1

1.1
1.1.1

4 3 (. 1.1),
7 , 7
5.
, , ,
. , , , (
)
( ) , .
: , , . ,
: , ,
.
(A, B ..)
3 mi

4
mi

5 mi

1.1

1.2
1

 1.

. A |A| ,
, A. , :

. A (A) A
(. 1.2).
: 4
4
( , , ).
, , ,
( ).
:
.
(i) : B A
A + B A
B (. 1.3). ( .) :
A + B = B + A.

3 4 4
3 . , , :
(A + B) + C = A + (B + C).

(. 1.4), :
A B = A + (B).
B
B
(B+A)

A
(A+B)

(AB)

1.3

1.4

(ii) :
a, ,
(. 1.5). ( a , .)
:
a(A + B) = aA + aB.

1.1.

2A
A

1.5

1.6

(iii) :
A B AB cos ,
(1.1)
(. 1.6).
A B ( ). ,
A B = B A,

,
A (B + C) = A B + A C.

(1.2)

, A B A B
A ( B A
B). , A B = AB . ,
A,
A A = A2 .
(1.3)
A B , A B = 0.
1.1
C = A B (. 1.7), C
.
:
C C = (A B) (A B) = A A A B B A + B B,

C 2 = A2 + B 2 2AB cos .

(iv) :
A B AB sin n
,
(1.4)

 1.

1.7

1.8

( 1)
n
A B. ( ( ) .) , ,
: . n
:

( )
n
. ( . 1.8 A B
, B A .) A B
( ).
,
A (B + C) = (A B) + (A C),

(1.5)

. ,
(B A) = (A B).

(1.6)

, |A B| A
B (. 1.8). ,
. ,
AA= 0

A.
1.1
(1.1) (1.4) ,

()
!

() .
1.2 ;
;
(A B) C = A (B C).
, , .

1.1.

5
z

A
x

z
y

Azz

Ax x

()

y
Ayy

()

1.9

1.1.2

(,
, )
. ,
x, y, z . x
, y
,
z
, x, y , z (. 1.9()).
A
(. 1.9()) :
A = Ax x
+ Ay y
+ Az
z.

Ax , Ay , Az A. ,
A .
:
A + B = (Ax x
+ Ay y
+ Az
z) + (Bx x
+ By y
+ Bz
z)
= (Ax + Bx )
x + (Ay + By )
y + (Az + Bz )
z.

(1.7)

(i) : , .
aA = (aAx )
x + (aAy )
y + (aAz )
z.

(1.8)

(ii) : : ,
.
x
, y
,
z ,
x
x
=y
y
=
z
z = 1,

x
y
=x

z=y

z = 0.

(1.9)

,
AB

(Ax x
+ Ay y
+ Az
z) (Bx x
+ By y
+ Bz
z)

Ax Bx + Ay By + Az Bz .

(1.10)

 1.

(iii) : , .
,
A A = A2x + A2y + A2z ,

A=


A2x + A2y + A2z .

(1.11)

( , , .)
A
A = Ax , A y
= Ay , A
z = Az ).
(, A x
,1
x
x
=

y
y

x
y
=
yx

z =
zy

=
z
z = 0,
=
z,
= x
,

zx
=
x
z = y
.

(1.12)

,
AB

(Ax x
+ Ay y
+ Az
z) (Bx x
+ By y
+ Bz
z)

(1.13)
= (Ay Bz Az By )
x + (Az Bx Ax Bz )
y + (Ax By Ay Bx )
z.

,
:

 x

A B =  Ax
 Bx

,
y

Ay
By

z
Az
Bz




.



(1.14)

(iv) : ,
x
, y
,
z,
A, B.
1.2
.
: 1 (
), . 1.10,
1 . ( ,
x , y z .

.) : x
y
=
z . .

1.1.

. A B

A = 1x
+ 0y
+ 1
z,
B = 0x
+ 1y
+ 1
z.

z
(0, 0, 1)
B

(0, 1, 0)
y

x (1, 0, 0)

1.10
,
A B = 1 0 + 0 1 + 1 1 = 1.

,

A B = AB cos = 2 2 cos = 2 cos .
,
cos = 1/2,

= 60 .

, , ,
, .
,

.

1.3 .
1.4
. 1.11.
n

1.1.3

, ,
.

 1.

8
z
3

2
x

C
B

1.11

1.12

(i) : A (B C). , |A (B C)|,

A, B, C, |B C|
|A cos | (. 1.12). ,
A (B C) = B (C A) = C (A B),

(1.15)

. ,
A (C B) = B (A C) = C (B A),

(1.6), .


 Ax Ay Az 


A (B C) =  Bx By Bz  .
 Cx Cy Cz 

(1.16)

:
A (B C) = (A B) C

( (1.15)) , ,
: (A B) C
.
(ii) : A(BC).
BAC
CAB:
A (B C) = B(A C) C(A B).
(1.17)

(A B) C = C (A B) = A(B C) + B(A C)

(1.15) (...).

1.1.

. , ,
(1.17),
. ,
(A B) (C D)
A (B (C D))

= (A C)(B D) (A D)(B C)
= B(A (C D)) (A B)(C D).

(1.18)

1.5 BACCAB
.
1.6
[A (B C)] + [B (C A)] + [C (A B)] = 0.

A (B C) = (A B) C;

1.1.4

, ,

(x, y, z).
(. 1.13) :
r xx
+yy
+z
z.

(1.19)

r .
,

r = x2 + y 2 + z 2 ,
(1.20)
,

r=

xx
+yy
+z
z
r
= 
r
x2 + y 2 + z 2

(1.21)

. , (x, y, z) (x + dx, y + dy, z + dz),

dl = dx x
+ dy y
+ dz
z.

(1.22)

( dr, ,
.)

, r , , , r, (. 1.14).

 1.

10

r
(x, y, z)
r
O
x

1.13

1.14

.
r:

r r r .

(1.23)

r = |r r |,

(1.24)


r r

rO =

r r
r
=
.
r |r r |

(1.25)

r = (x x )
x + (y y  )
y + (z z  )
z,

(1.26)


r = (x x )2 + (y y  )2 + (z z  )2 ,

(1.27)

x + (y y )
y + (z z )
z
(x x )

rO = 

(x x )2 + (y y  )2 + (z z  )2

(1.28)

( ).
1.7 r (2,8,7)
(4,6,8). (r),
Or.

1.1.5

: ;2
2

1.1.

11

, ,
. , ,
. :
Nx , Ny Nz .
+ Ny y
+ Nz
z ;
N = Nx x
Mx , My Mz ,
(Nx + Mx ) , (Ny + My ) (Nz + Mz ) .
.
, .
;
N .
, , , , . , , x, y, z ,
x = x, x, y, z .
. 1.15
Ay = A cos ,

Az = A sin ,

Ay

= A cos = A cos( ) = A(cos cos + sin sin )

Az

= cos Ay + sin Az ,
= A sin = A sin( ) = A(sin cos cos sin )
= sin Ay + cos Az .

:

 


cos sin
Ay
Ay
=
.
sin cos
Az
Az
z
z

1.15

(1.29)

 1.

12

, , :

Ax
Ax
Rxx Rxy Rxz
Ay = Ryx Ryy Ryz Ay ,
(1.30)
Rzx Rzy Rzz
Az
Az
, ,
Ai =

Rij Aj ,

(1.31)

j=1

1 x, 2 y 3 z . R
, , ,
x.
: N ;

, . ,
Ax Ay . , ,
, , . ,
.
, ( ) Txx , Txy , Txz , Tyx , . . . , Tzz ,
R:
T xx = Rxx (Rxx Txx + Rxy Txy + Rxz Txz )
+Rxy (Rxx Tyx + Rxy Tyy + Rxz Tyz )
+Rxz (Rxx Tzx + Rxy Tzy + Rxz Tzz ), . . .

, ,
T ij =

3 
3


Rik Rjl Tkl .

(1.32)

k=1 l=1

, n n 3n n R. ,
1 0.
1.8
() (1.29) A. (, Ay B y + Az B z = Ay By + Az Bz .)
() (Rij ) (1.30) A ( A);

1.2.

13

1.9 R 120
(1, 1, 1).

.
1.10
() (.. x = x, y = y a, z = z , . 1.16());
()
(x = x, y = y , z = z , . 1.16());
() (1.13) ; ( .)
; .
() ; ( .)

z
x
y

x
()

()

1.16

1.2
1.2.1

: : f (x).
df /dx; :
f (x) x dx:
 
df
df =
(1.33)
dx.
dx
: x dx, f df . , . 1.17(),

 1.

14

x .
. 1.17() f x
x = 0.
. df /dx f (x).
f

()

()

1.17

1.2.2

, , , , T (x, y, z) . ( , T
(x, y, z) .) T ,
.
, , .
, : ( ),
, ,
. , T (x, y, z); ,
.
, .
,






T
T
T
dT =
(1.34)
dx +
dy +
dz.
x
y
z
T
dx, dy dz . :
.
(1.34) :

dT


T
T
T
x
+
y
+

z (dx x
+ dy y
+ dz
z)
x
y
z

1.2.

15

(T ) (dl),

T
T
T
x
+
y
+

z
x
y
z

(1.35)

(1.36)

T . (1.35) (1.33).
. ,
. ,
(1.35) :
dT = T dl = |T ||dl| cos ,

(1.37)

T dl. , ,
|dl| (, , ),
T = 0
( cos = 1). , |dl| , dT
T . ,
T T .
,
|T | ( ) T
.
. .
. (
). . (
,
, , . , ,
.)
(1.37) , 90
( ).
,
.
; T = 0 (x, y, z) dT = 0
(x, y, z). , ,
T (x, y, z). ()
() () ().

 1.

16

, ,
. , ,
.
1.3
r =

x2 + y 2 + z 2 ( ).

:
r

=
=
=

r
r
r
x
+
y
+

z
x
y
z
2x
2y
2z
1
1
1

x
+ 
y
+ 

z
2 x2 + y 2 + z 2
2 x2 + y 2 + z 2
2 x2 + y 2 + z 2
r
xx
+yy
+ z
z

= =
r.
2
2
2
r
x +y +z

; ,
,
1. . . , .

1.11 :
() f (x, y, z) = x2 + y 3 + z 4 .
() f (x, y, z) = x2 y 3 z 4 .
() f (x, y, z) = ex sin(y) ln(z).
1.12 ( )
h(x, y) = 10(2xy 3x2 4y 2 18x + 28y + 12),

x y ( )
( ).
() ;
() ;
() ( ) 1 1 ; ,
, ;

1.13 r (x , y  , z  )
(x, y, z) r .
() (r2 ) = 2r.
() (1/r) = rO/r2 .
() (rn );

1.2.
!

17

1.14 f (y z ).
f = (f /y)
y +(f /z)
z
(1.29), . . [: (f /y) = (f /y)(y/y) + (f /z)(z/y),
( f /z ). y = y cos + z sin ,
z = y sin + z cos y z (
y z ) y/y, z/y , ..].

1.2.3

, ,
T:



+y

+
z
T = x

(1.38)
T.
x
y
z
( , ..

x/x x
.

(1.38) :
=x

+y

+
z .
x
y
z

(1.39)

, , , . ,
,
. , T
. , ,

T , .
, , :
, , . , , :
,
Maxwell
,
.
, A :
1. a: Aa
2. B,
A B
3. , A B

 1.

18

:
1. T : T ( )
2. v, : v ( )
3. v, : v ( ).
.
: .

1.2.4




+y

+
z
v =
x

+ vy y
+ vz
z)
(vx x
x
y
z
vy
vz
vx
+
+
.
=
x
y
z

(1.40)

. ( : .)
: , v
v () . . 1.18() ()
( , .)
, . 1.18() ,
. 1.18() . (
v ,
. , ,
.)
. , , .
,
. ( ,

, .
).
1.4
. 1.18 : va = r = x x
+yy
+z
z,
vb =
z, vc = z
z. .

1.2.

19

()

()

()

1.18

:
va =

(x) +
(y) +
(z) = 1 + 1 + 1 = 3.
x
y
z

, .
vb =

(0) +
(0) +
(1) = 0 + 0 + 0 = 0,
x
y
z

.
vc =

(0) +
(0) +
(z) = 0 + 0 + 1 = 1.
x
y
z

 1.

20

1.15 :
+ 3xz 2 y
2xz
z.
() va = x2 x
+ 2yz y
+ 3zx
z.
() vb = xy x

() vc = y 2 x
+ (2xy + z 2 ) y
+ 2yz
z.

1.16
v=

r
,
r2

. . . .
;
!

1.17
. [: (1.29)
v y v z , 1.14 .
v y /y + v z /z = vy /y + vz /z.]

1.2.5

, :


 x
y

z 

v =  /x /y /z 
 vx
vy
vz 






vz
vy
vx
vz
vy
vx
= x

+y

+
z
. (1.41)
y
z
z
x
x
y
v (
) . (
: .)
: , v
v ( )
. ,
. 1.18 (
), . 1.19
. , z ,
. () . (
, ). ,
.
.

1.2.

21
z

y
x

()

()

1.19

1.5
. 1.19() va = y
x + x
y, . 1.19()
y. .
vb = x
:


 x


va =  /x /y
 y
x

z
/z
0




z,
 = 2



 x


vb =  /x /y
 0
x

z
/z
0




 = z.


, z .
(, ,
:
-.)

1.18 1.15.
1.19
. ( , ,
!)

1.2.6

, ,
df
dg
d
(f + g) =
+
,
dx
dx dx

 1.

22

,
df
d
(kf ) = k ,
dx
dx

,
dg
df
d
(f g) = f
+g ,
dx
dx
dx

,
d
dx

  g df f dg
f
= dx 2 dx .
g
g

. ,
(f + g) = f + g,

(A + B) = ( A) + ( B),

(A + B) = ( A) + ( B),

(kf ) = kf,

(kA) = k( A),

(kA) = k( A),

.
.
:
fg
AB

( ),
( ),

fA
AB

( ),
( ).

, , . :
(i)

(f g) = f g + gf,

(ii)

(A B) = A ( B) + B ( A) + (A )B + (B )A,

(iii)

(f A) = f ( A) + A (f ),

(iv)

(A B) = B ( A) A ( B),

1.2.

23

(v)

(f A) = f ( A) A (f ),

(vi)

(A B) = (B )A (A )B + A( B) B( A).

,
.
. ,
(f A)

(f Ax ) +
(f Ay ) +
(f Az )
x
y
z

 
 

f
f
f
Ax
Ay
Az
Ax + f
Ay + f
Az + f
=
+
+
x
x
y
y
z
z
= (f ) A + f ( A).

, ,
 
f
gf f g

,
=
g
g2
 
A
g( A) A (g)
,

=
g
g2
 
A
g( A) + A (g)

.
=
g
g2

,
.
1.20 (i), (iv), (v).
1.21
() A B ,
(A )B; ( , , x, y , z A, B, ;)
r )
r,
r
() (
. (1.21).

() 1.15 (va )vb .

1.22 ( (-) .) (ii)
(vi). (A )B 1.21.

 1.

24

1.23 .
1.24
() (iv) ( )

A = xx
+ 2y y
+ 3z
z,

B = 3y x
2x y
.

() (ii).
() (vi).

1.2.7

,

. T ,
.
(1) : (T ).
(2) : (T ).
v ,
. :
(3) : ( v).
v ,
:
(4) : ( v).
(5) : ( v).
,
, . -:

(1)

(T ) =
=



 

T
T
T

+y

+
z
x
+
y
+

z
x

x
y
z
x
y
z
2T
2T
2T
+
+
.
(1.42)
x2
y 2
z 2

, 2 T , T
. . , ,

1.2.

25

2 v.
x vx , ..:3
2 v (2 vx )
x + (2 vy )
y + (2 vz )
z.

(1.43)

2 .
(2) :
(T ) = 0.

(1.44)

, ( (1.39)).
: (1.44)
( )T ,
( ) ;
, , ,
. (1.44)
:




T
T
(1.45)
=
.
x y
y x
,
(T ) (S).

; ( , ,
).
(3) ( v), , .
( v) :
2 v = ( )v = ( v).
(4) , ,
:
( v) = 0.
(1.46)
. (
, A (B C) = (A B) C.)
(5) :
( v) = ( v) 2 v.

(1.47)

, 3 (
). ( (1.47)
3 , ,
( 1.4.1).

 1.

26

, (1.43) .)
, : (
) ( ). , , , ,
.
. ,
, ,
. ,
, , .
1.25 :
() Ta = x2 + 2xy + 3z + 4.
() Tb = sin x sin y sin z.
() Tc = e5x sin 4y cos 3z.
() v = x2 x
+ 3xz 2 y
2xz
z.
1.26 .
va 1.15.
1.27 .
() 1.11.

1.3

1.3.1

, ,

,
, ( ), .
() .

 b
v dl,
(1.48)
aP

v , dl (1.22), P a b (. 1.20).
(, b = a), :

(1.49)
v dl.

1.3.

27

z
y
dl

2
(2)

(i)

1.20

(ii)
(1)
2

1.21

v ( ) dl .
,


F: W = F dl.
a b,

. . (
.)
1.6
v = y 2 x
+ 2x(y + 1) y

a = (1, 1, 0)  b = (2, 2, 0), (1)
(2) . 1.21. v dl a, b
(1), a (2);
+ dy y
+ dz
z. (1)
: , dl = dx x
. dy = dz = 0,

(i) dl = dx x
, y = 1, v dl = y 2 dx = dx,

v dl =

2
1

dx = 1.

dx = dz = 0,
, x = 2, v dl = 2x(y + 1) dy = 4(y + 1) dy,
(ii) dl = dy y

v dl = 4

2
1

(y + 1) dy = 10.

(1)

v dl = 1 + 10 = 11.
a

, (2) x = y, dx = dy, dz = 0,
dl = dx x
+ dy y
, v dl = x2 dx + 2x(x + 1) dx = (3x2 + 2x) dx,

 1.

28

v dl =
a

2

(3x2 + 2x) dx = (x3 + x2 )1 = 10.

(
, x, y .)
(1) (2),

v dl = 11 10 = 1.

() .


S

v da,

(1.50)

v , da , (. 1.22). , ,
, . (
),

v da,
, . v
 (
), v da
, .
,
,
.
.
1.7
v = 2xz x
+ (x + 2) y
+ y(z 2 3)
z
( ) ( 2) . 1.23.
,
.
: :
(i) x = 2, da = dy dz x
, v da = 2xz dy dz = 4z dy dz,

v da = 4

z dz = 16.

dy
0

1.3.
z

29
(v)

z
2

da

(ii)

(i)

(iv)

(iii)
2

y
2

1.22

1.23

(ii) x = 0, da = dy dz x
, v da = 2xz dy dz = 0,

v da = 0.

(iii) y = 2, da = dx dz y
, v da = (x + 2) dx dz,

v da =

(x + 2) dx
0

dz = 12.
0

(iv) y = 0, da = dx dz y
, v da = (x + 2) dx dz,


v da =

(x + 2) dx
0

dz = 12.
0

(v) z = 2, da = dx dy
z, v da = y(z 2 3) dx dy = y dx dy,


v da =

y dy = 4.

dx
0


v da = 16 + 0 + 12 12 + 4 = 20.

() .


T d,
(1.51)
V

T d .
d = dx dy dz.
(1.52)
, T (
),

 1.

30
z

1
1

1.24
. :





+ vy y
+ vz
z)d = x
vx d + y
vy d +
z vz d. (1.53)
v d = (vx x
, , .
1.8
T = xyz 2 . 1.24.
: .
x: 0 (1 y) y ( 0 1)
z ( 0 3):


T d =
1
2

0
3


z2

z dz
0

0
1

1y


x dx dy


dz =

1
(1 y)2 y dy = 12 (9)( 12
) = 38 .

1.28 + 2yz y
+ y2
z (1,1,1)
v = x2 x
:
() (0, 0, 0) (1, 0, 0) (1, 1, 0) (1, 1, 1).
() (0, 0, 0) (0, 0, 1) (0, 1, 1) (1, 1, 1).
() .
()
() ();
1.29 1.7, . ,
.

1.3.

31

; ( ); [:
,
.]
1.30 T = z 2 (0,0,0), (1,0,0), (0,1,0), (0,0,1).

1.3.2

f (x) .
:
 b
df
dx = f (b) f (a).
(1.54)
dx
a
, :
 b
F (x) dx = f (b) f (a),
a

df /dx = F (x).
F (x): f (x)
F .
: . (1.33), df = (df /dx)dx
f (x) (x + dx).
(1.54) a b (. 1.25)
dx df , ( ) f : f (b) f (a).
, : , -,
. ,
.
: (
) . (, )
.
,
. .

1.3.3

T (x, y, z). a dl1 (. 1.26).