.2 2i7er+ent /e.ie,sI it im9.ies neither to.erance o, actions /ase2 on those /e.ie,s nor res9ectin+ the content o, the /e.ie,s "UU

The ro.e o, switch1si2e 2e/ate is es9ecia..* im9ortant in the ora. 2e,ense o, ar+-ments that ,oster to.erance witho-t accr-in+ the mora. com9.ications o, actin+ on s-ch /e.ie,s" The ,or-m is there,ore -niK-e in 9ro7i2in+ 2e/aters with attit-2es o, to.erance witho-t committin+ them to acti7e mora. irres9onsi/i.it*" As Free.e* notesH 2e/aters are in2ee2 eC9ose2 to a m-.ti17a.-e2 wor.2H /oth within an2 /etween the si2es o, a +i7en to9ic" Eet this eC9os-re har2.* commits them to s-ch MmistakenM 7a.-es " In this 7iewH the 2i7orce o, the +ame ,rom the Mrea. wor.2M can /e seen as a means o, +ainin+ 9ers9ecti7e witho-t o/.i+atin+ st-2ents to 7a.i2ate their h*9othetica. 7a.-e str-ct-re thro-+h immora. actions"

ENDI 2010 Framework

3'

A2J <1ECTATOR 1,ENOMENON KVIO@ENCE*

Thi# ar($!ent i# >$e#tion=)e((in(. I &eath=#pe'ta'%e# 'reate )a& p$)%i' po%i'- than the- #ho$%& 0in a rea#on that other 'on#i&eration# are !ore i!portant an& the in'enti"e 0i%% )e or &e)ater# to o'$# on rea%i#ti' i!pa't#. I )i( i!pa't &e)ate i# (oo& )e'a$#e $ti%itarian 'on#i&eration# tr$!p than 0e i!pa't t$rn thi# ar($!ent. No $ni>$ene##. There.# %ot# o a%t 'a$#e# to the (%ori i'ation o "io%en'e. +iro$8 2/ ;=enr*H 4.o/a. T% Network $hair En+.ish an2 $-.t-ra. 0t-2ies McMaster A"H F)i7in+ in a $-.t-re o, $r-e.t*: Democrac* as 09ectac.eGH 612H htt9:88www"tr-tho-t"or+8060206RT9rint"< The +rowin+ 2ominance o, a ri+ht1win+ me2ia ,or+e2 in a 9e2a+o+* o, hate has /ecome a cr-cia. e.ement 9ro7i2in+ n-mero-s 9.at,orms ,or a c-.t-re o, cr-e.t* an2 is ,-n2amenta. to how we -n2erstan2 the ro.e o, e2-cation in a ran+e o, sites o-tsi2e o, tra2itiona. ,orms o, schoo.in+" This e2-cationa. a99arat-s an2
mo2e o, 9-/.ic 9e2a+o+* is centra. to ana.*Oin+ not D-st how 9ower is eCercise2H rewar2e2 an2 conteste2 in a +rowin+ c-.t-re o, cr-e.t*H /-t a.so how 9artic-.ar i2entitiesH 2esires an2 nee2s are mo/i.iOe2 in s-99ort o, an o7ert racismH hosti.it* towar2s immi+rants an2 -tter 2is2ainH co-9.e2 with the threat o, mo/ 7io.ence towar2 an* 9o.itica. ,i+-re s-99orti7e o, the socia. contract an2 the we.,are state" $itiOens

a chi..in+ in2i,,erence to the 9.i+ht o, others that is increasin+.* eC9resse2 in 7icio-s tira2es a+ainst /i+ +o7ernment an2 hea.th care re,orm" There is a +rowin+ e.ement o, scorn on the 9art o, the American 9-/.ic ,or those h-man /ein+s ca-+ht
are increasin+.* constr-cte2 thro-+h a .an+-a+e o, contem9t ,or a.. noncommercia. 9-/.ic s9heres an2 in the we/ o, mis,ort-neH h-man s-,,erin+H 2e9en2enc* an2 2e9ri7ation" As >ar/ara Ehrenreich o/ser7esH MThe 9attern is to c-rtai. ,inancin+ ,or ser7ices that mi+ht he.9 the 9oor whi.e ram9in+ -9 .aw en,orcement: star7e schoo. an2 9-/.ic trans9ortation /-2+etsH then make tr-anc* i..e+a." 0h-t 2own 9-/.ic ho-sin+H then make it a crime to /e home.ess" >e s-re to harass street 7en2ors when there are ,ew other o99ort-nities ,or em9.o*ment" The eC9erience o, the 9oorH an2 es9ecia..* 9oor minoritiesH comes to resem/.e that o, a rat in a ca+e scram/.in+ to a7oi2 erratica..* a2ministere2 e.ectric shocks"M R1S A ri+ht1win+ s9in machineH in,.-ence2 /* haters .ike R-sh )im/a-+hH 4.enn >eckH Michae. 0a7a+e an2 Ann $o-.terH en2.ess.* s9ews o-t a toCic rhetoric in which: a.. M-s.ims are 2e,ine2 as Diha2istsI the home.ess are not 7ictims o, mis,ort-ne /-t .aO*I /.acks are not terroriOe2 /* a racist crimina. D-stice s*stemH /-t the main architects o, a c-.t-re o, crimina.it*I the e9i2emic o, o/esit* has nothin+ to 2o with cor9orationsH /i+ a+ric-.t-re an2 a27ertisers se..in+ D-nk ,oo2H /-t rather the res-.t o, M/i+M +o7ernment +i7in+ 9eo9.e ,oo2 stam9sI the 9-/.ic s9here is .ar+e.* ,or white 9eo9.eH which is /ein+ threatene2 /* immi+rants an2 9eo9.e o, co.orH an2 so it +oes" 4.enn >eckH the a..e+e2 7oice o, the common manH a99earin+ on the MFoC P Frien2sM mornin+ showH ca..s ?resi2ent O/ama a MracistM an2 then acc-ses him o,

)im/a-+h -na9o.o+etica..* states that James Ear.* Ra*H the con,esse2 ki..er o, Martin )-ther Kin+ Jr"H sho-.2 /e +i7en a 9osth-mo-s Me2a. o, =onorH R&S whi.e his co-nter9art in ri+ht1win+ hateH ta.k
Mha7in+ a 2ee91seate2 hatre2 ,or white 9eo9.e or the white c-.t-re"M R2S Nationa..* s*n2icate2 ra2io host R-sh ra2io host Michae. 0a7a+eH states on his showH MEo- knowH when I see a woman wa.kin+ aro-n2 with a /-rKaH I see a NaOi" ThatLs what I see 1 how 2o *o- .ike thatT 1 a hate,-. NaOi who wo-.2 .ike to c-t *o-r throat an2 ki.. *o-r chi.2ren"M R'S =e a.so c.aims that O/ama is Ms-rro-n2e2 /* terroristsM an2 is Mra9in+ America"M This is a 7ariation o, a cr-2e theme esta/.ishe2 /* Ann $o-.terH who re,ers to >i.. $.inton as a M7er* +oo2 ra9ist"M R@S E7en worseH O/ama is a Mneo1MarCist ,ascist 2ictator in the makin+HM who 9.ans to M,orce chi.2ren into a 9arami.itar* 2omestic arm*"M R!S An2 this is D-st a sma.. sam9.in+ o, the kin2 o, hate ta.k that 9ermeates ri+ht1win+ me2ia" This co-.2 /e 2ismisse2 as .oon* ri+ht1win+ 9o.itica. theater i, it were not ,or the .ow .e7e.s o, ci7ic .iterac* 2is9.a*e2 /* so man* Americans who choose to /e.ie7e an2 in7est in this t*9e o, hate ta.k" R3S On the contrar*H whi.e it ma* /e i2ioc*H it re7ea.s a 9ower,-. set o, 9o.itica.H economic an2 e2-cationa. ,orces at work in mise2-catin+ the American 9-/.ic whi.e at the same time eCten2in+ the c-.t-re o, cr-e.t*" One centra. task o, an* 7ia/.e ,orm o, 9o.itics is to ana.*Oe the c-.t-re o, cr-e.t* an2 its o7ert an2 co7ert 2imensions o, 7io.enceH o,ten 9ara2in+ as entertainment" An2er.*in+ the c-.t-re o, cr-e.t* that reache2 its a9o+ee 2-rin+ the >-sh a2ministrationH was the .e+a.iOation o, state 7io.enceH s-ch that h-man

i a %e(a% '$%t$re e!er(e& that !a&e "io%en'e an& h$!an #$ erin( #o'ia%%- a''epta)%e6 pop$%ar '$%t$re ren&ere& #$'h "io%en'e p%ea#$ra)%e )- 'o!!o&i -in(6 ae#theti'i9in( an& #pe'ta'$%ari9in( it" Rather than /ein+ -ns9oken an2 -nseenH 7io.ence in American .i,e ha2 /ecome /oth 7isi/.e in its 9er7asi7eness an2 norma.iOe2 as a centra. ,eat-re o, 2ominant an2 9o9-.ar c-.t-re" Americans ha2 +rown acc-stome2 to .-C-riatin+ in a warm /ath o, cinematic /.oo2H as *o-n+ 9eo9.e an2 a2-.ts a.ike were se2-ce2 with commercia. an2 mi.itar* 7i2eo +ames s-ch as M4ran2 The,t A-toM an2 MAmericaLs Arm*HM R5S the te.e7ision series M2'M an2 its on+oin+ >acchana.ian ,\te o, tort-reH the cr-2e 7io.ence on 2is9.a* in Wor.2 Wrest.in+ Entertainment an2 A.timate Fi+htin+ $ham9ionshi9H an2 an en2.ess series o, 7i+i.ante ,i.ms s-ch as MThe >ra7e OneM ;2003< an2 MDeath 0entenceM ;2003<H in which the r-.e o, .aw is s-s9en2e2 /* the 7iscera..* satis,*in+ ima+es o, men an2 women seekin+ re7en+e as .a-2a/.e ki..in+ machines 1 a no2 to the 9ermanent state o, emer+enc* an2 war in the Anite2 0tates" 0*m9tomatica..*H there is the min2.ess +.ori,ication an2 aestheticiOation o, /r-ta. 7io.ence in the most ce.e/rate2 =o..*woo2 ,i.msH inc.-2in+ man* o, Z-entin TarantinoLs ,i.msH es9ecia..* the recent MDeath ?roo,M ;2003<H MKi.. >i..M 1 P 2 ;200&H 200'<H an2 MIn+.orio-s >astar2sM ;2006<" With the re.ease o, TarantinoLs 2006 /.oo2* war ,i.mH in ,actH the 9ress re9orte2 that Dianne Kr-+erH the co1star o, MIn+.orio-s >astar2sHM c.aime2 that she M.o7e2 /ein+ tort-re2 /* >ra2 ?itt Rtho-+hS she was ,r-strate2 she 2i2nLt +et an o99ort-nit* to +et ,risk* with her co1starH /-t a2mits /ein+ /eaten /* ?itt was a satis,*in+ eC9erience"M R6S This is more than the aestheticiOation o, 7io.enceH it is the norma.iOation an2 +.ori,ication o, tort-re itse.," I, =o..*woo2 has ma2e +rat-ito-s 7io.ence the main sta9.e o, its en2.ess 9ara2e o, /.ock/-ster ,i.msH te.e7ision has ta99e2 into the c-.t-re o, cr-e.t* in a wa* that was -nima+ina/.e /e,ore the attack on the A0 on 0e9tem/er 11" ?rime1time te.e7ision /e,ore the attacks ha2 M,ewer than ,o-r acts o, tort-reM 9er *earH /-t Mnow there are more than a h-n2re2"M R10S Moreo7erH the 9eo9.e who tort-re are no .on+er the 7i..ainsH /-t the heroes o, 9rime1time te.e7ision" The most ce.e/rate2 isH o, co-rseH Jack >a-erH the tra+ic1ethica. hero o, the
s-,,erin+ was now sanctione2 /* the .awH which no .on+er ser7e2 as a s-mmons to D-stice" >-t wi.2.* 9o9-.ar FoC T% thri..er M2'"M Not on.* is tort-re the main threa2 o, the 9.otH o,ten 9resente2 Mwith +-sto an2 no mora. com9-nctionHM R11S /-t >a-er is 9ortra*e2 as a 9atriotH rather than a 2e9ra7e2 monsterH who tort-res in or2er to 9rotect American .i7es an2 nationa. sec-rit*" Tort-reH in this scenarioH takes societ*Ls -.timate /etra*a. o, h-man 2i+nit* an2 .e+itimates the 9ain an2 ,ear it 9ro2-ces as norma.H a.. the whi.e makin+ a Mmora. sa2istM a te.e7ision ce.e/rit*" R12S The show has o7er 1@ mi..ion 7iewersH an2 its +.amoriOation o, tort-re has 9ro7en so s-ccess,-. that it a99ears to ha7e not on.* n-m/e2 the 9-/.icLs reaction to the horrors o, tort-reH /-t it is so o7erwhe.min+.* in,.-entia. amon+ the A0 mi.itar* that the ?enta+on sent >ri+" 4en" ?atrick Finne+an to $a.i,ornia to meet with the

The 9orno+ra9hic +.ori,ication o, +rat-ito-sH sa2istic 7io.ence is a.so on ,-.. 2is9.a* in the 9o9-.ar =>O te.e7ision series MDeCterHM which 9ortra*s a seria. ki..er as a s*m9atheticH e7en .o7a/.eH character" %is-a. s9ectac.es stee9e2 in 2e+ra2ation an2 7io.ence 9ermeate the c-.t-re an2 can /e ,o-n2 in 7ario-s rea.it* T% showsH 9ro,essiona. wrest.in+ an2 the in,amo-s Jerr* 09rin+er 0how" These 9ro+rams a.. tra2e in ,antas*H +.amoriOe2 7io.ence an2 esca9ism" An2 the* share simi.ar 7a.-es" As $hris =e2+es 9oints o-t in his ana.*sis o, 9ro,essiona. wrest.in+H the* a.. mirror the worse 2imensions o, an -nchecke2 an2 -nre+-.ate2 market societ* in which Mwinnin+ is a.. that matters" Mora.it* is irre.e7ant"""" It is a.. a/o-t 9ersona. 9ainH 7en2ettasH he2onism an2 ,antasies o, re7en+eH whi.e in,.ictin+ 9ain on others" It is the c-.t o, 7ictimhoo2"M R1'S
9ro2-cers o, the show" M=e to.2 them that 9romotin+ i..e+a. /eha7ior in the series """ was ha7in+ a 2ama+in+ e,,ect on *o-n+ troo9s"M R1&S

ENDI 2010 Framework

3@

A2J <1ECTATOR 1,ENOMENON KVIO@ENCE*

No i!pa't. De#en#iti9ation &oe#n.t 'a$#e "io%en'e. Fe%#on ./6 ;Richar2H ?ro," 0oc" 0ANE A./an*H Ann-a. Re7iew o, 0ocio.o+*H FMass Me2ia E,,ects on %io.ent >eha7iorGH 22;1<H 2oi:10"11'!8ann-re7"soc"22"1"10&< Three1*ear .on+it-2ina. st-2ies o, 9rimar* schoo. chi.2ren were .ater carrie2 o-t in ,i7e co-ntries: A-stra.iaH Israe.H ?o.an2H Fin.an2H an2 the Anite2 0tates ;=-esmann P Eron 165!<" A++ression was meas-re2 /* the same 9eer nomination meas-re as the one -se2 in the ear.ier research" The chi.2ren were aske2 to name one or two o, their ,a7orite 9ro+rams an2 to in2icate how o,ten the* watche2 them" $om9.eC an2 inconsistent res-.ts were o/taine2" In the Anite2 0tatesH te.e7ision 7io.ence ha2 a si+ni,icant e,,ect on the .ater a++ressi7eness o, ,ema.es /-t not ma.esH a re7ersa. o, the e,,ect ,o-n2 in their ,irst st-2* ;=-esmann P Eron 165!<" An e,,ect o, the 7io.ence o, ,a7orite 9ro+rams on .ater a++ression was ,o-n2 on.* ,or /o*s who rate2 themse.7es as simi.ar to 7io.ent an2 non7io.ent te.e7ision characters" A simi.ar con2itiona. e,,ect was ,o-n2 ,or ma.es in Fin.an2H /-t there was no e,,ect o, 7iewin+ te.e7ision 7io.ence on .ater a++ressi7eness o, ,ema.es ;)a+ers9etO P %iemero 165!<" In ?o.an2 a 2irect e,,ect o, 7io.ence in ,a7orite 9ro+rams was ,o-n2 on .ater a++ressi7eness ,or /oth ma.es an2 ,ema.es ;FracOek 165!<" No e,,ect o, ear.* 7iewin+ o, te.e7ision 7io.ence was ,o-n2 on s-/seK-ent a++ressi7eness ,or either ma.es or ,ema.es in A-stra.ia ;0heehan 165!<H or amon+ chi.2ren .i7in+ in a Ki//-tO in Israe. ;>achrach 165!<" A te.e7ision e,,ect was ,o-n2 ,or cit* chi.2ren in Israe. when the meas-re o, a++ression was a sin+.e item askin+ Fwho ne7er ,i+hts"G >-t the e,,ect 2i2 not occ-r on the same 9eer nomination meas-re that ha2 /een -se2 in the other cross1nationa. st-2ies" Ne+ati7e e7i2ence was o/taine2 in a .ar+e1sca.eH metho2o.o+ica..* so9histicate2H .on+it-2ina. st-2* carrie2 o-t /* Mi.a7sk* et a. ;1652<" Their st-2* was /ase2 on 2ata co..ecte2 ,rom &200 st-2ents in e.ementar* an2 D-nior hi+h schoo.s in Fort Worth an2 Minnea9o.is" 0t-2ents i2enti,ie2 the 9ro+rams the* ha2 watche2 in the .ast ,o-r weeks an2 in2icate2 how man* times the* ha2 watche2 themI these were co2e2 ,or 7io.ent content" 5 The a-thors re,ine2 the 9eer nomination meas-re o, a++ression -se2 /* Eron et a. to inc.-2e intentiona. acts o, harm12oin+H /-t not +enera. mis/eha7ior" There was no e7i2ence that an* o, the meas-res o, eC9os-re to te.e7ision 7io.ence 9ro2-ce2 chan+es in a++ressi7e /eha7ior o7er time" The a-thors correcte2 ,or meas-rement error an2 -se2 a 7ariet* o, time .a+sH s-/sam9.esH an2 meas-res o, eC9os-re to te.e7ision 7io.ence an2 a++ressi7e /eha7ior" In s9ite o, a thoro-+h eC9.oration o, the 2ataH the* ,o-n2 no e7i2ence that eC9os-re to 7io.ence on te.e7ision a,,ecte2 the a++ressi7e /eha7ior o, chi.2ren" Whi.e the coe,,icients in most o, the ana.*ses were 9ositi7eH the* were a.. c.ose to Oero an2 statistica..* insi+ni,icant" The a/-n2ance o, 9ositi7e corre.ations .e2 some critics to reDect Mi.a7sk* et a.Ls conc.-sion o, no e,,ect ;e"+" Frie2rich1$o,er P =-ston 165!<" A more recent .on+it-2ina. st-2* in the Nether.an2s a.so ,ai.e2 to ,in2 a me2ia e,,ect ;Wie+man et a. 1662<" The chi.2ren were s-r7e*e2 in either the secon2 or ,o-rth +ra2e an2 then a+ain two *ears .ater" ?eer nominations were -se2 as a meas-re o, a++ressi7e /eha7ior" The .a++e2 e,,ect o, eC9os-re on a++ressi7e /eha7ior was sma.. an2 statistica..* insi+ni,icant"

ENDI 2010 Framework

3!

A2J <1ECTATOR 1,ENOMENON KA+ENCAI<TATE*

Thi# ar($!ent i# a'ia%%- ri&i'$%o$# a* T,E <TATE I< REA@ AND IT MEDIATE< A @OT OF 1O@ICIE< It ha# the !i%itar-6 po%i'e6 7$&i'ia% #-#te! an& re($%ator- )$rea$'ra'-. The#e are a't#6 an& &i#'$##in( #tate po%i'- a# a )a#i# or 'han(e i# a re'o(nition o thi#6 not a '%ai! that e"er-thin( i# ine the 0a- it i#. 1ro"e& )- the a't that e"er- a ir!ati"e e"er 'a%%# or #i(ni i'ant 'han(e#. )* We 'an 0a%5 an& 'he0 ($!. Re'o(ni9in( (o"ern!ent a# a 5e- %o'ation or #o'ia% 'han(e &oe#n.t 'han(e peop%e.# &e#ire to !a5e a &i eren'e per#ona%%-. 1%ent- o &e)ater# (o on to )e'o!e pro=)ono %a0-er# 0hi%e #ti%% 0or5in( to he%p e&$'ate $n&er=pri"i%e(e& 'hi%&ren or 0or5 at a (o"ern!ent a(en'- 0hi%e #ti%% prote#tin( the 0ar in Ira>. Deper#ona%i9e& po%iti'# i# (oo&. Ce&in( a(en'- to the #ate i# ne'e##ar- or 7$#ti'e. <i!!on# .// ;Wi..iam ?a-.H Associate ?ro," ?o." 0ci" an2 Dir" MA ?ro+ram in 0ocia. J-stice an2 =-man Ri+hts A0AH ?hi.oso9h* P 0ocia. $riticismH FThe Thir2: )e7inasQ Theoretica. Mo7e From An1Archica. Ethics to the Rea.m o, J-stice an2 ?o.iticsG 2@:!H 0a+e< At the same timeH ethics nee2s 9o.itics" To reach those others who are ,ar awa*H ethics m-st /e trans,iCe2 into .an+-a+eH D-stice an2 9o.itics" JAs 9rima 9hi.oso9hiaH ethics cannot itse., .e+is.ate ,or societ* or 9ro2-ce r-.es o, con2-ct where/* societ* mi+ht /e re7o.-tioniOe2 or trans,orme2"Q@6 A.tho-+h this -ni7ersa.iOation 2istances the e+o ,rom the OtherH it m-st /e 2one to reach the others" We m-stH o-t o, res9ect ,or the cate+orica. im9erati7e or the otherQs ri+ht as eC9resse2 /* his ,aceH $n= a'e h$!an )ein(#H stern.* re2-cin+ each oneQs -niK-eness to his in2i7i2-a.it* in the -nit* o, the +enreH an2 .et -ni7ersa.it* r-.e" Th-s we nee2 .awsH an2 *es co-rts o, .awH instit-tions an2 the state to ren2er D-stice"!0 F-rtherH 9o.itics is necessar* /eca-se there are those who wi.. re,-se to hee2 the new .awH JTho- sha.. not ki.."Q )e7inas is we.. aware that this comman2ment is not an onto.o+ica. im9ossi/i.it*" Man* wi.. take $ainQs 9osition an2 sh-n the res9onsi/i.it* ,or the Other" Th-sH 9o.itics is necessar* to 9rohi/it m-r2erH in a.. its ,orms" JA 9.ace ha2 to /e ,oreseen an2 ke9t warm ,or a.. eternit* ,or =it.er an2 his ,o..owers"Q!1 >oth ethics an2 9o.itics ha7e their own D-sti,ication" The D-sti,ication ,or ethics is ,o-n2 in the ,ace1to1,ace re.ationshi9 with the Other" The D-sti,ication ,or 9o.itics is to restrain those who ,o..ow $ainQs 9osition an2 i+nore the res9onsi/i.it* ,or the Other" ?o.itics 2oes not s-/s-me ethicsH /-t rather it ser7es ethics" ?o.itics is necessar* /-t it m-st /e contin-a..* checke2 /* ethics" )e7inas ca..s ,or a state that is as ethica. as 9ossi/.eH one which is 9er9et-a..* /ecomin+ more D-st" )e7inas ca..s ,or the .i/era. state"

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33

A2J <1ECTATOR 1,ENOMENON KA+ENCAI<TATE*

Thi# '$%ti"ation o #tate in#tit$te# e#ta)%i#he# ar !ore #i(ni i'ant or!# o a(en'-. We nee& the 0or5 o '$%ti"atin( po%iti'a% in#tit$te# to tr$%- )e ree. De%ho! 2/ ;?asca.H ?hi." A" F.ens/-r+H in F)e7inas in Jer-sa.em: ?henomo.o+*H EthicsH ?o.iticsH AestheticsGH E2" Joe..e =anse.H 9" 5215&< The 0tate is in the ser7ice o, D-stice inso,ar as it is the instance that re9resses the 7io.ence o, h-man /ein+s towar2s other h-man /ein+s" It is hence a 9ractica. answer to the sin+-.ar c.aims o, D-stice" >-t the 0tate answers these c.aims ,irst.* /* -sin+ 7io.ence or /* threatenin+ to -se 7io.enceH an2 secon2.* /* intro2-cin+ the e.ement o, -ni7ersa.it* which is not inc.-2e2 in the sin+-.ar c.aims" The 0tate tries to a7oi2 2iscriminatin+ a+ainst an*one /* treatin+ a.. h-man /ein+s eK-a..*" It 9rono-nces .aws which are eK-a..* 7a.i2 ,or e7er*one" The D-stice o, the 0tate is /ase2 on the -ni7ersa.it* o, its .aws an2 on its 9otentia. -se o, 7io.ence in or2er to en,orce them" These two e.ementsH the -ni7ersa.it* o, .awH which ,or )e7inas is a.wa*s /o-n2 to a certain -ni7ersa. reason that esta/.ishes an2 D-sti,ies itH an2 the 9owerH that isH the 9otentia. or act-a. 7io.ence to en,orce the .awsH these two e.ements are the means /* which the 0tate answers the sin+-.ar c.aims o, D-stice" Thro-+h the -ni7ersa.it* o, its .aws an2 thro-+h its 9ower to en,orce themH the <tate en#$re# a 'ertain pea'e a!on( the peop%e an& #e'$re# or e"er-one ree&o! o e8i#ten'e an& o a'tion6 th$# a%#o the ree&o! to a't 0ith 7$#ti'e to0ar&# other#" )e7inas writes in Tota.it* an2 In,init* : F=ence ree&o! 0o$%& '$t into the rea% on%- )- "irt$e o in#tit$tion#" Free2om is en+ra7e2 on the stone o, the ta/.ets on which .aws are inscri/e2Nit eCists /* 7irt-e o, this incr-station o, an instit- tiona. eCistenceV =-man ,ree2omH eC9ose2 to 7io.ence an2 to 2eathH 2oes not reach its +oa. a.. at onceH with a >er+sonian `.anI it takes re,-+e ,rom its own 9er,i2* in instit-tions"G11 As $atherine $ha.ier s-++estsH Fin0ar& ree&o! i# not #$ i'ient6 )e'a$#e #$ erin(6 h$n(er an& thir#t 'an >$en'h it# %a!e6 e"en in the #tron(e#t per#onRG.12 An2 she K-otes )e7inas in Tota.it* an2 In,init* : FA9o.itica. ,ree2om is to /e eC9.aine2 as an i..-sion 2-e to the ,act that its 9artisans or its /ene,iciaries /e.on+ to an a27ance2 sta+e o, 9o.itica. e7o.-tion"G1& Thi# a ir!ation o the i!po##i)i%it- o ree&o! o$t#i&e o a po%iti'a% in#tit$tion !$#t not on%- to )e $n&er#too& 0ithin the ra!e o a po%iti'a% phi%o#oph-. It i# the 'on'rete e8perien'e o !i%%ion# o peop%e %i"in( $n&er tota%itarian re(i!e#6 e8'%$&e& ro! po%iti'a% %i e an& ro! the prote'tion o the#e re(i!e#" It is in 9artic-.ar the eC9erience o, the Jews an2 o, a.. the 9ersec-te2 9eo9.e 2-rin+ the Thir2 Reich" $atherine $ha.ier K-otes in this re+ar2 a 9assa+e ,rom )e7inasQ teCt F0ans nomG: FWho can eC9ress the so.it-2e o, those who tho-+ht that the* wo-.2 2ie at the same time as J-sticeH at a time when the 7aci..atin+ D-2+ements on +oo2 an2 e7i. on.* ,o-n2 a criterion in the hi22en recesses o, s-/Decti7e conscio-snessH when no si+n came ,rom o-tsi2eTG1' The 0tateH with its -ni7ersa. .aws an2 its ca9acit* to en,orce themH is necessar* ,or h-man ,ree2om an2 ,or D-stice" =enceH in a Ta.m-2ic .ect-re entit.e2 F)es nations et .a 9r`sence 2QIsrae.G1@ as we.. as in the teCt I ha7e a.rea2* K-ote2H FThe 0tate o, $aesar an2 the 0tate o, Da7i2GH )e7inas mentions a commentar* on 4enesis IH &1: F4o2 saw e7er*thin+ that he ha2 ma2eH an2 /eho.2H it was 7er* +oo2"G For the ra//inica. 2octorsH this F7er* +oo2G wo-.2 mean RomeH F/eca-se the r-.e o, the Romans asserts the )aw an2 the ri+hts o, 9ersons"G1!

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A2J ,ICK< AND +REENE KAMERICAN E?CE1TIONA@I<M*

Thi# ar($!ent !a5e# a )$n'h o #i%%- %eap# a* @i)era% e8'eptiona%i#! &oe#n.t e>$ate 0ith "io%ent A!eri'an he(e!on-. De)ate !a- pro!ote a '$%t$ra% !o&e% o %i)era%i#! )e'a$#e it &i"or'e# per#ona% 'on"i'tion ro! p$)%i' #pa'e )$t that.# not the #a!e a# &e en&in( e"er- "io%ent a'tion &one in the na!e o %i)era%i#!. 1ro"e& )- the a't that !o#t &e)ater# are FAR to the %e t o the a"era(e A!eri'an. Man- prote#te& the Ira> 0ar6 !o#t oppo#e ree=!ar5et 'apita%i#!. )* It a##$!e# &e)ate p%a-# the &o!inant ro%e in thi# ra!e0or5. In a't none o the po#t=/=11 rhetori' a)o$t &e!o'ra'- ha& !$'h to &o 0ith open &e)ate or the pro'e## o &e%i)eration an& #0it'h=#i&e#6 )$t e"er-thin( to &o 0ith 'o!petiti"e e%e'tion# an& re%i(io$# ree&o!. At 0or#t6 thi# &e!on#trate# !a##i"e a%t 'a$#e# or the i&eo%o(- o e8'eptiona%i#!. T$rn i&eo%o(i'a% thin5in( i# anti=po%iti'a% )e'a$#e it atte!pt# to era&i'ate &i eren'e. 1o%iti'# i# %i!ite& an& pre#er"e# a #pa'e or 1RIVATE 'on"i'tion# an& 1RIVATE a e'tation#. A%%o0in( per#ona% 'on"i'tion to enter the po%iti'a% rea%! i# tota%itarian. Ko-9i# 2; ;Da7i2 Theo2oreH ?ro," ?o." 0ci" Re2eemer A" $o..e+eH F?o.itica. 7isions an2 i..-sionsGH 9" 20121H 4oo+.e >ooks< >-t wh* ascri/e to i2eo.o+* a /asica..* conser7ati7e ro.e" Wh* 2i,,erentiate /etween i2eo.o+* an2 -to9iaT $annot erroneo-s wa*s o, thinkin+ a.so /e ca..e2 into the ser7ice o, new socia. an2 9o.itica. 9roDectsT =annah Aren2t ;160!1163@<H >ernar2 $rick ;16261< an2 %ac.a7 =a7e. ;16&!1< c.ear.* /e.ie7e the* can" Accor2in+ to Aren2tH whene7er a 9-re.* rationa. constr-ctH concei7e2 within the rea.m o, tho-+htH is im9ose2 on a comm-nit*H it threaten# to p$t an en& to that a'tion an& #pee'h 'ontrar- to 'on#tit$te an& !aintain the ree po%iti'a% rea%!" I2eo.o+ies attem9t to o,,er a tota. eC9.anation ,or the wor.2 an2 its histor* an2 th-s Ma.. i2eo.o+ies contain tota.itarian e.ements"M The* rea2 the who.e o, rea.it* thro-+h a sin+.e i2ea an2 2en* the 9ossi/i.it* that an* +en-ine know.e2+e can /e attaine2 thro-+h eC9erience a9art ,rom that i2ea" In contem9orar* 9ar.anceH the- e8e!pt the!#e%"e# ro! a Lrea%it- 'he'5.L It i# a #hort #tep ro! i&eo%o(- to tota%itariani#!H which not on.* inter9rets the wor.2 thro-+h a sin+.e i2ea /-t a.so attem9ts to mo.2 it in accor2ance with its ineCora/.e .o+ic" =ence i2eo.o+ies s-ch as NaOism an2 comm-nism ha7e ca-se2 m-ch s-,,erin+ in their attem9t to contro. the s-99ose2.* a-tonomo-s historica. ,orces the* ha7e ostensi/.* re7ea.e2" Fo..owin+ Aren2tH $rick too /e.ie7es that i2eo.o+* threatens the contin-e2 eCistence o, 9o.itics in his s9eci,ic sense" =ere i2eo.o+* is once a+ain a ,orce ,or chan+eH /-t the chan+e it e,,ects is the eCtinction o, .e+itimate socia. 2i7ersit* an2 o, the on+oin+ conci.iator* 9rocess ,.owin+ o-t o, it" I2eo.o+ica. thinkin+ Mis an eC9.icit an2 2irect cha..en+e to 9o.itica. thinkin+"M For $rickH as ,or Aren2tH i2eo.o+* is connecte2 with tota.itarianism" The .atter is anti9o.itica. /eca-se it attem9ts to e.iminate 2i,,erent interests an2 to mo.2 the 9eo9.e in accor2ance with a sin+.e i2ea" It tries to sim9.i,* the com9.eCit* o, societ* into a mono.ithic 7isionH o,ten o, a -to9ian character" 1o%iti'# i# %i!ite&H whi.e tota.itarianism is not" 1o%iti'# i# 'ontent to !a5e &o 0ith the e8i#tin( #tate o #o'iet- an& to 'on'i%iate 0hate"er intere#t# are '$rrent%- there " I2eo.o+* attem9ts to remakeH not on.* +o7ernmentH /-t Me2-cationH in2-str*H artH e7en 2omesticit* an2 9ri7ate a,,ections"M A.. o, these are acco-nta/.e to this a..1 em/racin+ i2eo.o+*H whichH in ha7in+ to 9o.iticiOe societ*H en2s -9 2estro*in+ 9o.itics a.to+ether" For =a7e.H i2eo.o+* threatens not on.* 9o.itics /-t a.so the or2inar* aims o, .i,e itse.,H as it contin-a..* 2i2 in his nati7e $Oechos.o7akia ,rom 16'5 -nti. the co..a9se o, the comm-nist re+ime in No7em/er 1656" MI2eo.o+* is a s9ecio-s wa* o, re.atin+ to the wor.2"M1@ In what he .a/e.s the M9ost1tota.itarianM societies o, the ,ormer 0o7iet /.ocH i2eo.o+* c.aims to o,,er the 9eo9.e a sense o, i2entit* an2 2i+nit* whi.e in rea.it* stri99in+ them o, this" MIt is a wor.2 o, a99earances tr*in+ to 9ass ,or rea.it*"M It constr-cts a wor.2 which assimi.ates a.. 9eo9.e into a se.,1containe2 a.ternati7e 9se-2o1rea.it* in which s.a7er* 9asses ,or .i/ert*H censorshi9 ,or ,ree eC9ressionH /-rea-crac* ,or 2emocrac*H an2 ar/itrar* 9ower ,or .e+a. a-thorit*" An2er s-ch a re+ime 9eo9.e are com9e..e2 to M.i7e within a .ieM in which the* are ma2e to 2en* the rea. aims o, .i,eH with a.. its h-manit* an2 -n9re2icta/i.it*" In =a7e. we ,in2 i2eo.o+* rea.iOin+ its 2arkest 9otentia."

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A2J ,ICK< AND +REENE KAMERICAN E?CE1TIONA@I<M*

A%t 'a$#e# to e8'eptiona%i#!. An& the e&$'ationa% )ene it# o #0it'h=#i&e &e)ate #o%"e the ter!ina% i!pa't. ,arri(an 2D ;$ase*H Associate Director o, De/ate at A4AH MasterQs in $omm-nications Wake Forest A"H FA De,ense o, 0witch 0i2e De/ateGH MasterQs thesis at Wake ForestH De9artment o, $omm-nicationH Ma*<
The ar+-ments a27ance2 /* Masse* an2 other 7oca. critics o, switch si2e 2e/atin+ are s-sce9ti/.e to se7era. other 9ers-asi7e res9onses" FirstH as ha7e /een 9re7io-s.* ar+-e2 /* 0tannar2 ;200!<H man* o, the 9rocesses that ha7e contri/-te2 to American eCce9tiona.ismN

+.o/a.iOationH in,i.tration o, aca2emic instit-tions /* a+ents o, im9eria.ismH etc"Nare on1+oin+H ine7ita/.eH an2 in2e9en2ent o, the instit-tion o, com9etiti7e 2e/ate" As A.an $o7erstone has note2H the 2isen+a+ement o, the 9-/.ic ,rom 9o.itica. 9artici9ation an2 a2o9tion
o, a 9-re Fs9ectator menta.it*G has now /ecome the F9re2ominant mo2eG o, 9o.itics ;200@H 9" @<" An* citiOen who /een attenti7e to 9o.itica. 2e7e.o9ments o7er the 9ast ei+ht *ears can te.. that American 9o.itics has /een o7ertaken /* an a2ministration /ent on 9-rs-in+ i..i/era. 9o.icies whi.e wra99in+ themse.7es in the c.othin+ o, .i/era.ism" 4i7en the now a.most a..1cons-min+ eCce9tiona.ist mantraH 2e/ate is one o, the .ast arenas that rewar2 anti1instit-tiona. thinkin+ an2 o99ositiona. rhetoric ;0tannar2 200!<" It is a tremen2o-s FstretchG to attri/-te the ca-sa. so-rce o, eCce9tiona.ism to 2e/ate ;)ac* 200!<" De/ate isnQt %ietnam" Nothin+ in the acti7it* makes st-2ents 9artici9ate" Once in7o.7e2H there are no tho-+ht19o.ice who contro. the content o, st-2entsQ s9eeches" Those who ar+-e otherwise show a 9ro,o-n2 .ack o, res9ect ,or the ma+nit-2e o, 7io.ence that their com9arisons 2raw .ikeness to" Instea2H the eCact o99osite seems tr-er: a maDor an2 en2emic 9ro/.emH that contri/-tes to American eCce9tiona.ismH is the .ack o, 2e/ate at a.. .e7e.s o, societ*" 0tannar2 a+reesH warnin+: DonQt throw the /a/* o-t with the /athwater" Instea2H seek to eC9an2 this metho2 o, 2e.i/eration to those who wi.. -se it to .i/erate themse.7esH con,ront 9owerH an2 create ethica.H non7io.ent 9atterns o, 9ro/.em reso.-tion" I, ca9ita.ism corr-9ts 2e/ateH we..H then I sa* we sa7e 2e/ate" ;200!< The 9ro9er task o, critics is not to retreat into s9eakin+ on.* ,rom con7iction" It is to stri7e to eC9an2 00D to new a7en-e an2 to make i2eas that were once consi2ere2 2o+ma contesta/.e" The 7er* nat-re o, the a99roach acts as a co-nter1wei+ht to im9eria.ism an2 F,osterRsS resistance to 2ominationG ;0tannar2 200!<"

<0it'h=#i&e i# the )e#t treat!ent to e8'eptiona%i#!. It a%%o0# to%eran'e6 p%a'e# %o(i' o"er e!otion#6 an& (i"e# po%iti'a% #pa'e to i(ht nor!#. ,arri(an 2D ;$ase*H Associate Director o, De/ate at A4AH MasterQs in $omm-nications Wake Forest A"H FA De,ense o, 0witch 0i2e De/ateGH MasterQs thesis at Wake ForestH De9artment o, $omm-nicationH Ma*< 0econ2H switch si2e 2e/ateQs em9hasis on to.erance an2 em9ath*H which ha7e /een note2 /* man* a-thors ;0an2ers 1652I M-ir 166&I >e..on 2000I )ac* 2002<H ma* in2ee2 /* one o, the stron+est Fanti2otesG to the 2isease o, eCce9tiona.ism ;Mitche.. P 0-O-ki 200'H 9" 3<" De/ate com/ines a commitment to reason an2 .o+ic o7er emoti7e an2 9o.itica. a99ea.sH a 9riorit* 9.ace2 -9on K-a.it* researchH an2 7i+oro-s norms o, o9enness an2 9.-ra.it* to create a ,or-m where -nwarrante2 an2 ina99ro9riate ,orms o, eCce9tiona.ism cannot s-r7i7e" En+.ish et a." ha7e re,erre2 to this 2e.i/erati7e attit-2e as a F/-.wark a+ainst ,-n2amenta.ism o, a.. stri9esG ;2003H 9" 22'<" 00D teaches that no ar+-ment is Fo,, .imitsHG that iss-es are more com9.eC than /.ack an2 whiteH an2 that re,.ection an2 contem9.ation are 9re,era/.e to rash an2 9reem9ti7e 2ecision1makin+" It is th-s no s-r9riseH as the De/ate A-thors Workin+ 4ro-9 has note2H that man* o, the most 7oca. contem9orar* critics o, the >-sh a2ministrationQs eCce9tiona.ist ;an2 2e/ata/.* im9eria.ist< 9o.iciesH inc.-2in+ .aw*er Nea. Kat*a. an2 .aw 9ro,essor )a-rence Tri/eH recei7e2 a 9ortion o, their trainin+ in the 9e2a+o+ica. /-..19en o, 2e/ate" In 9artic-.arH 00D is an es9ecia..* e,,ecti7e too. to com/at the Fwith -s or a+ainst -sG a/so.-tism o, contem9orar* neoconser7ati7e i2eo.o+*" De/atin+ /oth si2es increases 2e/aterQs a99reciation o, the ar+-ments ma2e /* the o99osition ;En+.ishH ).anoH Mitche..H MorrisonH
Rie, an2 Woo2sH 2003H 9" 222<" O,tentimesH as is ,reK-ent.* the case with com9.eC iss-esH a reasona/.e 9art* ma* conc.-2e that two 9ositionsH which are 9o.ar o99osites ma* each contain an e.ement o, tr-th" It is re7ea.e2 that a com9romise2 9osition is 9re,era/.e to either eCtreme an2 that the 2iscrete Fwith -sG an2 Fa+ainst -sG stances are ar/itrar* an2 inacc-rate cate+oriOations" Fina..*H switch si2e 2e/ate 9rioritiOes 2e.i/erati7eH rather than maDoritarianH 2emocrac* ;)ac* 200!<" As ,ar /ack as Da* ;16!!<H there is an em9hasis on the eC9ression o, minorit* 7iew 9oints"

De/atin+ /oth si2es a..ows 2e/aters the inte..ect-a. ,.eCi/i.it* ;thro-+h -n1attachment to their 9ersona. /e.ie,s< to eC9ress 2issent an2 critiK-e e7en the most ,irm.* esta/.ishe2 9o.icies an2 norms" This ens-res a 7i/rant acti7ist in,.-ence in 2e/ate that can
9ro7i2e at .east a mo2est check a+ainst the most eCtreme +o7ernmenta. a/-ses"

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A2J ,ICK< AND +REENE KAMERICAN E?CE1TIONA@I<M*

Kna"er- i# part o the (a!e. To %i"e ethi'a%%- 0e #ho$%& )e 0i%%in( to a)an&on o$r 'on"i'tion# at the &rop o a hat. I -o$ &on.t %i5e it6 &on.t &e)ate. C$rti# .E1 ;$har.esH )")">" =ar7ar2 A"H 0tan,or2 )aw Re7iewH FThe Ethics o, A27ocac*GH ';1<H Decem/erH 9" 1612&H J0TOR< E" R" >e7anH in his 0toics an2 0ce9ticsH s-mmariOe2 the 0toic ,aith as ,o..ows: FThe Wise Man was not to concern himse., with his /rethren" " " he was on.* to ser7e them" >ene7o.ence he was to ha7eH as m-ch o, it as *o- can concei7eI /-t there was one thin+ he m-st not ha7eH an2 that was .o7eV" =e m-st 2o e7er*thin+ which it is 9ossi/.e ,or him to 2oH shrink ,rom no eCtreme o, 9h*sica. 9ainH in or2er to he.9H to com,ortH to +-i2e his ,e..ow menH /-t whether he s-ccee2s or not m-st /e a matter o, 9-re in2i,,erence to him" I, he has 2one his /est to he.9 *o- an2 ,ai.e2H he wi.. /e 9er,ect.* satis,ie2 with ha7in+ 2one his /est" The ,act that *o- are no /etter o, ,or his eCertions wi.. not matter to him at a.." ?it*H in the sense o, a 9aint,-. emotion ca-se2 /* the si+ht o, other menQs s-,,erin+H is act-a..* a 7ice V" In the ser7ice o, his ,e..ow men he m-st /e 9re9are2 to sacri,ice his .i,eI /-t there is
one thin+ he m-st ne7er sacri,ice: his own eterna. ca.m"G >-t .et the +reatest mo2ern 0toic o, them a..H /eca-se he o-t+rew itH te.. -s a/o-t himse.," FI ha7e /een a/.eHG Montai+ne sai2H Fto concern m*se., with 9-/.ic a,,airs witho-t mo7in+ the .en+th o, m* nai. ,rom m*se.,H an2 +i7e m*se., to others witho-t takin+ an*thin+ ,rom m*se.,V" We carr* i.. what 9ossesses an2 carries -s" An*one who -ses on.* his own D-2+ment an2 a22ress 9rocee2s more +ai.*" =e ,eintsH he 2-cksH he co-nters at his easeH an2 accor2in+ to the nee2s o, the occasion" When he missesH it is witho-t tormentH witho-t a,,.ictionH rea2* an2 who.e ,or a new enter9rise" The /ri2.e is in his han2"G An2 ,-rther onH FThe ma*or an2 Montai+ne ha7e a.wa*s /een two 9eo9.eH c.ear.* se9arate2" ThereQs no reason wh* a .aw*er or a /anker sho-.2 not

An honest man is not res9onsi/.e ,or the 7ices or the st-9i2it* o, his ca..in+H an2 nee2 not re,-se to 9ractise them" The* are c-stoms in his co-ntr* an2 there is 9ro,it in them" A man m-st .i7e in the wor.2 an2 a7ai. himse., o, what he ,in2s there"G23 The stoics +a7e -s a co-nse. o, 9er,ectionH /-t it is none the .ess 7a.i2" I, a .aw*er is to /e the /est .aw*er he is ca9a/.e o, /ein+H an2 2ischar+e his
reco+niOe the kna7er* that is 9art o, his 7ocation" Fentire 2-t*G to his c.ientsH here in the 0toic sa+e is his eCem9.ar" =ere in 0toicism is his 9hi.oso9h*" )et him /e a $hristian i, he chooses o-tsi2e the 9ractice o, the .awH /-t in his re.ations with his c.ientsH .et him /e a 0toicH ,or the /etter 0toicH the /etter .aw*er" A .aw*er sho-.2 treat his cases .ike a 7i7i2 no7e.H an2 i2enti,* himse., with his c.ients as he 2oes with the hero or heroine in the 9.ot" Then he wi.. work with the FOest that most 9eo9.e ,ee. -n2er their concern when the* assist at eCistin+ emer+enciesH not act-a..* their ownI or Doin in ,acin+ crises that are +ra7eH /-t ,or some/o2* e.se"G I canQt 9-t it more neat.* than $oOOens"25 I can on.* a22 that this Oest ma* 2ee9en into a 9ec-.iar an2 a.most s9irit-a. satis,action as wi2e as it is 2ee9" =e wi.. /e takin+ T"0" E.iotQs a27ice to rea2ers o, Dante" FEo- are not ca..e2 -9on to /e.ie7e what Dante /e.ie7e2H ,or *o-r /e.ie, wi.. not +i7e *o- a +roatQs worth more o, -n2erstan2in+ an2 a99reciationI /-t *o- are ca..e2 -9on more an2 more to -n2erstan2 it" I, *o- rea2 9oetr* as 9oetr*H *o- wi.. J/e.ie7eQ in DanteQs theo.o+* eCact.* as *o- /e.ie7e in the 9h*sica. rea.it* o, his Do-rne*I that isH *o- s-s9en2 /oth /e.ie, an2 2is/e.ie,V" What is necessar* to a99reciate the 9oetr*

There are two wa*s o, 2oin+ itH two 2e7icesH an2 a.. .aw*ersH a.most a..H are ,ami.iar with one or the other o, them" One wa* is to treat the who.e thin+ as a +ame" I am not ta.kin+ a/o-t the s9ortin+ theor* o, D-stice" I am ta.kin+ a/o-t a .aw*erQs 9ersona. re.ations with his c.ient an2 the necessit* o, 2etachin+ himse., ,rom his c.ient" Ne7er /.ame a .aw*er ,or treatin+ .iti+ation as a +ameH howe7er m-ch *o- ma* /.ame the D-2+e" The .aw*er is 2etachin+ himse.," A man who has 2e7ote2 his .i,e to takin+ on other 9eo9.eQs tro-/.esH wo-.2 /e swam9e2 /* them i, he were to a2o9t them as his own" =e m-st sta* on the -9.an2 o, his own 9ersona.it*H not on.* to 9rotect himse.,H /-t to +i7e his c.ient the 7er* thin+ that his c.ient came ,orH as >ran2eis an2 Fish an2 $ra7ath an2 Montai+ne so we.. -n2erstoo2" I m-st re,er a+ain to the 0toics" In 4i./ert M-rra*Qs sma.. /ookH The 0toic ?hi.oso9h*H he sa*sH F @i e )e'o!e#H as the 0toics more than once te.. -sH %i5e a p%a- 0hi'h i# a'te& or a (a!e p%a-e& 0ith 'o$nter#" %iewe2 ,rom o-tsi2eH the co-nters are 7a.-e.essI /-t to those en+a+e2 in the +ame their im9ortance is 9aramo-nt" What rea..* an2 -.timate.* matters is that the +ame sha.. /e 9.a*e2 as it sho-.2 /e 9.a*e2" 4o2H the eterna. 2ramatistH has cast *o- ,or some 9art in =is 2ramaH an2 han2s *o- the ro.e" It ma* t-rn o-t that *o- are cast ,or a tri-m9hant kin+I it ma* /e ,or a s.a7e who 2ies o, tort-re" What 2oes that matter to the +oo2 actorT =e can 9.a* either 9artI his on.* /-siness is to acce9t the ro.e +i7en himH an2 to 9er,orm it se.." 0imi.ar.*H .i,e is a +ame o, co-nters" Eo-r /-siness it to 9.a* it in the ri+ht wa*" =e who set the /oar2 ma* ha7e +i7en *o- man* co-ntersI he ma* ha7e +i7en *o- ,ew" =e ma* ha7e arran+e2 thatH at a 9artic-.ar 9oint in the +ameH most o, *o-r men sha.. /e swe9t acci2enta..* o,, the /oar2" Eo- wi.. .ose the +ameI /-t wh* sho-.2 *o- min2 thatT It is *o-r 9.a* that mattersH not the score that *o- ha99en to make" =e is not a ,oo. to D-2+e *o- /* *o-r mere s-ccess or ,ai.-re" 0-ccess or ,ai.-re is a thin+ he can 2etermine witho-t stirrin+ a han2" It har2.* interests =im" What interests =im is the one thin+ which =e cannot 2etermine the action o, *o-r ,ree an2 conscio-s wi.."G&0 >-t this is not a 0toic mono9o.*" FI want *o- to -n2erstan2HG Eeats wroteH Fthat once one makes a thin+ s-/Dect to reasonH as 2istin+-ishe2 ,rom im9-.seH one 9.a*s with itH e7en i, it is a 7er* serio-s thin+" I am more ashame2 /eca-se o, the thin+s I ha7e 9.a*e2 with in .i,e than o, an* other thin+"G&1 Eeats was no 0toicH as his shame shows" The other wa* is a sense o, cra,tsmanshi9" ?erha9s it
o, the ?-r+atorio is not /e.ie,H /-t s-s9ension o, /e.ie,"G26 =ow is a .aw*er to sec-re this 2etachmentT comes to the same thin+H /-t I think not K-ite" There is a satis,action in 9.a*in+ a +ame the /est *o- canH as there is in 2oin+ an*thin+ e.se as we.. as *o- canH which is K-ite 2istinct ,rom makin+ a +oo2 score" FWho can 9-t .i,e intoVTG )et -s not /raw.N>-tNNo Do* in cra,ts1+oa. we.. wonT No 9.eas-re in 9itchin+ a neat.* c-r7e2 /a..T No ,-n in the ,act that +oo2 2oin+ is ,-nH That racesH in 9artH are D-st there to /e r-nTG&2 A .aw*er ma* ha7e to treat the 9ractice o, .aw as i, it were a +ameH /-t i, he can re.* on cra,tsmanshi9H it ma* /ecome an artH an2 FArtH /ein+ /arten2erH is ne7er 2r-nkI an2 Ma+ic that /e.ie7es itse.,H m-st 2ie"G&& FWho swee9s a room as ,or Th* .awsH Makes that an2 thQ action ,ine"G&' I won2er i, there is an*thin+ more eCa.te2 than the intense 9.eas-re o, 2oin+ a Do/ as we.. as *o- can irres9ecti7e o, its -se,-.ness or e7en its 9-r9ose" At .east itQs a com,ort" I ha7e com9are2 the .aw*er to the /anker who han2.es other 9eo9.eQs mone* an2 to the 9riest who han2.es other 9eo9.eQs s9irit-a. as9irations" )et me +o ,-rther" $om9are the .aw*er with the 9oet whose s9eech +oes to the heart o, thin+s" FEet he is that one es9ecia..* who s9eaks ci7i..* to Nat-re as a secon2 9erson an2 in some sense is the 9atron o, the wor.2" Tho-+h more than an* he stan2s in the mi2st o, nat-reH *et more than an* he can stan2 a.oo, ,rom her"G&@

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Their "ie0 o ethi'# i# 0ron(. We 'annot #pea5 0ith 'on"i'tion )e'a$#e 0e &on.t ha"e an-. Inte(rit- i# a !-th &e#i(ne& to !a#5 the a't that peop%e rea't #e% i#h%- an& 'ontin(ent%- in e"er- #it$ation. @$)an 2; ;Da7i2H ?ro," )aw an2 ?hi.oso9h* 4eor+etown A" )aw $enterH For2ham )aw Re7iewH FInte+rit* in the ?ractice o, )aw: Inte+rit*: Its $a-ses an2 $-resGH 32 For2ham )" Re7" 236H No7em/erH )8N< The 0tan,or2 ?rison EC9eriment seems to 9ortra* a wor.2 in which the 7er* i2ea o, 9ersona. inte+rit* seems a/sent 1 a 4o,,manesK-e wor.2 where there are no se.7esH on.* se.7es1in1ro.esH se.7es who s.i2e ,riction.ess.* ,rom ro.e to ro.eH in each case con,ormin+ to the eC9ectations o, the ro.e an2 whate7er 9rinci9.es o, ri+ht /eha7ior come attache2 to its scri9t" >ehin2 the maskH another maskI /ehin2 a.. the masksH a 7ac--mI /eneath the 7ac--mH a mask once a+ain" In2ee2H some theorists ha7e 2rawn conc.-sions 7er* c.ose to the c.aim that when it comes to characterH thereLs no there there" John DorisH in his recent /ook )ack o, $haracterH conc.-2es ,rom a care,-. eCamination o, the eC9erimenta. .iterat-re that h-man characterH 2e,ine2 as a ,iCe2 set o, 2is9ositions towar2 certain /eha7iorH is R#26'S .ar+e.* a m*th"n!& 4i./ert =armanH 2rawin+ on the same eC9erimenta. .iterat-reH a+rees" n!' >oth 2raw on an inter9retation o, the eC9eriments I ha7e /een re7iewin+ ca..e2 sit-ationismH 2e,en2e2 most co+ent.* /* )ee Ross an2 Richar2 Nis/ett" n!@ At this 9ointH I want to 2eto-r /rie,.* to 2isc-ss the merits o, sit-ationismH in or2er to 2istin+-ish the ar+-ment I am o,,erin+ ,rom a 7ersion o, sit-ationism that I think is wron+" The thesis o, sit-ationism isH K-ite sim9.*H that 2i,,erences in sit-ations acco-nt ,or m-ch more o, the o/ser7e2 7ariation in h-man /eha7ior than 2o 2i,,erences in 9ersona.it*" O-r ten2enc* to /e.ie7e otherwiseH that isH to ascri/e 9eo9.eLs /eha7ior to their 9ersona.it* or character 1 orH ,or that matterH their 7o.-ntar* choices 1 rather than the sit-ation the* are inH is what sit-ationists criticiOe as the M,-n2amenta. attri/-tion error"Mn!! 0it-ationists 9ointH ,or eCam9.eH to some o, Mi.+ramLs ,in2in+s" n!3 In one 7ariant o, his shock eC9erimentH Mi.+ram 9.ace2 the s-/Dect on a team with another s-/Dect 1 act-a..*H o, co-rseH a con,e2erate o, Mi.+ram" When the con,e2erate -ncom9.ainin+.* o/e*e2 or2ers to contin-e the shocksH 60d o, the s-/Dects went a.on+I /-t when the con,e2erate re,-se2 to a2minister hi+h .e7e. shocks an2 wa.ke2 awa* ,rom the eC9erimentH com9.iance /* s-/Dects 9.-mmete2 to 10d" $.ear.*H it wo-.2 /e im9.a-si/.e to ass-me that the s-/Dect 9o9-.ation in one 7ariant 2i,,ers ra2ica..* in 9ro9ensit* to com9.* ,rom the s-/Dect 9o9-.ation in the other" Instea2H the conc.-sion m-st /e that sit-ationa. 2i,,erences +enerate this 2ramatic swin+ ,rom near1 -ni7ersa. com9.iance to near1-ni7ersa. re/e..ion" 0imi.ar.*H Doris 9oints to eC9eriments /* Isen an2 )e7in that showe2 that 9eo9.e who ,in2 a 2ime in the coin ret-rn o, a 9a* te.e9hone were 7ast.* more .ike.* to he.9 a stran+er 9ick -9 9a9ers she has 2ro99e2 than 9eo9.e who ,in2 no 2ime" n!5 A+ainH the 9ower o, the sit-ation a99ears to 2ominate or e7en 2war, the 9ower o, 9ersona.it* an2 character in 2eterminin+ /eha7ior" The .esson o, sit-ationismH 2rawn /* =arman an2 DorisH seems to /e that we ha7e no character that 2is9oses -s to /eha7e consistent.* across sit-ations" n!6 R#26@S The 2isconcertin+ 9ict-re seems to /e a near1
2eterminism o, sit-ationsH in which min-sc-.e 2i,,erences in the sit-ation 1 a 2ime or no 2imeH the 9resence or a/sence o, other 9eo9.e in the room 1 t-rn into maDor 2i,,erences in /eha7iorH an2 in2i7i2-a. i2ios*ncrac* eC9.ains 7er* .itt.e o, the 2i,,erences" ;It is a near12eterminismH not a strict 2eterminismH /eca-se in2i7i2-a. i2ios*ncrac* sti.. 9.a*s some eC9.anator* ro.e"n30< I /e.ie7e that ca-tion is in or2er a/o-t what conc.-sions to 2raw ,rom these o/ser7ationsH howe7er" ThereLs no 2en*in+ the sit-ationistsL 9oint that min-te chan+es in sit-ation can 2ramatica..* a,,ect the 9ro9ortion o, 9eo9.e eChi/itin+ a +i7en /eha7ior" >-t the sit-ationists ha7e a har2 time eC9.ainin+ wh* 2i,,erent 9eo9.e /eha7e 2i,,erent.* in the same sit-ation" In Mi.+ramLs /asic eC9erimentH two1thir2s o, the s-/Dects com9.ie2H /-t one1 thir2 2i2 not" The 9oint is R#26!S more +enera." Thro-+ho-t the eC9erimenta. .iterat-re o, socia. 9s*cho.o+* we ,in2 strikin+ an2 statistica..* si+ni,icant corre.ations /etween eC9erimenta. 7aria/.es an2 s-/DectsL res9onses 1 /-tH si+ni,icant as the* ma* /eH the corre.ation coe,,icients se.2om eCcee2 0"@H which /* the stan2ar2s o, 9h*sics is a .ow corre.ationH si+ni,*in+ that the mani9-.ate2 7aria/.e acco-nts ,or on.* one1,o-rth o, the 7ariance in /eha7ior" ?eo9.e 2i,,erH an2 the K-estion ,or sit-ationism is how these 2i,,erences sho-.2 /e eC9.aine2" The answerH Ross an2 Nis/ett te.. -sH .ies in the ,act that 9eo9.e constr-e sit-ations 2i,,erent.*H that Mit is the sit-ation as constr-e2 /* the s-/Dect that is the tr-e stim-.-s"Mn31 Th-sH the 2i,,erences in res9onse arise not ,rom 2i,,erences in h-man characterH /-t rather ,rom 2i,,erences in 9erce9tion an2 constr-a." ?erha9s" Eet I ,in2 this eC9.anationH accor2in+ to which the one1thir2 noncom9.iance rate in the Mi.+ram eC9eriment is eC9.aine2 /* ar+-in+ that the noncom9.iant thir2 9ercei7e2 the sit-ation 2i,,erent.* ,rom the two1thir2s o, com9.iersH to /e /oth too con7enient an2 too a2 hocH +i7en that we 2onLt act-a..* know an*thin+ a/o-t how Mi.+ramLs s-/Dects constr-e2 the sit-ation" In Ross an2 Nis/ettLs 7iewH what I ha7e ca..e2 a near12eterminism o, sit-ations /ecomes more .ike a tr-e 2eterminism" Ross an2 Nis/ett .oca.iOe in2i7i2-a. i2ios*ncrac* in the ca9acit* ,or 9erce9tion an2 constr-a.H whi.e acce9tin+ a 7ersion o, stim-.-s1res9onse 2eterminism accor2in+ to which the stim-.-s ;the sit-ation1as1constr-e2< .ea2s s-/Dects to -ni,orm res9onses" >-t wh*T Wh* 9arse the in2i7i2-a. this wa*H into a 9erce9tion8constr-a. ca9acit* that eChi/its i2ios*ncras* an2 a res9onsi7e ca9acit* that eChi/its .itt.e or noneT To 2o so seems ar/itrar*H an2 /or2ers on 2ownri+ht inconsistenc*" A,ter a..H constr-in+ a sit-ation is itse., a kin2 o, actionH an2 one wo-.2 s-99ose that a consistent sit-ationist sho-.2 9osit that sit-ations acco-nt ,or most o, the 7ariation in constr-a.s as we.. as res9onses" In that caseH howe7erH the sit-ationist is .e,t with no eC9.anation ,or 7ariation amon+ in2i7i2-a.s 9.ace2 in the same sit-ation" Moreo7erH e7en i, the sit-ationist is ri+ht a/o-t in2i7i2-a. 7aria/i.it* in constr-in+ sit-ationsH one can re9.* that 9ersona.it* .ies in .ar+e 9art in o-r ha/its o, 9erce9tion an2 constr-a.H so at .east some ,orm o, 9ersona.it* theor* s-r7i7es the sit-ationist o/Dection" I 9re,er to think o, sit-ations 1 the in2e9en2ent 7aria/.es that eC9erimenters mani9-.ate 1 as so-rces o, 9ress-re or tem9tation" Z-ite sim9.*H the eC9eriments 2emonstrate how 2i,,ic-.t 1 /-t not im9ossi/.e 1 actin+ a+ainst the sit-ationa. ti2e is" ItLs so 2i,,ic-.t that in the /asic Mi.+ram eC9eriment on.* a thir2 o, the s-/Dects are a/.e to /rin+ it o,," A22in+ a com9.iant teammate makes it more 2i,,ic-.t sti..H so that on.* one s-/Dect o-t o, ten was a/.e to resistI whi.e a22in+ R#263S a noncom9.iant team1mate makes resistance eas* eno-+h that nine o-t o, ten s-/Dects were a/.e to s-ccee2 at resistin+ the or2ers to contin-e a2ministerin+ shocks" In the terms o, o-r initia. meta9horH sit-ationa. chan+es a.ter the re.ati7e +ra2ient o, /oth the hi+h roa2 an2 the .ow roa2" What the eC9eriments 2o showH K-ite +ra9hica..*H is that seemin+.*1minor mani9-.ations o, the en7ironment can ca-se astonishin+.* .ar+e chan+es in the ease or 2i,,ic-.t* o, actionH the an+.e o, inci2ence /etween the two roa2s" ?-ttin+ the sit-ationistsL 9oint in these terms 1 that isH that sit-ations trans,orm the ease or 2i,,ic-.t* o, certain co-rses o, action 1 a7oi2s the im9.ication o, 2eterminism" The sit-ation sets con2itions -n2er which we chooseH /-t the n-m/ers stron+.* im9.* that these con2itions 2o not ren2er choice im9ossi/.e" Notice that i, e7er* s-/Dect com9.ie2 with Mi.+ramLs eC9erimentH it wo-.2 9ro7i2e e7i2ence that the eC9eriment ha2 -nco7ere2 a mechanism akin to a 9h*sica. re,.eCH o7er which we ha7e no choice or contro." An2 i, on.* a ,ew s-/Dects o-t o, the tho-san2 com9.ie2H we mi+ht re+ar2 them as 9atho.o+ica. casesH an2 eCc-se them ,rom /.ame on the +ro-n2s that the* ha7e a screw .oose somewhere" The act-a. two1thir2s8one1thir2 s9.it 9rec.-2es -s ,rom 2rawin+ either o, these 2eterministic conc.-sions a/o-t the com9.iers" >eca-se I resist sit-ationa. 2eterminismH I resist as we.. the ra2ica. s-++estion that o-r 2ee91seate2 9ro9ensit* to ,a.. into 9re2etermine2 ro.es ;as in the 0?E< means that we ha7e no core se., whose inte+rit* mattersH on.* a co..ection o, se.7es1in1ro.esH each seekin+ its own harmon* /etween /eha7ior an2 9rinci9.eH /-t witho-t an* .ar+er -nit* o, se.," The eC9eriments 2o show that we .ack ro/-st consistenc* across sit-ations" This sho-.2 not s-r9rise -sH howe7er" A,ter a..H i, some o, m* ro.es im9ose inconsistent mora. 2eman2s 1 i,H ,or eCam9.eH with a wi+ on m* hea2 an2 a /an2 ro-n2 m* neck I wi.. /e aske2 to 2o ,or a +-inea what I wo-.2 otherwise think it wicke2 an2 in,amo-s to 2o ,or an em9iren32 1 an2 m* 2ai.* .i,e .ea2s me to occ-9* a.. these ro.esI an2 i,H ,-rtherH the actions I take in each ro.e .ea2 me to a2o9t /e.ie,s that 7in2icate those actionsH then 2issonance theor* 9re2icts that I wi.. 9reser7e m* conce9tion o, m*se., as a mora..* -9ri+ht in2i7i2-a. in the on.* wa* .e,t: /* a/an2onin+ the /e.ie, that m* other /e.ie,s sho-.2 /e consistent"

We 9-rchase inte+rit*H what 4era.2 ?ostema ca..s the M-nit* o, 9ractica. conscio-snessHM at the 9rice o, .o+icH the -nit* o, theoretica. conscio-sness" n3' The eC9erimenta. 2emonstration that we .ack ro/-st consistenc* across R#265S sit-ations shows that inte+rit* consists o, a com9.eC -nit*H stitche2 to+ether with a +reat 2ea. o, se.,12ece9tion that a..ows -s to 2en* inconsistencies an2 the 2issonance the* in2-ce" Inte+rit* remains somethin+ that we seek" The 9ro/.emH thenH remains the one we /e+an with: that the K-est ,or inte+rit*H mani,este2 in a.. the 9s*cho.o+ica. 9henomena we ha7e /een re7iewin+H can 2ri7e -s to /eha7ior as 2isconcertin+ an2 mora..* re9e..ent as that shown in the 0tan,or2 ?rison EC9eriment or in Mi.+ramLs
n3&

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A2J ,ICK< AND +REENE KAMERICAN E?CE1TIONA@I<M*

Three i!pa't# a* It o)"io$#%- !ean# that #0it'h=#i&e &e)ate i# an e8'$#e to !a5e the p$#h or he(e!on- %oo5 phi%o#ophi'a%%'on#i#tent. 1eop%e &e'i&e the- 0ant to pro!ote "io%ent e8'eptiona%i#! an& (ra) an- e8'$#e6 e"en a (oo& i&ea %i5e &e)ate or &e#e(re(ation to &o #o. Depri"in( the (o"ern!ent o #0it'h=#i&e a# a rea#on or pro!otin( A!eri'an '$%t$re 0on.t 'han(e the o$t'o!e. )* There.# no a%ternati"e to #0it'h#=#i&e. We 'an.t #pea5 o$r 'on"i'tion# i 0e &on.t ha"e an-. Not or'in( peop%e onto )oth #i&e# o a topi' 7$#t !ean# the- 0i%% %ie a)o$t other #t$ or the 0in. It pro)a)%- !ean# the-.re %-in( ri(ht no0. '* We nee& a &i erent ethi' o #pee'h. The ethi'# o a&"o'a'- re>$ire# that 0e re $#e an ethi'a% 'o!!it!ent 0ith e"er- #pee'h a't. Ra&i'a% #e% =&o$)t i# the '$re or their 4< 'on"i'tion.

@$)an 2; ;Da7i2H ?ro," )aw an2 ?hi.oso9h* 4eor+etown A" )aw $enterH For2ham )aw Re7iewH FInte+rit* in the ?ractice o, )aw: Inte+rit*: Its $a-ses an2 $-resGH 32 For2ham )" Re7" 236H No7em/erH )8N< 0trikin+.*H Montai+ne resorts to these 9s*cho.o+ica. ,ictions o, schiOo9hrenia an2 restricte2 i2enti,ication in or2er to ar+-e that one nee2 not a/an2on 9ro,essions that are c-stomar* an2 9ro,ita/.eH re+ar2.ess o, their kna7er*" I, I am ri+ht that schiOo9hrenia an2 restricte2 i2enti,ication are ,ictionsH an2 that Montai+neLs ar+-ments ,or non1acco-nta/i.it* there,ore ,ai.H we are .e,t with the sit-ation o, someone whose 9ractice o, a c-stomar*H 9ro,ita/.e 9ro,ession 2ri7es him to sta/.eH se.,1 D-sti,*in+ /e.ie, chan+es whose on.* 2raw/ack is that the* ha99en to /e .ies" Montai+ne c.aims that he has ke9t his inte+rit* 1 he has not 2e9arte2 one nai.Ls /rea2th ,rom himse.," >-t he has ke9t itH it a99earsH /* ,oo.in+ himse.," This is a si+ni,icant 9oint ,or .e+a. ethicsH /eca-se one o, the ,irst mo2ern artic.es on the s-/Dect K-otes these sentences ,rom Montai+ne an2 takes them as a mo2e. o, 0toic mora.it* to D-sti,* the ethics o, a27ocac*"n60 As Tro..o9eH another R#&0'S ast-te .iterar* 9s*cho.o+istH o/ser7e2H MMen wi.. not /e ta.ke2 o-t o, the con7ictions o, their .i7es" No .i7in+ orator wo-.2 con7ince a +rocer that co,,ee sho-.2 /e so.2 witho-t chicor*I an2 no amo-nt o, e.oK-ence wi.. make an En+.ish .aw*er think that .o*a.t* to tr-th sho-.2 come /e,ore .o*a.t* to his c.ient"Mn61 The 9ro/.emH in the en2H comes to this: the ethica. 7a.-e o, inte+rit* is eC9erience2 ,rom the insi2e as a kin2 o, harmon* or eK-i.i/ri-m /etween 7a.-es an2 actionsH where/* one 2oes what one 2oes witho-t 2e9artin+ a nai.Ls /rea2th ,rom onese.," >-t the eC9eriments show that inte+rit* has a kin2 o, e7i. twinH in2-ce2 /* o-r nee2 to see o-rse.7es as ethica..* ri+hteo-s 9eo9.e re+ar2.ess o, the kna7er* o, o-r ca..in+" From the insi2eH the K-est ,or inte+rit* an2 the 9rocess o, rationa.iOin+ o-r actions 9ro7e near.* im9ossi/.e to 2istin+-ish" We wo-.2 .ike o-r mora. com9ass to 9oint tr-e northH /-t o-r on.* instr-ment ,or 2etectin+ tr-e north is o-r mora. com9ass" An2 soH e7en tho-+h inte+rit* an2 its e7i. twin ma* 2i,,erH the K-est ,or inte+rit* can 2ri7e -s to the hi+h roa2 or the .ow roa2H witho-t an* .an2marks to a.ert -s a/o-t which 9ath we ha7e taken" I%" Is There a $-re ,or Inte+rit*T A" The Tr-th $-re I ,ear that no
c-re ,or inte+rit* eCists" The 9ro/.em isH K-ite sim9.*H that the 2issonance1/ase2 9henomena we ha7e /een eCaminin+H o-r -r+ent 2esire as int-iti7e .aw*ers to arran+e o-r wor.2 so that we remain -9stan2in+ citiOens in it re+ar2.ess o, what we 2oH a.. o9erate -nconscio-s.*" One com,ortin+ i2ea is that the tr-th wi.. set -s ,ree 1 orH more 9recise.*H that -n2erstan2in+ the 2*namics o, se.,1corr-9tion ;inte+rit*Ls st-r2* twin< can he.9 -s ,en2 it o,," Ro/ert $ia.2ini has written an a2mira/.e teCt/ook on the 9ower o, socia.19s*cho.o+ica. ,orces to in,.-ence -s in 2irections we 2onLt want"n62 At the en2 o, each cha9terH $ia.2ini o,,ers a section entit.e2 MDe,enseHM which 2isti..s ,rom the eC9erimenta. .iterat-re recommen2ations a/o-t how not to /e taken in /* the ,-n2amenta. ,orces o, reci9rocationH commitment an2 consistenc*H socia. 9roo,H .ikin+H a-thorit*H an2 scarcit* 1 the Mwea9ons o, in,.-ence"M n6& $ia.2iniLs /asic 2e,ensi7e recommen2ation is enhance2 awareness" n6' Eet he -n2erstan2s that R#&0@S enhance2 awareness o, -nconscio-s ,orces ma* /e im9ossi/.e 9recise.* /eca-se the ,orces are -nconscio-s"n6@ =is recommen2ations ma* we.. /e the /est we can 2oH /-t I ha7e 2o-/ts that the /est we can 2o wi.. o,ten /e +oo2 eno-+h" n6! A 9ersona. reco..ection: Two *ears a+oH I was wa.kin+ across a 9ark in D-/.in with m* wi,e an2 in1.aws" It was a nice s-mmer 2a*H an2 I notice2 a man na99in+ on the +rass" As we 2rew nearerH I notice2 that he was .*in+ on his stomachH not his /ack" ThenH as we wa.ke2 /*H I saw that his hea2 was not t-rne2 to one si2e .ike someone as.ee9" =is ,ace was 9resse2 2irect.* into the +ro-n2" =is .im/s were s9.a*e2 at awkwar2 an+.esH an2 he was com9.ete.* motion.ess" I ha2 what I can on.* 2escri/e as a moment o, .ist.ess reco+nition that he seeme2 to /e 2ea2 1 .ist.essH /eca-se a.tho-+h I reca.. the tho-+ht that he was 2ea2 9assin+ thro-+h m* min2H I ke9t wa.kin+" The .ist.essness was not too s-r9risin+H as we ha2 taken a re21e*e ,rom America an2 s9ent the who.e 2a* to-rin+: a.. ,o-r o, -s ha2 /een awake more than twent*1,o-r ho-rs" It D-st seeme2 so nat-ra. to kee9 wa.kin+" At that timeH I ha2 /een a cons-mer o, eC9erimenta. socia. 9s*cho.o+* ,or more than ,i7e *earsH an2 ha2 2isc-sse2 the Dar.e*1)atane eC9eriments on /*stan2er 9assi7it* in m* c.asses at .east three times" It wasnLt -nti. we were 9ast the motion.ess man that I s-22en.* reco+niOe2 wh* none o, -s were 2oin+ an*thin+" It ha2 nothin+ to 2o with the re21e*e" It ha2 e7er*thin+ to 2o with 2i,,-sion o, res9onsi/i.it*" I sai2H MThat +-* .ooks 2ea2! We sho-.2 2o somethin+"M We a.. t-rne2 /ack to .ook at himH an2 saw a +oo2 0amaritan with a ce..19hone stan2in+ neCt to the ,a..en manH eCcite2.* 9honin+ ,or he.9" J-st as the eC9eriments 9re2icte2H the 4oo2 0amaritan was a.. /* himse.," 0core one ,or Dar.e* an2 )atane" O, co-rseH one eC9.anation ,or m* 9assi7it* is that )-/an is a weak 7esse.H who ta.ks the ta.k o, mora.it* an2 com9assion /-t wonLt wa.k the wa.k 1 or ratherH who wa.ks the wa.k ri+ht 9ast co..a9se2 stran+ers in a 9ark" ?erha9s thatLs it" >-t another eCam9.e mi+ht 9ers-a2e *o- that the case is not sim9.* one o, manLs ,eck.essness an2 h*9ocris*" The eCam9.e comes ,rom ?hi.i9 Wim/ar2oLs reco..ections o, his R#&0!S 0tan,or2 ?rison EC9eriment" Wim/ar2o reca..s a critica. moment se7era. 2a*s into the eC9eriment: One o, the +-ar2s o7erhear2 the 9risoners ta.kin+ a/o-t an esca9e that wo-.2 take 9.ace imme2iate.* a,ter 7isitin+ ho-rs" The r-mor went as ,o..ows: ?risoner e5!12H whom we ha2 re.ease2 the ni+ht /e,oreH was +oin+ to ro-n2 -9 a /-nch o, his ,rien2s an2 /reak in to ,ree the 9risoners" =ow 2o *o- think we reacte2 to this r-morT Do *o- think we recor2e2 the 9attern o, r-mor transmission an2 9re9are2 to o/ser7e the im9en2in+ esca9eT That was what we sho-.2 ha7e 2oneH o, co-rseH i, we were actin+ .ike eC9erimenta. socia. 9s*cho.o+ists" Instea2H we reacte2 with concern o7er the sec-rit* o, o-r 9rison" What we 2i2 was to ho.2 a strate+* session with the War2enH the 0-9erinten2entH an2 one o, the chie, .ie-tenantsH $rai+ =ane*H to 9.an how to ,oi. the esca9e"n63 =ane* was one o, the 9s*cho.o+ists con2-ctin+ the eC9eriment" Wim/ar2o contin-es: A,ter o-r meetin+H """ I went /ack to the ?a.o A.to ?o.ice De9artment an2 aske2 the ser+eant i, we co-.2 ha7e o-r 9risoners trans,erre2 to their o.2 Dai." M* reK-est was t-rne2 2own """ " I .e,t an+r* an2 2is+-ste2 at this .ack o, coo9eration /etween o-r correctiona. ,aci.ities ;I was now tota..* into m* ro.e<"n65 It on.* +ot worse: I was sittin+ there a.. a.oneH waitin+ anCio-s.* ,or the intr-2ers to /reak inH when who sho-.2 ha99en a.on+ /-t a co..ea+-e an2 ,ormer Ea.e +ra2-ate st-2ent roommateH 4or2on >ower" 4or2on ha2 hear2 we were 2oin+ an eC9erimentH an2 he came to see what was +oin+ on" I /rie,.* 2escri/e2 what we were -9 toH an2 4or2on aske2 me a 7er* sim9.e K-estion: M0a*H whatLs the in2e9en2ent 7aria/.e in this st-2*TM To m* s-r9riseH I +ot rea..* an+r* at him" =ere I ha2 a 9rison /reak on m* han2s" The sec-rit* o, m* men an2 the sta/i.it* o, m* 9rison was at stakeH an2 nowH I ha2 to 2ea. with this /.ee2in+1heartH .i/era.H aca2emicH e,,ete 2in+2on+ who was concerne2 a/o-t the in2e9en2ent 7aria/.e! It wasnLt -nti. m-ch .ater that I rea.iOe2 how ,ar into m* 9rison ro.e I was at that 9oint 1 that I was thinkin+ .ike a 9rison s-9erinten2ent rather than a research 9s*cho.o+ist"n66 When I ,irst 2escri/e2 the 0tan,or2 ?rison EC9erimentH I note2 that the M9risonersM an2 M+-ar2sM were not the on.* ones to /ecome ca9ti7es o, their ro.es" Their 9arentsH the 9riest who 7isite2 themH an2 e7en the .aw*er who came in to cons-.t with them a/o-t their M9aro.e R#&03S hearin+sM a.. 2i2 as we.." Wh* notT None o, these 9eo9.e were traine2 to reco+niOe 9s*cho.o+ica. mechanisms o, in,.-ence at work" >-t =ane* an2 Wim/ar2o were" I, an*one sho-.2 ha7e reco+niOe2 the M?iran2e..ian 9risonM o, the min2H it is 9s*cho.o+ists who 2e7ote their careers to ma99in+ its +ates an2 ce..1/.ocks" A99arent.*H it isnLt so" Nor sho-.2 that s-r9rise -s: I, co+niti7e 2issonance an2 socia. co+nition tr-.* re9resent -ni7ersa. 9s*cho.o+ica. ,orcesH it is a .itt.e m-ch to eC9ect that scienti,ic eC9ertise can ,ree -s o, them" An2erstan2in+ how 0ne..Ls )aw eC9.ains the /ent1stick e,,ect 2oes not make the 9artia..*1s-/mer+e2 stick .ook an* .ess /ent to the 9h*sicist"

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A2J ,ICK< AND +REENE KAMERICAN E?CE1TIONA@I<M*

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>" The $anar* in the Minesha,t I ha7e sai2 that there is no rea. c-re ,or inte+rit* 1 the .ow1roa2 kin2 o, inte+rit*H that isH the -nconscio-s +err*man2erin+ o, 9rinci9.es to rationa.iOe commitments an2 actions that are too incon7enient to ,ore+o" I 2o ha7e a ,ew s-++estionsH howe7er" I, *o- rea..* ,ear the +ra2-a. -nconscio-s corr-9tion that 9er,ormin+ in ro.e in2-cesH *o- m-st 2eci2e in a27ance what .ine *o- wonLt cross 1 an2 thenH when *o- ,in2 *o-rse., stan2in+ at that .ineH orH worseH when *o- ,in2 *o-rse., ha7in+ D-st crosse2 itH *o- wi.. know that itLs time to K-it" The ins9iration ,or this s-++estion comes ,rom Da7i2 =ei./ronerH a ,ormer New Eork $it* 9rosec-tor who wrote a ,ascinatin+ memoir o, his time in the D"A"Ls o,,ice 1 a stor* o, ineC9erience an2 nai7ete +ra2-a..* re9.ace2 /* com9etence an2 c*nicism" =ei./roner -n2erwent a 2ee9 immersion in the seam* si2e o, .i,e where the +oo2 +-*s an2 the /a2 +-*s a.. .ie sometimesH an2 where e7en 2oin+ +oo2 o,ten .ea7es a /a2 taste" =ei./roner writes: >e,ore Doinin+ the DALs o,,ice I ha2 9romise2 m*se., that a/o7e a..H I wo-.2 ne7er take a case to tria. i, I ha2 an* 2o-/t a/o-t the 2e,en2antLs +-i.t" At the time it seeme2 an eas* eno-+h stan2ar2 to a/i2e /*" >-t 2-rin+ the 9ast ,ew weeks I rea.iOe2 that the Z-intana case wo-.2 9ro/a/.* ,orce me to 9-t m* 9ersona. ethics to the test"n100 =ei./roner was 9rosec-tin+ Z-intana ,or the,tH an2 ha2 D-st .earne2 that his star witnessH the c.ean1c-tH a99ea.in+H *o-n+ 7ictim was rea..* a 2r-+ 2ea.erH /ai. D-m9erH an2 .iar" =ei./ronerLs s-9er7isor was -nim9resse2 /* the re7e.ations a/o-t the witnessH an2 insiste2 that =ei./roner take the case to tria." =e 2i2 soH an2 Z-intana was acK-itte2" 0oon a,terH =ei./roner K-it his Do/" MTo sta* on m-ch .on+er meant maintainin+ a /.in2ere2 /e.ie, in the rectit-2e o, o-r workH wantin+ to 9-nish 2e,en2antsH /e.ie7in+ that o-r 9o.icies were a.. to the +oo2: /ecomin+ the 7er* sort o, 9rosec-tor I ha2 a.wa*s R#&05S 2is.ike2 an2 2istr-ste2" It was time to .ea7e"Mn101 =ei./roner a2mits that he was tem9eramenta..* -ns-ite2 to the 9rosec-torLs Do/H n102 an2 that some Assistant District Attorne*s M.o7e2 9rosec-tin+ in an -nK-estionin+ wa* that I ne7er co-.2"M n10& ?erha9sH thenH =ei./ronerLs resi+nation was ine7ita/.e an2 o7er2etermine2" Ne7erthe.essH I .ike the wa* he set himse., a menta. tri9wireH orH switchin+ meta9horsH a sin+.e action that wo-.2 ser7e as his canar* in the minesha,t" The moment the canar* 2ie2H he knew that it was time to e7ac-ate" =ei./ronerLs canar* was takin+ a case to tria. when he wasnLt con7ince2 that the 2e,en2ant was +-i.t*" Other .aw*ersH in other 9racticesH m-st choose their own canaries" The ,orm-.a is sim9.e: MWhate7er e.se I 2oH an2 howe7er e.se m* 7iews chan+eH I wi.. ne7erH e7er """ "M Eo- name it" $o7er -9 someone e.seLs crime" )ie a/o-t mone*" Fa.si,* a 2oc-ment" )et a co..ea+-e s-,,er the conseK-ences ,or m* own screw1-9" Do somethin+ where I co-.2nLt .ook m* ,ather in the e*e i, I to.2 him a/o-t it" M* a27ice is to choose *o-r canar* care,-..*H -n2erstan2in+ that /e,ore *o- enter a ro.e *o-r i2eas a/o-t what ethica. 2eman2s it entai.s ma* we.. /e nai7e" >-tH once *o-L7e se.ecte2 the canar*H ne7er i+nore it" I, necessar*H write 2own the MI wi.. ne7erH e7erM ,orm-.a" ?-t it in an en7e.o9eH kee9 it in a 2rawerH an2 9-.. it o-t sometimes to remin2 *o-rse., what it sa*s" An2H the moment the canar* 2iesH +et o-t o, the minesha,t" $" Noticin+ When Eo- Are De,.ectin+ >.ame to 0omeone E.se A secon2 recommen2ation takes its ins9iration ,rom Mi.+ramLs research" When he 2e/rie,e2 s-/Dects a,ter the e.ectric1shock eC9erimentH Mi.+ram aske2 them to a99ortion res9onsi/i.it* ,or shockin+ the 7ictim amon+ the three 9rota+onists 1 the s-/Dect himse.,H the MscientistM +i7in+ him or2ers to 9rocee2H an2 the 7ictim re9eate2.* earnin+ e.ectric shocks /* +i7in+ wron+ answers" As one mi+ht eC9ectH com9.iant s-/Dects se.2om attri/-te2 the horri/.e o-tcome o, the eC9eriment to themse.7es" $haracteristica..*H the* /.ame2 it on the scientistH an2 o,ten on the 7ictim" Takin+ a c-e ,rom thisH m* recommen2ation is the ,o..owin+: whene7er *o- ,in2 *o-rse., 2oin+ thin+s /-t 2en*in+ ;to *o-rse., or to others< that *o- are res9onsi/.e ,or 2oin+ themH treat it as a si+n that *oha7e s-cc-m/e2 to the -nconscio-s 9s*cho.o+ica. 2ri7e towar2 int-iti7e .aw*erin+" This recommen2ation ma* so-n2 9ec-.iarH +i7en the sit-ationistsL warnin+ that assi+nin+ res9onsi/i.it* ,or /eha7ior to 9ersona.it*H not sit-ationa. 9ress-resH amo-nts to a M,-n2amenta. attri/-tion error"M Am I now s-++estin+ that *o- m-st not /.ame the sit-ation ,or what R#&06S *o- ha7e 2oneH that *o- m-st take 9ersona. res9onsi/i.it* 1 in shortH that *o- m-st commit the ,-n2amenta. attri/-tion errorT We..H *esH in a wa*" Reca.. m* ear.ier critiK-e o, sit-ationa. 2eterminismH where I ar+-e2 that sit-ations 2o not 2etermine /eha7iorH /-t mere.* a.ter the 2i,,ic-.t* +ra2ientH makin+ it easier or har2er to /eha7e in certain wa*s" ThisH I s-++este2H is who..* com9ati/.e with a 7iew that em9hasiOes the res9onsi/i.it* o, a+ents in 2ea.in+ with sit-ations" To /.ame others 1 oneLs /ossH oneLs co1workersH oneLs sit-ation 1 amo-nts ;to /orrow 0artreLs term< to a kin2 o, /a2 ,aith"n10' Re+ar2.ess o, whether or not it is /a2 ,aithH howe7erH m* s-++estion at the moment is sim9.* that whene7er *o- ,in2 *o-rse., /.amin+ others ,or *o-r actionsH treat that as an a.arm1/e..H si+na.in+ that *o- ma* we.. /e in the +ri9s o, the 9s*cho.o+ica. ,orces o, rationa.iOation" D" 0ocratic 0ke9ticism M* thir2 an2 ,ina. s-++estion is .ess s9eci,icH /-t 9erha9s more im9ortant" Thro-+ho-t this 2isc-ssion I ha7e /een em9hasiOin+ the 2an+ers o, o-r innate ten2enc* to

" One 9ossi/.e anti2ote to the 2ri7e towar2 se.,1ri+hteo-sness is a stance towar2 the wor.2 that mi+ht /e .a/e.e2 M0ocratic ske9ticism"M In ?.atoLs A9o.o+*H 0ocrates te..s the Athenian D-r* at his tria. that thro-+ho-t his .i,e he has .istene2 to an inner 7oiceH a 2aimon" The 7oice te..s him when he is in 2an+er o, 2oin+ wron+" It ne7er s9eaks when he is 2oin+ ri+ht 1 on.* when he is 2oin+ wron+"n10@ To +i7e an eCam9.eH 0ocrates mentions a 9erio2 in which Athens was r-.e2 /* the Thirt* T*rants" These r-.ers wishe2 to im9.icate as man* Athenians as 9ossi/.e in their crimes" At one 9ointH the* ca..e2 0ocrates an2 some others in an2 or2ere2 them to arrest )eon the 0a.aminian so that he mi+ht /e eCec-te2" The others went o,, to ,-.,i.. the comman2H /-t ;0ocrates te..s his hearers<H his 2aimon s9oke -9H an2H at risk o, ,or,eitin+ his own .i,eH he sim9.* went home" 0ocrates a22s that his own .i,e was s9are2 on.* /eca-se the T*rants were o7erthrown 7er* soon a,ter" n10! 0ocrates +oes on to eC9.ain that thro-+ho-t his .i,e he has ma2e it his mission to seek o-t those who c.aim to knowH an2 test them with 9ro/in+ K-estionsH ho9in+ ;in 7ainH he in,orms -s< to ,in2 someone whose hi+h o9inion o, his own wis2om stoo2 the test" =e insists that R#&10S he himse., knows on.* that he 2oes not know"n103 A.tho-+h 0ocrates 2oes not 2raw the connection /etween his 2aimon an2 his ske9tica. stance towar2 his own know.e2+e an2 that o, othersH it seems strai+ht,orwar2 eno-+h: the 2aimon te..s him when his action has no D-sti,icationH an2 his ske9ticism .ea2s him to test e7er* D-sti,ication that he hears" This stance towar2 the wor.2 1 a stance o, 9er9et-a. 2o-/t towar2 oneLs own 9retensions as we.. as the 9retensions o, others 1 is what I am ca..in+ 0ocratic ske9ticism" It aims to com/at o-r /asic 2ri7e to /e.ie7e in o-r own ri+hteo-sness in the most strai+ht,orwar2 wa* 9ossi/.e: /* tr*in+ to make a ha/it o, 2o-/tin+ oneLs own ri+hteo-snessH o, K-estionin+ oneLs own mora. /e.ie,sH o, scr-tiniOin+ oneLs own /eha7ior 1 Mknow th*se.,!M 1 with a certain r-th.ess iron*" This a27ice wi.. no 2o-/t seem stran+e an2 2isa+reea/.e to man*" Americans a2mire con,i2entH can12o .ea2ers who ne7er secon21+-ess their own 2ecisionsH an2 who a7oi2 ske9ticism an2 se.,12o-/tH the te..ta.e si+ns o, ne-rotics an2 .osers" In the wor.2 o, /-siness an2 +o7ernmentH ,ee.in+s o, +-i.t or re+ret are career 2estro*ersH /est ca/ine2 to ceremonia. occasions .ike >i/.e /reak,asts an2 sentencin+ hearin+s" Ne7erthe.essH I s-++est chronic ske9ticism an2 2iscom,ort with onese., as a 9ossi/.e anti2ote ,or inte+rit* 1 i,H that isH an* anti2ote ,or inte+rit* can /e ,o-n2"
,a.si,* ,acts an2 a/an2on 9rinci9.es in or2er to a7oi2 the /e.ie, that we are 2oin+ wron+" A99arent.*H the nee2 to /e.ie7e in o-r own ri+hteo-sness r-ns 2ee9

ENDI 2010 Framework

5!

A2J ,ICK< AND +REENE KAMERICAN E?CE1TIONA@I<M*

,i'5# an& +reene are !a5in( a hi(h%- 'onte8t$a% ar($!ent. In the !o&ern era6 <0it'h <i&e &e)ate i# a't$a%%'ontrar- to e8'eptiona%i#t pra'ti'e#. An& it ha# in&epen&ent )ene it# that are 0orth a ir!in(. ,arri(an 2D ;$ase*H Associate Director o, De/ate at A4AH MasterQs in $omm-nications Wake Forest A"H FA De,ense o, 0witch 0i2e De/ateGH MasterQs thesis at Wake ForestH De9artment o, $omm-nicationH Ma* @31@6<
This eCtension o, the 9re7io-s c.aims o, 4reene an2 =icks is where m* 2e,ense o, switch si2e 2e/ate takes iss-e" Man* o, the e.ements o, 4reene an2 =icks 9osition are -n2o-/te2.* tr-e" )ike an* 9rinci9.e2 a99roach to comm-nicationH 00D is .a2en with i2eo.o+ica. 9res-99ositions an2

/iases" It 9res-mes that the market9.ace o, i2eas o9erates with a 2e+ree o, e,,icac*H that 2emocratic an2 2e.i/erati7e a99roaches to 9ro/.em1so.7in+ 9ro2-ce stron+ o-tcomesH an2 that there is a +a9 /etween the F9ri7ateG 2e/ate ro-n2 an2 the F9-/.icG rea.m o, a27ocac*1a,ter1con7iction" =owe7erH the ar+-ments in F)ost $on7ictionsG a.one sho-.2 not /e rea2 as a swee9in+ in2ictment o, 00D ,or two reasons" FirstH 4reene an2 =icks make a s9eci,ic an2 conteCt12e9en2ent c.aim a/o-t the $o.2 War that cannot /e easi.* a99.ie2 to contem9orar* 2isc-ssion o, the merits o, 00D" 16@' was a time o, Mc$arth*ism an2 anti1$omm-nist witch1 h-nts" It was K-ite 9ossi/.e then that one D-sti,ication ,or 2e/atin+ /oth si2es was a re1a,,irmation o, .i/era.ism a+ainst the comm-nists" NowH in the mi2st o, the Fwar on terrorismHG wi2es9rea2 restrictions on ci7i. .i/ertiesH an2 ?resi2ent >-shQs mantra o, Fwith -s or a+ainst -sHG it seems .ike the o99osite is tr-er" Fi2e.it* to the American ca-se is 9er,orme2 thro-+h the wi..in+ si.ence o, its citiOens" Dissent is K-e..e2 an2 the 9-/.ic is enco-ra+e2 to 7iew the wor.2 thro-+h the sin+-.ar .ens o, F,ree2omG a+ainst the ,orces o, terrorism" De/atin+ /oth si2esNan2 .ackin+ imme2iate con7ictionNis a si+n o, weakness an2 wa,,.in+ in the ,ace o, imminent threats to nationa. sec-rit*" Th-sH in the
contem9orar* conteCtH to reDect 00D an2 9romote ar+-ment on.* thro-+h con7iction is ,ar more con2-ci7e to s-99ortin+ American eCce9tiona.ism than 2e/atin+ m-.ti9.e si2es is as a .i/era. 2emocratic D-sti,ication" 0econ2H the ,act that certain comm-nicati7e 9ractices .ike 00D are im9.icate2 in o9erations o, 9ower 2oes not a.one make them -n2esira/.e" $onsistent with the Fo-ca-.2ian /asis o, s-ch a criticismH one cannot /.anket.* assert that 9ower is a mono.ithic entit* that can /e 2eeme2 either F+oo2G or F/a2"G Instea2H it is im9erati7e to eCamine the Fs9eci,icit* o, V 9ractices in or2er to 2e.ineate their ,orces an2 e,,ectsG ;M-cke./a-er 2000H 9" 35<" Man* actions were taken 2-rin+ the $o.2 War -n2er the 9retenses that the* wo-.2 contri/-te in some wa* to the case ,or A"0" s-9eriorit* o7er the 0o7iet Anion" For eCam9.eH it co-.2 /e ar+-e2 that the racia. inte+ration o, schoo.s in the Anite2 0tates was com9.icit with a narrati7e o, 9.-ra.it* an2 o9enness that wasH in at .east some wa*sH eCce9tiona." Does this make the ,act that schoo.s were inte+rate2 -n2esira/.eT Ass-re2.* not" >rackete2 o,, ,rom the /ene,its 2eri7e2 ,rom 00DH the interwea7in+ o, the 9ractice with .i/era.ism ma* /e a ca-se ,or some concern" =owe7erH once the a27anta+es o, s-ch an a99roach are

consi2ere2H the* 2o not a.one merit a who.e1sa.e reDection o, the 9rocess" 4reene an2 =icks acknow.e2+e this when the* write thatH FIn a wor.2 increasin+.* 2ominate2 /* ,-n2amenta.ism ;re.i+io-s an2 otherwise< the 2e7e.o9ment o, a res9ect ,or 9.-ra.ismH to.erance an2 ,ree s9eech remains 9o.itica. 7a.-a/.eG ;200@H 9" 121<" EesH as instr-ctors an2 9ractitioners o, 2e/ateH it is o-r res9onsi/i.it* to remain co+niOant o, 9recise.* what t*9e o, Fmora. 2e7e.o9mentG is /ein+ ta-+ht" >-tH once that awareness has /een raise2H the ,act that it ma* not /e tota..* ne-tra. ;an im9ossi/.e +oa.< 2oes not warrant a/an2onment o, the switch1si2es a99roach"

ENDI 2010 Framework

53

A2J @O<< OF CONVICTION

The or!ation o opinion# i# a prior >$e#tion to a ri(oro$# &e en#e o the! #0it'h=#i&e &e)ate i# the )e#t or$! o &i#'o"er-. It i# an i#o%ate& po%iti'a% #pa'e that p$t# e"er-one on e>$a% ootin( an& )$-# #t$&ent# ti!e to e8p%ore )oth #i&e#. ar($!ent# in=&epth. ,arri(an 2D ;$ase*H Associate Director o, De/ate at A4AH MasterQs in $omm-nications Wake Forest A"H FA De,ense o, 0witch 0i2e De/ateGH MasterQs thesis at Wake ForestH De9artment o, $omm-nicationH Ma*H 99"&@1&5< $ritics o, 00D ha7e ar+-e2 that 2e/atin+ /oth si2es is a tactic o, coo9tion /* 2ominant /e.ie,s /eca-se s9eakin+ on /eha., o, Fe7i.G
i2eas mo2erates eCtreme 7iews" Instea2 o, shar9enin+ an2 re,inin+ the 9rior /e.ie,s o, 2e/atersH the ar+-ment +oesH en+a+in+ in switch si2e 2e/atin+ chan+es the /e.ie,s o, st-2entsH s.ow.* 2rawin+ them Fc.oseRrS to the mi22.eG ;Masse* 200!<" Mirrorin+ the /roa2er critica. mo7e towar2 a F2e9o.iticiOe2 eC9ression o, str-++.esHG the* ar+-e that this is -n2esira/.e /eca-se on.* eCtreme 7iews are F9-reHG in the sense that the* a7oi2 entan+.ement in /-rea-cratic str-ct-res o, +o7ernment ;>o++s 1663H 9" 33&<" Essentia..*H the ar+-ment /oi.s 2own to F/rainwashin+G: switchin+ si2es ca-ses st-2ents to a/an2on their ori+ina. ;9res-ma/.* correct< /e.ie,s in ,a7or o, more mo2erate an2 .ess 9o.itica..* e,,ecti7e i2eas" Three res9onses

e,,ecti7e.* 2is9atch with this criticism an2 s-99ort the /ene,its o, 00D" FirstH the ,o-n2ationa. 9remise o, the case ,or switch si2e 2e/atin+ in2icts the notion that tr-e con7iction can /e he.2 9rior to a ri+oro-s ana.*sis o, a.. si2es o, an iss-e thro-+h 2e/atin+ /oth si2es" As ,ar /ack as A" $" >air2 ;16@@<H 9ro9onents o, switch si2e 2e/atin+ ha7e ar+-e2 that con7iction was a res-.t o, reasone2 consi2eration o, the iss-es s-rro-n2in+ a 9artic-.ar 9o.ic* rather than a 9re1con2ition ,or it" For instanceH >air2 ar+-esH F0o-n2 con7iction""" sho-.2 stem ,rom mat-re re,.ection" Disc-ssion an2 2e/ate ,aci.itate the mat-rin+ o, s-ch re,.ecti7e thinkin+ an2 con7ictionG ;16@@H 9" !<" Man* 2e/atersH es9ecia..* those new to co..e+iate 2e/ateH 2o not *et ha7e ca.ci,ie2 o9inions a/o-t man* contro7ersia. s-/Dects" Instea2H the* 2e7e.o9 their /e.ie,s o7er timeH as the* s9en2 time thinkin+ thro-+h the n-ances o, each re.e7ant ar+-ment in 9re9aration ,or com9etiti7e 2e/atin+" >* ar+-in+ on /eha., o, /oth the a,,irmati7e an2 the ne+ati7e si2es o, a +i7en
reso.-tionH switch si2e 2e/aters are eC9ose2 to man* a7en-es to test their initia. tho-+hts on contro7ersia. s-/Dects" Tra2itiona..*H the ,ormation o, /e.ie, in this manner has coinci2e2 more c.ose.* with the meanin+ o, Fcon7iction"G De,ine2 as /e.ie,s that are ,orme2 as a res-.t o, FeC9osin+ ,a..aciesG thro-+h the F+i7e1an21take o, re/-tta.HG so-n2 con7ictions can on.* /e tr-.* +enerate2 /* the re,.eCi7e thinkin+ s9-rre2 /* 2e/atin+ /oth

si2es" Whi%e #o!e #t$&ent# !a- hone#t%- )e%ie"e that the- ha"e thoro$(h%- 'on#i&ere& the !erit# o a parti'$%ar opinion )e ore ar($in( or or a(ain#t it in a &e)ate6 e8peri!entin( 0ith i&ea# in a 'o!petiti"e <<D i# #ti%% a ne'e##ar- en&ea"or. On.* in 2e/ateH a re.ati7e.* iso.ate2 9o.itica. s9aceH are man* ar+-ments a/.e to /e 9resente2 in an i2ea..* o9enH no1ho.2s/arre2 manner ;$o7erstone 166@<" Moreo7erH when ,ace2 with the 9ros9ect o, /ein+ ,orce2 to a27ocate a 9ositionH st-2ents
recei7e the necessar* moti7ation ;thro-+h com9etiti7e an2 other im9-.ses< to thoro-+h.* research a.. o, the com9.eCities o, a +i7en s-/Dect" A.soH thro-+h the reK-irement o, a27ocac*H st-2ents are enco-ra+e2 to acti7e.* .istenH a cr-cia. e.ement o, rich ar+-mentati7e en+a+ement ;)ac* 2002<" In the en2H the switch si2e 2e/ater emer+es with a 2ee9er -n2erstan2in+ o, more si2es o, an iss-e an2 ma* /e rea2* to come to some 2e+ree o, conc.-sion an2 con7iction a/o-t which si2e to s-99ort" $on7iction +enerate2 thro-+h 2e/atin+ /oth si2es is a.most -ni7ersa..* 9re,era/.e to 2o+matic an2 non1ne+otia/.e assertions o, /e.ie, ;>air2 16@@H 9" !<" 0witchin+ si2es +ro-n2s /e.ie, in reasona/.e re,.ecti7e thinkin+I it teaches that 2ecisions sho-.2 not /e

ren2ere2 -nti. a.. 9ositions an2 9ossi/.e conseK-ences ha7e /een consi2ere2 in a reasone2 manner" This metho2 is c.ose.* .inke2 to the 7a.-e that 2e/ate 9.aces on critica. thinkin+" Ans-r9risin+.*H man* a-thors ha7e note2 the im9ortance o, 00D ,or +eneratin+
s-ch ri+oro-s 2ecision1makin+ ski..s ;M-ir 166&I ?archer 1665I R-t.e2+e 2002I 09eice P )*.e 200&I En+.ishH ).anoH Mitche..H MorrisonH Rie, an2 Woo2s 2003<" The critica. thinkin+ ta-+ht /* 00D 9ro7i2es the -.timate check a+ainst 2an+ero-s ,orms o, coo9tion" O7er timeH

certain ar+-ments wi.. 9re7ai. o7er others on.* i, the* ha7e a stron+ eno-+h .o+ica. ,o-n2ation to withstan2 thoro-+h scr-tin*" De/aters wi.. chan+e their min2s to s-99ort the Fmo2erateG si2e o, certain 9ositions on.* i,Na,ter reasone2 re,.ection an2 so-n2 con7ictionN2oin+ so is ,o-n2 to /e 9re,era/.e" Whi.e s-ch a Fmarket9.ace o, i2easG ma* /e marke2 /* some im9er,ectionsH one o, its most e,,ecti7e incarnations is -n2o-/te2.* in aca2emic 2e/ate ro-n2s" ThereH a99ea.s to wea.thH stat-sH an2 9ower are minimiOe2 /* a ,oc-s on .o+ic an2 ,orma. r-.esH which 9rotect the a/i.it* o, a.. 9artici9ants to contri/-te in an honest an2 o9en manner" As a res-.tH it sho-.2 /e ass-me2 that the insi+hts +enerate2 thro-+h 2e/ateQs 2ia.ectic 9rocess wi.. /e +enera..* correct an2 that an* shi,tin+ /e.ie,s are the re,.ection o, a socia. +oo2 ;the re9.acement o, ,a.se i2eas with tr-th<" $oncei7in+ o,
con7iction in this manner re2e,ines the ro.e o, 2e/ate into what >air2 ca..s an Fe2-cationa. 9roce2-reG: the ,ormation o, a 9e2a+o+ica. 9.a*+ro-n2 to eC9eriment with a.ternati7e i2eas an2 coa.esce assertions an2 -nwarrante2 /e.ie,s into so-n2 con7iction ;16!!H 9" !<" Treatin+ 2e/ate as a trainin+

+ro-n2 ,or a27ocac* an2 2ecision1makin+ has se7era. /ene,its: it a..ows 2e/aters the conce9t-a. ,.eCi/i.it* to eC9eriment with minorit* an2 eCtreme i2easH 9rotects them ,rom o-tsi2e in,.-encesH an2 /-*s them time /e,ore the* are ,orce2 to 9-/.ic.* 9-t ,orwar2 their o9inions ;$o7erstone 166@<" As a res-.tH the pri!ar- o'$# o the a'ti"it- #hi t# ro! ar($in( to &e'i&in(6 (i"in( 'riti'a% thin5in( it# 'r$'ia% i!portan'e " A ,-n2amenta. 9remise o, the anti100DQs c.aim a/o-t coo9tion is thoro-+h.* in2icte2: it i# i!po##i)%e to %o#e one.# 'on"i'tion# )e ore the- ha"e tr$%- )een &i#'o"ere&.

ENDI 2010 Framework

55

A2J @O<< OF CONVICTION

De)ate p$#he# #t$&ent# to >$e#tion )oth #i&e#6 a%%o0in( the tr$th to e!er(e ro! ea'h in&i"i&$a% rather than )ein( p%a'e& into the !in& )- e8terna% or'e#. Thi# (i"e# an opport$nit- or #t$&ent# to ha"e e"en (reater !ora% 'on"i'tion# than in a 0or%& in 0hi'h the- &e en&e& one #i&e 'on#i#tent%M$ir 2/; ;0tarH ?ro," $omm" De/ateGH 2!;'<H 99"261126&< 4eor+e Mason A"H ?hi.oso9h* an2 RhetoricH FA De,ense o, the Ethics o, $ontem9orar*

$onc.-sion Mo2ern 2e/ate" M-r9h* insistsH Mis not 2ia.ectica.I it is rhetorica.I it a99ea.s ,or D-2+mentH ,or acce9tance"MLM De/ateH he reca..sH has tra2itiona..* /een associate2 with con7ictionH rather than with 2ia.ectica. eCercise" Ehnin+er ar+-es that the em9hasis on techniK-e ,ra+ments the who.e o, a 9ro9er.* -ni,ie2 rhetorica. 9rocess" TechniK-es /ecome en2s in themse.7esH an2 re9resent a M9artia.ism that is as 2an+ero-s as it is ,r-it.ess"MM ?.ato char+es that makin+ the weaker ar+-ment the stron+er is a corr-9t ,orm o, rhetorica. trainin+ an2 that seekin+ a hi+her tr-th is a transcen2ent 7a.-e" To these 9ers9ecti7esH treatin+ 2e/ate as a +ame 9er7erts the e2-cationa. 9rocess /* enco-ra+in+ the 2e7e.o9ment o, a Msit-ationa. mora.it*HM Firm mora. commitment to a 7a.-e s*stemH howe7erH a.on+ with a sense o, mora. i2entit*H is ,o-n2e2 in re,.eCi7e assessments o, m-.ti9.e 9ers9ecti7es" 0witch1si2e 2e/ate is not sim9.* a matter o, s9eakin+ 9ers-asi7e.* or or+aniOin+ i2eas c.ear.* ;a.tho-+h it 2oes in7o.7e these<H /-t o, -n2erstan2in+ an2 mo/i.iOin+ ar+-ments to make an e,,ecti7e case" ?ro9onents o, 2e/atin+ /oth si2es o/ser7e that the 2e/aters sho-.2 9re9are the /est 9ossi/.e case the* canH +i7en the ,acts an2 in,ormation a7ai.a/.e to themHUU This 9rocessH at its coreH in7o.7es critica. assessment an2 e7a.-ation o, ar+-mentsI it is a 9rocess o, critica. thinkin+ not a7ai.a/.e with man* tra2itiona. teachin+ metho2s"M We m-st 9ro+ressi7e.* .earn to reco+niOe how o,ten the conce9ts o, others are 2iscre2ite2 /* the conce9ts we -se to D-sti,* o-rse.7es to o-rse.7es" We m-st come to see

how o,ten o-r c.aims are com9e..in+ on.* when eC9resse2 in o-r own e+ocentric 7iew" We can 2o this i, we .earn the art o, -sin+ conce9ts witho-t .i7in+ in them" This is 9ossi/.e on.* when the inte..ect-a. act o, ste99in+ o-tsi2e o, o-r own s*stems o, /e.ie, has /ecome secon2 nat-reH a ro-tine an2 or2inar* res9onsi/i.it* o, e7er*2a* .i7in+" Neither aca2emic schoo.in+ nor socia.iOation has *et a22resse2 this mora. res9onsi/i.it*HUM# /-t switch1si2e 2e/atin+ ,osters this t*9e o, ro.e 9.a*in+ an2 +enerates reasone2 mora. 9ositions /ase2 in 9art on 7a.-es o, to.erance an2 ,airness" EesH there ma* /e a 2an+ero-s sense o, com9etiti7e 9ri2e
that comes with s-ccess,-..* a27ocatin+ a 9osition a+ainst oneLs own 7iewsH an2 there are eC12e/aters who eCc-se their 2ece9ti7e 9ractices /* sa*in+ MILm D-st 2oin+ m* Do/"M A.timate.*H howe7erH so-n2 con7ictions are 2istin+-isha/.e ,rom em9hatic con7ictions /* a consi2eration o, a..

si2es o, a mora. stance" Mora. e2-cation is not a +-arantee2 ,orm-.a ,or rectit-2eH /-t the centra. ten2encies o, switch1si2e 2e/ate are in .ine with con7ictions /-i.t on em9athic a99reciation ,or a.ternati7e 9oints o, 7iew an2 a reasone2 assessment o, ar+-ments /oth 9ro an2 con" To.eranceH as an a.ternati7e to 2o+matismH is 9re,era/.eH not /eca-se it in7ites a re.ati7istic 7iew o, the wor.2H /-t /eca-se in a ,ramework o, eK-a. access to i2eas an2 eK-a. o99ort-nities ,or eC9ressionH the tr-th that emer+es is more 2e,ensi/.e an2 more D-sti,ia/.e" Mora.it*H an emer+in+ ,oca. 9oint o, contro7ers* in .ate twentieth1cent-r* American c-.t-reH is ,ostere2 rather than ham9ere2 /* em9owerin+ st-2ents to ,orm their own mora. i2entit*" $ontem9orar* 2e/ateH e7en in the conteCt o, a
7i+oro-s 2e,enseH 2oes ha7e its 2raw/acks" It ten2s to o7erem9hasiOe .o+ic an2 tactics an2 to 2own9.a* 9ersona. ,ee.in+sI it is /* nat-re com9etiti7eH an2 there,ore s-sce9ti/.e to com9etiti7e im9-.ses an2 techniK-es ;s-ch as ra9i2 s9eakin+ an2 a m-.ti9.icit* o, ar+-ments<I an2 it can 2esensitiOe 2e/aters to rea. h-man 9ro/.ems an2 nee2s thro-+h contin-a. .a/e.in+ an2 2isc-ssion o, a/stract iss-es on 9a9er" These 9ro/.emsH howe7erH are more than

matche2 /* the conce9t-a. ,.eCi/i.it*H em9ath*H an2 ,ami.iarit* with si+ni,icant iss-es 9ro7i2e2 /* switch1si2e 2e/ate" The 7a.-es o, to.erance an2 ,airnessH im9.icit in the meta9hor o, 2e/ate as +ameH are i2ea.istic in nat-re" The* ha7e a m-ch +reater
chance o, s-ccessH howe7erH in an acti7it* that reK-ires st-2ents to eCamine an2 -n2erstan2 /oth si2es o, an iss-e" In his 2escri9tion o, 2e/atin+ societiesH Ro/ert )o-is 0te7enson K-estions the 9re7a.ence o, -nreasone2 o9inionH an2 s-mmariOes the D-2+ment ,-rthere2 in this work :

No h-po'ri#-. De)ate he%p# #t$&ent# or! 'on"i'tion on a #o$n&%- re#ear'he& ar($!ent. Win&e# .60 ;R-sse.H Former Dir" De/ate Northwestern A" an2 ?hD $omm an2 0ocia. ?s*chH ?ost1Doc Fe..ow in 0ocia. Re.ations =ar7ar2 A"H 09eech TeacherH F$om9etiti7e De/atin+H the 09eech ?ro+ramH the In2i7i2-a.H an2 0ociet*GH 6;2<H MarchH 99" 1001101H E/sco< I, we remem/er what aca2emic 2e/atin+ isH we sho-.2 not -9set o-rse.7es with worr*in+ o7er whether or not a st-2ent is a h*9ocrite i, he 2e/ates /oth si2es o, a 9ro9ositionH ,or we know that the st-2ent 2oes not 9ersona.iOe one si2e o, a 9ro9osition or another" I, he ar+-es that Re2 $hina sho-.2 /e a2mitte2 to the Anite2 NationsH he 2oes not ha7e to /e.ie7e that it sho-.2H rather he knows that his Do/ entai.s 9re9arin+ the /est 9ossi/.e case in /eha., o, a +i7en 9ro9ositionH /e.ie7in+ that in a 2emocrac* e7er* si2e o, e7er* 9ro9osition is entit.e2 to a ,air hearin+" =e knowsH tooH that his essentia. o/Decti7e in st-2*in+ 2e/atin+ is to .earn the too.s o, ar+-ment an2 how the* can /est /e a99.ie2 in attackin+ an2 2e,en2in+ i2eas" =e ma* we.. know that he can not /e s-re which si2e o, the 9ro9osition is Mri+htM or Mwron+M -nti. he is ,ami.iar with an a/-n2ance o, ar+-ment an2 9roo, that ma* /e o,,ere2 in s-99ort o, /oth si2es" In this res9ectH he is 9re9arin+ ,or socia. ro.es he m-st 9.a* .ater on in .i,eH an2H .ike the attorne*H
he .earns to s-s9en2 his D-2+mentH to /e the M2e7i.Ls a27ocateM on occasion" One mi+ht ask those who insist that a..owin+ an aca2emic 2e/ater to 2e/ate /oth si2es is wicke2H wh* sho-.2 a siCteen *ear o.2 2e/ater ha7e to /e.ie7e so stron+.* in one si2e o, a 9ro9osition that he cannot see a secon2 si2eT J-st /eca-se this is a co-ntr* with ,ree2om o, o9inion 2oes not mean that e7er*/o2* has to ha7e an o9inion a/o-t e7er*thin+" One o, the tro-/.es with the wor.2H it wo-.2 seemH is that some 9eo9.e ho.2 o9inions so stron+.* the* can not see that

ENDI 2010 56 Framework other 9eo9.e ha7e +oo2 reasons ,or /e.ie7in+ 2i,,erent.*" De/atin+ /oth si2es o, a 9ro9osition 9ro/a/.* contri/-tes to to.erance" Moreo7erH /esi2es the .aw*erLs ro.eH there are others in which 2e7i.Ls a27ocac* is D-sti,ie2" The Roman $atho.ic $h-rchH e7en at the
canoniOation o, a saintH a2mits an2 .istens 9atient.* to a M2e7i.Ls a27ocateM" The ho.iest o, menH it a99earsH cannot /e a2mitte2 to 9osth-mo-s honors -nti. a.. that the 2e7i. co-.2 sa* a+ainst him is known an2 wei+he2 "

ENDI 2010 Framework

60

A2J @O<< OF CONVICTION

Bn&er#tan&in( )oth #i&e# i# 'r$'ia% to #o$n& !ora% 'on"i'tion. M$ir 2/; ;0tarH ?ro," $omm" 4eor+e Mason A"H ?hi.oso9h* an2 RhetoricH FA De,ense o, the Ethics o, $ontem9orar* De/ateGH 2!;'<H 99"2601261< 0o-n2 con7iction 2e9en2s -9on a thoro-+h -n2erstan2in+ o, the contro7ersia. 9ro/.em -n2er consi2eration " " " " This thoro-+h
-n2erstan2in+ o, the 9ro/.em 2e9en2s -9on care,-. ana.*sis o, the iss-es an2 s-r7e* o, the maDor ar+-ments an2 s-99ortin+ e7i2ence" " " H This meas-re2 ana.*sis an2 eCamination o, the e7i2ence an2 ar+-ment can /est /e 2one /* the care,-. testin+ o, each ar+-ment 9ro an2 con" " " " The .earnerLs so-n2 con7iction co7erin+ contro7ersia. K-estions Rthere,oreS 2e9en2s 9art.* -9on his eC9erience in 2e,en2in+ an28or reDectin+ tentati7e a,,irmati7e an2 ne+ati7e 9ositions"MM# 0o-n2 con7ictionH a ke* e.ement o, an in2i7i2-a.Ls mora. i2entit*H is th-s c.ose.* .inke2 to a reasone2 assessment o, /oth si2es" 0ome ha7e e7en s-++este2 that it wo-.2 /e immora. not to reK-ire 2e/aters to 2e,en2 /oth si2es o, the iss-es" MM It 2oes seem h*9ocritica. to acce9t the /asic 9remise o, 2e/ateH that two o99osin+ acco-nts are 9resent on e7er*thin+H an2 then to a..ow st-2ents the com,ort o, their own -nteste2 con7ictions" De/ate miwin+ht /e ren2erin+ st-2ents a 2isser7ice H inso,ar as mora. e2-cation is concerne2H i, it 2i2 not

9ro7i2e them some know.e2+e o, a.ternati7e 7iews an2 the concomitant stren+th o, a reasone2 mora. con7iction"

ENDI 2010 Framework

61

A2J 1O@ITICA@ CON<ERVATI<M

Thi# ar($!ent &oe#n.t pan o$t in the 'onte8t o a't$a% &e)ate a* Mo#t &e)ater# are %i)era%6 not 'on#er"ati"e at %ea#t FAR MORE %i)era% than the a"era(e A!eri'an. At the "er%ea#t pro"e# !a7or a%t 'a$#e# to h-per='on#er"ati"e po%iti'#. )* Thi# ar($!ent i# >$e#tion=)e((in(. The- &on.t a't$a%%- i!pa't po%iti'a% 'on#er"ati#!6 7$#t a##$!e the tr$th "a%$e o their '%ai!# an& pro"e 0e e8'%$&e the!. Fairne## i# a prere>$i#ite to &eter!ine 0hether 0e #ho$%& e"en )e &e)atin( their '%ai!# #in'e prepare& in=&epth '%a#h i# the on%- to &eter!ine the #$)7e't=area i# a't$a%%- 0orth &i#'$##in(. Thi# ar($!ent i# )a'50ar&#. 1o%i'- ana%-#i# o'$#e& on the #tate pro!ote# pro(re##i"e i&ea#. Re rainin( ro! rationa% po%i'- p%annin( 'reate# a )a'5=&oor or a)#o%$ti#t 'on#er"ati#!. @-nn .// ;)a-renceH 0i2 Richar2son Research ?ro," in )>J 0choo. o, ?-/.ic A,,airs AT A-stinH Jo-rna. o, ?o.ic* Ana.*sis an2 Mana+ementH FA ?.ace at the Ta/.e: ?o.ic* Ana.*sisH Its ?ost9ositi7e $riticsH an2 the F-t-re o, ?racticeGH 15:&< ?o.ic* ana.*sisH sa*s Tor+ersonH is Fha-nte2G /* its ori+ina. F2reamG whichH as he te..s itH /earin+ Fthe -nmistaka/.e im9rint o, the 9ositi7ist herita+eHG is o, the
a/o.ition o, 9o.itics ;9" &'H em9hasis a22e2<" F?ro,essiona. 9o.ic* ana.*sisHG he sa*sH Fis not rea..* o, this wor.2Nthis a..1too1h-man wor.2 o, con,.ictH con,-sionH an2 2o-/t" " " " RTShe ana.*st " " " /ecomes one who 9er,orms remote o9erations on an essentia..* a.ien o/DectG ;9" &@<" >eca-se the +oa.s o, 9o.ic* are matters o, 7a.-eH not ,acts an2 .o+icH +oa.s cannot /e inc.-2e2 within the sco9e o, what the 9o.ic*

F2reamHG he sa*sH m-st /e seen ,or the ni+htmare that it is: =-C.e*Qs >ra7e New Wor.2H Orwe..Qs 165'" Writin+ in 165!H Tor+erson was o9timistic that the Fs9e.. o, 9ositi7ismG mi+ht /e /roken /* the 9ost9ositi7e t-rn in socia. science" The 9o.ic* ana.*st is s-cc-m/in+ to the tem9tation to Doin societ* an2 2e7e.o9 the
ana.*st knows a/o-t" As a res-.tH con7entiona. 9o.ic* ana.*sis is F/.in2e2 to 9o.itica. rea.it*G ;9" &3<" The 9o.ic* ana.*stsQ F9artici9ator* 9otentia.G o, 9o.ic* ana.*sis" Inte..ect-a. s-stenance ,or this mo7ement was /ein+ 9ro7i2e2 /* MaDoneQs thinkin+ on 9o.ic* ana.*sisH which he.9s shatter Fthe technocratic eC9ectation o, 9recise an2 certain so.-tionsG ;9" ''<" New ,ie.2s s-ch as im9act assessmentH sa*s Tor+ersonH in7ite /roa2er e7a.-ation o, technocratic so.-tions" ?ost9ositi7e 9o.ic* ana.*sts wi.. come to ha7e Fan ac-te

" ?ositi7ism has /een se7ere.* shakenH i, not 7anK-ishe2H sai2 Wi..iam Ascher when ste99in+ 2own as e2itor o, ?o.ic* 0ciences RAscherH 1653S" The Fim9ortance o, conteCt-a.H inter2isci9.inar*H 9ro/.em1oriente2 inK-ir*G has /een s-ccess,-..* reasserte2 ;9" &<" The ,ie.2 is now aware that the 9o.ic* ana.*st
awareness o, their own ,rai.t* an2 ,a..i/i.it*G an2 wi.. Fmake their h-manit* a99arentG ;9" @1<" The te..in+ o, the stor* is contin-e2 /* others is 9art o, the 9o.ic* 9rocessH an2 the ana.*stsQ K-iCotic ,iCation on -ni7ersa. .aws is /ein+ a/an2one2" It +ets e7en /etter" D-rnin+ ;in this iss-e< K-otes Dr*Oek an2 Tor+erson as sa*in+ that 9ost9ositi7ist

H the 9ost9ositi7ist anim-s a+ainst -nreconstr-cte2 9o.ic* ana.*sis has two 9rimar* ca-ses" The ,irst is the 9res-me2 a2herence /* 9o.ic* ana.*sts to the 9ositi7ist 2o+ma that ,acts an2 7a.-es m-st /e ke9t strict.* se9arate an2 that ,acts an2 ,acts a.one are the 9ro7ince o, the 9o.ic* ana.*st" ?o.ic* ana.*sts c-m
9o.ic* ana.*sis Fnow occ-9ies the inte..ect-a. hi+h +ro-n2 in the 9o.ic* ,ie.2"G& In +enera.H as I rea2 it 9ositi7ists are sai2 to /e 2etermine2 to i2enti,* an2 a99.* -ni7ersa. .aws ;9res-ma/.* inc.-2in+ the F.aw o, s-99.* an2 2eman2G< to the Fo/Decti7e ,actsG o, socia. .i,e" The* are in2icte2 ,or c.in+in+ to the ho9e that F9o.ic* 2e/ate can /e con,ine2 to technica. K-estions on which eC9erts can a+reeHG ,or /e.ie7in+ that there are o/Decti7e r-.es o, /eha7ior that wi.. a-tomatica..* .ea2 to o9tima. res-.ts RDanOi+erH 166@H 9" ''0S" Forrester R166&S e7a.-ates an2 ,in2s wantin+ the sta9.es o, con7entiona. 9o.ic* 9.annin+ 9ractice: means1en2s mo2e.s o, instr-menta. rationa.it*I 9ro/.em1so.7in+H rationa.isticH Fscienti,icG mo2e.sI c*/erneticH in,ormation19rocessin+ mo2e.sI an2 Fsatis,icin+G mo2e.s o, F/o-n2e2 rationa.it*G ;9" 16<" These 9racticesH he sa*sH ,ai. to a22ress ethica. an2 normati7e iss-es associate2 with

The 9ost9ositi7ist co-nterar+-ment is two,o.2: ;1< ,acts an2 7a.-es cannot an2 sho-.2 not /e se9arate2 in 2emocratic 2e.i/erationI 9o.ic* ana.*sts m-st take a F7a.-e critica. a99roachG in whichH as 2e)eon 9-ts itH Fi2eo.o+*H 7a.-esH an2 /e.ie, /ecome 9art an2 9arce. o, the ,orma. ana.*sisG ;2e)eonH 1663H 9" 36<I an2 ;2< ,acts are socia. constr-ctionsH not o/Decti7e ,eat-res o, the materia. wor.2 awaitin+ 2isco7er*H an2 an* re9resentation o, Ftr-e ,actsG m-st /e reco+niOe2 as essentia..* ar/itrar*H 9se-2o2isco7eries that 2is+-ise a socia.H 9o.itica. a+en2a" There are no socia. ,acts that eCist in2e9en2ent o, in7esti+ators as socio9o.itica. /ein+s" 0cience is not F9assi7e rece9tion an2 or+aniOation o, sense 2ataHG /-t rather itse., a 9ro2-ct o, the
9o.ic*makin+ in a s*stematic manner" socia. wor.2H F+ro-n2e2 in an2 sha9e2 /* normati7e s-99ositions an2 socia. meanin+sG RFischerH 166&H 9" 1!3S" ?ost9ositi7ists wo-.2 s-/Dect a.. 7a.-es to eC9.icit ana.*sisH -sin+ a99roaches s-ch as Z1 metho2o.o+* ,or this 9-r9oseH an2 ana.*ses o, 7a.-es wo-.2 /e at the heart o, 9o.ic* ana.*sis 9ractice" ?ost9ositi7ists 7ario-s.* ,a7or an inter9reti7e or hermene-tic or narrati7e -n2erstan2in+ o, the

the c.iente.ism o, 9o.ic* ana.*sis" ?ost9ositi7ists 7iew the 9artnershi9 /etween 9o.ic* ana.*sis an2 the hierarchica. state as 2e7astatin+ to 2emocrac* an2 to the 9o.icies that wo-.2 otherwise emer+e ,rom -nim9e2e2 2isc-ssion amon+ in,orme2H a-tonomo-s citiOens" ?ost9ositi7ists attack
materia. an2 socia. wor.2" Who Is Fo, This Wor.2GT The secon2 so-rce o, 9ost9ositi7e anim-s a+ainst 9o.ic* ana.*sis 9ractice is the hierarchica. str-ct-res o, a to912ownH mass societ* that enact e.itist 9o.icies ,a7orin+ the ,ew RFischerH 166&H 9" 1!!S an2 in2ict 9o.ic* ana.*sts as han2mai2ens o, 9ower" The* wo-.2 s-/stit-te ,or /-rea-crac* what is 7ario-s.* terme2 Fa-thentic 2emocrac*HG F-nim9e2e2 inK-ir*HG an2 Fethica..* i..-minatin+H comm-nicati7e 9ractice"G With this ar+-mentH we shi,t ,rom e9istemo.o+* to 9o.itics" ?eter 2e)eon K-otes Tor+erson as ,o..ows: FIt sho-.2 " " " /e reco+niOe2 that the a2o9tion o, an* metho2o.o+ica. 9ost-reNwhether ri+ht or wron+Nis inesca9a/.* a ,orm o, 9o.itica. actionG R2e)eonH 1663H 9"

" To 9o.ic* ana.*stsH the co-nter,act-a. is the wor.2 that ,r-strate2 $har.es 0ch-.tOe an2 A.ice Ri7.inH a wor.2 with no one at the ta/.e to a22 c.arit*H tho-+ht,-. ana.*sisH an2 an awareness o, a.ternati7es an2 o99ort-nit* costs to the 2isc-ssionH a wor.2 2ominate2 /* the inertia o, +o7ernment an2 /* Fmi.itar* reK-irementsHG 9ro,essiona. me2ica. D-2+mentH the sanctit* o, s-/si2iesH an2 the s-9eriorit* o, sentiment" To the 9ost9ositi7istsH the co-nter,act-a. a99ears to /e a 9o.itics who..* reconstit-te2 aro-n2 em9owere2 an2 in,orme2 citiOens" ?ost9ositi7ists e7i2ent.* /e.ie7e that e.iminatin+ 9ositi7ist 9ractice an2 the instit-tions that s-stain it wi.. im9ro7e the 9ros9ects ,or -nim9e2e2 2isco-rse an2 2e.i/eration -n2istorte2 /* e.ite /ias" This 2i,,erence seems to me to /e ca9t-re2 in the ,o..owin+ tho-+ht eC9eriment" 0-99ose that con7entiona.H 9ositi7ist 9o.ic* ana.*sisH where7er an2 /* whome7er it is c-rrent.* 9ractice2H co-.2 /e s-r+ica..* remo7e2 ,rom the /o2* 9o.itic" That isH
5!S" Tra2itiona. 9o.ic* ana.*sts 2i,,er shar9.* ,rom their 9ost9ositi7e critics in 9o.itica. 9ost-reH which is seen most c.ose.* in the 2i,,erences in their co-nter,act-a.s

ENDI 2010 62 Framework s-99ose that 9o.ic* ana.*sis as 9ractice2 in the 9.annin+H 9ro+ram 2e7e.o9mentH an2 /-2+et o,,ices o, ,e2era.H stateH an2 .oca. a+enciesI ;)*nn contin-esV<

ENDI 2010 Framework

6&

A2J 1O@ITICA@ CON<ERVATI<M

;)*nn contin-esV< in the 4enera. Acco-ntin+ O,,iceH the $on+ressiona. Research 0er7iceH an2 the $on+ressiona. >-2+et O,,iceI in The >rookin+s Instit-tion an2 the American Enter9rise Instit-teI at the Man9ower Demonstration Research $or9orationH Mathematica ?o.ic* ResearchH the $enter ,or
>-2+et an2 ?o.ic* ?rioritiesH an2 the Ar/an Instit-teI at the Instit-te ,or Research on ?o7ert* an2 the Joint $enter ,or ?o7ert* ResearchNto+ether with its most 9rominent 9ractitionersN=enr* AaronH

with their 9ositi7ist 9enchant ,or ,actsH ca-sa. mo2e.sH instr-menta. rationa.it*H e7a.-ation o, a.ternati7es an2 e7i2ence1/ase2 9racticeNco-.2 /e eCcise2 ,rom +o7ernment an2 sent to the co..ecti7e ,arm to 2o honest work" ?ost9ositi7istsH who cast s-ch instit-tions an2 in2i7i2-a.s as either ine,,ect-a. or the enemies o, 2emocrac*H wo-.2H I ass-meH ar+-e that the e.imination o, these Ftoo.s o, t*rann*G wo-.2 contri/-te towar2 im9ro7in+ the c.imate an2 9ros9ects ,or comm-nicati7e 9ractice /ase2 on 9ost9ositi7ist
Mar* Jo >aneH Da7i2 E..woo2H J-2ith 4-eronH Ro/ert 4reensteinH Re/ecca Ma*nar2H Ro/ert Reischa-erH A.ice Ri7.inH an2 Isa/e..e 0awhi..H e9istemo.o+ies" There wo-.2 /e +ro-n2s ,or +reater o9timism concernin+ 9o.icies that re,.ect the 7a.-es an2 i2eas o, in,orme2 citiOens" >ias a+ainst the 9o.iciesH constit-enciesH an2 9ower o, the

tra2itiona. 9o.ic* ana.*sts wo-.2 7iew the conseK-ences 7er* 2i,,erent.*" 0en2 9o.ic* ana.*sts to the co..ecti7e ,arm an2H in an ine7ita/.* interest2ominate2H hierarchica. 9o.itica. wor.2H nontrans9arent metho2s wo-.2 a+ain +o -ncha..en+e2 an2 /ecome e7en more 9er7asi7e" 0ecrec*H o/sc-rantismH corr-9tionH 2ece9tionH 2istortionH -n,o-n2e2 assertionH 2ishonest*H narrow am/itionH i2eo.o+ica. eCcessH an2 a.. the other tem9tations to which ,.esh is heir mi+ht we.. /e e7en more wi2e.* an2 sec-re.* 9ractice2" The 9ost9ositi7ist 2ream o, F-nim9e2e2 2isco-rseG co-.2 easi.* /ecome a ni+htmare o, 2isco-rse im9e2e2 not /* 9o.ic* ana.*sts c.aimin+ eC9ertise /-t /* a host o, other anti2emocratic e.ements inimica. to in,orme2 2isc-ssion an2 em9owere2 citiOens" $are,-. attention m-st /e 9ai2 to the 2esi+n o, instit-tions that 9romote coo9eration at 7ario-s .e7e.s o, socia. 2isco-rse ROstromH 1665SH /-t this is a 9ositi7ist 9roDect that 9ost9ositi7ists co-.2 scarce.* /e eC9ecte2 to en2orse" ?o.ic* ana.*sts ha7e a 2ee9er worr* a/o-t 9ost9ositi7ism" Notwithstan2in+ her own 9ositi7ist1tin+e2 acknow.e2+ment that F/etter ar+-mentsG sho-.2 9re7ai.H DanOi+er a99ro7in+.* cites 0tan.e* Fish as conce2in+ that 9ost9ositi7ist con7ictions are F-ns-99orte2 /* a/so.-te stan2ar2s eCterna. to themse.7esG RDanOi+erH 166@H 9" ''5S" That this is tr-e sho-.2 not -n2ermine the 9ost9ositi7istQs 2e,ense o, those con7ictionsH howe7er" In FishQs wor2s Fthe rhetorica. an2 constr-cte2 nat-re o, thin+s 2oes not com9romise their rea.it* /-t constit-tes itH constit-tes it in a ,orm that is as in7-.nera/.e to cha..en+e as it is -na7ai.a/.e to 7eri,icationG RFishH 1656H 99" @@2 @@&S" I, ha7in+ con7ictions that are in7-.nera/.e to cha..en+e an2 -na7ai.a/.e to 7eri,ication is a 7irt-eH thenH it seems to meH 9ost9ositi7ists are -r+in+ -s to reenter a 2arkH 9re1en.i+htenment a+e 2ominate2 /* the c.ash o, meta9h*sica. a/so.-tes in which iss-es are sett.e2 /* essentia.ist assertionsH 9ower an2 mane-7erH an2 2e.i/erate 2istortion or o-tri+ht s-99ression o, iss-es an2 o99osition" It wi.. /e a 9o.itics o, a/so.-tist c.aimsH /a2 n-m/ersH an2 worse ar+-mentsI o, emotion an2 -nreasonI o, the s-r7i7a. o, the most 2etermine2 with the most to +ain" $onser7ati7es who set a/o-t 2ismant.in+ the 2ata1co..ection ca9acit* o, eCec-ti7e a+encies in or2er to ro/ .i/era. 9o.ic* ana.*sis o, its .i,eQs /.oo2H who are actin+ on what the* /e.ie7e to /e a normati7e an2 critica. ana.*sis o, socia. 2*s,-nction ;e"+"H a retreat ,rom 4o2<H an2 who a27ocate 2e.i/eration amon+ citiOens that is -ncorr-9te2 /* the kin2 o, socia. science research too rea2i.* a7ai.a/.e in The 4reen >ookH wo-.2 seem to /e eCem9t ,rom most 9ost9ositi7ist criticism" ?res-ma/.*H i,H ,o..owin+ r-.es o, 2isco-rse an2 choice a+ree2 to /* a..H a comm-nit* wishes to misin7est 9-/.ic reso-rcesH si.ence 9o.itica..* incorrect or 2i7isi7e 7oicesH an2 a..ow se.,1a99ointe2 .oca. e.ites to 9-rs-e their am/itions witho-t restraintH then their wis2om neither sho-.2 /e criticiOe2 nor conteste2 /* 9ost9ositi7ists" In2ee2H as ,ar as I can te..H there are no 7a.i2 +ro-n2s ,or 2oin+ so" 4rassroots intimi2ation an2 9reD-2ice eC9resse2 thro-+h sho-tin+ in or2inar* .an+-a+e areH at .eastH a-thentic" Who Is Te..in+ the Tr-thT I, it is to /e 9ers-asi7e an2 in,.-entia.H a critiK-e o, 9o.ic* ana.*sis m-st /e
centra.iOe2 state wo-.2 no .on+er /e a/.e to 2istort 9-/.ic 2ia.o+-eH rei,* a+enc* 7iews o, the wor.2H an2 sti,.e the 9rocesses o, 2e.i/eration" In contrastH /ase2 on a histor* that FhearsG the 7oices o, its teachers an2 9ractitioners an2 that o/ser7es c.ose.* the conteCts an2 9ro2-cts o, 9ractice" As Dr*Oek an2 )eonar2 9-t itH FWhat remains " " " is histories that wo-.2 sort o-t the .essons o, the 9ast in a wa* that ,-t-re 9ractitionersNan2 9-/.icsNmi+ht ,in2 -se,-.G R1655H 9" 12@5S" I, s-ch an en+a+ement .ea2s to a co-nternarrati7eH 7oices that s9eak in 9ers-asi7e

the 9ost9ositi7ist 2ero+ation is a ,ai.-re" The 9ost9ositi7e caricat-re o, 9o.ic* ana.*sis is chi..in+H /-t ,a.seI it is so straine2H so ,ar remo7e2 ,rom the ethos o, 9o.ic* ana.*sis as +enera..* ta-+ht an2 9ractice2H that most 9ractitioners are D-sti,ie2 in 9a*in+ .itt.e or no attention to what the* re+ar2 as esotericH 9e2antic irre.e7ance" Moreo7erH the 9ost9ositi7ist 9enchant ,or constr-ctin+H as E2m-n2 Wi.son mi+ht 9-t itH Fima+inar* s*stems Rthat areS as antithetica. to the rea. one as 9ossi/.eG an2 ,or -sin+ these ima+inar* s*stems as a normati7e tem9.ate ,or 9ractice is so o/7io-s.* s-/ser7ient to a 9o.itica. a+en2a as to 7oi2 its c.aim to a-thorit* as an -n2istorte2 e9istemo.o+ica. critiK-e o, act-a. 9ractice" T=E $ENTER WI)) =O)D ?o.ic* ana.*sis as a 9ro,essiona. 9ractice has /een an2 m-st contin-e to /e ethica..* committe2 to ;1< im9ro7in+ 9-/.ic 9o.ic* thro-+h F/rin+in+ to the ta/.eG an in,orme2 7oice -n2istorte2 /* a materia. interest in 9o.ic* o-tcomes an2 ;2< 9-/.ic 9o.ic* 2isco-rseH /oth interna. an2 eCterna. to a+enciesH that is con2-cte2 with inte..ect-a. inte+rit* an2 a res9ect ,or 2emocratic instit-tions" ?o.ic* ana.*sts are o/.i+ate2 to reco+niOe an2 a2a9t to chan+es in the en7ironments an2 conteCts o, their 9racticeH to acknow.e2+e we..1,o-n2e2 criticisms o, their metho2s an2 9ro,essiona. con2-ctH an2 to /ein+ rea.istic concernin+ /oth the a27anta+es an2 .imitations o, the
re/-tta. to the 7oices re9resentin+ 9o.ic* ana.*sis as ta-+ht an2 9ractice2H then 9ro,essiona. 9ractice mi+ht /e in2-ce2 to mo7e more co-ra+eo-s.* in new 2irections" >* this stan2ar2H too.s at their 2is9osa." ?o.ic* ana.*sis is an2 wi.. remain 9ra+matic an2 cra,t*" For this reason 9o.ic* ana.*sis 9ractice wi.. contin-e to /e 2ri7en /* 9ro/.ems as the* arise in conteCt" A2mitte2.*H these conteCts are more o,ten than not hierarchica.H o,ten 9o.ariOe2H an2 a.wa*s interest12ri7en rather than the kin2 o, i2ea.iOe2 conteCts en7isione2 /* 9ost9ositi7ists" >-t 9-/.ic 9o.ic*makin+ is ,ar .ess F,e2era.G

" The eCi+encies o, the 9o.itica. wor.2 wi.. contin-e to ins-re a rea.it* check on 9racticeH an2 9ractice wi.. e7o.7e accor2in+.*" Fort-nate.*H tooH
an2 hierarchica. than it -se2 to /eH an2 2eca2es o, ri+ht1o,1center 9o.itics ha7e shi,te2 interest 2ecisi7e.* ,rom 9-/.ic 9ro+rams to incenti7esH choiceH an2 K-asi1markets

ENDI 2010 6' Framework the 9ro2-ction o, 9o.ic* ana.*sis is contin-o-s.* re,reshe2 /* new cohorts o, researchers an2 traine2 9ractitioners who /rin+ ,resh 9ers9ecti7es to the enter9rise" We.,are st-2ies to2a*N,or eCam9.eH the m-.ti2isci9.inar*H ,ie.21oriente2 research o, J-.ia =en.*H J-2ith )e7ineH Marcia Me*ersH an2
Jo2i 0an2,ortNscarce.* resem/.e those o, the 16!0s" For these an2 other reasonsH the wor.2 o, 9ractice has an2 wi.. contin-e to chan+eH /-t the center wi.. ho.2" Acknow.e2+in+ its a2a9ta/i.it*H Da7i2 WeimerH o7er+enero-s.* I thinkH .a/e.s 9o.ic* ana.*sis 9ractice as F9re9ost9ositi7istG R1665S" ?eter 2e)eon he.9,-..* -r+es /a.ance in a99ro9riatin+ the +oo2 i2eas an2 -se,-. 9ractices ,rom 9ractitioners o, 7ario-s 9ers-asions" A.tho-+h a ra2ica.H Marie DanOi+er makes the reasona/.e ar+-ment that 9o.ic* ana.*sts Fsho-.2 /e concerne2 that a.. re.e7ant 9arties ha7e access to s-,,icient 2ata an2 a .e7e. o, -n2erstan2in+ that wi.. ena/.e them to /e tr-e 9.a*ers in the 9o.ic* 9rocessG R166@H 9" ''@SH what )in2a an2 ?eter 2e)eon ca.. a F9o.ic* sciences o, 2emocrac*"G

ENDI 2010 Framework

6@

A2J 1O@ITICA@ CON<ERVATI<M

Thi# i# tr$e e"en a(ain#t the theoreti'a% i&ea% o e%i!inatin( %i)era% &e!o'ra'- in a"or o a ra&i'a% 'han(e in the 'on'ept o po%iti'#. @-nn 22 ;)a-renceH 0i2 Richar2son Research ?ro," in )>J 0choo. o, ?-/.ic A,,airs AT A-stinH A2ministration P 0ociet*H FDemocrac*Qs FAn,or+i7a/.e 0inGGH &';'<H 0e9tem/erH 0a+e< To the contrar*H sho-.2 their a+en2a sho-.2 /e a2o9te2H man* o, the /ene,its wo-.2 /e chimerica. an2 the costs wo-.2 /e m-ch hi+her" A who.esa.e shi,t o, 9o.itica. an2 a2ministrati7e 9ower towar2 FcitiOensHG es9ecia..* i, -n2isci9.ine2 /* .e+is.ati7e an2 D-2icia. 2e.i/eration an2 a99ro7a. ;on the necessit* o, which the 2e)eons are si.ent<Hwo-.2 9.ace in Deo9ar2* ,-n2amenta. ri+hts an2 9rotections that citiOensH no matter how Da2e2 towar2 9o.itics the* mi+ht seemH ha7e come to 2e9en2 on" To weaken re9resentati7e instit-tions wo-.2 .ea2 to a societ* that is .ess D-stH resi.ientH to.erantH 9ro+ressi7eH an2 e,,ecti7e in a22ressin+ its 9ro/.ems" The 2e)eonsQ i2eas are a rec-rrin+ theme in the 2isco-rse on 2emocrac* in America" 0-ch i2eas eC9ress the F2emocratic wishG ana.*Oe2 /*
James A" Morone ;1660< in The DemocraticWish: ?o9-.ar ?artici9ation an2 the )imits o, American 4o7ernment: Fchasin+ the e.-si7e ima+e o, the 9eo9.eH " " " seekin+ 9artici9ation in o,ten ima+inar* comm-nitiesG ;9" &22<" ?ro+ressi7es i2ea.iOe2 Fe,,icient citiOensG as Finte..i+entH e2-cate2H an2 o, +oo2 wi..H so that 7er* .itt.e a-thoritati7e 2irection is necessar*H an2 when necessar* is 9er,orme2 with econom* an2 com9etenceG ;Wa.2oH 165'H 9" 16<" Accor2in+ to James >r*ceH i, em9owere2H the a7era+e citiOen wi.. +i7e c.ose an2 constant attention to 9-/.ic a,,airs" " " "With s-ch citiOens as e.ectorsH the .e+is.at-re wi.. /e com9ose2 o, -9ri+ht an2 ca9a/.e R9eo9.eSH sin+.e1min2e2 in their wish to ser7e the nation" " " " O,,ice wi.. /e so-+ht on.* /eca-se it +i7es o99ort-nities ,or -se,-. 9-/.ic ser7ice" ?ower wi.. /e share2 /* a..H an2 a career o9en to a.." ;as cite2 in DimockH 16'@H 9" '&< Recent eC9ressions o, this wish inc.-2e The Ma+ic o, Dia.o+-e /* Danie. Eanke.o7ich ;1666<I The >i+ Test /* Nicho.as )ehmann ;1666<I MannersH Mora.s an2 the EtiK-ette o, Democrac* /* 0te9hen $arter ;1665<I The Ar+-ment $-.t-re: Mo7in+ From De/ate to Dia.o+-e /* De/orah Tannen ;1665<I an2 0cienceH Tr-thH an2 Democrac* /* ?hi.i9 Kitcher ;2001<" These kin2s o, i2eas 2o not 2e,ine the entire inte..ect-a. a+en2a ,or im9.ementin+ a 2emocratic ethosH howe7er" In m* eC9erience as a 9-/.ic o,,icia.H a2ministratorH

2irect 9artici9ation has a.wa*s raise2 7eCin+ iss-es" Amon+ them are the 2estr-cti7e conseK-ences o, rent seekin+H am/itionH i+noranceH a7ariceH i2eo.o+*H narcissismH an2 9reD-2ice /* Fine,,icient citiOensHG /eha7iors that seem as .ike.* to 2is,i+-re the 2e.i/erations o, a +rassroots ,or-m as o, a .e+is.ati7e mark-9 sessionH a mana+ement sta,, meetin+H or an e.ite /.-e1ri//on commission" Economists wi.. a22-ce co..ecti7e action
acti7e citiOenH +ro-9 9artici9antH /oar2 mem/erH case writerH 9o.ic* ana.*stH an2 teacher o, 9ractitionersH the 9ros9ect or ,act o, 9ro/.emsH o99ort-nismH con,.icts o, interestH an2 in,ormation as*mmetries to eC9.ain the 9artici9ator* /rico.a+e we ten2 to o/ser7e thro-+ho-t ci7ic .i,e" Anthro9o.o+istsH socio.o+istsH socia. 9s*cho.o+istsH an2 other st-2ents o, socia. /eha7ior wi.. a22-ce man* other eC9.anations ,or the 7a+aries o, h-man interaction" Des9ite the 2e)eonsQo9timismH citiOens are not a.wa*s 7irt-o-sH o,ten 9re,errin+ to eCtin+-ish the ,ree2oms an2 ri+hts o, othersH to 2isci9.ine or eC9e. 2issi2entsH an2 to a++ran2iOe themse.7es at 9-/.ic eC9ense o7er 9reser7in+ the 2emocratic ethos in an* 7ersion" The tr-th o, this

it a# %i5e%- that the i&ea% i# 0ron( a# it i# that the rea%it- i# )a&" " " " We /ecome c*nica. a/o-t 2emocrac* /eca-se the 9-/.ic 2oes not act the wa* the sim9.istic 2e,inition o, 2emocrac* sa*s that it sho-.2 actH or we tr* to whi9 the
9ro9osition ins9ire2 E" E" 0chattschnei2er ;163@< to ar+-e that we nee2 to eCamine the chasm /etween the i2ea. an2 9ractice /eca-se 9-/.ic into 2oin+ thin+s it 2oes not want to 2oH is -na/.e to 2oH an2 has too m-ch sense to 2o" ;99" 125H 1&1< FI, the 2emocratic i2ea. were achie7e2HG o/ser7e2Kenneth Arrow;163'<H Fthe e.ectorate wo-.2 /e the a-thorit*H /-t it mi+ht we.. /e as ina2eK-ate an2 irres9onsi/.e as an* otherG ;9" !!<" 0chattschnei2er conc.-2e2H FThe -n,or+i7a/.e sin o, 2emocratic 9o.itics is to 2issi9ate the 9ower o, the 9-/.ic /*

" Associate2 with the 2emocratic wishH there,oreH has /een a re.ate2 wish to o7ercome these 7a+aries thro-+h the creation o, .i/era. instit-tions thatH at .east in 9rinci9.eH ens-re .i/ert* an2 D-stice ,or a.." American constit-tiona. +o7ernance
9-ttin+ it to tri7ia. -ses" The 9eo9.e cannot 2o the work o, the s*stemG ;9" 1&3< re.ies on a ,ramework o, checks an2 /a.ancesH a FMa2isonian schemeG o, se9arate2 instit-tions sharin+ 9owerH to 9rec.-2e 2estr-cti7e threats to F+o7ernment o,H /* an2 ,or the 9eo9.eHG inc.-2in+ those that

the instit-tions o, the mo2ern a2ministrati7e stateH inc.-2in+ the -se o, e.ectionH 2e.e+ationH hierarch*H r-.esH s9ecia.iOationH merit an2 ne-tra. com9etenceH cons-.tationH an2 2-e 9rocess" A.tho-+h ,ar ,rom coherentH occasiona..* o99ressi7e or
arise ,rom the 9eo9.e themse.7es" Th-sH thro-+ho-t o-r histor* the 2emocratic wish hasH as Morone has shownH /een trans.ate2 into corr-9tH an2 o,ten i.. s-ite2 to a chan+in+ wor.2H s-ch instit-tions are inten2e2 to sec-re the /ene,its o, 2emocrac*" ?-/.ic a2ministrationQs ,o-n2in+ scho.ars ,-..* -n2erstoo2 this in ar+-in+ that trans9arentH 9o.itica..* res9onsi/.e a2ministration o, 9-/.ic 9o.icies an2 ,-nctionsH 2es9ite the 2an+ers inherent in /-rea-crac*H is a 9rimar* means o, im9.ementin+ r-.e /* the 9eo9.e" To re+ar2 a.. instit-tions that are re9resentati7e rather than 9artici9ator*I that are in2irect rather than 2irectI that 9ri7i.e+e know.e2+eH ski..H an2 com9etence o7er i+norance an2 ineC9erienceI an2 that re.* on 2e.e+ation an2 2iscretion rather

The tro-/.e with F9artici9ator* *earnin+HG Morone ;1660< sai2H is Fits innocence o, or+aniOationa. 2*namicsG ;9" &&@<" The so.-tion is notH as the 2e)eons saw itH
than on 2irect 2emocrac* as -n2emocratic is to mis-n2erstan2N an2 to mis-n2erstan2 9ro,o-n2.*Nwh* o-r constit-tiona. ,orm o, +o7ernment was create2 an2 en2-res"2 Fmore 2emocrac*G /-t somethin+ more 2i,,ic-.t: Fto in,-se o-r instit-tions with /roa2Hworka/.e ,orms o, 9o9-.ar 9artici9ationG ;9" &&!<" The cha..en+e is to i2enti,* those /roa2Hworka/.e ,orms o, 9artici9ation that wi.. not a..ow Fnot in m* /ack*ar2G to /ecome nationa. 9o.ic*" Democrac*Qs 2i.emmas are the s-/Dects o, s*stematic thinkin+ an2 research that s-++est the ma+nit-2e o, this cha..en+e" =ere is a smatterin+" One st-2* o, how we.. comm-nit* ser7ice or+aniOations meet comm-nit* nee2s conc.-2e2H FFrom a /roa2er 9o.ic* stan29ointH o-r ,in2in+s K-estion the a/i.it* o, comm-nit* ser7ice or+aniOations to i2enti,* an2 res9on2 to comm-nit* nee2sG ;MarkhamH JohnsonH P >onDeanH 1666H 9" 13!<" A s-r7e* o, research on nei+h/orhoo21re9resentin+ or+aniOations ,o-n2 Fa .ow .e7e. o, /oth 9artici9ator* an2 re9resentati7e 2emocrac*G in s-ch or+aniOations ;$naanH 1661H 9" !26<" Research on a.ternati7e 2is9-te reso.-tion 9rocesses in 4erman en7ironmenta. 9o.ic* makin+ conc.-2e2 that 2isco-rse in7o.7in+ know.e2+e 2is9-tes m-st occ-r ear.ier an2 at hi+her .e7e.s than at the Fen21o,19i9eG citiOen .e7e.H where 2isco-rse ,o-n2ers ;Ke..er P ?o,er.H 2000<" Accor2in+ to another st-2*H citiOen initiati7es that restrict ci7i. ri+hts eC9erience ,ar +reater s-ccess than citiOen initiati7es in +enera. ;4am/.eH 1663<" Fina..*H winners an2 .osers in 9o.itica. contests eC9ress 2i,,erent .e7e.s o, satis,action with 2emocratic instit-tionsH winners 9re,errin+ maDoritarian +o7ernment an2 .osers 9re,errin+ consens-a. 9rocesses ;An2erson P 4-i..or*H 1663<H +-aranteein+ 9o.itica. contests o7er instit-tiona. ,orms that threaten sta/i.it*" An.ess one is i2eo.o+ica..* committe2 to 2irect citiOen 9artici9ation Fat a.. sta+es o, 9o.ic* makin+ an2 im9.ementationG as the on.* .e+itimate +oa. o, 2emocratic +o7ernmentH then tho-+ht,-. consi2eration o, the 9ro9osition on o,,er ,rom the 2e)eons reK-ires a m-ch 2ee9er ana.*sis than the* ha7e 9ro7i2e2" What is nee2e2 is ana.*sis o, how the e,,ort to instit-tiona.iOe F9an2emic 9artici9ationG at e7er* .e7e. o, +o7ernance wo-.2 a,,ect the 9er,ormance o, o-r 2emocrac* across a ran+e o, 7a.-es an2 o, howH in ,-.. reco+nition o, the 2i,,ic-.ties in7o.7e2H Fworka/.e ,orms o, 9artici9ationG mi+ht /e ,or+e2" $reatin+ a Fworka/.e 2emocrac*G was Emmette Re2,or2Qs 9roDect" O, itH howe7erH he note2 that Fworka/.e 2emocrac* Rin which the interests o, each an2 a.. are re,.ecte2 in the tota.it* o, instit-tiona. o9erationsS is antithetica. to .aisseO ,aire /-t not to the a2ministrati7e state as a 2e7ice ,or ser7in+ h-man interests"G The 2e)eons ha7e reache2 the o99osite conc.-sionH /-t the* 2o not sa* wh*" Th-sH The 2e)eonsQ 7iew mi+ht we.. /e m-ch more strai+ht,orwar2 than I attri/-te to them" The* mi+ht /e.ie7e sim9.* that 9-/.ic mana+ement is c-rrent.* so 2ominate2 /* /iase2 e.ite an2 insi2er interestsH with a.. the ne,ario-s conseK-ences there/* entai.e2H that an* incrementa.mo7e awa* ,rom the stat-s K-o towar2 +reater citiOen 9artici9ation in an* ,ormwo-.2 /e an -nam/i+-o-s.* +oo2 thin+ an2 that it wi.. reK-ire 2e2ication to achie7e e7en that" With =a/ermasH the* ma* /e.ie7e that the En.i+htenment is an -n,inishe2 9roDect that wi.. /e a27ance2 thro-+h comm-nicati7e 2isco-rse" 0-ch a 7iew ma* seem so o/7io-s to them as to reK-ire no ana.*sis or D-sti,ication /e*on2 citin+ the 7iews o, .ike1min2e2 co..ea+-es" O-r 2isa+reementH thenH wo-.2 /e 9rimari.* o7er how m-ch scho.ar.* e,,ort sho-.2 /e ma2e to D-sti,* s-ch a 7iew in the American conteCt" It strikes me as a.so 9.a-si/.eH howe7erH that the 2e)eons are inc.ine2 towar2 a more ra2ica. 7ision

a rea2er is .e,t to s9ec-.ate a/o-t their 2ee9er a+en2a"

"

;)*nn contin-esV<

ENDI 2010 Framework

6!

A2J 1O@ITICA@ CON<ERVATI<M

;)*nn contin-esV< The* are notH it mi+ht /e s-99ose2H mere.* tinkerin+ with theworka/i.it* o, the Ma2isonian scheme thro-+h a 7ariet* o, /oth c.assica. an2 FNewA+eG re,orms" RatherH the* wish to re9.ace that schemeH with its -ni7ersa.iOin+H ,o-n2ationa.ist 2isco-rse that s-99resses c-.t-ra. 2i,,erences in ,a7or o, stat-s 2i,,erencesH with a 9ostmo2ern 9o.itics o, c-.t-ra. i2entit* an2 socia..* constr-cte2 7a.-es that F7a.oriOeRsS a 2i7ersit* o, .oca. 9o.itica. 9roDects an2 str-++.esG ;>est P Ke..nerH 2002H 9" 11<" As >est an2 Ke..ner ;2002< 9-t itH Fi2entities are m-.ti9.e an2 socia..* constr-cte2 Ran2S the* nee2 to /e reconstr-cte2 in an emanci9ator*H a-tonomo-sH an2 se.,1a,,irmin+ ,ashionG ;9" @<" ?an2emic 9artici9ation .en2s itse., to the 9rocess o, i2entit* constr-ction an2 .oca. str-++.eH a./eit at the risk o, ,etishiOin+ 7ario-s as9ects o, i2entit*" The 2e)eonsQ anti9ath* towar2 interest1/ase2 com9etition an2 2i,,erentiations o, stat-sH moreo7erH .ea2s .o+ica..* towar2 the hos9ita/.e 9recincts o, critica. theor*" 0-re.* one o, the -n2er.*in+ eC9.anations ,or F-n2emocraticG 9-/.ic mana+ement is that the 9artnershi9 o, .i/era. ca9ita.ism an2 re9resentati7e 9o.itics has socia.iOe2 citiOens into se.,1seekin+ in2i7i2-a.s rather than ca9acio-s comm-nitiesI into a Oero1s-mH interest +ro-9 .i/era.ismI into com9etin+ ,or 9o.itica. 9ower an2 strate+iOin+ ,or 9artisan a27anta+eI into scientistic h*9errationa.ismI an2 into str-ct-rein2-ce2H hierarchica..* maintaine2 eK-i.i/ri-ms that are as o7ert.* hosti.e to the .ait* as the Roman
$atho.ic $h-rch ;an2 as to.erant o, o,,icia. a/-ses<" $an the 2e)eons ho9e to s-ccee2 in their 9roDect o, trans,ormin+ 9o.itics whi.e the economic an2 socia. str-ct-res that s-stain the 9resent 9o.itics are sti.. in 9.aceT& Are the* not inte..ect-a..* o/.i+ate2 to em/race more ,-..* the Fnew historicismG or Fc-.t-ra. materia.ismG in or2er that their 9ro9osa. ha7e a .o+ica. ,o-n2ationT This isH as I sai2H sheer s9ec-.ation"' Its intent is to s-++est that some rea2ers otherwise wi..in+ to s-s9en2 2is/e.ie, to consi2er the 2e)eonsQ i2eas wi.. /ecome ,r-strate2 in the e,,ort" J-st what is it that the* are -9 to hereT Wh*

Wh* 2o the* 9ersist in i2enti,*in+ c.assica. 9-/.ic a2ministration with scienti,ic mana+ement an2 9o.ic* ana.*sis with technocrac* Nthat isH in creatin+ caricat-resN when re.e7ant theoretica. an2 9ractice .iterat-res at .east ar+-a/.* contra2ict themT In +enera.Hwh* are the 2emocratic 2i.emmas that ha7e tro-/.e2 so man* 9-/.ic mana+ement theorists an2 9ractitioners a.ike so -ntro-/.in+ to themT ?erha9s I cannot a7oi2 the inte..ect-a. /.inkers o, what mi+ht /e ca..e2 F.i/era. rea.ismHG /-tH to meH the contin-in+ e,,ort to sha9e an2 s-stain a worka/.e American 2emocrac* that 9.aces ,ree2om an2 D-stice at the center o, its concerns is AmericaQs most im9ortant -n2ertakin+" ?-/.ic mana+ement that 9.aces res9onsi/i.it* at the center o, its concerns is essentia. to the s-ccess o, this -n2ertakin+" AmericaQs achie7ements are the most nota/.eH an2 no/.eH when the Ma2isonian scheme works in s9ite o, o-r 2emocrac*Qs centri,-+a. ,orces" I, 9-rs-e2 witho-t rea.ismH 9an2emic 9artici9ationwo-.2 constit-te 2emocrac*Qs F-n,or+i7a/.e sinHG re.*in+ on citiOens to accom9.ish 9-r9oses ,or which stron+H re9resentati7e instit-tions are reK-ire2"
ha7e the* taken so .itt.e notice o, scho.ar.* tra2itions that ha7e he.9e2 to i..-minate the 7a.-es an2 iss-es at stake in their 9ro9osa. to s-/stit-te 9an2emic 9artici9ation ,or re9resentationT