Electromagnetic forces acts on electrons-holds atoms together Strong Nuclear force acts on nucleons-holds nucleus together Weak Nuclear

force acts on nucleons-radioactive decay Gravitational forces acts on all matter- holds planets together

Photo electric effect

Lights can be particle & come in small packets called photons Short light or U.V on metal surface are ejected as photocurrent bound to surface with binding energy called the work function W only ejected if frequency of incident light exceeds the MIN threshold frequency for that particular metal f>F0 Using light with larger f increases the KE of ejected Once photocurrent is registered, increasing intensity will increase photocurrent Negative potential V is applied to collector plate (anode) which repels the and when large enough to stop photocurrent then this is stopping potential or cut-off voltage & the current will flatten out to a maximum.

Photon Momentum (the Compton effect) = = mc = hf c

= photon momentum = = = = =
ALL PARTICLES BEHAVE AS WAVES

Plancks Black body radiation

A Black body wont reflect any light (or other electromagnetic radiation) When heated it will emit electromagnetic radiation (eg hot plate)

WAVE PARTICLE DUALITY Debrogil wavelength = =

CONSERVATION OF MOMENTUM m1u1 + m 2u2 = m1v1 + m 2v2 F= momentum (P) =N time

= =

CONSERVATION OF KINETIC ENERGY

= .

W=

m1v21 + m2v22 = m1u21 + m2u22

ELECTRON GUN

= 1 = 1.6 1019 = energy Joules = frequency of the emitted radiation = planck constant = . s =

= = =

= .

X-Ray Scattering- The Compton affect & light pressure

/
E J

= = .
= =
= () = De Brogile-Davisson & Germer Apparatus

E f E = hf h = f = = = E= =

Black body radiation Energy created by moving between defined energy level within the atom (transitions). Certain states of vibrations are more likely- hence the peak in the frequency distribution curve Atoms can only vibrate at a certain frequency Light energy not given of continuesly but in small energy packets called Quanta or Photons WAVE MODEL FAILS BECAUSE PREDICTS Increasing Intensity should increase KE of e Photoelectric effect will occur for all frequencies but in fact there is a threshold frequency

= 700 109 = 400 109

White light= = Wavelengths decrease Refracts more critical angle decreases frequency increases
+

Electrons from filament F are accelerated by a variable potential difference V. After scattering from crystal C they are collected by detector D

Photoelectric apparatus

Ionisation -process of removing electron or more from a neutral atom creating a pos+ charged atom. Ionisation energy=w

= =
= Energy of higher orbital = Energy of lower orbital
The total energy E of the electron in such an orbit (this can also be found on the diagram below)

A ZX
A=Mass Number of nucleons (protons & Neutrons) Z=Atomic Number= Number of protons in nucleus 1 = mass of 12 6 C = . 2 Mass of- Proton=1.007276 u Neutron=1.008665 u Electron=.000549 u 1u=931 MeV (binding energy) Mass of constituents>actual mass Transmutation (EG caused by ALPHA BOMBARDMENT)

Positively charged particles being emitted from the nucleus of radioactive atoms. Alpha Particles- collide with matter and slow down transferring their kinetic energy to the other molecules shaking many of them apart leaving a trail of pos & neg ions in their wake. Electrons being emmited from the nucleus of radioactive atoms Beta Particles- move at very high speeds. Smaller & more penetrating than alpha particles High energy electromagnetic rays/photons being emitted from the nucleus of an atom. Happens around other decay when the atom rearranges itself to be more stable. -13 Gamma Particles- Extremely small ( -10 m) & most penetrating. (no charge)

En =

E1 n2

En = nhf
= 2.17 1018 13.6 = The energy of that nuber orbital = number of the orbital where e is

Alpha Decay (ATOMS HEAVIER THAN URANIUM-238)

A ZX

A 4 Z 2Y

+4 2 He + energy ()

Beta Decay (ATOM HAS SURPLUS OF NEUTRONS)

Bohr model of atom

Electron will only radiate energy in exact quanta. move inward to nucleus until stable state is reached.

A ZX

A Z+1 Y

+ 0 1 e + energy ()

Positron Decay (SURPLUS OF PROTONS)

A ZX

A 0 Z 1 Y + +1 e + energy

()

Radius of Hydrogen atom= 5 1011

Mass Defect represents mass that has been converted into binding energy

Nuclide-Name & symbol of a particular atomic species eg C or H etc

Einstein said Matter & Energy are not separate quantities but are different forms of one another =

Nucleus=

1 10,000

size of whole atom

() BINDING ENERGY (relates to fo) E = (Mass Actual Mass) c 2 Mass Defect=Mass-Actual Mass Fission- Breaks apart Fusion- Puts together Tritium- 3 1 HALF LIFE N 1 = ( )n NO 2 log N 1 = n log NO 2

Mass of proton=mass of neutron Nucleus=99% of mass of whole atom

Thompsons Plum pudding model No good because tiny particles fired at atom and can pass thru

Determine potential (accelerating portential) V(volts) when an electron (or particle) is shot through single slit or double slit grating.

1.

Determine wave length SINGLE SLIT 2L w= = d DOUBLE SLIT L w= = d = width of central maximum = distance between slits = distance to screen

Isotopes have same nuber of protons but different number of neutrons to original element & will behave similar More protons= bigger atom=helps stability because seperates charges

n=

2.
Strong Nuclear Force (binding energy) only affects within distance of 5 1015 Adding protons does not increase the strong nuclear force No stable nuclides have E>8 Proton + Electron = Neutron

time t = time of half life t 1

2

Use wavelength to determine momentumhence find the velocity h h = = mv p =

N = number of particles NO = Initial number of particles

3.

Velocity determines potential difference (Volts) 1 W = qV = mv 2 2 =

Mark Riley markriley85@hotmail.com