Mothers and Fathers: Expectations for Infants Author(s): Deborah S.

Kliman and Carol Vukelich Source: Family Relations, Vol. 34, No. 3 (Jul., 1985), pp. 305-313 Published by: National Council on Family Relations Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/583567 . Accessed: 08/08/2013 15:54
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Mothers and Fathers: Expectations for Infants*

AND CAROLVUKELICH** DEBORAH S. KLIMAN
Both parents of first-born infants were interviewed about their behavioral and growth expectations for their infants, the sources they use to obtain desired information, and the kinds of information they believe other parents ought to have. The findings suggest that these parents' knowledge about infant behavior and growth is similar and that there is a considerable body of knowledge that these parents do not possess. Whileeach group identified a varietyof sources used to obtain information, mothers and fathers turn to different sources. Additional findings indicate that both parents are most interested in acquiring knowledge about developmental landmarks, health, and teaching children, and believe that the information most needed by all parents is that relating to developmental milestones. Implications of the differences between parents are discussed, and directions for parent educators are suggested.

Developmental psychologists appear to have "discovered" fatherhood during the past 15 years. Research conducted by various scholars (Biller, 1971; Lamb, 1976; Lamb & Sagi, 1983; Parke, 1979; Radin, 1981) has pointed to the effects of fathers on children's cognitive, socioemotional, moral and sex-role development. Although these researchers have reported the importance of fathers in their children's development, and others (Goldberg, 1979) have called for fathers to te more involved with their children, none has focused on what fathers know about their young children's development, and thus, the behavioral expectations they might set, or where fathers go for informationabout a child's development or a childrearing problem. The present researchers have studied mature and teenage mothers' child development knowledge and sources used to obtain such information (Vukelich & Kliman,in press). This earlier work led to the current interest in comparing fathers and mothers on these variables.
*This research was funded by the University of Delaware Foundation. **DeborahS. Kliman is Associate Professor of Individual and FamilyStudies, Universityof Delaware,Newark,DE 19716. CarolVukelichis Associate Professor and Directorof Inservice Educationat the same institution. Key Words:child development information,developmental expectations, parent education, support systems. (FamilyRelations, 1985, 34, 305-313.)

Review of Literature Relatively few studies are available which examine the actual information or knowledge parents have about how children grow and develop and when they expect various developmental landmarks to occur. Most studies which do exist have investigated only mothers' child development information. In one of the earliest investigations in this area, Sperry & Garner (1965) interviewed 239 mothers of children under 3 years, and found they were most informed about physical care, and desired even more information about this area. Since then, other researchers have looked at child development knowledge possessed by several diverse groups of mothers: married, ruraladolescents (Ogg, 1975); abusive parents (Davoren, 1975); and those with varying educational levels (Peters & Hockelman, 1973). The present authors have studied mothers with different occupations and educational levels; mature mothers; and urban, adolescent mothers (Vukelich & Kliman,in press). The central conclusion of all these studies was that the majority of mothers surveyed lacked accurate knowledge about child growth and development, and thus were apt to set inappropriate behavioral expectations for their children. Research focusing on fathers' child development information appears to be nearly nonexistent. Some of the variables concerning the father's role in his young child's development which have been studied are attendance at birth (Phillips &Anzalone, 1978);time spent interacting with infants (Pedersen & Robson,
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1969); time spent on child care (Walker & Woods, 1976);and beliefs about parental roles (Russell, 1982). A second group of studies has examined the father's influence on older children in areas such as behavioral models (Patterson & Guillon, 1968), moral development (Hoffman, 1970), sex role development (Fagot, 1978) and cognitive development (Dyk & Within, 1965). Two recent studies relevant to the present investigation focused on the single parent father. Mendes (1976), using a case study approach with 32 single fathers, found that all of the fathers lacked knowledge about what constituted normal child development. Furthermore, the majority of these fathers believed that books were useless as resources to provide answers to their questions. In their study of 27 single parent fathers, Smith and Smith (1981) concluded that preparation for fatherhood is lacking, and suggested providing parenting and child growth and development classes to young males as well as to couples embarking on parenthood. Based on the previous research, it seems reasonable to hypothesize that fathers and mothers would possess approximately equal levels of child development information; and, therefore fathers, like mothers, would lack considerable knowledge about child growth and development and would hold inappropriateexpectations for their infant's behavior. A related interest concerns what sources parents use to seek child development information. Stolz (1967)provides one of the earliest descriptions of the information sources parents employ. A series of studies supported by the Administration for Children, Youth, and Families has been reported in Sparling (1980), describing knowledge sources parents use and what kind of information they desire. Friends and family members seem to be popular sources for diverse sets of parents, particularly for teenage mothers. Professionals, books and magazines are also used, especially by parents with more than a high school education and parents holding professional type occupations (Clarke-Stewart,1978; Geboy, 1981; Hughes & Durio,1983; Rowland &Smith, 1983;Vukelich & Kliman, in press). Not only does the source used appear to be affected by education and occupation, but also the type of problem or topic of concern seems to influence the source used (Sparling, 1980). Like fathers' knowledge of child development, little is known about the sources fathers use to obtain needed child development information. Only one study (Cordell, Parke, & Sawin, 1980) questioned fathers about their roles and preparation for parenting. These researchers reported that 48% of the 26 fathers had never read anything about childrearing or child development. All other investigators have

reported their results in terms of informational sources used by mothers. It appears that no research has distinguished between the information seeking patterns of fathers and mothers. Regardless of the sources used, what kinds of child development information do parents desire? Few researchers have examined this question. Hughes & Durio (1983) identified several topics about which the parents they questioned wanted information. The topics they reported included sex education, children's ability to assume household responsibilities, independent behavior, and substance abuse. Most of their subjects were parents of older children. An obvious conclusion is that parents' concerns and desires for information vary according to the child's age, but Hughes and Durio have found that, in general, problem areas of concern to parents have not been clearly identified, and Harmanand Brim (1980) have suggested that parent education efforts will continue to be ineffective until better awareness of parents' needs is established. Purpose The present study was designed to compare fathers and mothers' child development knowledge level and the sources each group uses to gain knowledge. The specific questions investigated were: 1) Do mothers and fathers possess the same level of knowledge about infant growth and development? 2) Are different sources used by parents to obtain information on childrearing problems, on child growth and development, and on teaching a child? 3) What information about child development would mothers and fathers like to have? 4) What information do mothers and fathers think is important for other parents to possess? Method
Subjects

The subjects of the investigation were parents living in a northerncounty in Delaware who gave birth to their first child in the area hospital during early summer 1983, and who agreed to participate in the study. The parents of all newborns for whom both a mother and father were identified in the birth announcement section of the area's major newspaper were contacted by letter. The letter described the project and indicated that a telephone call would follow to determine their interest in participating in the study. During the telephone call it was explained that both parents were being requested to participate and that the project was concerned with only those parents who had given birth to their first child. (Parents

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with unlisted telephone numbers could call one of the researchers to indicate their willingness to participate.) Twenty pairs of parents who met the criteria and agreed to allow the interviewer to come to their home were selected from the total two parent pool. Each couple was interviewed separately in their home no later than 1 month after the birth of their first child. The mean age of the mothers was 27.1 (range 20 to 36) while the mean age of the fathers was 30.0 (range 24 to 39). Most mothers' educational level was some college or technical school with the range from high school graduate to college graduate. Most fathers' educational level also was some college or technical school with the range from some high school to post-graduate training. Fifteen of the mothers and 12 of the fathers had attended child birth education classes at the area hospital. The majority (13) of the mothers were homemakers at the time of the child's birth; all but five had worked previously. In their most recent jobs, all but one of the mothers' employment required little or no specific training (secretary, sales clerk, fast food restaurant employee). All but one of the fathers were employed at the time of the study, and the majority (13) held positions for which specialized training or a college degree was required, e.g., in large company, teacher, intechnician surance company representative. The remaining six fathers worked in construction (3), in sales (2), or in a blue collar federal position.

measure of the amount or level of child development information possessed, and hence the appropriateness of the parents' expectations about infant development was defined as the total number of correct responses. In the final segment of the interview, each member of the couple was asked to suggest the topics related to child development on which they would like to have information,and to list some of the important areas they thought other parents needed to know about. Results The total number of possible correct responses on the Parent Expectation Scale was 31. The mean numberof correct responses made by the mothers was 14.3, SD = 3.20, range from 8-20. The fathers' mean number of correct responses was 12.5, SD = 3.14, range from 9-21. There was no significant difference between the mean scores for mothers and fathers (t = 1.85). When mothers were incorrect, they typically believed the behavior would appear later than suggested by the child development experts. The errors ranged from 1 month to 12 months later. The behaviors that more than 50% of the mothers expected an infant to exhibit later than suggested include: when a child can follow simple directions; when babies start solid foods; when children can make 2 to 4-word sentences; and when babies say their first words. When fathers were incorrect, they too, typically believed the behavior would appear later than suggested by experts. The errors ranged from 1 to 33 months. The behaviors that more than 50% of the fathers expected an infant to exhibit later than suggested were the same as the mothers expected, with the addition of when do many babies show stranger anxiety; when can a baby reach for objects; and when do babies often cry when their caretaker leaves the room. Obviously when the fathers were wrong, they were wrong by a greater margin than the mothers. When the spouses' responses were compared, the comparison indicated that when the mother expects the behavior to occur later, the father tends to agree. The second most often observed paired response was when the mother was correct, the father believed the behavior would occur later than the mother and the experts. Are different sources used by mothers and fathers to obtain child development information on different topics? Both parents were asked to respond to the questions What source do you or will you use first if you wish information on how to solve

Data Collection
The data were collected in each family's home by a research assistant who had been trained by the researchers. She had formal education in child development, was raising two children as a single parent, and was experienced in working with parents and children in a variety of settings. Interview time was approximately 45 minutes per parent. The research assistant began each interview by obtaining information on familial characteristics such as educational level, age, attendance at a child birth education class, occupation, etc. Then each parent was asked to identify the sources she/he used, or intended to use, to obtain needed information on problems relating to childrearing, on child growth and development topics, and on teaching a child. Finally each parent was asked to identify the information she/he felt was important for other parents to possess. The familial characteristics, sources of information, and the knowledge other parents should have were obtained by verbal report. The assistant then read each item on the Parent Expectation Scale (for a description of the development of the PES, see Vukelich & Kliman, in press), and recorded the parent's verbal response. The score on the PES was the

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problems relating to rearing your child, such as how to discipline your child? What source do you or will you use first if you wish information on your child's growth and development? What sources do you or will you use first to obtain information on how to teach your child? The questions were repeated to request the identification of sources used or to be used as a second choice and a third choice to obtain the needed information. Ninety percent of the mothers and fathers reported they use or would use at least two sources for information relating to each question. Both groups identified fewer third choices for information, with the smallest percentage of mothers (70%)and fathers (60%) identifying a third information choice for the question pertaining to means of teaching their child. In other words, if the second source provided unsatisfactory information seven fathers and six mothers could not identify another source for teaching information. Descriptions will be included of the parents' first and second choices for information only. As indicated in Table 1 when seeking information on how to solve childrearing problems, mothers and fathers relied on different sources. The largest percentage of the mothers (50%)would use their parents as their first source for this information; parents were identified by the fewest fathers (20%)as a first choice for childrearing information.The largest percentage of fathers (45%) would seek the desired information from the medical profession first. More of these fathers (35%) identified books and magazines as a first choice for information than mothers (25%). The most often identified second information choice by mothers was (39%) physicians, while the fathers' (32%) most often identified second choice for information was books and magazines. As indicated in Table 1, if parents were to request information from at least two sources for a response to a childrearing question the greatest number (72%) of mothers were likely to request the information from their mothers, while the greatest number of fathers (67%) were likely to obtain the information from books and magazines. As also indicated, more mothers (64%) than fathers (51%) would seek the advice from the medical profession and from their parents/family (72% compared to
46%). More fathers (67%) than mothers (47%)

Table First First 1 Total Total Fathers Note: Mothers Mothers Second Second CR aReported and = Choice Choice as bPercentages Choiceb Choiceb Question Source are Child Fathers' First percentages. Rearing; calculated 51 CD 6 45 for
=

643925 615011 6 0 6

CR CD T

and

455 40 Child parents 231211 who

Second Medical Profession Choice

673235 472225 Development; identified T a = 602535 456 39 second 100 53 47 Teaching. choice. 0 0 0 0 0 0 563521 0 0 0 0 0 0 654124 591841

CR CD T Information Books Magazines and Sourcesa

CR CD Teachers T

462620 401525 210 21

722250 671750 411229

CR CD T Parents/Family

would seek the information from books and magazines. Neither group of parents would rely on a teacher for childrearing information. The smallest percentage of mothers (17%) and and friends as a childrearing information sou rce.
fathers (16%) would rely on extended family

16160 10100 0 0 0

17170 27270 29290

CR and CD Extended

T Friends Family

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It might be assumed that the information provided by physicians and nurses, books and magazines, and teachers has a higher probability for accuracy than the information provided by family and extended family and friends. Using this assumption as a criterion to group the data, mothers and fathers' first and second choices were compared to determine the potential accuracy of the two sources used by parents for childrearing information. As indicated in Table 1, 10 mothers used a potentially inaccurate source as a first informationchoice. Of these 10 mothers, only three used a potentially inaccurate source as a second choice. The remaining mothers indicated they would use physicians or books and magazines as a second choice. Ten mothers used a potentially accurate source as a first information choice. Five of these mothers' second information source choice was potentially accurate. Of the remaining five mothers whose choice was potentially accurate, four mothers' second choice was potentially accurate also and the remaining mother did not identify a second sou rce. As indicated in Table 1, 16 of the fathers' first information sources were potentially accurate sources. Of these 16 fathers, seven indicated they would rely on a potentially accurate source as a second choice also. The nine fathers whose second information source was a potentially inaccurate source turned to their mother, father, wife, or friend as a second choice for information.All of the fathers whose first informationsource choice was potentially inaccurate would use a potentially accurate second information source. When each couple member's responses were compared on first choice information sources, the comparison indicated that 7 of the 20 couples agreed on the use of a potentially accurate source as a first choice and one couple agreed on the use of a potentially inaccurate source as a first choice. The remaining couples disagreed, with (as indicated in Table 1) the fathers supporting the use of a potentially accurate source more often than the mothers. The first and second choice sources these mothers and fathers used or would use to obtain child development information were much like the sources used for childrearing information. With but three exceptions, the statements made were consistent across the two areas. The three exceptions were: more mothers (39%) identified books and magazines as a first
choice source than fathers (35%); physicians

tially accurate and potentially inaccurate categories and the mothers' first and second choices compared, the comparison indicated that for four of the ten mothers whose first choice was a potentially accurate choice, their second choice was also a potentially accurate choice. Five of these mothers' second choice was a potentially inaccurate source-either mother, neighbor or friend. The remaining mother could not identify a second choice. Four of the 10 mothers whose first choice was potentially inaccurate identified a potentially inaccurate second choice. As indicated in Table 1, five fathers identified a potentially inaccurate first choice. Four of these five fathers' second choice was a potentially accurate source. The remaining father's second choice was a relative, a potentially inaccurate source. Of the 15 fathers whose first source was potentially accurate, 11 identified a potentially accurate second source. When couple member's responses were compared on first choice information sources, the comparison indicated that 7 of the 20 couples agreed on the use of potentially accurate sources as a first choice and three couples agreed on the use of potentially inaccurate sources. The remaining couples disagreed, with the fathers supporting the use of potentially accurate sources more than the mothers. Mothers and fathers responded more similarly to the question "Whatsources do you or will you use if you wish information on how to teach your child?" The fewest number of
mothers (6%) and fathers (110%)identified the

medical profession as a first choice source. The greatest number of mothers (41%) and fathers (47%) identified books and magazines as a first choice source. Family was identified by more mothers (29%) than fathers (21%) as
were teachers (24% compared to 21 %).

These mothers' (41%) most frequently identified second choice source was teachers, while fathers' more frequently Identified second choice source was books and magazines. As indicated in Table 1, if parents were to request informationfrom at least two sources for a response to a "teach my child" question, all of the fathers (100%) would seek the needed information from books and magazines. More mothers than fathers would seek the information from teachers (65% compared to 56%), parents (41 % to 21 %), and extended family and friends (29% to 0%). More fathers (23%) than

and nurses were identified by the smallest percentage (11%) of mothers as a first choice source; and fewer fathers (10%) than mothers (27%) identified extended family and friends as a source. When the data were grouped into the poten-

mothers (6%) would seek advice from physicians or nurses. When the data were grouped into the potentially accurate and potentially inaccurate categories and the mothers' first and second choices compared, the comparison indicated that 10 mothers' first and second choices were potentially accurate choices and four of their

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first and second choices were potentially inaccurate choices. Half of the remaining comparisons indicated movement from potentially accurate to potentially inaccurate; the other half indicated the reverse movement. One mother did not identify a second choice. When the fathers' first and second choices were compared, 14 of these comparisons indicated both of the fathers' choices were potentially accurate. The remaining six comparisons indicated four cases of a potentially inaccurate first choice information source and a potentially accurate second choice information source and two cases of no second choice source identified. When couple member's responses were compared on first choice information sources, the comparison indicated nine of the 20 couples agreed on the use of potentially accurate sources and three couples agreed on the use of potentially inaccurate sources. As shown in Table 1, the remaining comparisons indicated the greater use of potentially accurate sources by the fathers.
What information about child development parents desire? do

energy, and responsibility was the second most needed piece of information for all
parents (22% of their suggestions), while

fathers were closely divided between thinking that knowledge of management techniques
(17%) and the notion that children are worth whatever the costs (15%) were the next most

important ideas that all parents should have. Mothers were least concerned that parents be aware of the costs of childrearing or the
uniqueness of each child (3%), while fathers

were least concerned with the transmission of information on using a variety of resources to
learn about children (4%).

Each interviewee was asked to name the types of information related to child development she/he thought might be needed. These choices were inspected and grouped. Mothers made a total of 34 requests for information, while fathers made 32 requests. Although mothers' requests are more widely distributed across the categories than fathers', the parents shared common interests. Of greatest concern to both groups were the topics of developmental landmarks, health, and how to teach children. Mothers showed equal interest in these three classifications
(18% of their requests), while fathers appeared

to be most concerned about recognizing developmental landmarks (28% of their requests), with secondary interests in obtaining information on health and how to teach children (22% of their requests). Fathers demonstrated very little desire to learn about specific childrearing issues (6% of their requests); this topic was of greater interest to mothers (15% of their requests). Neither parent showed much concern about the topic of discipline (3% of the requests by both mothers and fathers).
information What child development mothers and fathers think is important other parents to know about? do for

Mothers responded with a total of 32 ideas, while fathers suggested 28. Both mothers and fathers thought that the information most needed by all parents concerned developmental landmarks (38% of their total suggestions). Mothers believed awareness of the commitment an infant demands in terms of time,

Discussion The performance on the PES of the parents who were subjects of this study suggests that there is a considerable body of child development information that mothers and fathers do not possess. Furthermore it appears that mothers, though typically infants' primary caregivers, know only slightly more about infants' development than fathers. Based on previous work by Vukelich and Kliman (in press) with mature and teenage mothers, the need for more accurate information by these mothers was not surprising. The present research extends the data to fathers, strengthening Mendes' (1975) and Smith and Smith's (1981) findings that fathers lack knowledge about what constitutes normal child development and supporting their need for such information. Both overestimations and underestimations of development are important to understanding parents' relationship with their infant. Parents who expect their infant to perform a behavior earlier than is typical may become inappropriatelyconcerned about their infant's so called delayed development. They might, according to Davoren (1975), become abusive parents, believing their child could performthe behavior and chooses not to. Parents whose baby develops behaviors earlier than expected might treat it as exceptionally talented; the resulting effect on the child could be either positive or negative. Knowledge of typical development standards should provide parents with reliable criteria against which to compare their infant's development. When these mothers and fathers were incorrect, they typically believed the behavior would appear later than suggested by the child development experts. If the hypothesis that parents' premature expectation for behavior are contributing causes of child abuse is accurate, then these infants should not be found in the child abuse statistics. Both parents should register delight with their baby's seemingly early performance of typical infant behaviors. The data clearly indicate that these parents

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clearly were the fathers' choices for information. Unlike the fathers, the mothers first preference for information was their mother. Perhaps this choice reflects their present life style of being home each day and consequently likely to be in more daily contact with their mother. These first time mothers of infants did not appear to have much time for reading books and magazines. The lack of interest in reading is supported by mothers' most frequently identified second choice; when in need of information and their own parents "fail," the mother would seek the advice of a physician. The heavy reliance on physicians for childrearing and child development information issues. seems to support the need for a new profesMothers' informational needs were more sional in the pediatrician's office-a child balanced than their spouses. It seems obvious development specialist to respond to mothers that they would be interested in health and fathers' questions about rearing children because most often mothers are responsible and their child's development. The data clearly for meeting their infant's daily needs, including suggest to parent educators the limited ensuring its health. Mothers' second most fre- sources available to them for use in distributquent choice was for information on childrear- ing childrearing and child development inforing, whereas this was the second least fre- mation to mothers and fathers. Not one parent quent choice made by fathers. The differences indicated that she/he would attend a parent between spouses in the area of childrearing education class for information. It seems again seem to reflect the reality that mothers parent educators must prepare articles for are usually responsible for the day-to-day care magazines, write books, or meet with parents routines and management of the infant. Only in physicians' waiting areas if they wish to one mother and one father showed a concern reach parents. Clearly parent educators not with learning about discipline. Perhaps this only will need to prepare childrearingand child area is not relevant for parents of infants; in all development information to be disseminated likelihood it would assume more prominence to parents, but also must alert parents of alterfor parents of older children. A comparison of nate means of obtaining needed information. the topics of interest identified by these Where will parents turn for information on parents of infants with the topics identified by teaching their child? Neither mothers nor Hughes and Durio's (1983)parents of older chil- fathers believed that it is appropriateto ask the dren clearly indicates that the age of the child physician these questions. A number of them affects the parents' interests. suggested they would rely on teachers for the As Harmanand Brim(1980) have suggested, information. The authors were curious about it is critical that parent educators know the which teachers they would contact since their areas of concern to parents. Without such in- infants currently were not enrolled in proformation, programs for parents can only ac- grams. Perhaps this was a "will use" response. cidentally meet their needs. For the present, books and magazines may proWhen parents recognized a need for informa- vide the needed information. Parent educators tion, where did they turn for assistance? Based who are seeking to match program content to on this research, two conclusions were evi- their audience may wish to write on teaching dent. First, parents typically relied on more your child and to publish their ideas in books than one source for information. Secondly, and magazines. This source should reach many mothers and fathers evidently relied on dif- fathers and a large percentage of mothers. ferent sources, at least for information on The comparison of each couple member's childrearing and child development questions. relied upon sources raised the question of For childrearing and child development infor- when differences in opinions/advice occur, mation fathers turned first to professionals, whose information was accepted as accurate perhaps because they, as breadwinners, in- and implemented with the child? This study did teract more frequently with professionals and not address this question. What role did the intherefore believe there is more authority and formation gathered by the mother and the authoritativeness in other professionals. Their father play in the rearing of the child? Was it second highest percentage of first choice was the infant's mother who typically gathers inforanother "professional, authority" sourcemation, usually from her mother, and imbooks and magazines. When the first and sec- plements the information with the child? The ond choices for information were considered fathers suggested that they used or would use together, physicians and books and magazines the physician's information. How often did do not have a great deal of knowledge about developmental landmarks.What child development information do parents identify as needed? The data suggest that both fathers and mothers recognize their need for more child development information. The fathers indicated slightly more concern than the mothers with areas that marktheir child's progress-areas that can be used to compare their child with another child or against a criterion. How to teach rankedsecond, along with health for fathers. The interest shown in teaching their child by the fathers seems to reflect a concern with achievement-oriented issues, rather than with nurturance or management

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fathers bring the infant to the physician to their parents for answers to childrearing probgather such information? Did the infant's lems and child development information,while mother collect the physician's advice and relay the greatest numberof fathers rely either on inthe information to the father? Was the father formation found in books and magazines or on really implying that he values the information information given by physicians. Mothers and provided by books and magazines and physi- fathers tend to agree that books and magacians more than that provided by parents and zines are importantsources for information on extended family and friends? how to teach children. Third, these mothers Finally, these mothers and fathers were re- and fathers share a common interest in inforquested to reflect on their new experience and mation on developmental landmarks, health, to describe the information they believed other and how to teach their children. They agree parents should possess. The couples agreed that developmental landmark information is that knowledge about developmental land- needed the most by other parents. Unlike the marks was the most important kind of informa- fathers who indicated that the second most tion other parents should have. This matches needed piece of information related to how to their concern for developmental landmarks as manage children, mothers indicated that other the information they, themselves, would like to parents should be aware of the time, energy, have, and may represent their realization that responsibility, and commitment an infant they should have it as they begin their parent- demands. ing roles. Since the question was asked before the parents took the PES, it is unlikely that they were influenced by feelings of inadequacy resulting from their responses to the PES REFERENCES questions. H. Biller, B. (1971). Father, child, and sex-role. 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(1978).The influences of sex of child on parental reactions to toddler children. Child Development, 49, responsibility. Fathers, however, mentioned 459-465. the "value" of children regardless of costsM.J. (1981).Who is listening to the "experts"?The use perhaps because they have not been charged Geboy, of child care materials by parents. Family Relations, 30, with the daily, seemingly never ending respon205-210. sibilities of an infant. Fathers also thought that Goldberg, H. (1979).The new male. New York:Morrow. D., & Brim, 0. G., Jr. (1980).Learningto be parents. other parents should know about management Harman, Beverly Hills: Sage. techniques, which could reflect their interest Hoffman, M. L. (1970). Moral development. In P. H. Musser (Ed.), Carmichael's Manual of Child Psychology (pp. in control and being in charge; on the other 261-359). New York:John Wiley &Sons, Inc. hand, since management techniques/disR.,Jr., &Durio,H. F. (1983).Patterns of childcare inforcipline were ranked very low as information Hughes, mation seeking by families. FamilyRelations, 32, 203-212. desired by these fathers for themselves, it is Lamb,M. E. (1976).Therole of the fatherin child development. New York:Wiley. possible that they are reflecting an attitude of Lamb, M. E., & Sagi, A. (Eds.) (1983). Fatherhood and family "I don't need this, but you certainly do." policy. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence ErlbaumAssociates. The present study has attempted to describe Lynn, D. B. (1974). The father: His role in child development. Monterey,CA:Cole. the infant behavioral and growth expectations of mothers and fathers who had given birth to Mendes, H. A. (1976).Single fathers. The Family Coordinator, 439-444. 25, their first child, the sources these mothers and Ogg, E. (1975).Preparingtomorrow'sparents. New York:Public fathers use to obtain child development inforAffairs Committee. mation, and the information these mothers and Parke,R. D. (1979).Perspectives on father infant interaction.In J. D. Osofky (Ed.), Handbook of infant development (pp. fathers need, themselves, and believe is impor549-590). New York:Wiley. concluto have. Several tant for other parents Patterson, G. R., & Guillon, E. M. (1968).Livingwith children. Champaign,IL:Research Press. sions can be reached based on the findings. F. A., & Robson, K. S. (1969).Father participationin First, mothers and fathers' knowledge about Pedersen, infancy. AmericanJournal of Orthopsychiatry, 39, 466-472. infant behavior and growth is very similar; Peters, E. N., &Hockelman,R. A. (1973).A measure of maternal that of considerable knowledge body there is a competence. Health Services Reports, 88, 523-526. both do not have. Second, while mothers and Phillips, C. R., &Anzalone,J. T. (1978).Fathering:Participation in labor and birth.St. Louis: C. V. Mosby, Company. fathers rely on different sources to obtain Radin, N. (1981).The role of the father in cognitivelacademicl needed information, both groups use a variety intellectual development. In M.E. Lamb(Ed.),Therole of the father in child development (pp. 237-270). New York: of sources. The majority of mothers rely on Wiley.

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Roosa, M. W., & Vaughan, L. (1984). A comparison of teenage and older mothers with preschool age children. Family Relations, 33, 259-265. Rowland, S. B., & Smith, K. W. (1983). Black and white mothers' preferences for parenting programs. Family Relations, 32, 323-330. Russell, G. (1982). Shared-caregiving families: An Australian study. In M. E. Lamb (Ed.), Nontraditional families: Parenting and child development (pp. 123-156). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Smith, R. M., & Smith, C. W. (1981). Childrearing and singleparent fathers. Family Relations, 30, 411-417. Sparling, J. (Ed.). (1980). Information needs of parents with young children: A synthesis of 15 child development information research studies. Washington, DC: Administration for Children, Youth, and Families. Speery, I., & Garner, K. (1965). Information and services obtained and desired by parents of young children. Greensboro: North Carolina Agricultural Experiment Station, Women's College of the University of North Carolina. Stevens, J. H., Jr. (1984). Child development knowledge and parenting skills. Family Relations, 33, 237-244. Stolz, L. M. (1967). Influences in parent behavior. Stanford: Stanford University Press. Vukelich, C., & Kliman, D. S. (in press). Mature and teenage mothers' developmental expectations and use of information sources. Family Relations. Walker, K., & Woods, M. (1976). Time use: A measure of household production of family goods and services. Washington, DC: American Home Economics Association.

ISSUES AND SOLUTIONS

SIXTHANNUAL CONFERENCE FAMILY EDUCATION
Weber State College Ogden, Utah September 12, 13, 1985

The Department of Child and Family Studies presents a multi-disciplinary conference focusing on current child and family issues and concerns. Conference participants will include teachers at all educational levels, social workers, nurses, physicians, clergy, parents, and college students.

Patricia Russell-McCloud,Esq. San Antonio, Texas

"The Family: What's Missin ... Dr. Carlfred Broderick g?"

Exec. Director of Marriage and Family Therapy Univ. of Southern California

"Family Well Being & The Friend-Kin Network"
Dr. Elliott Landau, Family Therapist Salt Lake City, Utah

"A Survival Course for Remarriage Families" Ms. Lucille Johnson

Family Education Lecturer

Provo, Utah "Living in the Lion's Den and Loving It" PRE-CONFERENCE WORKSHOP September 11, 1985
Development: "Psycho-Social the Differences" Appreciating

DR. MARILYNNE GLATFELTER Psychologist, Private Practice,

Professor

Utah State University Logan, Utah Information available from: Division of Continuing Education State College VWeber Ogden, Utah 84408 Phone: (801) 626-6600
313

July 1985

FAMILY RELATIONS

This content downloaded from 200.52.254.249 on Thu, 8 Aug 2013 15:54:36 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions