Trade of Electrician

Standards Based Apprenticeship

Introduction to AC
Phase 2 Module No. 2.1 Unit No. 2.1.9

C U!SE N TES

Created by Gerry Ryan - Galway TC Revision 1. April 2000 by Gerry Ryan - Galway TC John Watters - Sligo TC Revision 2. ov. 2002 by Gerry Ryan - Galway TC Chris !"dlow - #"ndal$TC Revision %. A"g 200& by Chris !"dlow - #"ndal$TC Revision '. (eb 200) by Chris !"dlow - #"ndal$TC

Published by FS - Training and Employment Authority P.O. Box 4 ! "#-$$ %pper Baggot Street &ublin 4 'reland ( FS - "))* All rights reser+ed. ,o part o- this publi.ation may be reprodu.ed/ stored in a retrie+al system or transmitted in any -orm or by any means/ ele.troni./ me.hani.al/ photo.opying/ re.ording or other0ise/ 0ithout the prior permission o- the .opyright o0ner.

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Ta"le of Contents
INTRODUCTION...........................................................................................................................................4 ALTERNATING CURRENT GENERATOR.............................................................................................5 GENERATION OF AN ALTERNATING EMF.........................................................................................6 FREQUENCY.................................................................................................................................................8 AC WAVEFORM VALUES........................................................................................................................10 PURELY RESISTIVE AC CIRCUITS.......................................................................................................13 ELECTRICITY DISTRIBUTION NETWORK.......................................................................................1 DIRECT CURRENT ! DC " GENERATOR..............................................................................................#0

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Introduction
2el.ome to this se.tion o- your .ourse/ 0hi.h is designed to introdu.e you the learner/ to Alternating 3urrent theory.

"#ecti$es
By the end o- this unit you 0ill be able to4 %nderstand the basi. prin.iple o- a simple A3 generator %nderstand ho0 an alternating E5F is generated Explain the term 6-re7uen.y8 %nderstand the terms Pea9/ 15S and A+erage +alues o- a sine 0a+e State the e--e.t o- a resistor in an A3 .ir.uit State the e--e.t o- a .apa.itor in an A3 .ir.uit State the e--e.t o- an indu.tor in an A3 .ir.uit :ist -uels used to generate ele.tri.ity in 'reland State ESB distribution net0or9 +oltages %nderstand the basi. prin.iple o- a simple &3 generator

!easons
Almost all ele.tri.ity is generated as A3/ so it is +ery important to understand the e--e.ts othese .omponents.

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Alternatin% Current &enerator

The basi. prin.iple o- an A3 generator is sho0n in Figure ;. The .oil ends are .onne.ted to t0o slip rings.

A N AC u tp u t

B S

C ar"on B ru sh

S lip r in % F$%&'( 1.

As the .oil sides A and B are rotated by an external -or.e side A 0ill ha+e an E5F indu.ed -irst in one dire.tion and then in the other dire.tion. As side A o- the .oil is permanently .onne.ted to one slip ring/ this ring 0ill alternate -rom positi+e to negati+e as .oil side A rotates past the ,orth and South pole -a.es. The same pro.ess applies to .oil side B. The generated output is there-ore alternating < A3 =. The dire.tion o- the indu.ed E5F in ea.h .oil side .an be determined by the use o- Fleming>s 1ight ?and 1ule.

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&eneration of an Alternatin% EM'

Figure " sho0s a .ross-se.tion through a single loop generator.

N
(irection of !otation

Pi$ot

S
F$%&'( #. As the single loop .oil AB is being rotated anti.lo.90ise about its pi+ot 0e 0ill .onsider 0hat +oltage/ i- any/ is being indu.ed into this .oil at de-inite inter+als throughout a $!) ) .y.le orotation/ starting at positions ; and #/ see Figure $.

F$%&'( 3. 2hen the .oil sides A and B are rotating parallel to the lines o- magneti. -lux and hen.e not .utting any lines o- magneti. -lux no E5F is being indu.ed in them. This is illustrated in Figure $/ by positions ; and #/

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As the .oil AB is rotated -urther anti.lo.90ise/ it .an be seen that the .oil is .utting magneti. -lux lines and hen.e an E5F is indu.ed into it. This is illustrated in Figure $/ by positions " and *. The magnitude o- this E5F is as sho0n at position " o- the sine 0a+e. As the .oil AB is rotated -urther anti.lo.90ise through positions $ and @/ and then to positions 4 and ;) 0here the maximum -lux is being .ut resulting in the maximum +oltage being indu.ed into the .oil as illustrated at position 4/ see Figure $. As the indu.ed E5F in the .oil AB depends on the amount o- -lux being .ut/ 0hi.h itseldepends on the position o- the .oil/ then the magnitude o- the indu.ed E5F .an be represented by the .oil position. The resulting graph/ Figure 4/ indi.ates the E5F indu.ed in the .oil -or one .omplete re+olution o- the .oil. The resultant 0a+e-orm is .alled a )$*( +,-(. A sine 0a+e-orm .onsists o- e7ual positi+e and negati+e hal- .y.les.

,
E M '

Positi$e )alf C*cle

Ti+e

Ne%ati$e )alf C*cle ne co+plete C*cle F$%&'( 4.

Figure 4 sho0s the +ariation o- the indu.ed E5F during one .omplete re+olution o- a .oil and is termed .*( /0/1(.

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're/uenc*
'- the loop is rotated at the speed o- " re+olutions (,/2 )(/.*3/ the resultant E5F 0ill .omplete " .y.les ea.h se.ond. The number o- .y.les ea.h se.ond is re-erred to as 4'(5&(*/0.

EM'

Ti+e

.
T0o Co+plete C*cles The symbol -or -re7uen.y is < - =. 't is measured in .y.les per se.ond < 3PS = or more .ommonly ?ertA < ?A =. The time in 0hi.h one .y.le is .ompleted is 9no0n as the 6('$.3$/ 7$8(. A -re7uen.y o- ) ?A is the standard -or the supply system in 'reland. The -re7uen.y o- a supply .an be .al.ulated as -ollo0s4

4
2here4 4 1 T 9 9 9

1 T

4'(5&(*/0 $* :('7; ! CPS " /.*)7,*7 6('$.3$/ 7$8( ! 72( 7$8( $* +2$/2 .*( /0/1( $) /.861(7(3 "

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Example 1
An alternating +oltage 0a+e-orm has a periodi. time o- 4 mS. 3al.ulate the -re7uen.y o- the supplyB S.1&7$.* T C 4mS ; T ; 4 x ;)-$ ;)$ C 4 C #50 :; C 4 x ;)-$ S

Example 2
3al.ulate the periodi. time o- a supply/ 0hi.h has a -re7uen.y o- ) ?A. S.1&7$.*< C ; ; T C ) T C 0.0# S(/.*3) < or ") mS = )

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AC 1a$efor+ 2alues
Figure ! sho0s the Pea9/ 1oot 5ean S7uare and A+erage +alues -or a ; Dolt A3 supply. These +alues also apply to the negati+e hal- .y.le.
1.- 2., -.5-5 2. -.345 2. Pea6 !MS A$era%e

- 2. Ti+e

.
Peak Value of a Waveform

F$%&'( 6

The P(,= +alue is simply the highest +alue on the 0a+e-orm. 't is also 9no0n as the M,>$8&8 +alue. The pea9 +alue o- the 0a+e-orm in Figure ! is ; Dolt. This may be 0ritten as VP 9 1 V.17.

Root Mean Square Value of a Waveform

'- you measure the mains supply you 0ill -ind it to be "$) Dolts. This is the R..7?M(,*? S5&,'( < 15S = +alue o- the alternating +oltage. 't is also 9no0n as the E44(/7$-( +alue. The 15S +alue o- the 0a+e-orm in Figure ! is ).#)# Dolt. This may be 0ritten as VRMS 9 0.@0@ V.17. The 15S +alue o- an A3 +oltage .' .urrent is de-ined as the e7ui+alent &3 +alue/ 0hi.h 0ould ha+e the ),8( 2(,7$*% (44(/7. The 15S or E--e.ti+e +alue is the +alue normally used. All multimeters are designed to read 15S +alues.

Average Value of a Waveform

The A-(',%( +alue o- a 0a+e-orm is .al.ulated o+er one hal- o- a .y.le. 't is also 9no0n as the M(,* +alue. The a+erage +alue o- the 0a+e-orm in Figure ! is ).!$# Dolt. This may be 0ritten as VAVE 9 0.63@ V.17. 't is simply the mathemati.al a+erage +alue o- the positi+e .' negati+e hal- .y.le. '- an attempt is made to a+erage an alternating 0a+e-orm o+er a .omplete .y.le/ the negati+e hal- o- the 0a+e-orm 0ill .an.el the positi+e hal-/ and so the result is Aero.

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Relationship Bet een Waveform Values

'- you measure the mains supply 0ith a multimeter you 0ill -ind it to be about "$) Dolts. 1emember/ this is the 15S +alue. From this/ the pea9 +alue .an be .al.ulated as -ollo0s4 Pea9 Dalue C 15S Dalue ).#)# "$) ).#)# 3#5 V.17)

Pea9 Dalue Pea9 Dalue

C C

The Pea9 .' 5aximum Dalue o- the "$) Dolt mains supply is about $" Dolts. Please note that $" Dolts 0ill be a.ross your body i- you re.ei+e an ele.tri. sho.9 -rom the "$) Dolt mains. ,o0 that 0e 9no0 the pea9 +alue o- the supply/ the a+erage +alue .an be .al.ulated as -ollo0s4 A+erage Dalue A+erage Dalue A+erage Dalue C C C Pea9 Dalue x ).!$# $" x ).!$#

#0@ V.17)

The a+erage or mean +alue is rarely used/ ex.ept in some ele.troni. .ir.uits/ e.g. re.ti-ier .ir.uits. Ei+en the pea9 +alue o- the supply/ the 15S +alue may be .al.ulated as -ollo0s4 15S Dalue 15S Dalue 15S Dalue C C C Pea9 Dalue x ).#)# $" x ).#)#

#30 V.17)

Ei+en the a+erage +alue o- the supply/ the pea9 +alue may be .al.ulated as -ollo0s4 Pea9 Dalue C A+erage Dalue ).!$# ")# ).!$# 3#5 V.17)

Pea9 Dalue

Pea9 Dalue

;;

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Example
The pea9 +alue o- a sine 0a+e is ;" Dolts and it has a periodi. time o- ;! mS. 3al.ulate the -ollo0ing4 <;= <"= <$= <4= 15S +alue A+erage +alue o- -ull 0a+e A+erage +alue o- hal- 0a+e Fre7uen.y o- supply. C C C Pea9 +alue x ).#)# ;" x ).#)# 8.484 V.17)

S.1&7$.* <;= 15S +alue 15S +alue 15S +alue <"= <$=

A+erage +alue o- -ull 0a+e C )/ sin.e the negati+e hal- .an.els the positi+e hal- exa.tly. A+erage +alue o- hal- 0a+e A+erage +alue A+erage +alue A+erage +alue C C C Pea9 +alue x ).!$# ;" x ).!$# @.644 V.17).

<4=

Fre7uen.y o- Supply C

; T ; ;! x ;)-$ ;)$ ;! ;))) ;! 6#.5 :;

T C ;! mS C ;! x ;)-$ mS

C C

;"

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Purel* !esisti$e AC Circuits

Effe!t of Resistan!e in "# an$ A# #ir!uits
Purely resistan.e .ir.uits .onsist o- ele.tri.al de+i.es/ 0hi.h .ontain no indu.tan.e or .apa.itan.e. &e+i.es su.h as resistors/ lamps < in.andes.ent = and heating elements ha+e negligible indu.tan.e or .apa.itan.e and -or pra.ti.al purposes .an be .onsidered to be purely resisti+e. For su.h A3 .ir.uits the same rules and la0s apply as -or &3 .ir.uits. 1e-er to Figure #.

A
, 1-2(C . !esistor 1--!

'

% 1 ;) ;)) 0.10 A86.

F$%&'( @

' '

C C

'n the A3 .ir.uit sho0n in Figure * there is an alternating supply o- ;) Dolts 15S applied. This .ir.uit 0ill dra0 the ),8( /&''(*7 as the &3 .ir.uit abo+e.

. .

A
!esistor 1--!

1- 2olts AC !MS

F$%&'( 8 'n an A3 .ir.uit 0ith .*10 '()$)7,*/( present4 ' C % 1

2hen an A3 .ir.uit .ontains only resisti+e de+i.es/ Ohms :a0/ Fir.ho-->s :a0s/ and the Po0er :a0s .an be used in exa.tly the same 0ay as in &3 .ir.uits.

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%he Effe!t of #apa!itan!e in "# an$ A# #ir!uits

Figure # sho0s a DC )&6610 .onne.ted to a non polarised .apa.itor. 2hen the supply is s0it.hed on/ the ammeter 0ill indi.ate .urrent -lo0ing initially/ and then the reading 0ill -all o-to Aero. This indi.ates that the .apa.itor is .harged. Be.ause there is +irtually no resistan.e in the .ir.uit/ the .harging o- the .apa.itor is almost instantaneous. I* , DC /$'/&$7 /.*7,$*$*% .*10 /,6,/$7,*/(A *. /&''(*7 41.+) ,47(' 72( $*$7$,1 /2,'%$*% /&''(*7.

, .

C a p a c it o r

F$%&'( @ Figure * sho0s a lamp .onne.ted in series 0ith a non-polarised .apa.itor a.ross ;" D &3 supply. 2hen the s0it.h is .losed/ the lamp may -li.9er 6on8 -or an instant as the .harging .urrent -lo0s through it. This .urrent -lo0 redu.es to Aero as the .apa.itor .harges to -ull .apa.ity. At this stage the applied +oltage is a.ross the terminals o- the .apa.itor and the +oltage a.ross the lamp has redu.ed to Aero. S 0 it c h C a p a c it o r , 122( C . F$%&'( 8 7a+ p

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Figure @ sho0s the same .ir.uit no0 .onne.ted to an AC )&6610. 2hen the s0it.h is .losed/ the .apa.itor is .harged 0ith one polarity and then it dis.hargesG next the .apa.itor is .harged 0ith the opposite polarity/ and then it dis.harges again. T2( /0/1() .4 /2,'%( ,*3 3$)/2,'%( /&''(*7 6'.-$3( ,* ,17('*,7$*% /&''(*7 $* 72( /$'/&$7A ,7 72( ),8( 4'(5&(*/0 ,) 72( ,661$(3 -.17,%(. T2$) $) 72( /&''(*7A +2$/2 1$%27) 72( 1,86.

S 0 it c h C a p a c it o r 122AC ! M S 2 a lu e

7a+ p

F$%&'( Figure ;) sho0s the same .ir.uit 0ith a lo0er +alue .apa.itor. This .apa.itor ta9es a lo0er +alue .harge and dis.harge .urrent and there-ore the lamp 0ill be dimmer. The lo0er +alue .apa.itor has more opposition to alternating .urrent and so less .urrent -lo0s in the .ir.uit. From this 0e .an see that the .ir.uit has 8.'( '(,/7,*/( 4.' 1()) /,6,/$7,*/(.

S 0 it c h C a p a c it o r 122AC ! M S 2 a lu e

7a+ p

F$%&'( 10 C,6,/$7$-( R(,/7,*/( is the .66.)$7$.* o--ered to the -lo0 o- ,17('*,7$*% /&''(*7 in a .ir.uit .ontaining a /,6,/$7.'. B C R(,/7,*/( 3apa.iti+e 1ea.tan.e is measured in O28) and is denoted in a .ir.uit by the symbol BC.

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S&88,'0< 2hen &3 is applied to a .ir.uit .ontaining a .apa.itor in series 0ith a lamp/ the .apa.itor a.ts/ as a blo.9ing de+i.e and the lamp does not light. 2hen A3 is applied to a .ir.uit .ontaining a .apa.itor in series 0ith a lamp/ the .apa.itor allo0s .urrent to -lo0 through the pro.ess o- .harging and dis.harging the .apa.itor and as a result the lamp illuminates. 'n an A3 .ir.uit .ontaining a .apa.itor/ the lo0er the .apa.itan.e +alue the lo0er the .urrent -lo0. This means that/ the lo0er the .apa.itor +alue/ the greater the opposition to .urrent -lo0. This opposition is 9no0n as 3apa.iti+e 1ea.tan.e < H3 =. A dis.harged .apa.itor beha+es li9e a .losed s0it.h. A .harged .apa.itor beha+es li9e an open s0it.h.

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%he Effe!t of &n$u!tan!e in "# an$ A# #ir!uits

'ndu.tan.e is only e--e.ti+e in a .ir.uit 0hen .urrent is .hanging. The reason -or this is that a /2,*%$*% /&''(*7 results in a /2,*%$*% 8,%*(7$/ 4$(13/ 0hi.h in turn produ.es a C,/= EMF. 'n a &3 .ir.uit/ the e--e.t des.ribed abo+e o..urs only 0hen .ir.uit .urrent is .hanging. At 6S0it.h On8 < an in.reasing .urrent .ausing an expanding magneti. -ield = and at 6S0it.h O--8 < a de.reasing .urrent .ausing a .ollapsing magneti. -ield =. Some indu.tors ha+e a +ery lo0 resistan.e and this 0ill result in high .urrents -lo0ing 0hen they are .onne.ted in &3 .ir.uits.

S 0 it c h , C ho6e . F$%&'( 13 Figure ;4 sho0s a &3 supply .onne.ted to a .ir.uit .onsisting o- an indu.tor/ 0hi.h has an indu.tan.e +alue o- ; ?enry and a resistan.e +alue ; Ohm/ in series 0ith a lamp. 2hen the &3 supply is s0it.hed on/ the lamp 0ill be bright. This indi.ates that the indu.tor has little opposition to .urrent -lo0 in the .ir.uit.

S 0 it c h In d u c t a n c e 8 1 ) e n r * ! e s is t a n c e 8 1 h + 122( C . 7a+ p 1 2 2 - .1 A F$%&'( 14

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Figure ; sho0s the same .ir.uit no0 .onne.ted to an AC )&6610. 't must be remembered that an alternating current is .ontinuously .hanging/ i.e. the .urrent is rising and -alling. This results in a magneti. -ield 0hi.h is .ontinuously .hanging in strength and polarity. As a result o- this the indu.tor has a .ontinuous e--e.t on an A3 .ir.uit. For the .ir.uit sho0n there 0ill be a ba.9 E5F indu.ed in the indu.tor/ 0hi.h a..ording to :enA>s :a0 opposes the supply +oltage. This in turn opposes the .urrent -lo0 in the .ir.uit.

S 0 it c h In d u c t a n c e 8 1 ) e n r * ! e s is t a n c e 8 1 h + 122AC 9- ) : 7a+ p 1 2 2 - .1 A F$%&'( 15 The opposition to the -lo0 o- alternating .urrent in the indu.tor/ is .alled 'ndu.ti+e 1ea.tan.e/ symbol < H: =. 'ndu.ti+e rea.tan.e in .ommon 0ith .apa.iti+e rea.tan.e and resistan.e is measured in Ohms. The resistan.e o- the .oil 0ill depend on the 3SA/ length and type o- 0ire used in its .onstru.tion. Although the indu.tor in the .ir.uit has a resistan.e o- ; Ohm/ it has an 'ndu.ti+e 1ea.tan.e o$;4 Ohms approximately/ under the .ir.uit .onditions des.ribed. The lamp 0ill be dim/ indi.ating a high opposition to .urrent -lo0. 3ontrast this 0ith the &3 .ir.uit/ dealt 0ith pre+iously/ 0here the lamp 0as bright.

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Electricit* (istri"ution Net0or6

The Ele.tri.ity Supply Board < ESB = operates ;@ maIor po0er stations and is responsible -or the generation/ transmission and distribution o- ele.tri.ity in 'reland. The ESB is also the largest pro+ider o- rene0able po0er/ 0ith hydro-ele.tri. po0er stations on the Erne/ the Shannon/ the :ee and the :i--ey. A 0holly-o0ned subsidiary o- ESB/ ?ibernian 2ind/ is de+eloping and operating 0ind -arms.

'eneration of Ele!tri!it(
5any types o- -uel are used to .reate steam and rotate turbines/ 0hi.h are .oupled to $-Phase A3 generators. These generators produ.e ele.tri.ity at ;)/))) Dolts < ;)9D = ) ?A. A sample o- the range o- energy sour.es used by ESB generating stations is as -ollo0s4 3oal Eas ?ydro Oil Oil J Eas Peat Pumped Storage < 5oneypoint = < Aghada = < Ard na 3hrusha = < Tarbert = < Poolbeg = < Shannonbridge = < Turlough ?ill =

"istri)ution of Ele!tri!it(
The ,ational Erid is an ele.tri.ity transmission net0or9 o- lines and .ables throughout the .ountry. 't operates at +ery high +oltages < up to 4))/))) Dolts =. At po0er stations/ ele.tri.ity is trans-ormed to the higher +oltage le+els o- ;;)/)))/ "")/)))/ or 4))/))) Dolts. 't is then -ed into a transmission net0or9 o- approximately !/)))9m o- o+erhead lines and underground .ables. These .ables .arry the ele.tri.ity throughout the .ountry. This net0or9 in.orporates o+er one hundred high +oltage trans-ormer stations. At these stations the +oltage is redu.ed to distribution +oltages o- $*/)))/ ")/))) and ;)/))) Dolts. Some larger industrial premises are supplied dire.tly at these +oltages. Ele.tri.ity is distributed at these KmediumK le+el +oltages o+er an extensi+e distribution net0or9 o- *)/)))9m o- o+erhead lines and underground .ables to smaller lo.al substations .lose to .ustomersK premises. At the lo.al substations/ it is -inally trans-ormed do0n to the normal mains +oltage le+el -or use by .ustomers. By using +ery high +oltages/ the amount o- energy that is 0asted as heat/ due to resistan.e in the transmission .ables is greatly redu.ed. For e+ery doubling o- the transmission +oltage/ the amount o- po0er 0asted/ is redu.ed by # L.

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(irect Current ; (C < &enerator

The basi. di--eren.e bet0een the A3 generator and the &3 generator is the 0ay the generated E5F and .urrent are extra.ted -rom the rotating .oil/ 0hi.h .uts the magneti. -ield. 'n the .ase o- the A3 generator the indu.ed E5F is extra.ted +ia -ixed .arbon brushes in .onta.t 0ith the rotating slip rings. 'n the .ase o- the &3 generator/ the indu.ed E5F is extra.ted +ia -ixed .arbon brushes in .onta.t 0ith the rotating .ommutator/ as sho0n in Figure ;*. A simple &3 generator as sho0n/ has a single loop .oil 0ith its ends .onne.ted to t0o .opper segments -orming its .ommutator 0hi.h is mounted on a sha-t.

F$%&'( 18 This output -rom the generator is a pulsating &3 +oltage as sho0n in Figure ;@. EM' (C u tp u t

n e ! e $ o lo u t io n F$%&'( 1

Pra.ti.al &3 generators ha+e many .ondu.tor loops and .ommutators 0ith large numbers osegments so the output +oltage .an be almost .onstant.

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