DESIGN OF HEAT EXCHANGERS

An industry Oriented Project work Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the award of the degree of BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY IN Mechanical Engineering Submitted By
U.NAVEEN KUMAR A.INDIRA DEVI K.SANTHOSH 09HQ1A0357 09HQ1A0301 09HQ1A0330 D.SURESH D.CHANDRA SHEKAR P.V.APPA RAO 09HQ1A0320 09HQ1A0317 09HQ1A0346

Under the Guidance of Sri. B.VENKAT RAO B.E (MECH) MANAGER (Engg & Training) Bharat Heavy Plate & Vessels Ltd.

Department of Mechanical Engineering, AVANTHIS RESEARCH & TECHNOLOGICAL ACADEMY (Affiliated to JNTU, Kakinada, Approved by A.I.C.T.E, New Delhi) (2012-2013)

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AVANTHIS RESEARCH AND TECHNOLOGICAL ACADEMY

Department of Mechanical Engineering CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the case study entitled DESIGN OF HEAT EXCHANGERS that is being submitted by
U.NAVEEN KUMAR A.INDIRA DEVI K.SANTHOSH D.SURESH D.CHANDRA SHEKAR P.V.APPA RAO 09HQ1A0357 09HQ1A0301 09HQ1A0330 09HQ1A0320 09HQ1A0317 09HQ1A0346

Which is partial fulfillment of the requirement for the award of B.Tech in Mechanical Engineering during the academic years 2009-2013 to the Avanthis Research & Technological Academy, Vizianagaram is a record of bonafide work carried out by them under guidance and supervision of Sri. B.VENKAT RAO B.E (MECH)
MANAGER (Engg & Training) Bharat Heavy Plate & Vessels Ltd.

Internal guide

Head of the Department.

External Examiner
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
We wish to express our deep sense of gratitude and indebtedness thanks to Sri B.VENKATA RAO, MANAGER (Engg & Training), Bharat Heavy Plate & Vessels Ltd for spending his valuable time with us for the successful completion of this project work for providing us an opportunity to fulfill our cherished dream. We convey our sincere thanks to our internal guide Sri SURESH PRAKASH, M.Tech, Assoc. Professor in Mechanical Engineering, Avanthis Research and Technological Academy, Bhogapuram for his valuable guidance and encouragement in completing our project work. We specially thank to our Sri SURESH PRAKASH, M.Tech, Assoc. Professor in Mechanical Engineering, Avanthis Research and Technological Academy, Bhogapuram, for his help and valuable suggestions. We would like to express our gratitude towards my parents & Faculty members of Avanthis Research and Technological Academy, Bhogapuram. For their kind co-operation and encouragement which help me in completion of this project. We would like to express our special gratitude and thanks to industry persons for giving us such attention and time.

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CONTENTS
Page No. I. ABSTRACT 07

II. INTRODUCTION TO BHPV 1: DESIGN ASPECTS OF HEAT EXCHANGERS 1.1 Introduction 1.2 Heat Exchanger Definition 1.3 Purpose of Heat Exchanger 1.4 Classification of Heat transfer equipment 1.5 Logic of Design Process 1.6 Design Criteria 1.7 Codes and Standards 1.8 Key terms Used in the design & detailed design requirements 1.9 Mechanical Design Procedures 2: AN INTRODUCTION TO SHELL AND TUBE HEAT EXCHANGER 2.1 Foreword 2.2 Classification 2.3 Fixed tube sheet Exchanger 2.3.1 Advantages 2.3.2Disadvantages & Limitations 2.4 U- Tube Exchanger 2.4.1Advantages 2.4.2Disadvantages & Limitations 2.5 Floating Head Exchanger 2.5.1 Advantages

08

18 18 19 19 24 25 26 27 30

32 32 32 33 33 33 34 34 35 35
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2.5.2 Disadvantages & Limitations 3: THERMAL DESIGN OF HEAT EXCHANGERS 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Types of Heat Exchangers 3.3 General Design Procedure 3.4 Heat Exchanger Design Methods 3.4.1 LMTD Method 3.4.2 Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient 3.5 Required Input data for design 3.6 Calculation Procedure 4: THERMAL DESIGN OF SHELL AND TUBE HEAT EXCHANGERS 4.1 Design of Shell and Tube Heat Exchangers 4.2 Thermal Design Features 5: DESIGN AND SELECTION OF GASKETS 5.1 Foreword 5.2 Functions of Gaskets 5.3 Factors Governing Gasket Design 5.4 Classification of gasketted joints 5.5 Design of Gasketted Joints 5.5.1 Gasket seating stress 5.5.2 The Gasket Factor 5.5.3 Bolt Loads 5.6 Gasket M & Y Factors

35

36 36 36 37 37 38 39 39

41 41

45 46 47 49 50 50 50 51 52
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5.7 Effecting a seal 5.8 Gasket Seating 5.9 Forces acting on Gasketted Joint 5.10 Bolt Load Formulae 5.11 Gasket Materials 6. CONCLUSION 7. BIBLIOGRAPHY

54 55 56 57 58 65 66

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ABSTRACT
This Project deals with thermal and mechanical design of Heat Exchangers particularly Shell and tube type Heat Exchangers based on the principles specified in universally renowned and adopted international codes.viz American Society of Mechanical Engineers(ASME), Section vii, div 1 and section ii, part A & D, Tubular Exchanger of mechanical Association (TEMA) . A brief Literature on classification of heat exchangers, with particular reference to shell and tube type and their applications in the present industry is also presented. In addition to that the parameters effectively thermal design and operational problems encountered is shell and tube heat exchangers are we studied and relevant suggestions are also suggested to overcome those problems.

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INTRODUCTION TO BHPV
Bharat Heavy Plate and Vessels Limited is established in 1969 by the subsidiary of BHARAT HEAVY ELECTRICALS LIMITED by the government of India in A.P. to fabricate process plant equipment for the fertilizer, petroleum, chemical, petro-chemical and alloyed industries. BHPV`S beginnings were humble; it had a turnover of just 5 lakhs in 1971 72 when commercial production first commenced. Since then, BHPV has come a long way and exceeded a turnover of 200 crores expanding its product line to include high technology equipment and systems like multi layer vessels, turnkey cryogenic plants, storage and distribution systems, industrial boilers, waste heat recovery systems, oil and gas processing systems etc. Today, BHPV is the backbone of the Indians process industries. Be it 1. Steel or Fertilizer 2. Chemicals or Refineries 3. Petrochemicals or Oil 4. Gas processing systems Nuclear/ Defense /Space 5. BHPV place a leading role, with a range of products comparable to the best in the world, manufacture to its own designing or to the specific designing of the customer consultants The BHPV product line is exhaustive it encompasses processes plant equipment, cryogenic equipment and industrial boilers. This range of equipment is manufactured in collaboration with some of the worlds leading process equipment manufactures. BHPV`S COLLABORATORS: Skoda export, Czechoslovakia, for the installation of equipment and training of personnel. L`Air Liquide France, for cryogenic storage systems and air and gas separation plants, Tonnage oxygen plants up to 2200 TPD capacity, nitrogen wash plants and purge gas recovery units. Unitech of USA, for multiple effect evaporation plants. Bignier- schmid-laurent of France for the
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manufacture of large-sized cryogenic storage tanks. Deals of France for the manufacture of boiler feed water De- aerators. Bharat Heavy Electricals Limited, India, for the manufacture of industrial boilers. ABB Lummus heat transfer, Netherlands for high pressure (including breech lock) heat exchangers, air cool exchangers, turbine exhaust condensers, dry cooling towers and fired heaters Hahn & clay in the heavy industries, U.S.A. for layered high-pressure vessels. BS & B Engineering Co., Inc., U.S.A. for oil and gas processing systems. BHPV CLIENTS: The term process industry covers fertilizer, steel, oil exploration and refinery, chemical and petro-chemical industry. By systematically building up its capabilities, is today catering to the entire need of the steel plant industry. Naturally, its client list reads like a whos who of Indian industry. Almost all fertilizer plants in the country including giant units of the fertilizer corporation of India, National Fertilizers Limited, Hindustan Fertilizers and chemicals, Rashtriya Chemicals and Fertilizers Ltd., Indo-Gulf Chemicals and Fertilizers Ltd. Gujarat State Fertilizers Corporation Ltd., Indian Formers Fertilizers co-operative Ltd., Bindal Agro Chemicals Ltd., Tata Chemicals and Fertilizers Ltd., have repeatedly sought BHPV equipment. BHPV has been among the foremost suppliers of process equipment for oil refineries. Mammoth organizations like Indian Oil Corporation, Hindustan Petroleum Corporation, Bharat Petroleum Corporation, Madras Refinery Ltd., Cochin Refinery Ltd., have all placed orders with BHPV for a wide range of equipment. For the petro-chemical and chemical industries BHPVs contribution has been just as striking. BHPV counts Indian Petro- chemicals Corporation Ltd., Bangaigaon Refinery and Petro-chemicals Ltd., Maharashtra Gas Cracker Complex, Tamilnadu petro products Ltd., Indian Drugs and Pharmaceuticals Ltd., Hindustan Antibiotics-all leaders in their field- as its regular customers. BHPV`s contribution extends to many industries such as 1. Oil Industry 2. Steel Industry 3. Aluminum Industry 4. Paper Industries too.
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Industry leaders like the oil and natural gas commission, the Steel Authority of India Ltd., Rashtriya Ispat Nigam, Bharat Aluminum Company, National Aluminum Company, and Hindustan Paper Corporation. BHPV`s esteemed client includes national dairy development board, Bharat Heavy Electrical Ltd., National Thermal Power Corporation, besides various heavy water projects and Nuclear Power Corporation. In short, BHPV has earned a massive vote of confidence from the entire spectrum of process plant. BHPV AN OVERVIEW: Primary Objective: To manufacture customer built capital equipment for the process industries such as fertilizers, petro-chemicals, petroleum refineries, chemicals etc. Incorporation of the Company: 1966 Technical Collaboration: M/s SKODA EXPORT, Provided by Czechoslovakia. Commencement of Construction: 1968 Completion of Construction: 1971 Commencement of Production: 1971 Initial Project Cost: Rs. 17.5 Crores Initial Product Mix: Heat Exchanges, Columns, and Pressure Vessels, Technological, Structures, piping Installed Capacity: 23,210 M.T. Turnover for the year 1996-97: RS. 300 Crores RESOURCES: Financial (As on 31 July, 2000) Authorized Capital (Rs Crores): 35.00 Crores

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Paid up Capital (Rs Crores): 29.30 Crores Gross Block (Rs Crores): 73.36 Crores (Provisional) PRODUCTION FACILITY: Factory Area: 197 Acres Total Covered Area: 90,000 Sq. Meters covered area of Production Production Shops: 56,000 Sq. Meters Power Requirement: 3,000 KW from APSEB No: of Ancillary Units: 11 PRODUCTS MANUFACTURED BY BHPV: BHPV manufactures various types of Pressure Vessels and Columns, Air Fin Coolers, Storage Spheres, Transportation Tanks and Deaerators, Heaters, Paper and Pulp, Heat Exchangers etc., for a host of applications. 1. PRESSUE VESSELS AND COLUMNS: From multi-layer construction with design pressure of 280 kg/sq.cm to simple low and medium pressure columns are manufactured. Tall and heavy columns with lengths up to 90 meters and weights up to 450 tons. Pressure ranges from vacuum to 55 kg/cm With the backup of experience engineers and a host of heavy capacity cranes and other equipment, BHPV undertakes site fabrication and electron on heavy equipment of any size and weight. Pressure vessel range includes agitator vessels, jacketed vessels & autoclaves limpet coils. 2.AIR FIN COOLERS: Air fin coolers of forced draft type for refineries, petro chemicals, and fertilizers. Complete units with fans, driving systems, structural scheme, louvers and paneling. 3. STORAGE SPHERES:

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Storage spheres of any size and thickness including low temperature service. BHPV also undertakes erection and site stress relieving of these spheres. 4. TRANSPORTATION TANKS: Transportation tanks of stainless steel and carbon steel, rail or truck mounted including low temperature applications are manufactured here 5. DEAERATORS AND FEED WATER HEATERS: BHPV manufactures complete feed water heater systems including Deaerators, high-pressure heaters and low-pressure heaters. 6. PAPER & PULP: Batch in continuous pulp digesters & multiple effect evaporation plant. Today BHPV, with its vast manufacturing capability, can manufacture process equipment of almost any size. In addition, it has the requisite handling facilities and being located at Visakhapatnam has excellent facilities for transporting all size vessels. In case of extra large equipment that cannot be transported, BHPV undertakes site fabrication & erection. 7. HEAT EXCHANGERS: Heat exchangers from low pressures atmospheric lined collars to high pressure heat exchangers with test pressure as high as 450 kg/cm almost all types of tubular exchangers for practically every requirement in chemical, fertilizers, petro-chemicals, refinery and heavy water plants have been fabricated and supplied. Quality: BHPV reputed for quality and workmen ship of its products. BHPV quality control department consists of 4 wings. Quality Assurance Quality control Physical testing and Metallographic Non destructive testing
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BHPV has received a number of international recognitions. BHPV is reputed for quality and workmanship of its product.BHPV has received a number of international accreditations.Such as: ASME U & U2 STAMPS ON Pressure Vessels ASME S Stamp for Industrial Boilers STAMI CARBON Urea Reactors HALDOR TOPSOE Ammonia Reactor, High Pressure Heat Exchangers ARABIAN AMERICAN Process Plant OIL COMPANY

As a part of Total Quality Management Program, B.H.P.V. has acquired ISO 9001 certification during the year 1993-94 particularly to up its exports and to be competitive in the international market. Re-certification of ISO 9001 has been obtained in 1996 & 1999. STRENGTH AND WEAKNESS: STERENGTHS: 1. Highly skilled and dedicated work force. 2. Good industrial relations. 3. BHPV reputed for quality. Recognitions: ASME U, U2, S and R Lloyds class-I certification 4. Well equipped shops. 5. Strong erection and commissioning set up with cranes etc. 6. Good R&D set up.

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7. Large design group. 8. Unit is nearer to a major sea port. WEAKNESSES: 1. Inadequate engineering capability. 2. Lack of systems engineering capability. 3. Project management. 4. Some worn out and out dated facilities need replacement. RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT: Research & Development department was established in 1975 and is well equipped with high tech equipment to cater to Applied Research and Product Development. R&D has developed 136 Projects so far. Some of the products commercialized include Titanium Air Bottles Cryo Vats Individual Quick Freezing Unit Super Insulated Piping Cryo Storage Tank D.M. Water Plants

BHPV has undertaken Development of Heat Exchangers for Light Combat Aircraft (LCA) Phase-II has been received from Aeronautical Development Agency, Bangalore. INTRODUCTION OF THE PRODUCT: Steam Generators are vital package units for almost every industry for either steam for process or power. B.H.P.V a premier organization for manufacture of process equipments such as pressure vessels, heat exchangers and columns has entered into the field of steam generation as a part of diversification in the year 1981. Prior to entering the steam generation

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field B.H.P.V. has successfully manufactured and supplied to BHEL some of the vital equipments such as drums, water walls, power piping etc., B.H.P.V. CAPABILITIES: Thermal Product design. Instrumentation Fuel systems Structural Design Manufacturing technology Quality Assurance.

FABRICATION TO SYSTEMS SUPPLY: Systems Packages: BHPV has acquired on one hand a vast experience in design, manufacture, supply, installation of process equipment and has developed an expertise in handling large turnkey systems in the areas of cryogenic & combustion systems. Systems Engineering: BHPV has developed over the years a strong system design group adequately manned by qualified and experienced engineers both in process and mechanical design. System design group has capability of designing various systems for the oil and gas sector, Metallurgical industries, paper and pulp etc. BHPV has already supplied a number of systems to ONGC, IOCL, HPCL and other oil sector industries as well as other industries such as NALCO, Hindustan paper corporation etc. These include: 1. Skid mountaineer test separators 2. Gas dehydration, Packages Filter separators, 3. Desalters and Heater Treaters
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4. Gas collection modules. SYSTEM RANGE: The systems that BHPV offers to oil and gas sectors are: 1. Separators: Horizontal 2 & 3 phase Vertical 2 & 3 phase Defoaming 2 & 3 phase Micro scrubbers Oil Skimmers

2. Heaters: Horizontal Direct Fired (HSFH) Liquid Bath Indirect (WBIH) Salt Bath (SBH) Propane Vaporizers (IHPV) Steam generators Low pressure (SG)

3. Oil Treaters: Vertical Heater Treaters Horizontal Heater Treaters (HDT) Electro static Heater Treaters (HET) Electro static Desalters (HED)

4. Low Temperature Separators (Joule-Thompson(JT)): Heated Bottom Hydrate Inhibited

5. Glycol Dehydrators:
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Contactors Regenerators Direct Fired

6. Oil and Gas Manifolds and Gathering Stations 7. Dry Desiccant Adsorption (DDH) 8. Desulphurization of Gas and Liquid: Amine Hot Potassium Carbonate Direct Oxidation

9. Sulphur Recovery: Claus

10. Gas Liquids Recovery Plant: Hydrocarbon Stabilizers Fractionators Expander Refrigerated

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CHAPTER 1 DESIGN ASPECTS OF HEAT EXCHANGERS

1.1 INTRODUCTION
The process of heat exchange between two fluids that are at different temperatures and separated by a solid wall occurs in many engineering applications. The device used to implement this exchange is termed a heat exchanger, and specific applications may be found in space heating and air-conditioning, power production, waste heat recovery, and chemical processing. The problem of heat transmission is encountered in many industries and because of the diversity in the fields of application there exist countless difference in detail. However, the calculation principle underlying the problem to design a heat exchanger are everywhere the same, and it is the purpose of this paper to present design calculations rather than to deal with the details of individual problems and special cases. Any chemical process system or thermal power production or space heating & cooling is based on the transfer or exchange of heat termed ad HEAT TRANSFER. It is very important and essential to maintain a heat balance in the process systems through the efficient use of heat transfer equipment and thereby achieve maximum plant economy by decreasing initial installed cost, operating cost and maintenance cost. 1.2 HEAT EXCHANGER DEFINITION: Heat Exchangers are devices designed to transfer heat from a high temperature source to a low temperature sink. The sources of heat can be: i. ii. iii. iv. v. vi. A chemical Reaction (as in combustion) A hot gas(eg:exhaust gases from boilers,furnaces,Kilns) A nuclear chain Reaction Radiant solar energy Steam used in the process Industry A special Heat Transfer process
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The heat sink can be any low temperature gas, solid, liquid or a mixture. 1.3 THE PURPOSE OF HEAT EXCHANGER: The purpose of Heat Exchanger can be either supply or removal of heat from a system. The most important decision underlying the design of a piece of heat transfer equipment is selection of the basic type of the equipment to be specified and designed for a given application. It is incumbent process to survey the very early stage in the design process to survey the range of basic equipment types available and to select the one most applicable to the particular process. 1.4 CLASSIFICATION OF HEAT TRANSFER EQUIPMENT: In most heat exchangers, the fluids are separated by a heat transfer surface, and ideally they do not mix. Such exchangers are referred to as the direct transfer type, or simply recuperators. In contrast, exchangers in which there is an intermittent heat exchange between the hot and cold fluids via thermal energy storage and rejection through the exchanger surface or matrixare referred to as the indirect transfer type or storage type, or simply regenerators. Such exchangers usually have leakage and fluid carryover from one stream to the other. a) Based on Principal of Operation or Transfer process: i. ii. Recuperative Type (Direct Transfer): Cold & Hot fluids flow simultaneously Heat is transferred through wall separating the fluids. Eg:Steam boilers, Heaters, Condensers etc Regenerative (Storage) Type: One and the same heating surface is alternatively exposed to the cold and hot fluids. Heat carried away by the hot fluid is taken away and stored in the walls of the apparatus and then transferred to the cold fluids. Eg: Open Hearth & glass Melting furnaces, Air heaters of blast furnaces.

These Regenerative and Recuperative Heat Exchangers are Called Surface Exchangers. iii. Fluidized Bed Type:

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Is a direct transfer type used to transfer heat between a fluid & finely divided particles of a solid material . Eg: Used in Chemical Industry, Coal fires Boilers and waste Heat Recovery.

b) Based on Fluid Flow arrangement: i. Parallel Flow

ii.

Counter Flow

iii.

Cross flow

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c) Based on Function: Condenser Cooler Chiller Vaporizer Re-boiler Heater Waste heat Boiler etc.

d) Based on Geometry of Construction: i. TUBULAR EXCHANGERS Concentric Tube or Double Pipe

Shell & Tube Shell and tube heat exchangers consist of a series of tubes. One set of these tubes

contains the fluid that must be either heated or cooled. The second fluid runs over the tubes that
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are being heated or cooled so that it can either provide the heat or absorb the heat required. A set of tubes is called the tube bundle and can be made up of several types of tubes: plain, longitudinally finned, etc. Shell and tube heat exchangers are typically used for high-pressure applications (with pressures greater than 30 bar and temperatures greater than 260 C). This is because the shell and tube heat exchangers are robust due to their shape.

ii.

EXTENDED SURFACE Plate fin This type of heat exchanger uses "sandwiched" passages containing fins to increase the efficiency of the unit. The designs include cross-flow and counter-flow coupled with various fin configurations such as straight fins, offset fins and wavy fins. Plate and fin heat exchangers are usually made of aluminum alloys which provide higher heat transfer efficiency. The material enables the system to operate at a lower temperature and reduce the weight of the equipment. Plate and fin heat exchangers are mostly used for low temperature services such as natural gas, helium and oxygen liquefaction plants, air separation plants and transport industries such as motor and aircraft engines.

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Tube fin(includes Air cooled HE)

iii.

PLATE TYPE Gasket plate Spiral Plate A spiral heat exchanger (SHE), may refer to a helical (coiled) tube configuration, more generally, the term refers to a pair of flat surfaces that are coiled to form the two channels in a counter-flow arrangement. Each of the two channels has one long curved path. A pair of fluid ports is connected tangentially to the outer arms of the spiral, and axial ports are common, but optional.
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The main advantage of the SHE is its highly efficient use of space. This attribute is often leveraged and partially reallocated to gain other improvements in performance, according to well known tradeoffs in heat exchanger design. (A notable tradeoff is capital cost Vs operating cost.) A compact SHE may be used to have a smaller footprint and thus lower all-around capital costs, or an over-sized SHE may be used to have less pressure drop, less pumping energy, higher thermal efficiency, and lower energy costs.

A consideration that often enters into selection of a basic type is the availability of comprehensive and accurate design methods for that equipment. Thus shell and tube exchangers, for which a generally very good design procedure is available are often selected for a service in preference to another type. 1.5 LOGIC OF DESIGN PROCESS: There are two classifications of heat exchangers application effecting the design & manufacturing Philosophy. First one is in units such as Automative radiators, domestic and commercial air conditioners, engine oil coolers etc.., where mass production of identical units are common. The design process for this class is based on the economic compulsion where a number of proto type units are designed and tested extensively over arrange of conditions expected and ultimately the best design is selected. Actual items are mass produced as close to proto type as possible. The second one is atypical heat exchanger found in a chemical or petroleum plant which is a ONE OFF design. There is no opportunity for testing the performance of these exchangers until plant becomes operational. Frequently these heat exchangers are to be used with characteristics that are poorly known and which together with the flow rates and process specification may vary
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from day to day. Clearly this situation places greater demand on the design process if there is to be high probability of success. 1.6 DESIGN CRITERIA: 1. The heat exchanger should be designed to fulfill the process requirements: To accomplish thermal change on streams within allowable pressure drop. To retain the capability to perform the duty in the presence of fouling. The designer must assure himself of a reasonable probability of success by judicious over design and by taking advantage of the operational flexibilities and reserve capacity inherent in the rest of the plant. 2. The Heat exchanger must withstand the severe conditions of the plant environment.

Mechanical Stress in Normal operation Shipping Startup & shutdown Off Specification accidents

External Mechanical Stresses imposed by piping Resist Corrosion By the service and process streams By Environment

Resist Fouling 3. The exchanger must be maintainable Choose a configuration that permits cleaning, replacement of tubes, gaskets and other parts that are vulnerable to corrosion, erosion, Vibration or aging. 4. Consideration for multi shell arrangement with flexible piping & Valving provided to allow one unit to be taken out of service for maintenance without severely upsetting the rest of the plant. 5. Consideration for limitations on Exchanger diameter
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Length Weight Tube specifications

6. Due to site requirements lifting & servicing capabilities and maintaining an inventory of replacement tubes & gaskets. 1.7 CODES AND STANDARDS: The design of heat exchangers consists of two important parts: Thermal design to ensure that the unit will transfer the required amount of heat under the design conditions. Mechanical Design to ensure that the unit will withstand the pressure loads. Proper & regular maintenance is an essential requirement for the unit to do its duty during its entire service life. The thermal design formulae are universally applicable and are not governed by the Local a& National Government but he Mechanical design formulations are governed by the applicable codes and standards set and/or adopted by the government. It is to safeguard public life and assets against any possible damage due to in-adequate mechanical design and/or fabrication. On the other hand an inadequate thermal design will only result in momentary and/or inadequate amounts of heat being delivered and the Governments, appropriately enough, do not concern themselves with such losses. All through 19th century and early parts of 20th century, badly designed and fabricated boilers used to explode, killing a number of people. In 1911 the American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME) appointed a committee to formulate standard specifications for the construction of steam boilers and other pressure vessels and for their care in Service. Their report eventually resulted in the ASME rules 1914 edition. Since then it has been expanded & issued at regular intervals. Several other countries have also issued codes for the same and related purposes. These different codes sometimes do put the designers, Fabricators & Inspectors into a complicated situation. They have to be familiar with all the codes and ensure that the specified codes & standards are used effectively and without deviations.

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A number of experienced heat exchangers manufacturers got together and formulated general rules popularly known as the TEMA Standards. The first edition was issued in 1941 while the edition was issued in 1938.These have to be followed if so specified by the buyer and most of the buyers do. The objective of code rules and standard(apart from fixing dimensional values) is to achieve minimum requirements for safe construction, in other words , to provide public protection by defining those materials, design, fabrication & inspection requirements whose omission may radically increase operating hazards. Suitable precautions are therefore entirely the responsibility of the designer guided by the needs and specifications of the user. 1.8 KEY TERMS USED IN THE DESIGN & DETAILED ENGINEERING DESIGN REQUIREMENTS: After selecting the appropriate materials of construction and before proceeding for the mechanical design calculations of various components. It is necessary to fix up all the design requirements as explained below: These shall be adhered to at every relevant stage of design/production planning /fabrication/inspection/testing. 1.8.1 DESIGN CODE: ASME Code section VIII Div. I is taken as the design and construction code along with its supplement for heat exchangers viz.., TEMA Div. I is applicable for design principles and construction particles for vessels upto210 kg/cm2 (3000 psi).However these codes do not contain rules to cover all details of design and construction. Where complete details are not given it is left to the manufacturer and purchaser to decide upon such details which will be safe as those provided in the codes subject to the approval of the inspector. 1.8.2 DESIGN TEMPERATURE: It is the temperature used in the design and shall not be less than the mean metal temperature expected under operating conditions for the part considered. Design Temperatures for shell side and tube side shall be specified separately for parts not subject to both fluids. The design temperature of parts subjected to two different fluid temperatures shall be the maximum metal

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temperature of the part under operating conditions. Design temperatures can be chosen according to following guide lines: For exchangers operating above 00 C the design temperature shall be the maximum expected continuous operating temperature +150 C. For Exchangers operating below 00 C the design temperature shall be the minimum operating temperature -100 C 1.8.3 DESIGN PRESSURE: It is the pressure used in the design calculations for the purpose of determining the minimum permissible thickness or physical characteristics of different parts. When applicable, static head shall be added to the design pressure to determine the thickness of any specific part. Design pressure shall be specified for shell side and tube side separately. Design pressure can be chosen according to the following guidelines: Sl.No RANGE OF OPERATING PRESSURE RECOMMENDED DESIGN (Kg/cm2) 1 2 3 4 5 1 to 10.6 10.6 to 35 35 to 70 Above 70 Under 0.5 abs PRESSURE (Kg/cm2 ) Opt. Pr. +1 Opt. Pr. +10% Opt. Pr. +3.5% Opt. Pr. +5% Full vacuum with 1 Kg/cm2 external pressure 6 Between 0.5 abs and atmospheric Equal to Opt. Pr.

In case of fluids being vapors such as ammonia, the design pressure shall be the greater of the pressure at the design temperature and the above recommended design pressure. 1.8.4 TEST PRESSURE: HYDRAULIC TEST PRESSURE:

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This is the pressure at which the HE is hydraulically tested. The pressure shall be 1.5 times the design pressure corrected for temperature as per code. Hydraulic test pressure shall be specified for shell side and tube side separately. PNEUMATIC TEST PRESSURE: This is the pressure at which the HE is pneumatically tested. This shall be done either in lieu of hydraulic test pressure or as a supplementary test. When it is specified in lieu of hydraulic test pressure it shall be not less than 1.25 times the design pressure corrected for temperature as per code. When it is done as a supplementary test the value can be 1 to 2 Kg/cm2 (LEAK TEST) TEST PRESSURE FOR LINER PLATES: For testing the tightness of attachment welds of applied corrosion resistant liner plates the test pressure shall be 0.5 Kg/cm2 g(pneumatic) unless otherwise specified. TEST PRESSURE FOR REINFORCEMENT PADS: For testing leak tightness of attachment welds of reinforcement pads the test pressure shall be 1 kg/cm2 g(pneumatic) unless otherwise specified. 1.8.5 RADIOGRAPHY AND JOINT EFFICIENCY: Shall be specified in accordance with the code requirements. However when the spot radiography is specified the percentage shall be clearly indicated. Spot radiography shall necessarily include all T joints (i.e. the junctions of longitudinal and circumferential seams). 1.8.6 NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTS: Tests such as a. Ultrasonic b. Magnetic particle Examination c. Liquid penetration(Dye test) d. Helium/Freon leak test of welds etc.., shall be specified as required. 1.8.7 IMPACT TESTING:
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Shall be specified as required by code and relevant material specifications. 1.8.8 CORROSION ALLOWANCE: Unless otherwise specified, standard corrosion allowance as per TEMA shall be adopted. 1.8.9 HEAT TREATMENT: Post weld Heat Treatment (SR) of the welded items and other heta treatment requirements of components during fabrication shall be specified in accordance with code requirements and as per customers special requirements if any. 1.9 MECHANICAL DESIGN PROCEDURE: The mechanical design of a heat exchanger is carried out in accordance with the rules of codes & standards that are widely followed. The choice of of a code or standard for the design & manufacture is normally made by the purchaser and his process licensor, guided by their experience on similar plants and this is strongly influenced by the country in which this experience has been gained. It is consistent and painstaking work in the areas , done by ASME & TEMA had diffused into several countries of the world and as such these codes & standards are widely accepted. One of the benefits of the ASME code & TEMA Standards has been that several important terms are effectively and clearly defined and the rules requirements are so orderly arranged which help in the design and more specially , in communication between the buyer, designer, fabricator, and inspector. For the purpose of mechanical design, the exchanger may be viewed as consisting of three distinct classes of parts: i. Pressure parts: such as Shells, channels, heads, covers, Girth Flanges, tube sheets, Nozzles, Expansion bellows etc. ii. Non- Pressure Parts: such as Baffles, Tie rods, Impingement plates, Partition plates, Spacers etc iii. Supports: for supporting the equipment.
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Pressure parts design rules comprising the envelope of the exchanger bundle are covered by the ASME Code section VIII Div. 1 & Div. 2. TEMA provides rules for the design of such of those pressure parts not covered by ASME code and those parts which are peculiar to the heat exchanger especially the tube bundle and other internals of the exchangers. The design of supports is not covered either in ASME or TEMA. However code gives suggested good practice for supports. Normally predesigned and dimensioned support standards are available which can be adopted without design. When the design check is required the same can be performed as per other codes like IS2825/BS5500 etc.

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CHAPTER 2 AN INTRODUCTION TO SHELL AND TUBE HEAT EXCHANGER

2.1 Fore word

Amongst many varieties of heat exchangers, shell and tube type heat exchangers are more predominantly used in the petroleum, petrochemical, chemical and other process industries. This is because of their simplicity and extreme versatility in thermal design variations and can be built to practically any size and length unless restricted by the handling and transport facility. Large heat transfer surfaces can be obtained by shell and tube heat exchangers only. Shell & tube heat exchangers, as the name suggests, consists of a bundle of tubes embossed inside a shell. One fluid flows through the tubes and other fluid passes through the shell making outside contact with tubes whereby heat exchange between shell side and tube side fluids is achieved through the tube wall.

2.2 Classification:
Shell and tube heat exchangers are broadly classified into three main categories which are most common in the process industries. 1. Fixed tube sheet exchanger 2. U-tube heat exchanger 3. Floating head heat exchanger

2.3 Fixed tube sheet exchanger:

This type of heat exchanger is used more often than the other types. It comprises of a shell welded with two tube sheets, one each at either end. These tube sheets will also serve as flanges for the attachment of the channels and bonnets. It is often necessary to provide expansion
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bellows on shell to eliminate excessive stress in shells and tubes due to differential thermal expansion resulting from temperature differences between the shell side and tube side fluids.

2.3.1 Advantages:
Construction is simple and economical i.e, low cost per square meter of heat transfer area. Minimum number of gasketted joints compared to other types. There is no gasket between shell and tube sheet. Internal construction also does not call for gaskets. Hence maximum protection against leakage of shell side fluid. No limitation of number of passes on tube side. By-passing of shell side fluid around the tube bundle is minimum since shell can be fully packed with tubes. Since straight tubes are used individual tubes can be replaced. Inside of tubes can be cleaned mechanically or chemically. Use of double tube sheet is feasible.

2.3.2 Disadvantages & limitations:

Tube bundle is integral with shell and hence cannot be removed out for inspection and cleaning and hence replacement of bundle is not possible. External surface of tubes cannot be cleaned mechanically. These are to be cleaned chemically by circulation of cleaning fluid. Shell and tube sheet must be of materials that can be welded together. Dissimilar metals like brass tube sheet with steel shell is not possible. However in certain cases the tube sheets can be faced with corrosion resistant material on tube side to match channel and tubes. Normally it is not recommended shell side and tube side temperature is 2000 F or more.

2.4 U-tube exchanger:

This type of exchanger is slightly more expensive than fixed tube sheet type. The tube bundle consists of u shaped tubes both ends of which are fixed to a single stationary tube sheet. The
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thermal expansion due to temperature difference between shell and tube is absorbed by the bends which expand or contract freely and independently.

U-

2.4.1 Advantages:

Low initial cost. Internal gaskets are eliminated. The arrangement offers an advantage of reducing the number of number of joints which in high pressure construction is considerable feature. One tube sheet is eliminated which results in considerable cost reduction in high pressure application. Tube bundle can be removed out for inspection and cleaning. Also the bundle can be replaced with a new one in case found defective during service. Minimum by passing of the shell side fluid since clearance between shell and outer most tubes is minimum as in the case of fixed tube sheet type. Channels, tube side headers, gaskets etc.., are accessible for maintenance and replacement. Use of double tube sheet is possible. Since internal cleaning of the tubes is difficult by mechanical means, a bonnet can be used at the stationary tube end closure. This offers saving over more expensive channel with flanges and bolted cover.

2.4.2 Disadvantages and limitations:

Inside of the tube cannot be easily cleaned mechanically without special tools. They should be cleaned chemically. Individual tube replacement is more difficult than with straight tube exchanger. Tubes on outer row only can be removed easily. Number of tube holes in the tube sheet is less compared with fixed tube sheet type due to limitations on tube bending. Design of tube side passes cannot be made single pass or odd number of passes.

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Tube side velocities and suspended particles can cause corrosion and erosion of inside of bends.

2.5 Floating head exchanger:

This type of exchanger consists of a removable tube bundle. Straight tubes are fixed in tube sheets at both ends. Floating head is fitted to the tube sheet remote from channel. Floating tube sheet is slightly smaller in diameter than shell ID.

2.5.1 Advantages:
Tube bundle can be removed for inspection and mechanical cleaning. Complete bundle can be replaced with new bundle incase it is found defective during the course of service. Internal floating head compensates for differential thermal expansion between shell and tubes. Since tubes are straight, individual tubes can be replaced and easily cleaned on the inside. There is no practical limitation on the number of passes on tube side. Normally tube side passes will be even. For single pass on tube side, floating head requires packed joints.

2.5.2 Disadvantages and limitations:

This is costly when compared to other types because it has got maximum gasketted joints. It is normally limited to 50 to 70 kg/cm^2 (g) design pressure due to the possibility of leakage of floating head gasketted joint. Corrosion of floating head parts due to shell side fluids should be considered, this increase the thickness of the parts concerned and hence correspondingly increase the cost. There is possibility of intermixing of shell and tube fluids due to leakage of floating head gasketted joint. Use of double tube sheet is not feasible. Removal of tube bundle is not so easy (as compared with U-tube exchanger) since number of parts are to be dismantled first.

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CHAPTER 3
THERMAL DESIGN OF HEAT EXCHANGERS
3.1 INTRODUCTION Heat exchangers form a vital part of many process industries involved in chemical, petroleum, power generation, refrigeration and so on. This equipment has always been of great industrial importance. Shell and tube heat exchangers are the most common type and have been applied in the process industry over a wide range of pressures, temperature and sizes. Air cooled heat exchanger is the other type of heat transfer device employed finned tubes to enhance the surface area and the heat transfer coefficient on the air side. Selection of the type of exchanger is governed by the process conditions, fluids to be handled to the power availability. BHPV is the one of the biggest process equipment designing and manufacturing unit in India. It has designed, manufactured and supplied a number of critical equipments for the process industries. For the design of heat exchangers, BHPV has entered into a software agreement with Heat Transfer Research Inc. (HTRI), a world-wide renowned research institute in the field of heat transfer. 3.2 TYPES OF HEAT EXCHANGERS A) Shell and Tube heat exchangers Fixed tube sheet U-tube Floating head

B) Air cooled heat exchangers Forced draft Induced draft

3.3 GENERAL DESIGN PROCEDURE The design and testing of practical heat exchangers are based on the general principals like material balance and energy balance. The most familiar equation involved in the design of heat transfer is the relation between the rate of heat transfer, the heat transfer surface, and the mean temperature difference. This involves a proportionality factor, the Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient.

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Q = UA (LMTD) Where Q= Heat Exchanged U = Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient A = Heat transfer surface area LMTD = Log Mean Temperature Difference.

The overall Heat transfer Coefficient (U) is used by the designer to determine how much heat Exchanger surface must be provided to transfer heat at the required rate for a given LMTD. Determination of accurate values of U requires knowledge of physical properties of the materials involved and specification of geometry parameters for the equipment to be used, plus empirical or semi empirical correlations in terms of dimensionless property and geometry groups. However, the final design is nearly always a compromise, based on engineering judgement to give best overall performance in the light of service requirements. Sometimes the design is governed by considerations that have little to do with heat transfer, such as space available for the equipment, the pressure drop which can be tolerated in the fluid streams and the fouling resistance of the process fluids in service. Tubular heat exchangers are, in general, design in accordance with various standards and codes, such as the standards of the Tubular Exchanger Manufacturers Association (TEMA) and the ASME-API unfired pressure vessel codes.

3.4 HEAT EXCHANGER DESIGN METHODS: 3.4.1 LMTD METHOD: The goal of heat exchanger design is to relate the inlet and outlet temperatures, the overall heat transfer coefficient, and the geometry of the heat exchanger, to the rate of heat transfer between the two fluids. The two most common heat exchanger design problems are those of rating and sizing. We will limit ourselves to the design of recuperators only. That is, the design of a two fluid heat exchanger used for the purposes of recovering waste heat. We will begin first, by discussing the basic principles of heat transfer for a heat exchanger. We may write the enthalpy balance on either fluid stream to give:

Qc = m c(hc2 hc1)
and

Qh = m h(hh1 hh2)
For constant specific heats with no change of phase, we may also write
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Qc = (m cp)c(Tc2 Tc1)
and

Qh = (mcp)h(Th1 Th2)
Now from energy conservation we know that Qc = Qh = Q, and that we may relate the heat transfer rate Q and the overall heat transfer coefficient U, to the some mean temperature difference Tm by means of Q=UA Tm where A is the total surface area for heat exchange that U is based upon. Later we shall show that Tm = f(Th1, Th2, Tc1, Tc2) It is now clear that the problem of heat exchanger design comes down to obtaining an expression for the mean temperature difference. Expressions for many flow con- figurations, i.e. parallel flow, counter flow, and cross flow, have been obtained in the heat transfer field. We will examine these basic expressions later. Two approaches to heat exchanger design that will be discussed are the LMTD method and the effectiveness - NTU method. Each of these methods has particular advantages depending upon the nature of the problem specification.

3.4.2 Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient

A heat exchanger analysis always begins with the determination of the overall heat transfer coefficient. The overall heat transfer coefficient may be defined in terms of individual thermal resistances of the system. Combining each of these resistances in series gives: 1/UA = 1/ (ohA)I+ 1/ Skw + 1/(ohA)o where 0 is the surface efficiency of inner and outer surfaces, h is the heat transfer coefficients for the inner and outer surfaces, and S is a shape factor for the wall separating the two fluids. The surface efficiency accounts for the effects of any extended surface which is present on either side of the parting wall. It is related to the fin efficiency of an extended surface in the following manner: o = (1 (1 f ) Af /A)

The thermal resistances include: the inner and outer film resistances, inner and outer extended surface efficiencies, and conduction through a dividing wall which keeps the two fluid streams
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from mixing. The shape factors for a number of useful wall configurations are given below in Table 1. Additional results will be presented for some complex doubly connected regions. The effects of fouling on heat exchanger performance is discussed in a later section. Finally, we should note that UA = UoAo = UiAi however, Uo not equal to Ui Finally, the order of magnitude of the thermal resistances in the defintion of the overall heat transfer coefficient can have a significant influence on the calculation of the overall heat transfer coefficient. Depending upon the nature of the fluids, one or more resistances may dominate making additional resistances unimportant. For example, in Table 2 if one of the two fluids is a gas and the other a liquid, then it is easy to see that the controlling resistance will be that of the gas, assuming that the surface area on each side is equal.
3.5 REQUIRED INPUT DATA FOR DESIGN Flow rates. Inlet and outlet temperatures. Physical properties (density, viscosity, conductivity and specific heat) at different temperatures. Operating pressures. Allowable pressure drops. Heat release curve, if available. Fouling resistance to be considered. Properties of the materials of construction.

3.6 CALCULATION PROCEDURE The design of an heat exchanger is an iterative process comprising of following major steps. From the given process conditions calculate heat duty, Q and log mean temperature difference, LMTD. Assume the tentative value for the overall heat transfer coefficient U and compute the surface area required A from Q = UA (LMTD).

Assume tube dimensions and geometry. Compute number of tubes corresponding to the area calculated. 39 | P a g e

Find the shell diameter to accommodate the number of tubes to the assumed geometry. Assume the number of baffle and baffle cut. Baffle cut normally ranges from 20-30% of shell diameter. Baffle spacing ranges from a maximum of one shell diameter of minimum of 20% of shell diameter.

Based on the above geometry, calculate local heat transfer coefficient of the inside and outside of the tubes. Compute the overall heat transfer coefficient from the calculated local heat transfer coefficients. Compare U calculated in above step with U assumed in step 2. If U calculated is equal to U assumed then the assumed configuration will perform the required heat duty. Check for pressure drop limitations go to last step. If U calculated is much greater than U assumed, then excess area has been provided. Assume a higher value for U and continue from step 2. If U calculated is much lesser than U assumed, then less area has been provided than is actually required. Assume a lower value for U and continue from step 2

Calculate pressure drops for both fluids. If calculated pressure drops are less than /equal to the allowable pressure drops, then the selected exchanger configuration will perform the required duty with in the specified process limitations. If the calculated pressure drops are more than the allowable pressure drops then change the appropriate parameters and accordingly recheck the heat transfer capability of the new configuration and calculate the pressure drops.

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CHAPTER 4 THERMAL DESIGN OF SHELL AND TUBE HEAT EXCHANGERS

4.1 DESIGN OF SHELL AND TUBE HEAT EXCHANGERS: Out of all varieties of heat exchangers, shell and tube heat exchangers are considered as standard design as they are widely used and have improved from time to time. Since the shell and tube heat exchanger has no revolving and dynamic parts, one should not be mistaken that its design is simple. Many considerations are to be given to obtain a optimum design for a given service. The design of heat exchangers involves two major disciplines, one, process design or thermal design and the other is equipment design or mechanical design. Process design of heat exchanger requires a thorough knowledge of chemical engineering and heat transfer engineering. 4.2 THERMAL DESIGN FEATURES: In thermal design depending on the nature of fluid flowing, temperature and pressure conditions and several other considerations, certain features are designed, these features are: 4.2.1 TUBE DIAMETER: Compact, economical units are obtained by using small diameter, closely spaced tubes, but,the surfaces may foul up quickly and be difficult to clean by mechanical means. The problems of fouling and cleaning may be overcome by using large diameter, widely spaced tubes, but the units will be less compact and more costly. Tube of 19.05 mm (3/4 in.) to 25.4mm ( 1 in.) outside diameter is most widely used. 4.2.2 TUBE THICKNESS: The tube wall thickness must be checked against the internal and external pressures, separately are the maximum pressure differential across the wall. However, in many cases the pressure is not the governing factor determining the wall thickness. In such cases, tube wall thickness is selected on the basis of a. Providing adequate margin against corrosion. b. Resistance to flow induced vibration

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c. Axial strength particularly in the fixed tube sheet exchangers d. Standardization of stocking of spares and e. Cost.2.11 mm thickness is adequate for many applications and is suggested with in code rules. 4.2.3 TUBE LENGTH: For a given surface area the cheapest exchanger is one which has small diameter and a long tube length, consistent with the space and handling facilities at site and fabricators shop. The incentive, therefore, is to make exchanger as long as possible limited only by the tube length available from tube suppliers, but practical limitations usually control. Tube lengths of 2438,3658,4777,6096 and 7315mm (8, 12, 16, 20 and 24 feet) are often regarded as standard for both straight and U-tubes, but other lengths may be used. 4.2.4 TUBE PITCH: The tube pitch should be arranged such that it is not less than 1.25 times the outer diameters of the tubes. In certain applications involving clean fluids and small tubes, say 12.7mm outer diameter and less, the pitch/diameter ratio is sometimes reduced to 1.20 For a given pitch/diameter ratio and shell inner diameter, above 15% more tubes can be accommodated for 300 and 600 pitch angle compared with 45 degrees and 90 degrees. To achieve compactness the incentive is to use 30 degrees and 60 degrees pitch angles, which are satisfactory for clean surfaces, but these patterns are not permitted when external mechanical cleaning is required. In turbulent flow, the 90 degrees pitch angle has superior heat transfer and pressure loss characteristic to the 45 degree pitch angle, and in laminar flow the 45 degree pitch angle is superior. 4.2.5 TUBE SIDE PASSES: Each transverse of the tube side fluid from one end of the exchanger to the other end is termed as pass. Tube side passes have thermal significance in that, by changing the number of passes, the thermal design is able to change the fluid velocity. Depending upon the process conditions, the number of passes required may be only one or as many as 16.

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4.2.6 CROSS TYPE BAFFLES: Cross type baffles have thermal significance in that the shell side fluid is made to flow to and fro across the bundle from one end of the exchanger to the other. By increasing or decreasing the distance between the adjacent baffles, the thermal designer is able within limits, to change the fluid velocity. 4.2.7 BAFFLE THICKNESS: Thickness for cross and support type baffles depend on shell diameter and unsupported tube length, but usually range from 3.2 to 19 mm (1/8 to in.). 4.2.8 BAFFLE CLEARANCE: In order to assemble the bundle there must be a reasonable clearance between the baffle and the tube, but if the clearance is too large it may have an adverse effect on the heat transfer and promote flow induced vibration problems. There must be reasonable clearance between shell and baffles to insert the bundle into the shell, but if the clearance is too large it may have an adverse effect on the performance. 4.2.9 MAXIMUM UNSUPPORTED TUBE LENGTH: The maximum unsupported length is specified in TEMA. The longest unsupported length is that which exists in the baffle window nearest to the tube sheets i.e.., between the inner face of the tube sheet and the second baffle segmental and double segmental baffles. 4.2.10 MAXIMUM BAFFLE SPACING: Segmental baffles should not be spaced closer than about one-fifth of the shell diameter or 50.8 mm (2 in) whichever is greater. As baffles spacing is reduced in order to increase the shell. Side heat transfer coefficient, the increase becomes progressively smaller due to leakage effects. IMPINGEMENT PLATES: To protect the tubes below the shell side inlet nozzle from damage due to solid particles or liquid droplets entrained in the shell side fluid, an impingement plate may be required. This plate is about 6 mm thick, flat or curved, with dimensions slightly greater than the nozzle bore.

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4.2.11 TIE RODS AND SPACERS: A number of tierods and spacers hold the bundle together and locate the baffles in their correct positions. Tie rods arecircular metal rods 9.5 mm to 15.9 mm diameter which are screwed into stationary tubesheet and extend the length of the bundle up to the last baffle, where they are screwed by lock nuts. All the rods are spaced tubes fitted over them, each spacer been a tube or pipe with an inside diameter slightly greater than that of tie rod diameter and length equal to the required baffle spacing. 4.2.12 OUTER TUBE LENGTH: The outer tube length is the diameter of the largest circle drawn about the tubesheet center behind which not tube must encroach. This depends on the type of exchange. 4.2.13 TUBE COUNT: The number of tubes which can be accommodated within a given shell inside diameter is termed as the tube count. For a given shell of the inside diameter, tube outside diameter, pitch and pitch angle, tube count depends on the factors listed below: a. Type of exchanger b. Design pressure c. Nozzle diameter d. Number of side passes e. Tube and attachment f. Tie rods and spacers g. Radius of tube sheet h. Rotatable bundles 4.2.14 SHELL DIAMETER: Fabricators of their own standards shell diameters, but the size range where the standard pipe is available usually up to 457-610 mm (18-24 in).Outer diameter, there are design with a standard pipe dimensions. Typical maximum shell diameters for general applications is 2032 mm (80 in) for fixed tube heat exchangers.

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CHAPETER 5 DESIGN AND SELECTION OF GASKETS

5.1 FOREWORD: A gasket is a mechanical seal which fills the space between two or more mating surfaces, generally to prevent leakage from or into the joined objects while under compression. Gaskets allow "less-than-perfect" mating surfaces on machine parts where they can fill irregularities. Gaskets are commonly produced by cutting from sheet materials, such as gasket paper, rubber, silicone, metal, cork, felt, neoprene, nitrile rubber, fiberglass, Polytetrafluoroethylene (otherwise known as PTFE or Teflon) or a plastic polymer

(suchas polychlorotrifluoroethylene)

To avoid the escaping gas from the engine affecting the overall performance of the engine during operation, both the proper pre-stressing force of the bolts as well as the gasket design are critical factors in enhancing the efciency of the sealing of the gasket. In this investigation, both the distribution of the contact pressure on the gasket, and the stresses of the cylinder head at different loading conditions, such as cold assembly, hot assembly, cold start, and hot ring, are explored by numerical calculation based on the nite element method (FEM). The results reveal that the efciency of the sealing of the head gasket depends on the pre-stressing force of the hold-down bolts, without taking into consideration any thermal stresses resulting from the temperature distribution in the cylinder head. However, the location of maximum contact pressure on the gasket is transformed when the thermal loading is taken into account. In addition, this research also conducts the parametric analyses for the pre-stressing force of the bolts and compares the differences between cold assembly and cold start conditions.
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Gaskets for specific applications, such as high pressure steam systems, may contain asbestos. However, due to health hazards associated with asbestos exposure, non-asbestos gasket materials are used when practical. It is usually desirable that the gasket be made from a material that is to some degree yielding such that it is able to deform and tightly fills the space it is designed for, including any slight irregularities. A few gaskets require an application of sealant directly to the gasket surface to function properly. Some (piping) gaskets are made entirely of metal and rely on a seating surface to accomplish the seal; the metal's own spring characteristics are utilized (up to but not passing y, the material's yield strength). This is typical of some "ring joints" (RJ) or some other metal gasket systems such as those made by Graylock (an Oceaneering International company). These joints are known as R-con and E-con compressive type joints. 5.2 FUNCTIONS OF GASKETS: The function of a gasket is to conform to the irregularities of the flange faces to affect a seal, preventing the inside fluid from leaking out. The leak performance of the gasket is dependent on the stress on the gasket during operation. Each different type of gasket has its own inherent leaktightness capabilities. The higher the gasket stress, the higher the leak-tightness capability. The ideal gasket is comprised of a body with good load-bearing and recovery characteristics, with a soft conformable surface layer. Gaskets have a combination of elastic and plastic characteristics. Ideal gaskets should have the following properties: 1. CompressibilityGaskets that have sufficient compressibility to suit the style and surface finish of the flange, ensuring that all the imperfections will be filled with the gasket material. 2. ResilienceGaskets that have high resilience will enable the gasket to move with the dynamic loadings of the flange to maintain its seating stress. 3. No change in thicknessGaskets that will not continue to deform under varying load cycles of temperature and pressure or under a constant load at elevated temperatures (creep).

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Unfortunately, most gaskets available on the market are not ideal gaskets. Most gaskets usually just have one or sometimes two of the above properties. For critical Applications , designers are always on the lookout for gaskets that have all three properties.

The most difficult, often critical, property required of a gasket is its ability to resist creep during operation. In high-temperature services, the flanges will heat up at a faster rate than the bolts and under steady-state conditions will continue to be hotter than the bolts as a result of the thermal gradient. This results in a higher thermal expansion of the flanges with respect to the bolts, increasing the boat load and concurrently the gasket stress. The gasket will then deform under the higher applied load during this cycle. Most gaskets will deform permanently and will not rebound when the load cycle goes away with varying conditions. The permanent set or plastic deformation that occurred during operation will cause loss of bolt load and concurrently loss of gasket stress. As gasket stress decreases leak rate increases. 5.3 FACTORS GOVERNING GASKET DESIGN: In any process plant, the cost of gaskets form only a small part of the overall project cost. The same holds good even with a heat exchanger. But its selection and design requires the same amount of attention as any other component since selection of an improper gasket means financial losses owing to the consistent leakage of fluids which will result in frequent shut down of the plant. There are number of points to be considered in the gasket design. They are enumerated below:

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a. OPERATING PARAMETERS: These include the pressure and temperature of the fluids. The higher these values, the greater is the difficulty involved in selection. b. NATURE OF PROCESS FLUID: The fluids can be either of corrosive or non-corrosive. Sometimes the fluids may contain abrasive particles or biological matter. In such circumstances, the gaskets should not be exposed to flow. If exposure to the fluid is unavoidable, then material selection becomes more critical. c. SURFACE FINISH OF JOINTING FACE: Too fine a surface finish of mating flanges can create difficulties of gasket grip and cause slipping, thereby decreasing seating stress and impairing the recovery properties. Too rough a surface finish can damage the gasket and demand a greater gasket thickness then the ideal one as the gasket flow will be less for the former, than for the later. d. SURFACE COEFFICIENT OF FRICTION: The surfaces should have high coefficient of friction so that the gaskets are firmly gripped between the flange surfaces. e. DENSITY OF GASKET: Density of gasket material effects the compressibility of gasket. The gasket may be either hard or soft depending upon the type of filler material and tightness of the metallic strips and filler. In general the gasket should be softer than the flange material for achieving a uniform flow of gasket material. f. MISCELLANEOUS FACTORS: Other factors which would govern depending upon the process application are vibrations due to pressure fluctuations, thermal cycles, hardening, aging etc.

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5.4 CLASSIFICATION OF GASKETTED JOINTS: In initial days of industrialization, gaskets were not given the importance that was due to them. But with rapid progress in industrial sector comprising of petroleum, petrochemical, fertilizer, chemical, thermal, and other areas, gasket design has became one of the critical points requiring due to attention by engineers Since gasketted joints find usage in a very large range of pressures, a classification based on the same has became necessary in due course. A classification which is universally accepted is as follows. Sl. No 01 02 03 RANGE OF PRESSURE 1-1000 psi 1000-10000psi 10000-1000000 psi CLASSIFICATION Low Pressure High Pressure Super Pressure

Gasketted joints can also be classified based on the methodology of attaining leak tightness. They are illustrated below: A. EXTERNALLY AIDIED JOINTS: In externally aided joints, the sealing action of gasket is obtained by bolting. Such type of joints require adequate bolt load to seat the gasket initially prior to pressurization of joint. The bolt load should serve the dual purpose of seating the gasket and also withstanding the hydrostatic force due to pressure in operating condition. B. PRESSURE ACTUATED JOINTS: Gasket often used in pressure actuated joints are known as Self-engineering or self sealing gaskets. These gaskets find use in high and super pressure applications. Leak tightness is obtained by utilizing the inner pressure of the vessel for actuating the gasket. The gasket deforms and produces seal by coming in contact with the constraining members. This pressure of contact
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should be greater than the pressure of the sealed fluid. The bolt load is calculated based only on the pressure acting on the constraining members and seal action becomes minor function of bolt load. 5.5 DESIGN OF GASKETTED JOINTS: 1. Selection of material and configuration form the primary part of gasket design. The secondary part deals with dimensioning of gaskets. 2. Dimensions of gaskets are thickness and width. 3. The thickness is mainly depends upon the tensile strength of the material and surface finish of the mating parts. It is preferable to adopt as thin a gasket as possible particularly at elevated temperatures. Excessive thickness as far as possible, must be avoided as it will form Mushrooming, causing inadequate loading on the gasket surface. 4. Gasket width also depends upon the material properties of the gasket and the design parameters. If the gasket is made too narrow, the unit pressure on it may be excessive and result in crushing of the gasket. If the gasket is made too wide, the bolt load will be unnecessarily increased or otherwise the joint will not be leak tight. 5.5.1 GASKET SEATING STRESS: This is the minimum stress which must be applied to the gasket to cause it to yield sufficiently to take up all unevenness in the joint surfaces. 5.5.2 THE GASKET FACTOR: The ASME Code for Pressure Vessels, Sec. VIII, Div. 1, App.2, is the most commonly used design method for gasketted joints. An integral part of the ASME code centers on two gasket factors: M and Y. The factors were originally determined in 1937, and even though there have been objections to their specific values, they have remained essentially unchanged to date. The values are only suggestions and are not mandatory. A. M Factor:

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The m factor, often called the gasket maintenance factor, is associated with the hydrostatic end force and the operation of the joint. It is essentially a multiplier on pressure to increase the gasket clamping load to such an amount that the hydrostatic end force does not unseat the gasket to the point of leakage. Essentially, you take the pressure in the system, multiply it by the m factor and you can find the clamping load required to keep the gasket from leaking. B. Y Factor: The y factor is the minimum seating stress associated with particular gasket material and is concerned only with the initial assembly of the joint. 5.5.3 Bolt Loads: The following is important information specified by ASME Section VIII for choosing the appropriate bolt loads required for a successful gasket sealing in any application. 1. General Requirements

Operating condition (m factor) and gasket seating (y factor) values Loads must be determined for the most severe conditions The minimum gasket contact width for sheet and composite gaskets
Gasket Contact Width

Flange ID

24in(600mm) < ID <= 36in(900mm)

1in(25mm)

36in(900mm) < ID < 60in(1500mm)

1.25in(32mm)

ID >= 60in(1500mm)

1.5in(38mm)

2. Design Conditions

Operating conditions requires finding the minimum load required to create a seal under normal conditions

Gasket seating requires finding the minimum seating stress for the gasket to make a seal
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3. Require bolt loads

The required bolt load necessary to maintain a seal to resist hydrostatic end force (m Factor) The minimum initial load required to seat the gasket without any system pressure The bolt loads required for self-energizing gaskets

4. Total Required and Actual Bolt Areas

The total cross-sectional area of the bolts are required for both operating conditions and gasket seating

5. Flange Design Bolt Load

The maximum bolt force before the flange becomes damaged

5.6 Gasket M & Y Factors

Gasket Type Kammprofile Ring joint Iron or soft steel 5.50 6.00 6.50 18,000 21,800 26,000 M Factor Y Factor (psi)

Monel or 4% - 6% chrome

Stainless steel and nickel-base alloys Compressed synthetic fiber (CSF) Compressed asbestos fiber (CAF) 1/8" thickness Elastomer

2.00

1,600

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< 75 duro > 75 duro

0.50 1.00 0 1.25

0 200

Self-energizing Elastomer with cotton fabric insertion Elastomer with mineral fiber fabric insertion 1-ply 2-ply 3-ply

0 400

2.25 2.50 2.75 1.75

2,200 2,900 3,700 1,100

Vegetable fiber Spiral wound Carbon steel

2.50 3.00

10,000 10,000

Stainless, Monel, and nickel-base alloys

Corrugated Metal, mineral fiber inserted, or corrugated metal, jacketed mineral fiber filled Soft aluminum Soft copper or brass Iron or soft steel 2.50 2.75 3.00 3.25 3.50 2,900 3,700 4,500 5,500 6,500

Monel or 4% - 6% chrome

Stainless steels and nickel-based alloys Flat metal, jacketed mineral fiber filled Soft aluminum Soft copper or brass Iron or soft steel Monel 3.25 3.50 3.75 3.50 3.75 3.75 5,500 6,500 7,600 8,000 9,000 9,000

4% - 6% chrome

Stainless steels and nickel-base alloys

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Klingersil C-series compressed non-asbestos gasket materials Sealing liquid, thickness <= 1/16" Sealing liquid, thickness > 1/16" Sealing gases, thickness <= 1/16" Sealing gases, thickness > 1/16" Garlock Blue-Gard 3000 Thickness <= 1/16" Thickness > 1/16" Gylon 3504 Thickness <= 1/16" Thickness > 1/16" Durlon 9000 Thickness <= 1/16" Thickness > 1/16" 2.20 4.60 1,937 1,639 3.00 2.50 1,650 3,000 4.20 5.20 3,050 4,400 2.75 6.40 2.75 6.40 2,000 2,900 3,700 5,000

5.7 Effecting a Seal A seal is affected by compressing the gasket material and causing it to flow into the imperfections on the gasket seating surfaces so that intimate contact is made between the gasket and the gasket seating surfaces preventing the escape of the confined fluid. Basically there are four different methods that may be used either singly or in combination to achieve this unbroken barrier. 1. Compression (Figure1 ): This is by far the most common method of effecting a seal on a flange joint and the compression force is normally applied by bolting. 2. Attrition (Figure 2): Attrition is a combination of a dragging action combined with compression such as in a spark plug gasket where the spark plug is turned down on a gasket that is both compressed and screwed into the flange.
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3. By heat, such as in the case of sealing a bell and spigot joint on cast iron pipe by means of molten lead. Note, however, that after the molten lead is poured, it is tampered into place using a tamping tool and a hammer. 4. Gasket lip expansion: This is a phenomenon that would occur due to edge swelling when the gasket would be affected by confined fluid, as in the case of elastomeric compounds affected by the confined fluids, such as solvents, causing the gasket material to swell and increase the interaction of the gasket against the flange faces.

Generally, gaskets are called upon to effect a seal across the faces of contact with the flanges. Permeation of the media through the body of the gasket is also a possibility depending on material, confined media, and acceptable leakage rate. 5.8 Gasket Seating There are two major factors to be considered with regard to gasket seating. The first is the gasket material itself. The ASME Unfired Pressure Vessel Code Section VIII, Division 1 defines minimum design seating stresses for variety of gasket materials. These design seating stresses range from zero psi for so-called self-sealing gasket types such as low durometer elastomers and O-rings to 26,000 psi to properly seat solid flat metal gaskets. Between these two extremes there are a multitude of materials available to the designer enabling him to make a selection based upon the specific operating conditions under investigation. Table 1 indicated the more popular types of gaskets covered by ASME Unfired Pressure Vessel Code. The second major factor to take into consideration must be the surface finish of the gasket seating surface. As a general rule, it is necessary to have a relatively rough gasket seating surface for elastomeric and PTFE gaskets on the order of magnitude of 500 micro inches. Solid metal gaskets normally require a surface finish not rougher than 63 micro inches.
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Semi-metallic gaskets such as Spiral Wound fall between these two general types. The reason for the difference is that with non-metallic gaskets such as rubber, there must be sufficient roughness on the gasket seating surfaces to bite into the gasket thereby preventing excessive extrusion and increasing resistance to gasket blowout. In the case of solid metal gaskets, extremely high unit loads are required to flow the gasket into imperfections on the gasket seating surfaces. This requires that the gasket seating surfaces be as smooth as possible to ensure an effective seal. Spiral Wound gaskets, which have become extremely popular in the last fifteen to twenty years, do require some surface roughness to prevent excessive radial slippage of the gasket under compression. The characteristics of the type of gasket being used dictate the proper flange surface finish that must be taken into consideration by the flange designer and there is no such thing as a single optimum gasket surface finish for all types of gaskets. 5.9 Forces Acting on a Gasketted Joint The Internal Pressure: These are the forces continually trying to unseal a gasketed joint by exerting pressure against the gasket (blowout pressure) and against the flanges holding the gasket in place (hydrostatic end force). See Figure 1 The Flange Load: The total force compressing the gasket to create a seal, i.e., the effective

pressure resulting from the bolt loading. Temperature: Temperature creates thermo-mechanical effects, expanding or contracting the metals, affecting the gasket material by promoting "creep relaxation" which is a permanent strain or relaxation quality of many soft materials under stress. The effect of certain confined fluids may become increasingly degrading as temperature rises and attack upon organic gasket materials is substantially greater than at the ambient temperatures (about 75F). As a rule, the higher the temperature, the more critical becomes the selection of the proper gasket. Medium: The liquid or gas against which the gasket is to seal.

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General Conditions: The type of flange, the flange surfaces, the type of bolt material, the spacing and tightness of the bolts, etc. Each of these factors require consideration before an effective gasket material is finally chosen. However, the proper gasket may often be rejected because failure occurred due to a poorly cleaned flange face, or improper bolting-up practice. These details require careful attention, but if complied with will help eliminate gasket blow-out or failure. There are three principal forces acting on any gasketted joint. They are: Bolt load and/or other means of applying the initial compressive load that flows the gasket material into surface imperfections to form a seal. The hydrostatic end force, that tends to separate flanges when the system is pressurized. Internal pressure acting on the portion of the gasket exposed to internal pressure, tending to blow the gasket out of the joint and/or to bypass the gasket under operating conditions. There are other shock forces that may be created due to sudden changes in temperature and pressure. Creep relaxation is another factor that may come into the picture. Figure 1 indicated the three primary forces acting upon a gasketted joint which we will consider for this discussion. The initial compression force applied to a gasket seating surfaces regardless of operating condition. Initial compression force must be great enough to compensate for the total hydrostatic end force that would be present during operating conditions. It must be sufficient to maintain a residual load on the gasket/flange interface. From a practical standpoint, residual gasket load must be "X" time internal pressure if a tight joint is to be maintained. This unknown quantity "X" is what is known as the "," factor in the ASME unfired pressure vessel code and will vary depending upon the type of gasket being used. Actually the "m" value is the ratio of residual unit stress (bolt load minus hydrostatic end force) on gasket (psi) to internal pressure of the system. The larger the number used for "m," the more conservative the flange design would be, and the more assurance the designer has of obtaining a tight joint. 5.10 Bolt Load Formulas The ASME Unfired Pressure Vessel Code, Section VIII, Division 1 defines the initial bolt load required to seat a gasket sufficiently as:

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The required operating bolt load must be at least sufficient, under the most severe operating conditions, to contain the hydrostatic end force and, in addition, to maintain a residual compression load on the gasket that is sufficient to assure a tight joint. ASME defines this bolt load as:

After Wm1 and Wm2 are calculated, then the minimum required bolt area Am is determined: Bolts are then selected so that the actual bolt area Ab is equal to or greater than Am Ab = (Number of Bolts) X (Minimum Cross-Sectional Area of Bolt in Square Inches) The maximum unit load Sg(max) on the gasket bearing surface is equal to the total maximum bolt load in pounds divided by the actual sealing area of the gasket in square inches. 5.11 Gasket Materials: Fills the space between two objects, generally to prevent leakage between the two objects while under compression.Gasket material saves money by allowing less precise mating surfaces on machine parts which can use gasket material to fill irregularities. Gaskets are commonly produced by cutting from sheet gasket materials, such as gasket paper (beater addition), Nonasbestos, Rubber, EPDM, Nitrile, Buna, Neoprene, Flexible Graphite, Grafoil, Aflas, Kalrez, etc.., Today's sealing products manufacturer's in the United States no longer produce or offer any asbestos containing products. Gasket materials containing asbestos have been claimed to have caused Asbestosis. Of course it would take the grinding of gasket material to release the fibers and then the breathing in of those fibers....possible but in the real world this would be rare. Wetting or oiling a gasket before grinding for removal greatly reduces any risk (not grinding is even better). Asbestos gasket material is still used in most of the rest of the world and is a very effective low cost material. It is usually desirable that the gasket be made from a material that is compressible such that it tightly fills the space it is designed for, including any slight irregularities. The most common misconception when selecting a gasket materials thickness is to choose a gasket material that is too thick. The thicker the material the more likely the material being contained can weep through the pores of the gasket material itself. This is a greater issue with some materials than others. A
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rule of thumb is to have the material thick enough to compensate for any surface face irregularities and to permit some compression. The required compression for your gasket material will depend many factors including:

Surface area

Pressure being sealed

Size of bolts (assuming bolts are being used)

Number of bolts

Condition of the bolts

Lubrication on the bolts

All must be considered when determining torque. Torque data must be determined using all of the above and should be provided by an engineer. In most cases unless your gasket is a standard ANSI or API flange using Ring or Full Face gaskets torque data will be difficult to come by (due to staffing and the fear of law suits). In most cases the old tighten it tight enough to stop any leaks but not too tight as to completely crush the gasket is generally accepted.

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MOSTL COMMONLY USED TYPES OF GASKETS WITH LIMITATIONS OF PRESSURE AND TEMPERATURE

PERMISSIBLE SERVICE CONDITIONS Sl .No DESCRIPTION PRESSURE (BAR) 1 RUBBER a) NATURAL RUBBER b) NEOPROPANE 2 GRAFOIL(A11 GRAPHITE) 3 POLY TETRA FLOURO ETHYLENE(PIPE) 4 COMPRESSED ASBESTOS FIBRE 5 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 ALUMINIUM COPPER IRON OR SOFT STEEL MONELMETAL FLAT SOLID METAL 350 700 2000 VERY HIGH PRESSURE 5.5 6 6.1 6.2 TP 316 SS TP 310SS STAINLESS STEEL 2000 800 150 450 350 550 800 150 150 150 21.0 240 -30 3.5 3.5 TO 8 LOW TO MODERATE MODERATE 200 -180 180 200 1650 -30 -40 -240 MAX TEMPERATURE( C) MIN
0

SPIRAL EDGE WOUND WITH ASBESTOS FILLER 105 250 750 ABOVE 750 -50

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NOMENCLATURE OF HEAT EXCHANGER COMPONENTS

For the purpose of establishing standard terminology, Figure N-2 illustrates various types of heat exchangers. Typical parts and connections, for illustrative purposes only, are numbered for identification in Table
TABLE

1. Stationary Head-Channel 2. Stationary Head-Bonnet

21. Floating Head Cover-External 22. Floating Tube sheet Skirt

3. Stationary Head Flange-Channel or Bonnet 23. Packing Box 4. Channel Cover 5. Stationary Head Nozzle 6. Stationary Tube sheet 7. Tubes 8. Shell 9. Shell Cover 10. Shell Flange-Stationary Head End 11. Shell Flange-Rear Head End 12. Shell Nozzle 13. Shell Cover Flange 14. Expansion Joint 15. Floating Tubesheet 16. Floating Head Cover 17. Floating Head Cover Flange 18. Floating Head Backing Device 19. Split Shear Ring 20. Slip-on Backing Flange 24. Packing 25. Packing Gland 26. Lantern Ring 27. Tie rods and Spacer slates 28. Transverse Baffles or Support 29. Impingement Plate 30. Longitudinal Baffle 31. Pass Partition 32. Vent Connection 33. Drain Connection 34. Instrument Connection 35. Support Saddle 36. Lifting Lug 37. Support Bracket 38. Weir 39. Liquid Level Connection 40. Floating Head Support
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Fig 5.1 AES HEAT EXCHANGER

Fig 5.2 BEM HEAT EXCHANGER

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Fig 5.3 AEP HEAT EXCHANGER

Fig 5.4 CFU HEAT EXCHANGER

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Fig 5.5 AJW HEAT EXCHANGER

Fig 5.6 AKT HEAT EXCHANGER

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6. CONCLUSION
Heat Exchangers have numerous different types and applications as discussed in the report. Each type selection can only be determined by the application the device will be used for. The general design process can be summarized in the calculation of the required area to transfer heat from one fluid to another by that the designer can determine the actual mechanical design parameters knowing the physical and chemical behavior of the fluids to be used. The report discussed the most famous types of industrially used heat exchangers such as Shell-and-Tube heat exchangers, which are the most commonly used ones, that can withstand high pressures with moderate area to volume ratio and Double-Pipe heat exchangers which are the simplest type in design and maintenance but they have relatively low area of heat transfer. Compact heat exchangers which are famous of their capability to use different phases of fluids and Plate-and-Frame type that has very high area to volume ratio in addition to Spiral, Regenerative or Matrix, Scraped-Surface and High and Low finned types. General design considerations are routing of fluids and the suitability of the calculated area of heat transfer according to fouling factor and other important parameters like baffles arrangement to meet with the maximum pressure loss requirement in shell-and-tube heat exchanger.

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7. BIBLIOGRAPHY
1) TUBULAR EXCHANGERS MANUFACTURERS ASSOCIATION (TEMA) 1978 2) AMERICAN SOCIETY OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING (ASME) SEC-VII, DIVISION-1 3) AMERICAN SOCIETY OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING (ASME) SEC-II,PART D 4) HEAT EXCHANGERS: SELECTION, DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION BYE.A.D.SAUDERS, BSE ENGG, MECH ENGG 5) PROCESS EQUIPMENT DESIGN BY LIOYD E. BROWNELL, EDWIN H. YOUNGWILLEY EASTERN LIMITED 6) HEAT EXCHANGER DESIGN HAND BOOK-1 HEAT EXCHANGER THEORY 7) HEAT EXCHANGER DESIGN HAND BOOK-3 THERMAL AND HYDRAULIC DESIGN OF H E 8) HEAT EXCHANGER DESIGN HAND BOOK-4 MECHANICAL DESIGN OF H E

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