k

AND THE DESTINY OF MAN

Charles LeCai Eaton

Copyrighted Material

ISLAM
AND TH^ DESTINY OF MAN C h a r l e i Le C a i Eaton The i\m of Ihh booV \^ tn evplore what rt meins to be a MiKfimH a member of a <:Dmmunfly which emhtacej a quarter oi ihe world's popuUtion and iu t ^ C r i b e ih^^ l a r c H w h i t h have shaped Ihe hearts and ihe mJnds i>f islamic people. After conUrferlng the hbto/tc confrontation between Islam i ^ d Cbri$tendom and aitalvllrtg ihe difference between Ihe three monotheistic taiths lludiaismH Oiristiani^y and llam>H Ihe author describes the hvo p o l H o f Muslim behef in terms of'Truth'and 'MeKy'ihe unjraf^ian Irulh which is ihe basbof the M u ^ i m ^ faith ar>d Ihe mercy inherent m this truth. In Ehe second part of the book beevplaiiH the significance of ihe Qur'an And telb ihe dranuiic *1ofy of Muhamm^'ft life and of ihe early Ciliphale. Llly^ O H a d h o r cwHiden the Muslim view oi man't dettinyn the social tlriHilure of Islam, Ifw rule of art and mysticism and the uuier meanirtgof Islamk teAch^og cofinn^ing the hereafter. Tlirou^KHJl this book I he author is conc^rrved not with thereltftpn of l^am in isolation^ twt wi|h ihe very rtalore of religious failh, its spiritual and inteUcctual foundations, and Ihe I ighl it casts upon the mystertesar>d paradoxes of ihe human condition. Charles Le Gal f a l o n was bom in Switzerland and educaled al Charterhouse and K i n ^ College^ Cambrid){e. A Muslim since ISSI^ be isacofnulfaftl lo the Islamic CuHural CenFer in London and a lecturer, hroadcatler^ aiKl wrfler on teh^ious topics. Previously he served in India^ Africa^ aiMl Ihe Ortbbean for ihe Brilish Diplomatic ^ervrcer H books include The ftkhat Vein: Ejsfem Ir^dilhn$ tfful ^^odem Though'and King of Ihe Castlet Choice ^nd Seipomibility io Ihe Modem WoWrf. A volume in the SUNY series in Islam Seyyed Hosetn Natr, Efhlor Stare Uiuversiiy of New York Press/lsWiic Texts Society Visit our \k^ Stic U htip /^l^^;h sun^pftss cdu

Copyrighted Mateiial

Islam And The Destiny Of Man Gai Eaton

CONTENTS

Introduction Part I AN APPROACH TO THE FAITH 1 Islam and Europe 2 Continuity and Contrast 3 Truth and ercy Part II THE # ( * + The The The The The A!IN" OF THE FAITH

$orld o% the &oo' essen)er o% "od City o% the Prophet ,uccessors $ay o% the $orld

Part III THE FR.IT, OF THE FAITH / The Rule o% 0a1 12 The Human Parado3 11 Art4 En5ironment and 12 Other 6imensions

ysticism

INTRO6.CTION Reli)ion is a di%%erent matter7 Other su89ects may lend themsel5es4 in 5aryin) de)ree4 to o89ecti5e study4 and in some cases personal commitment ser5es only to distort 1hat should 8e a clear and 8alanced picture7 Reli)ion is a di%%erent matter 8ecause here o89ecti5ity only s'ims the sur%ace4 missin) the essential7 The 'eys to understandin) lie 1ithin the o8ser5er:s o1n 8ein) and e3perience4 and 1ithout these 'eys no door 1ill open7 This is particularly true o% Islam4 a reli)ion 1hich treats the distinction 8et1een 8elie% and un8elie% as the most %undamental o% all possi8le distinctions4 compara8le on the physical le5el to that 8et1een the si)hted and the 8lind7 &elie5in) and understandin) complement and support one another7 $e do not see' %or an ade;uate description o% a landscape %rom a 8lind man4 e5en i% he has made a scienti%ic study o% its topo)raphy and has analy<ed the nature o% its roc's and 5e)etation7 In Islam e5ery aspect o% human li%e4 e5ery thou)ht and e5ery action4 is shaped and e5aluated in the li)ht o% the 8asic article o% %aith7 Remo5e this linchpin and the 1hole structure %alls apart7 For the un8elie5er this article o% %aith is meanin)less and4 in conse;uence4 nothin) else in the li%e o% the uslim ma'es sense7 E5en %or the %aith%ul Christian the :su8lime: and the :mundane: relate to di%%erent dimensions4 and he is distur8ed 8y any con%usion 8et1een the t1o7 Islam does not reco)ni<e this di5ision7 For the uslim4 his 1orship and his manner o% dealin) 1ith his 8odily %unctions4 his search %or holiness and his 8arterin) in the mar'et4 his 1or' and his play are elements in an indi5isi8le 1hole 1hich4 li'e creation itsel%4 admits o% no %issures7 A sin)le 'ey unloc's the sin)le door openin) on to the inte)rated and ti)ht='nit 1orld o% the uslim7 That 'ey is the a%%irmation o% the di5ine .nity4 and o% all that %ollo1s %rom this a%%irmation4 do1n to its most remote echoes on the 5ery periphery o% e3istence4 1here e3istence touches on nothin)ness7 Islam is the reli)ion o% all or nothin)4 %aith in a Reality 1hich allo1s nothin) to ha5e independent reality outside its or8it> %or i% there 1ere such a thin)4 ho1e5er distant4 ho1e5er hidden4 it 1ould impu)n the per%ection and the totality o% that 1hich alone is7 It %ollo1s that one cannot spea' o% Islam 1ithout adoptin) a speci%ic point o% 5ie1 and ma'in) that point o% 5ie1 ;uite e3plicit7 This 8oo' is 1ritten 8y a European 1ho 8ecame uslim many years a)o4 throu)h intellectual con5iction and 1ithin the %rame1or' o% a 8elie% in the transcendent unity o% all the re5ealed reli)ions7 The 1ord :con5ert: implies the re9ection o% one reli)ion in %a5our o% another4 8ut mine 1as an act o% acceptance 1hich carried 1ith it no correspondin) act o% re9ection other than the re9ection o% the secular4 a)nostic 1orld o% thou)ht in its entirety7 One 1ho enters the community o% Islam 8y choice rather than 8y 8irth sin's roots into the )round o% the reli)ion4 the ?ur:an and the traditions o% the Prophet> 8ut the ha8its and customs o% the uslim peoples are not his7 He lac's their stren)ths and is immune %rom their 1ea'nesses> immune4 a8o5e all4 %rom the psycholo)ical :comple3es: 1hich are the result o% their recent history7 He does not 8ecome a

mimic Ara84 since he 'no1s that Islam4 as a 1orld reli)ion4 o1es 8oth its endurance and its rich %a8ric to the entry4 century a%ter century4 o% outlanders@ Persians4 &er8ers4 on)ols4 Tur's4 Indians4 alays4 A%ricans7 These outlanders o%ten 8ro'e the mould cherished 8y the Ara8s4 8ut they 5i5i%ied the reli)ion4 and 1ith it the culture and society that are stamped 1ith its mar'7 Islam has created an immediately reco)ni<a8le desi)n %or human li5in)4 8ut the 1ay in 1hich this desi)n has 8een %illed out and coloured has di%%ered 1idely %rom one re)ion o% the 6ar=ul=Islam Athe :House o% Islam:B to another> the peacoc':s tail has 8een spread o5er the 1orld7 The European or American 1ho has come to Islam in this 1ay stands astride the oldest %rontier in the 1orld4 the %rontier that has separated Islamic ci5ili<ation4 %irst %rom Christendom and later %rom the post=Christian 1orld4 %or some thirteen centuries7 This is in many 1ays a stran)e position to occupy 8ecause the %rontier runs 8et1een t1o areas o% reciprocal incomprehension4 and to 8e at home in 8oth is4 in a sense4 to commute 8et1een di%%erent planetary systems7 The $esterner:s ina8ility to understand the uslim is matched 8y the uslim:s incapacity to understand the $esterner7 Those 1ho stand astride the %rontier %ind themsel5es o8li)ed to act as interpreters 8et1een t1o di%%erent lan)ua)es and must themsel5es spea' 8oth 1ith ade;uate %luency7 The $estern uslim does not chan)e his identity4 thou)h he chan)es his direction7 He is dyed 1ith the colour characteristic o% the culture into 1hich he 1as 8orn and 1hich %ormed him> he as's the ;uestions 1hich this culture as's> he retains a sense o% tra)edy and o% the 1orld:s am8i)uity4 1ith 1hich the European tradition is im8ued 8ut 1hich is stran)e to the traditional uslim4 and he is still haunted 8y the )hosts o% Europe:s past7 Ancestral 5oices %amiliar to his 'ind are not silenced4 8ut he has distanced himsel% %rom them7 The ,emitic mind and temperament are le)alistic 8y nature and a certain literal= mindedness is characteristic o% the uslim7 The European4 on the other hand4 is more concerned 1ith the spirit than 1ith the letter o% the la14 and he ine5ita8ly 8rin)s somethin) o% this 8ias 1ith him into Islam7 This may e5en 8e the most use%ul contri8ution he can ma'e to his adopted %aith in an a)e o% chan)e and %luidity4 in 1hich the out1or's o% reli)ion are eroded 8y the times so that it is necessary4 as ne5er 8e%ore4 to esta8lish 1hat are the essentials o% the Faith and to hold %ast to them7 To say this is not to su))est that any part o% the total structure is unimportant4 8ut only to emphasi<e that 1hen a castle is under sie)e4 and alien %orces ha5e scaled the outer 8attlements4 one must 8e ready to man the inner de%ences7 This 8oo' is 1ritten %or those 1hose minds ha5e 8een shaped 8y $estern culture7 "i5en that the contemporary 1orld4 as it no1 e3ists almost uni5ersally4 is entirely a product o% that culture4 I 1rite as much %or those o% my co=reli)ionists 1ho ha5e recei5ed a :modern: education as I do %or non= uslims7 Amon) the %ormer there are already ;uite a num8er 1ho ha5e redisco5ered the reli)ion into 1hich they 1ere 8orn as a result o% seein) it throu)h %orei)n eyes> no lon)er con5inced 8y the traditional ar)uments o% their Faith4 1hich su%%iced 1hile Islam 1as a dosed system4 they ha5e had to di5e deep and tra5el %ar in order to return to their ori)in7

They 1ill assess this 8oo' in the li)ht o% their 'no1led)e o% the reli)ion7 &ut the non= uslim 1ho has an interest in understandin) Islam4 8ut 1ho lac's the time and the inclination to read and compare a num8er o% 8oo's4 has e5ery ri)ht to as' 1hether 1hat he is told is authentic and4 in a )eneral sense4 :orthodo3:7 No simple ans1er can 8e )i5en to this ;uestion7 It is di%%icult to pro5ide a uni5ersally accepta8le de%inition o% uslim :orthodo3y:4 a term %or 1hich there is no precise e;ui5alent in the Ara8ic lan)ua)e7 There is no ecclesiastical hierarchy in Islam A1hate5er may 8e the appearances in ,hi:a Islam as 1e %ind it in IranB4 no ultimate doctrinal authority other than that o% the &oo' itsel%4 the ?ur:an7 $hat I 8elie5e or 1hat the ne3t man 8elie5es4 pro5ided 1e stay 1ithin the %rame1or' o% the reli)ious 0a14 is lar)ely a matter o% personal insi)ht4 so lon) as 1e do not depart too %ar %rom the consensus o% the community Aassumin) that such a consensus e3ists4 and this is an open ;uestion todayB7 I%4 ho1e5er4 1e 8orro1 1hat is essentially a Christian term4 it can 8e said that ,unni orthodo3y emer)ed in the tenth century A64 ta'in) shape o5er the ne3t t1o hundred years> and that it emer)ed as a consensus %ollo1in) a middle 1ay 8et1een con%lictin) points o% 5ie14 1hich threatened to tear the community apart7 0ea5in) room %or 1ide 5ariations o% opinion4 it 1as achie5ed in reaction a)ainst narro1 and e3clusi5e 5ie1s o% 1hat constituted orthodo3y and o% 1hat entitled a man or 1oman to 8elon) to the .mmah4 the sacred community o% Islam7 A uslim4 8y this de%inition4 is anyone 1ho is a8le to ma'e the con%ession o% %aith in sincerity> to say se5en 1ords4 and to mean them7 0a ilaha illa :0lah> uhammadun rasulu: 0lah@ :There is no di5inity 8ut Aor :i% not:B Allah@ uhammad is the messen)er o% Allah:7 And since human 8ein)s cannot read the secrets o% hearts4 the 9ud)ement as to sincerity rests only 1ith Allah7 In practice %e1 1ould accept that this su%%ices4 unless it is ta'en to include all the conse;uences 1hich %lo1 %rom the simple a%%irmation o% %aith7 The uslim 8elie5es in One "od4 1ho is all=po1er%ul and has no partner> 8elie5es in His messen)ers4 sent to man'ind %or their )uidance %rom the 8e)innin) o% time> 8elie5es that uhammad closed the cycle o% messen)ers and that there can 8e no %urther re5elation o% the di5ine 0a1 a%ter him> 8elie5es that the ?ur:an is the $ord o% "od4 unaltered and unaltera8le4 and 8elie5es in the o8li)ation to con%orm to the :Fi5e Pillars:4 1hich are the con%ession o% %aith4 the %i5e daily prayers4 payment o% the poor=due4 the %ast o% Ramadan4 and per%ormance o% the Pil)rima)e to ecca 8y those physically and %inancially a8le to underta'e it7 A uslim may ne)lect one or more o% the pillars Ae3cept the %irstB and still 8e counted as a 8elie5er4 8ut i% he denies their necessity he has placed himsel% outside the community7 The ?ur:an itsel% o%%ers a 8road de%inition@ :The messen)er 8elie5es in that 1hich has 8een re5ealed to him %rom his 0ord4 as do the 8elie5ers7 Each 8elie5es in Allah and His an)els and His scriptures and His messen)ers = $e ma'e no distinction 8et1een any o% His messen)ers = and they say C$e hear and 1e o8ey7 For)i5e us4 O 0ord7 .nto Thee is the 9ourneyin)C7 A %urther condition4 ho1e5er4 %ollo1s %rom this7 I% mem8ership o% the community o% 8elie5ers re;uires acceptance o% the ?ur:an as the re5ealed $ord o% "od4 then denial o% any part o% the ?ur:an or o% any statement made in the &oo' may 8e assumed to call 8elie% into dou8t7 This is

so4 and yet 1e ha5e here an area o% am8i)uity7 Certain 5erses4 particularly those relatin) to matters o% la14 are plain enou)h4 8ut there are many parts o% the ?ur:an 1hich lend themsel5es to a 5ariety o% interpretations> and indeed it is said that4 in principle4 e5ery sin)le 5erse contains layer upon layer o% meanin)7 It is natural that there should ha5e 8een 1ide 5ariations in interpretation4 5ariations 1hich ha5e4 on the 1hole4 8een accepted4 pro5ided they did not contradict the literal meanin)7 This is 1hy the common sense 1hich has constantly re=asserted itsel% a)ainst the passions and %ollies o% %anaticism throu)hout the history o% Islam inclines to1ards the 8road de%inition o% :orthodo3y:4 lea5in) the %inal 1ord 1ith the consensus o% the community7 &ut the 8attle %or tolerance and the 8road de%inition has ne5er 8een %inally 1on4 and this is particularly clear at the present time 1hen %or 5arious reasons4 includin) 1hat may 8e called an :identity crisis:4 many uslims ha5e ta'en re%u)e in narro1ness and literalism7 ,ince each particular )roup holds to its o1n narro1 corridor4 the .mmah as a 1hole is trou8led 8y 8itter and unnecessary con%licts o% opinion7 The uslim 1ho 1rites or spea's a8out Islam today may e3pect to 8e accused o% 'u%r Aun8elie%B or 8id:a Ainno5ationB 8y one )roup or another4 not unli'e the Christian 1ho4 in %ormer times A1hen reli)ion 1as still a matter o% li%e or death4 sal5ation or damnationB4 1al'ed a ti)htrope o5er the a8yss o% :heresy:7 He accepts these accusations 1ith as )ood a )race as he can muster4 detectin) in them symptoms o% 1ea'ness rather than stren)th7 ,o %ar as :inno5ation: is concerned4 it 1ould in %act 8e 5ery di%%icult to introduce any ne1 element into uslim thou)ht = e5en supposin) that one 1ished to do so = 8ut it is easy to re=introduce much that has 8een %or)otten or o5erloo'ed in the course o% time7 It happens o%ten enou)h that4 %lushed 1ith 1hat 1e ta'e %or some ne1 insi)ht into the reli)ion4 1e %ind that this 5ery idea 1as put %or1ard 8y such= and=such a uslim thin'er a thousand years a)o> and this is as it should 8e7 $hile on the one hand the $estern uslim:s :orthodo3y: may 8e ;uestioned 8y the more hide8ound amon) his co=reli)ionists4 he is li'ely4 on the other4 to 8e accused 8y non= uslims 1ho ha5e had some contact 1ith the Islamic 1orld o% :ideali<in): Islam and presentin) a 5ie1 o% the Faith 1hich is contradicted 8y the percei5ed %acts7 These %acts4 ho1e5er4 relate to practice not to principles4 and he is under no o8li)ation to de%end or to attempt to 9usti%y the manner in 1hich the reli)ion is practised in a particular period o% history 8y those o% its adherents 1ho catch the li)ht and attract attention7 $here human 8ein)s are concerned4 )ood men and )ood 1omen are 8y no means thic' on the )round4 8ut 5ice al1ays pays its tri8ute to 5irtue 8y mas;ueradin) 8ehind the mas' o% reli)ion or = more recently = o% some political ideolo)y4 and 8oth 1ic'edness and stupidity 1al' the streets more con%idently 1hen decently clothed7 It 1ould 8e %oolish and4 to say the least4 counter=producti5e to see' ar)uments to e3cuse di5isions 1ithin the .mmah4 1ars 8et1een uslim states4 the 8rutality and hypocrisy o% certain national leaders4 the corrupt practices o% the rich or the hysteria o% <ealots 1ho ha5e %or)otten the %undamental la1 o% ercy and the 8indin) o8li)ation to ma'e use o% the )i%t o% Intelli)ence7 $e li5e in an a)e o% :%itnah:7 This term is usually translated as :ci5il commotion:7 An alternati5e

translation mi)ht 8e :%ermentation:4 and it is a characteristic o% the process o% %ermentation that the scum rises to the sur%ace7 At the same time it must 8e 8orne in mind that4 despite the %airly recent di5ision o% the .mmah o% Islam into nation states4 uslims still tend to identi%y a man in terms o% the reli)ion into 1hich he 1as 8orn rather than in terms o% his nationality or racial ori)in7 ,ince they %ind it di%%icult to )rasp the %act that there are people in this 1orld 1ho do not e5en pro%ess to 8elie5e in "od = any "od = they ha8itually re%er to all Europeans and Americans as :Christians: Ait is ;uite common to hear the late Adol% Hitler cited as an e3ample o% ho1 1ic'edly Christians can 8eha5eB7 &y the same to'en4 e5eryone 1ho happens to ha5e 8een 8orn into the Islamic 1orld calls himsel% a : uslim:7 $esterners ta'e this desi)nation at its %ace 5alue4 and sha88y little tyrants 1ho are as distant %rom Islam as 1as Hitler %rom Christianity are seen as : uslims:> the reli)ion as such is 9ud)ed = or mis9ud)ed = in terms o% their 8eha5iour7 &eneath the sur%ace4 ho1e5er4 and in5isi8le to the casual o8ser5er4 there e3ist a 5ast num8er o% simple men and 1omen 1ho remain e3emplary uslims and 1ho redeem Islam today as they did in the past4 as do the mystics4 1hose sel%less thirst %or "od reduces the sins o% the mi)hty to little more than a rude irrele5ance7 Islam is not al1ays disco5era8le in the hands or the hearts o% its leaders or o% its o%%icial spo'esmen4 8ut those 1ho see' it 1ill %ind it7 They 1ill %ind it e3pressed in many di%%erent %orms7 The central theme o% any serious study o% Islam must 8e unity in di5ersity7 uhammad 1as an Ara8 and the ?ur:an is ;uintessentially an Ara8ic scripture4 e3pressed in a lan)ua)e 1hich contains 1ithin its o1n structure an implicit 5ie1 o% reality7 From this point o% 5ie1 e5ery uslim is in a certain sense :Ara8i<ed:4 8ut althou)h this has created a reco)ni<a8le pattern in the 5arious te3tures o% Islamic ci5ili<ation4 it has not e3tin)uished a rich cultural di5ersity shaped 8y racial and historical di%%erences7 The principles o% the reli)ion and o% the la1 deri5ed %rom it are simple4 8ut no limit can 8e set to the 5ariety o% their applications7 In 1hat %ollo1s I hope4 "od 1illin)4 to sho1 1hat it means to 8e a uslim4 and to consider doctrine4 history and social li%e in the li)ht o% the Re5elation 1hich is the source o% the Faith4 as it is o% the ci5ili<ation and culture constructed 8y human 8ein)s4 )ood and 8ad4 1ise and %oolish4 out o% the materials crystalli<ed %rom that source7 &ut the 1hole4 1hich re%lects the di5ine Plenitude4 cannot 8e cau)ht in any net o% 1ords7 To e5ery statement I 1ould )ladly add a %ormula o% )reat si)ni%icance in the Islamic conte3t4 a %ormula 1hich means that "od 'no1s 8est4 that He alone 'no1s4 and that those 1ho spea' or 1rite must al1ays 'eep in mind their relati5e i)norance and the limitations o% their perspecti5e4 9ust as the li5in) must al1ays 'eep death in mind7 $a Allahu a:lam7 PART I An Approach to the Faith Chapter 1 I,0A AN6 E.ROPE

$ith the %adin) a1ay o% imperial po1er4 1hich had made it possi8le %or the $est to despise other cultures4 interest in Islam has re5i5ed recently4 and the economic in%luence o% oil=rich uslim states has pro5ided4 %or the %irst time in 2(2 years4 a

practical moti5e %or see'in) to understand the uslim 1orld7 There is no lac' o% in%ormation a5aila8le4 and li8rary shel5es are hea5y 1ith 8oo's on Islam> 8ut 1hether this spate o% in%ormation has pro5ided the 'eys to understandin) = and to the empathy 1ithout 1hich understandin) can only 8e super%icial = is another ;uestion7 In any case4 those o% us 1ho see a need to 8uild 8rid)es across the %rontier are ne5er satis%ied7 An a%%irmation is nothin) i% the si)nal 1hich carries it is 1ea' or distorted4 and althou)h it may 8e that all such si)nals4 8y their 5ery nature4 lac' stren)th and clarity4 the attempt must 8e made4 repeatedly4 to %ind the ri)ht 1ords and the most e%%ecti5e means o% communication7 &et1een Islam and Christianity4 as 8et1een Islam and post=Christian culture4 communication has 8een hampered 8y 5ery particular di%%iculties7 OccidentalD1E 1ritin) a8out Islam = 1hat 1e 1ould no1 call the 1or' o% the orientalists = has only too o%ten 8een rooted in the 8itter polemics o% the iddle A)es7 From the time 1hen Christianity came into possession o% the Roman Empire until the se5enth century it 1ould ha5e 8een reasona8le to suppose that nothin) could stop the uni5ersal e3pansion o% the Christian messa)e7 In the se5enth century Islam stopped it7 From then on nothin) short o% a piety capa8le o% 1ithstandin) the se5erest shoc' could sa5e Christians %rom the unthin'a8le thou)ht that "od had made a dread%ul mista'e7 Palestine and other lands o% the Near East4 to)ether 1ith Christian E)ypt4 had 8een de5oured 8y a monster 1hich appeared 1ithout 1arnin) out o% the Ara8ian sands> the %oundations o% the 1orld had 8een sha'en and the shado1 o% dar'ness had come do1n upon the heart o% Christendom4 the Holy 0and7 1 In common usa)e the term :$estern: re%ers to $estern Europe and the Americas4 contrasted 1ith the socialist :East:7 It seems 8est4 there%ore4 to use the term :occidental: 1hen re%errin) to the 1hite man:s ci5ili<ation as a 1hole4 and this has an added ad5anta)e i% it ser5es to remind us that ar3ism is as much a product o% European culture as is parliamentary democracy7 ,ince Islam 1as stron) in arms and Christendom 1as 1ea'4 1ords 1ere the only a5aila8le 1eapons a)ainst 1hat 1as seen %irst as a :heresy: and later as a %alse reli)ion o% satanic ori)in4 and all the resources o% lan)ua)e 1ere pressed into the ser5ice o% a propa)anda campai)n 1hich mi)ht ha5e 8rou)ht a 8lush to the chee's o% the late 6octor "oe88els7 One can still catch its echoes in our time7 Pope Innocent III had identi%ied uhammad as the Anti=Christ> almost +22 years later the e3plorer 6ou)hty descri8ed him as :a dirty and per%idious Ara8:7 In his History o% Europe4 pu8lished in 1/3* and a standard 1or' in schools %or many years a%ter4 H7 A7 07 Fisher called him :cruel and cra%ty4 lust%ul and i)norant: and made re%erence to the :crude outpourin)s o% the !oran:7 The contemporary uslim4 ho1e5er4 is o%ten less trou8led 8y 8oo's 1hich sho1 an open and clear=cut 8ias4 1hether this arises %rom a narro1 denominational point o% 5ie1 or as part o% a )enerali<ed attac' on traditional reli)ion4 than he is 8y 1or's 1hich are sympathetic Aor condescendin)B in intention4 8ut 1hich in practice undermine the %oundations o% his %aith7 To ta'e the most o85ious e3ample4 many 1riters 1ho mi)ht 8e considered 1ell=disposed 1or' on the unspo'en assumption that uhammad 1as the :author: o% the ?ur:an7 To su))est that the ?ur:an had a

human author4 e5en i% it is admitted that he 1as :an inspired )enius:4 is to do a1ay 1ith the reli)ion o% Islam7 These authors re%er readily to the :)reatness: o% the Prophet> li'e sympathetic schoolmasters4 they %ind in him much to admire4 and they are astonished 8y his ma)nanimity to his enemies7 They re8ut char)es that he 1as anythin) 8ut sincere4 8ra5e and honoura8le and are shoc'ed 8y the scurrilous char)es 8rou)ht a)ainst him 8y earlier 1riters7 At the same time there emer)es4 ;uite unconsciously4 that note o% amia8le condescension 1hich = e5er since the end o% Empire = Europeans ha5e adopted to1ards the :8ac'1ard: or :de5elopin): peoples o% the Third $orld7 There is a certain am8i)uity in many o% these 8oo's4 as thou)h their authors 1ere una8le to decide 1hether Islam is or is not a truly re5ealed reli)ion7 E5en the &ritish Islamicist4 $7 ont)omery $att4 appears to 8e a 5ictim o% such indecision7 In his assessment at the end o% uhammad@ Prophet and ,tatesman he remar's in passin) that :not all the ideas that he proclaimed are true and sound4 8ut 8y "od:s )race he had 8een a8le to pro5ide men 1ith a 8etter reli)ion than they had had 8e%ore:7 One suspects a slip o% the pen here4 since the author is a Christian4 and Christianity came 8e%ore Islam> 8ut the am8i)uity is apparent i% one as's4 %irst4 1hy :"od:s )race: should ha5e 8een only partially e%%ecti5e in uhammad:s case4 and secondly4 in terms o% 1hat a8solute criterion o% truth some o% these ideas 1ere true and others less so7 Transpose this to the Christian conte3t and it mi)ht reasona8ly 8e as'ed ho1 a 8elie5in) Christian 1ould respond to the statement that :not all Fesus:s ideas 1ere true and sound:4 8ut that Christianity represented an ad5ance on "ree' and Roman reli)ion7 $here Christian 1riters are concerned certain limitations are appropriate and accepta8le7 One does not e3pect them to 8e untrue to the principles o% their o1n %aith4 and the %act that they are themsel5es 8elie5ers )i5es them an understandin) o% reli)ion as such 1hich opens doors and may4 on occasion4 lead to the 5ery heart o% thin)s> and there are some 1ho understand 5ery 1ell that to spea' o% another reli)ion 1ith courtesy is not only a )esture o% respect to its adherents 8ut is also a courtesy to "od in the %ace o% the mysteries o% di5ine ,el%= re5elation7 This 1as 1ell e3pressed 8y the Catholic Islamicist4 Emile 6ermen)hem4 in his 0i%e o% ohametD1E4 1hen = 1ritin) o% :the 8arriers 1hich must 8e destroyed: = he said that :the sense o% true relati5ity does not destroy the sense o% the A8solute:4 addin) that4 :The di5ine Re5elation comes %rom the mouths o% human 8ein)s4 adaptin) itsel% to times and places 777 $hat seems to us contradictory is only the re%raction o% the eternal ray in the prism o% time:7 1 A0ondon@ Routled)eB4 1/327 E5en 6ermen)hem4 despite the deep lo5e %or Islam 1hich led him to end his li%e in Al)eria4 demonstrates that there are stic'in) points 8eyond 1hich the Christian cannot )o and perspecti5es 1hich he cannot share7 any uslims4 out o% a natural suspicion o% a related 8ut ri5al reli)ion4 distrust all Christian 1ritin) on Islam and pre%er the supposedly o89ecti5e 1or's o% a)nostics7 In this they are mista'en7 Faith spea's to %aith4 e5en in dispute4 1hile the un8elie5er is dum87 And4 so %ar as

o89ecti5ity is concerned4 it is not to 8e %ound in this ;uarter7 The more closely one considers the typical $estern li8eral=a)nostic Achild o% a particular culture at a particular moment in its historyB %rom the other side o% the %rontier4 the more unmista'a8ly he identi%ies himsel% as a :)odless Christian:7 He may close himsel% to %aith4 8ut i% he reacts a)ainst Christianity this is in the name o% principles indirectly deri5ed %rom the Christian reli)ion4 9ust as Asians and A%ricans ha5e reacted a)ainst colonialism in the name o% principles deri5ed %rom their colonial masters7 The open pre9udices o% the Christian 1riter are4 on the 1hole4 pre%era8le to the hidden ones o% the a)nostic7 In theory the limitations o% 8oo's on Islam 8y non= uslims should 8e o% little conse;uence7 Fe1 people4 see'in) a proper understandin) o% Christianity4 1ould turn to non=Christian authors7 Cannot uslim 1riters satis%y the need that undou8tedly e3istsG ost uslim scholars seem to a)ree4 at least in pri5ate4 that there has 8een a sin)ular %ailure to communicate across the cultural %rontier7 The actual means o% communication = the 1ay in 1hich reli)ion needs to 8e presented no1adays = ha5e 8een %or)ed4 not out o% Islamic materials4 8ut in the $est7 The uslim 1riter %inds himsel% o8li)ed to 1or' 1ith instruments 1hich do not %it com%orta8ly in his hand7 oreo5er4 traditional uslims4 1ho ha5e escaped the in%luence o% :modern:4 that is to say4 occidental education ha5e no understandin) o% the occidental mind4 1hich is as stran)e to them as it 1ould 8e to a Christian o% the iddle A)es7 ,ince the Renaissance4 European man has 5entured out 8eyond the 8arriers set up 8y traditional ci5ili<ations a)ainst all such strayin)7 In doin) so he may ha5e done irrepara8le dama)e to himsel%4 8ut he has 8ecome sophisticated in a 1ay that ma'es other cultures seem nai5e in comparison7 There 1as a time 1hen it 1as other1ise7 Plato could call the orientals :old: in comparison 1ith the innocent youth%ulness o% the "ree's> no1 it is the Europeans 1ho are :old:4 ha5in) seen too much4 and 8ein) 8urdened 1ith intolera8le memories7 The traditional uslim 1rites 1ith authority and con5iction4 8ut he does not 'no1 ho1 to ans1er the ;uestions 1hich dominate $estern thou)ht in the reli)ious conte3t7 These ;uestions seem to him unnecessary i% not actually 8lasphemous4 and at heart he %eels that his tas' is super%luous7 The truth o% the ?ur:an is4 %or him4 so compellin) and so sel%=e5ident that4 i% it does not con5ince the un8elie5er4 his poor e%%orts are hardly li'ely to do so7 For the most part4 ho1e5er4 it is uslims 1ho ha5e 8een throu)h the modern educational machine 1ho 1rite the 8oo's 1hich circulate in the $est7 The 1or's they produced in the late nineteenth and early t1entieth century cannot no1 8e read 1ithout em8arrassment7 These men 1ere the :.ncle Toms: o% Islam7 Their de%ence o% the reli)ion depended4 they thou)ht4 on pro5in) that it contained nothin) incompati8le 1ith the 8est contemporary %ashions o% thou)ht and accorded per%ectly 1ith the moral and philosophical norms o% European ci5ili<ation7 They scoured the li8raries %or any %a5oura8le re%erences to Islam in the 1or's o% the :)reat philosophers: Asuch as H7 "7 $ellsB4 8ut 1ere o%ten reduced to ;uotin) lon)=%or)otten 9ournalists 1ho had %ound a )ood 1ord to say %or the Prophet or %or uslims as such7 The idea that the ci5ili<ation they admired so

8lindly mi)ht 8e open to radical criticism in terms o% Islamic norms scarcely crossed their minds7 The situation has chan)ed in recent years4 thou)h the :.ncle Toms: are still 1ith us Athinly dis)uised as modernistsB7 Contemporary uslim 1riters cannot 8e accused o% ta'in) no pride in Islam4 indeed this pride is sometimes e3pressed in strident tones4 and no one could claim that they are uncritical o% $estern :decadence:4 thou)h their criticism tends to miss the mar'4 %ocusin) on symptoms rather than on causes7 They ha5e not4 ho1e5er4 escaped a di%%erent 'ind o% su8ser5ience to occidental norms7 They tend to 8e deeply concerned 1ith al=Nahdah4 :rene1al:4 the :Islamic Renaissance:4 1hich they readily compare 1ith the Renaissance in Europe7 Het the European Renaissance 1as4 %rom the reli)ious point o% 5ie14 a re8irth o% the pa)anism 1hich Christianity had supplanted4 and it 1as the source o% that 5ery :decadence: 1hich uslims percei5e in $estern li%e and thou)ht7 Their inherent hostility to Christianity 8linds them to the %act that %orces and ideolo)ies 1hich destroyed one reli)ion may as easily destroy another> or4 i% they do see this4 they 8elie5e that Islam:s inherent stren)th and its capacity to a8sor8 and Islamici<e alien elements 1ill protect it %rom su85ersion7 This is4 to say the least4 a dan)erous )am8le7 Those 1ho ha5e close contact 1ith uslims 1ill 8e accustomed to hearin)4 1ith monotonous re)ularity4 the parrot=cry@ :$e 1ill ta'e the )ood thin)s %rom $estern ci5ili<ation> 1e 1ill re9ect the 8ad thin)s:7 It is stran)e that any uslim should ima)ine this to 8e possi8le7 Islam itsel% is an or)anic 1hole4 a )estalt4 in 1hich e5erythin) is interconnected and in 1hich no sin)le part can 8e considered in isolation %rom the rest7 The uslim a8o5e all others should understand that e5ery culture has somethin) o% this unity and should reali<e that the modern ci5ili<ation created in the $est4 e5en i% it seems constantly to chan)e shape as in a 'aleidoscope4 %orms a coherent pattern in terms o% cause and e%%ect7 To dra1 one %i8re %rom it is to %ind that this is attached4 8y countless unseen %ilaments4 to all the rest7 The small %ra)ment o% :)ood:4 li%ted %rom the pattern4 8rin)s 1ith it piece a%ter piece o% the 1hole structure7 $ith the li)ht come the shado1s> and 1ith e5erythin) positi5e come all the ne)ati5e elements 1hich are related to it either as cause or as e%%ect7 ,eyyed Hossein Nasr4 1ho is almost uni;ue amon) uslim 1riters in his understandin) 8oth o% traditional Islam and o% the %orces o% su85ersion at 1or' in the $est4 ma'es this point@ :$ords and e3pressions ha5e 8een used 8y many o% these 1riters4 in such a 1ay as to 8etray the state o% cultural shoc' and o%ten the sense o% in%eriority 5is=a=5is the $est %rom 1hich they su%%er7 Their 1ritin)s re5eal most o% all a sla5ery o% the mind to the norms and 9ud)ements o% $estern ci5ili<ation7 oreo5er4 these norms are usually hidden under the 5eil o% an CIslamC o% 1hich there o%ten remains little more than a name and certain emotional attachments4 an Islam 1hich has 8ecome de5oid o% the intellectual and spiritual truth 1hich stands at the heart o% the Islamic re5elation7:D1E 1 Islam and the Pli)ht o% odern an A0on)manB4 p71227

The 5ie1 %irst put %or1ard 8y more or less hostile orientalists that Islamic ci5ili<ation 8ecame decadent4 :sta)nant: and :sterile:4 %rom the moment it no lon)er produced scientists Aas the term is no1 understoodB4 that is to say around the thirteenth century o% the Christian era4 is uncritically accepted 8y modernists and :%undamentalists: ali'e7 This is compensated 8y a passionate %aith in the present or imminent :renaissance:4 and they do not see that decadence Ai% the 1ord has any applicationB is )reatly to 8e pre%erred to de5iation7 6ecadence is a symptom o% 1eariness and la3ity4 1hereas de5iation ta'es the %orm o% a mali)nant acti5ity or dynamism directed to1ards %alse )oals7 &etter a sleepin) )iant than a mad or demonic one7 The inclination o% many contemporary uslims to turn their 8ac's on a thousand years o% historical and cultural de5elopment has its roots in the ei)hteenth century4 8e%ore the $est had made its impact upon Islam7 There 1ere at that time t1el5e particularly in%luential :re%ormers: teachin) and preachin) in the haramain Athe :t1o sanctuaries:4 ecca and edinaB7 They called %or the puri%ication o% the reli)ion %rom e5ery element that could not 8e traced directly to the ?ur:an or to the sayin)s and practice o% the Prophet4 and they condemned ta;lid A8lind adherence to the opinions o% earlier scholarsB4 much as Protestants in the Christian 1orld had preached a return to scriptural sources some 3(2 years earlier7 uslim scholars ha5e al1ays 8een )reat tra5ellers4 at home e5ery1here in the :House o% Islam:4 and only %i5e o% these men 1ere Ara8s4 the others 8ein) o% Indian4 oroccan and !urdish ori)in7 Pil)rim=scholars %rom e5ery corner o% the 1orld 1ould stay in the haramain %or a year or t1o to study under them 8e%ore returnin) home4 and in this 1ay their 5ie1s 1ere s1i%tly disseminated7 &ut4 1ith hindsi)ht4 the most important o% the ei)hteenth century re%ormers 1as uhammad I8n A8du:l=$ahhi8 A1+23=1+/2B7 He had studied in the haramain and tra5elled 1idely 8e%ore returnin) to his 5illa)e in a remote part o% the Ara8ian peninsula4 there to ally himsel% = 1ith momentous historical conse;uences = 1ith a tri8al chie%tain named ,aud4 1hose descendants no1 rule o5er the )reater part o% the peninsula7 Appalled 8y the contrast 8et1een the Islamic ideal and the uslim 1orld disco5ered in the course o% his tra5els4 he concluded that %e1 o% the uslims o% his time had any ri)ht to call themsel5es uslims> 1ith passionate con5iction and )reat elo;uence he preached a simple and uncompromisin) doctrine o% pure transcendence and o% un;uestionin) o8edience to the re5ealed $ill o% the Transcendent> there 1as no place in this doctrine %or mysticism4 the alle)orical interpretation o% the ?ur:an4 syncretism or adaptation7 This 1as true monotheism and e5erythin) else 1as %alse4 damna8le and un=Islamic7 Time has passed and the cult o% simplicity has only too o%ten de)enerated into a cult o% 8anality4 a process 1hich has 8een hastened 8y the e3perience o% $estern domination7 Islam4 1e are told4 is so simple and strai)ht%or1ard4 so easy to understand and to %ollo14 that it has no need o% e3planation or interpretation7 "od is !in)7 an is His sla5e7 The !in) has issued His orders7 It is %or the sla5e to o8ey these orders or 8e damned7 All 1ould ha5e 8een 1ell = the :Christians: 1ould ne5er ha5e triumphed = had not the pure reli)ion 8een o5erlaid in the course o% the centuries 8y a 1e8 o% theolo)ical speculation4 mystical e3tra5a)ance and comple3 philosophy4 1ith the result that the uslims allo1ed their inheritance to slip %rom

their )rasp4 until the decadent ci5ili<ation o% the $est 1as a8le to o5ercome and dominate :the 8est o% nations:7 All that is re;uired to re5erse this lamenta8le situation is a return to the ?ur:an and to the ,unnah o% the Prophet7 :Thro1 the 8oo's a1ay: has 8ecome somethin) o% a slo)an7 $e ha5e the ,cripture4 and that should su%%ice any man7 It is indeed true that the essentials o% Islam are clear and simple7 As the %inal re5elation o% "od:s "uidance to His creatures it presents a star' con%rontation@ an stands na'ed 8e%ore his a'er4 1ithout any intermediary and 1ith nothin) to 8lur the immediacy o% this encounter7 The rules )o5ernin) personal li%e and social li%e ha5e 8een set out 1ith a clarity 1hich lea5es no room %or misunderstandin)> and4 1hen all is said and done4 the di5ine ercy compensates %or human 1ea'ness7 No dou8t this 1ould su%%ice i% human nature contained no comple3ities and no %issures4 and i% 1e had not 8een endo1ed 1ith a searchin) intelli)ence 1hich must analyse 8e%ore it can achie5e synthesis7 The rich de5elopment o% uslim thou)ht and reli)ious speculation o5er so many centuries is su%%icient proo% that this is not enou)h7 Islam has 8een descri8ed 8y Europeans 1ho ha5e li5ed and 1or'ed in the Ara8 1orld as a :&oy ,cout reli)ion:4 and it is precisely in this 1ay that many o% its spo'esmen present it> an ima)e that 8ears no relation to the splendours o% the &a)hdad Caliphate4 uslim ,pain4 the ,assanids in Iran4 the Timurids in Central Asia4 the Ottomans at the hei)ht o% their po1er4 and the host o% philosophers4 mystics and artists 1ho 1ere the )lory o% these 5arious crystalli<ations o% Islamic ci5ili<ation7 &oy ,cout precepts do little to ans1er the ;uestions 1e as' or to assua)e the soul:s an)uish7 They satis%y neither $esterners nor educated uslims4 and the only reason that more o% the latter ha5e not dri%ted a1ay %rom the reli)ion is that4 on the one hand4 they ha5e 8een a8le to interpret it as a political ideolo)y Ain an a)e o8sessed 1ith political :solutions:B and4 on the other4 they ha5e no1here else to )o7 The European or the American 1ho turns his 8ac' on Christianity is still heir to a rich culture and has no reason to %eel that he has 8ecome a :non=person:7 The child o% Islam 1ho turns a1ay has empty hands and no lon)er 'no1s 1ho he is7 Islamic culture is neither more nor less than an aspect o% the reli)ion> there is no secular culture 1hatsoe5er7 oreo5er4 the community is still essentially a reli)ious community4 and to ;uit the reli)ion is to lea5e the community7 Ho1e5er4 it is not only contemporary uslims 1ho ;uestion the need %or pro%undity4 the need %or theolo)y and %or a metaphysical approach to reli)ion7 any Christians do the same4 to the )reat impo5erishment o% Christianity7 "od has chosen to create in certain men and 1omen a type o% intelli)ence 1hich4 8y inner necessity4 as's %ar=reachin) ;uestions a8out the nature o% reality7 This is a di5ine )i%t4 thou)h not 1ithout its dan)ers4 as is the case 1ith all )i%ts> it has4 there%ore4 certain ri)hts4 includin) the ri)ht to recei5e ans1ers to the ;uestions 1hich arise spontaneously 1ithin it7 In a sense these ;uestions are posed 8y "od Himsel% so that He may ans1er them and there8y enrich our understandin)4 and 1e are assured that He ne5er )i5es us a )enuine need 1ithout pro5idin) %or its satis%action7 ?uestionin) minds may al1ays and e5ery1here 8e in a minority4 8ut

it is precisely these = the ;uestioners = 1ho are the ultimate %ormers o% opinion7 $hat the intellectuals dou8t today 1ill e5entually 8e dou8ted 8y simple people7 Ideas 1hich4 on their %irst appearance4 seem most a8stract and %arthest remo5ed %rom the a%%airs o% ordinary men and 1omen ha5e a 1ay o% percolatin) throu)h the 1hole %a8ric o% society4 thou)h they o%ten su%%er distortion in the process7 "i5en the 5ery nature o% modern ci5ili<ation Aand the nature o% its ori)insB4 the ideas current in our time are destructi5e o% reli)ious %aith unless this %aith is protected 8y an intellectual armour = and intellectual 1eapons = suited to the conditions o% the late t1entieth century7 The traditional ar)uments in support o% %aith are no lon)er entirely e%%ecti5e4 and it no lon)er seems :natural: to 8elie5e in "od and to 8elie5e in states o% 8ein) 8eyond this present li%e7 ,ince the ?ur:an addresses itsel% speci%ically to :those 1ho thin': and 1ho :meditate: and4 in e%%ect4 commands us to ma'e %ull use o% our mental %aculties4 uslims are under an o8li)ation to deepen and de5elop the intellectual 8ases o% their %aith and ha5e no e3cuse %or relyin) on unthin'in) o8edience and emotional %er5our to protect it a)ainst the searchin) ;uestions o% our time7 The cult o% simplicity or o% platitude is e3pressed not only in e3positions o% Islam as a 1ay o% li%e 8ut also in modern interpretations o% the ?ur:an7 One need only compare a popular modern commentary4 sentimental or 8anal4 1ith the )reat medie5al commentaries4 those o% the rationalists4 1hose intellectual instruments 1ere deri5ed %rom "ree' philosophy4 those o% the ,u%is4 1ho plum8ed the depths o% meanin) 8eneath the sur%ace o% the te3t4 and those o% the )rammarians4 1ho analysed su8tle shades o% meanin) 8ehind e5ery 1ord and phrase4 to see 1hat an impo5erishment has ta'en place7 This mi)ht 8est 8e illustrated 8y direct ;uotation4 8ut it 1ould 8e un'ind to ridicule the e%%orts o% sincere and pious men to communicate their lo5e %or the &oo' in this 1ay> the point can 8e made 9ust as e%%ecti5ely 8y means o% a parody or pastiche 1ithout identi%yin) the ori)inal %rom 1hich4 in %act4 it departs 5ery little7 This commentary is on the openin) 5erses o% ,urah /1@ :&y the sun and its radiance> 8y the moon 1hich re%lects it> 8y the day 1hich re5eals Dthe earth94 and 8y the ni)ht 1hich enshrouds it 777:7 The medie5al commentators disco5ered pro%ound si)ni%icance in these simple lines4 interpretin) their sym8olism 1ith astonishin) su8tlety and speculati5e darin)7 The modern commentary runs somethin) li'e this@ :The oath re%ers %irst to the sun:s risin)4 and ho1 8eauti%ul this isI The sun is at its clearest 1hen it rises and it shines 1ith a pure li)ht7 It is the source o% our physical li%e4 and ho1 )enerous "od is to )i5e us li%eI Then there is the moon 1ith its 8eauti%ul li)ht4 1hisperin) to the human heart and inspirin) poetic thou)hts7 Ho1 nice it is to sit in the moonli)htI Then comes the oath 8y the day4 1hen the sun shines and the earth is lit up> 8ut 1hen ni)ht co5ers the earth it is the opposite to 1hat happens in the day7 The sun no lon)er shines7 E5erythin) is concealed %rom our si)ht and 1e are in dar'ness7 Ho1 incompara8ly the holy ?ur:an descri8es all this and ho1 inspirin) these 5erses areI: And so on4 1ea5in) 1ords to)ether to %ill pa)e a%ter pa)e4 1ith the 8est o% intentions 8ut little meanin)7

,incerity and )ood intentions do not )uarantee e%%ecti5e communication4 8ut the %ailure o% most contemporary uslim 1riters to e3press themsel5es in 1hat is really an alien idiom merely re%lects the e3traordinary situation o% Islam in the post=colonial period and in a 1orld shaped entirely 8y occidental 5alues and 8y ideolo)ies 1hich ori)inate in the 6ar=ul=Har8 Athe :House o% Con%lict:4 the 1orld 8eyond the %rontiers o% the FaithB7 It could 8e said that the uslims :a1a'ened: Ai%4 %or con5enience4 1e use this du8ious termB to %ind themsel5es on a planet occupied 8y their enemies4 o8li)ed to imitate these enemies in e5erythin) i% they 1ere to sur5i5e their rude a1a'enin)7 To understand 9ust ho1 e3traordinary this situation is %rom the uslim point o% 5ie14 it is essential to understand somethin) o% the history o% the con%rontation 8et1een these t1o ci5ili<ations7 $ithin a century o% the Prophet:s death in *32 o% the Christian era the uslim Empire stretched %rom the 8orders o% China to the Atlantic4 %rom France to the outs'irts o% India4 and %rom the Caspian ,ea to the ,ahara7 This astonishin) e3pansion had 8een achie5ed 8y a people 1ho4 i% they 1ere 'no1n at all to the )reat 1orld 8eyond the Ara8ian peninsula4 had 8een dismissed as i)norant nomads7 They had o5errun somethin) a8o5e %our=and=a=hal% million s;uare milies o% territory and chan)ed the course o% history4 su8ordinatin) Christianity to Islam in its homelands in the Near East and in North A%rica and ,pain4 %orcin) the Roman Empire o% &y<antium onto the de%ensi5e and con5ertin) the Empire o% the Persians into a 8ul1ar' o% Islam7 Human history tells o% no other achie5ement compara8le to this7 Ale3ander had da<<led the ancient 1orld 8y his con;uests4 8ut he le%t 8ehind him only le)ends and a %e1 inscriptions7 $here the Ara8s passed they created a ci5ili<ation and a 1hole pattern o% thou)ht and o% li5in) 1hich endured and still endures4 and they decisi5ely determined the %uture history o% Europe4 8arrin) the 1ay to the rich lands o% the east and there8y pro5o'in) = many centuries later = the 5oya)es o% e3ploration to the 1est and to the south 1hich 1ere to nurture European po1er7 &y the year +22 the uslims had crossed the %ormida8le 8arrier o% the Pyrenees and all $estern Europe lay open 8e%ore them7 They 1ere de%eated 8y the Fran's in a 8attle 8et1een 1hat are no1 the cities o% Tours and Poitiers4 8ut it is dou8t%ul 1hether this 8attle 1as in any sense decisi5e4 and in any case the eastern 1in) o% the army 1as already penetratin) the ,1iss Jalais7 It seems more li'ely that the dar' %orests 1hich lay ahead appeared unin5itin)4 and the 8itter chill o% the so= called temperate lands must ha5e seemed li'e the chill o% death itsel%> and no dou8t the )reat 1a5e o% e3pansion had4 %or the time 8ein)4 e3hausted itsel% and reached its natural limit7 A %e1 miles more and the story 1ould ha5e 8een 5ery di%%erent4 1ith a ,ultan on the throne o% France4 his Emir in a palace 8y the Thames4 and Europe:s o%%sprin) populatin) North America under the 8anner o% Islam7 The rapidity 1ith 1hich Islam spread across the 'no1n 1orld o% the se5enth to ei)hth centuries 1as stran)e enou)h4 8ut stran)er still is the %act that no ri5ers %lo1ed 1ith 8lood4 no %ields 1ere enriched 1ith the corpses o% the 5an;uished7 As 1arriors the Ara8s mi)ht ha5e 8een no 8etter than others o% their 'ind 1ho had ra5a)ed and slau)htered across the peopled lands 8ut4 unli'e these others4 they 1ere on a leash7 There 1ere no massacres4 no rapes4 no cities 8urned7 These men

%eared "od to a de)ree scarcely ima)ina8le in our time and 1ere in a1e o% His all= seein) presence4 a1are o% it in the 1ind and the trees4 8ehind e5ery roc' and in e5ery 5alley7 E5en in these stran)e lands there 1as no place in 1hich they could hide %rom this presence4 and 1hile 5ast distances 8ec'oned them e5er on1ards they trod so%tly on the earth4 as they had 8een commanded to do7 There had ne5er 8een a con;uest li'e this7 In the centuries 1hich %ollo1ed the a8orti5e e3pedition into France the threat to $estern Europe 1as ne5er %ar remo5ed7 Islam 1as the dominant ci5ili<ation and Christendom 1as con%ined to an appendi3 to the Euro=Asian land mass4 closed in upon itsel% and ne5er really sa%e e3cept in those periods 1hen the uslims = so o%ten their o1n 1orst enemies = 1ere di5ided amon) themsel5es7 The Crusaders came to Palestine and 1ere4 in due course4 dri5en out4 and in the thirteenth century the Ara8 1orld 1as de5astated 8y the on)ol hordes> 8ut the on)ols 1ere con5erted4 to 8ecome champions o% Islam4 as 1ere the Tur's7 Constantinople %ell in 1#(34 and soon the Ottomans too' up the challen)e represented 8y the European encla5e7 &el)rade 1as captured in 1(21 and Rhodes in the %ollo1in) year7 ,ulayman the a)ni%icent entered Hun)ary and 1on a )reat 5ictory at ohacs4 and in the 1(3Os the French !in)4 Francis I4 sou)ht his support a)ainst the Haps8ur)s and encoura)ed Ottoman plans %or the in5asion o% Italy7 A %e1 years later it 1as the Protestant princes 1ho ne)otiated %or uslim help a)ainst the Pope and the Emperor4 and the ,ultan made his preparations to enter "ermany7 The threat may ha5e 8een an empty one4 %or 8y then Europe 1as o5erta'in) the uslim 1orld in e%%ecti5e po1er4 chie%ly o1in) to technical impro5ements in %irearms and ship8uildin)> 8ut it echoed the a)e=old threat 1hich4 throu)h almost nine centuries4 had shaped the European:s perception o% the 1orld7 The :menace o% Islam: had remained the one constant %actor amidst chan)e and trans%ormation and it had 8een 8randed on the European consciousness7 The mar' o% that 8randin) is still 5isi8le7 The tide4 ho1e5er4 1as turnin)7 In 1*-3 the Ottomans 8esie)ed Jienna %or the last time7 They 1ere already a spent %orce4 and this %act 1as ac'no1led)ed in the Treaty o% Carlo1it<4 si)ned in 1*//7 The 1orld o% Islam4 i% it could still 8e called a :1orld:4 had already 8een on the de%ensi5e %or some years4 and the de%ences 1ere crac'in)7 The &ritish 1ere in India and the 6utch in Indonesia4 and the Russian capture o% A<o5 8rou)ht to the &al'ans the uslims: most implaca8le enemy4 then as no17 Almost a thousand years separated Carlo1it< %rom the uslim ad5ance into ,outhern France> less than three hundred separate us %rom Carlo1it<4 three hundred years in 1hich Europeans could4 at least until 5ery recently4 try to %or)et their lon) o8session 1ith Islam7 It 1as not easily %or)otten7 :The %act remains:4 says the Tunisian 1riter Hichem 69ait4 :that medie5al pre9udices insinuated themsel5es into the collecti5e unconscious o% the $est at so pro%ound a le5el that one may as'4 in terror4 1hether they can e5er 8e e3tirpated %rom it7:D1E

Certainly4 the years o% imperial po1er 1ere years o% %or)et%ulness7 $ritin) in the late ei)hteenth century4 Ed1ard "i88on had thou)ht it necessary to de5ote nine o% the se5enty=one chapters o% The 6ecline and Fall o% the Roman Empire to Islam7 European historians o% the %ollo1in) century could i)nore it7 And yet 1e do not ha5e to search %ar to %ind the %amiliar note o% %ear and detestation ma'in) itsel% heard a)ain4 e5en 1hile the )lories o% Empire 1ere still undimmed7 Fohn &uchan:s "reenmantle4 pu8lished in 1/1* and pro8a8ly read 8y e5ery En)lish school8oy o5er the %ollo1in) t1enty years4 dealt 1ith a threat to ci5ili<ation more terri8le than all the !aiser:s troops4 the threat o% :resur)ent Islam:7 As so o%ten in pre5ious centuries4 the children o% Europe 1ere encoura)ed to )o to 8ed 1ith ni)htmares o% the )reen=tur8aned hordes cryin) :Allahu a'8arI: and descendin) upon ci5ili<ation to reduce itto cinders7 To chan)e pu8lic opinion and popular 8elie%s is uphill 1or' 8ut to rein%orce them is easy7 &uchan 1ould not ha5e 1ritten "reenmantle had he %elt o8li)ed to ar)ue his case a)ainst Islam4 8ut there 1as no need to do so7 The ni)htmares4 ho1e5er4 1ere all on one side7 Throu)hout the )reater part o% their history4 uslims had no cause to 8e o8sessed 1ith Europe and4 e3cept durin) the relati5ely 8rie% episode o% the Crusades4 could a%%ord to i)nore it7 6urin) the iddle A)es uslim scholars4 preachers and traders tra5elled throu)hout the 1orld o% Islam 8et1een ,pain and Indonesia4 their passport the declaration o% %aith = 0a ilaha illa :0lah = and their ad5enturin) made easy 8y the %act that hospitality and assistance to the 1ay%arer are a reli)ious duty7 The scholar %rom uslim India 1as at home in orocco4 and some o% the early mystics tra5elled so %ar and so 1idely that one 1onders 1hat possi8le means o% transport they can ha5e used4 other than the le)endary ma)ic carpet7 any4 particularly the traders4 tra5elled 8eyond the 6ar=ul=Islam7 A tra5eller %rom Cairo could cash his notes o% hand in Canton7 &ut they 'ept to the ci5ili<ed 1orld and did not 5enture into dar'est Europe = 1here they 1ould almost certainly ha5e 8een 'illed = althou)h they must ha5e )ained some 'no1led)e o% the re)ion %rom the Christian scholars 1ho came to the )reat uni5ersities o% uslim ,pain in search o% education7 An early 1riter ar)ued4 1ith much )ood 1ill4 that the 1hite man Acontrary to popular 8elie%B 1as no less intelli)ent than the 8lac' man o% A%rica> 8ut on the 1hole medie5al Europe 8eyond the Pyrenees appeared to 8e a re)ion o% s;ualor and 8ar8arism7 The Europeans 1ho in5aded Palestine as Crusaders4 sa5a)e in 1ar%are4 1ithout respect %or 1omen and children4 and dirty in their ha8its4 can ha5e done little to alter these pre9udices7 The uslims could not 8e a1are o% the secret spiritual li%e o% Christendom4 hidden %rom their si)ht in monasteries and hermita)es4 9ust as the modern European 'no1s little o% the secret spiritual li%e o% the uslims4 seein) only the out1ard mas;uerade7 E5en 8e%ore the Crusades4 a certain ,a:id I8n Ahmad o% Toledo had 1ritten a 8oo' on the :cate)ories o% nations:4 di5idin) humanity into t1o 'inds4 those concerned 1ith science and those i)norant o% it7 The %irst )roup included Ara8s4 Persians4 &y<antines4 Fe1s and "ree's> the rest o% man'ind consisted o% the northern and southern 8ar8arians = the 1hites and the 8lac's7 The idea that Fran'ish reli)ion and philosophy mi)ht 8e o% some interest occurred to no one7 $ritin) at the end o%

the %ourteenth century I8n !haldun4 one o% the )reatest historians o% all time4 i)nored $estern Europe e3cept %or mentionin) that he had heard reports o% some de5elopment in the philosophic sciences in that re)ion o% the 1orld7 He added4 :&ut "od 'no1s 8est 1hat )oes on in those partsI: This 1as at the hei)ht o% the European iddle A)es and less than a century 8e%ore Europe 8ro'e 8ounds and :disco5ered: the Americas7 $hile a considera8le num8er o% 1or's had 8een translated into Ara8ic %rom "ree'4 Persian and ,yriac4 there is only one 'no1n case o% the translation o% a 0atin 1or' 8e%ore the si3teenth century7 There 1as4 no dou8t4 another reason %or this lac' o% concern7 $hereas the 5ery e3istence o% Islam 1as an intolera8le a%%ront to Christianity4 uslims had no pro8lem in acceptin) the e3istence o% these :people o% the 8oo':7 A Christian 1ho con%essed to 8elie5in) that uhammad had recei5ed a true messa)e %rom "od 1ould ha5e 8een a heretic4 ripe %or the sta'e7 In total contrast to this4 the uslim is o8li)ed to accept the authenticity o% Fesus4 1hile 8elie5in) nonetheless that the Christian messa)e 1as not the last 1ord7 The ?ur:an ma'es it clear that the denial o% any 8earer o% a di5ine messa)e is e;ui5alent to a denial o% all the messen)ers and their messa)es4 includin) the ?ur:an itsel%7 :$hosoe5er 8elie5es all that he is 8ound to 8elie5e4: says a 1ell='no1n credal statement4 the Fi;h A'8ar I Aattri8uted to A8u Hani%aB4 :e3cept %or sayin)4 CI do not 'no1 1hether oses and Fesus APeace 8e upon themB are = or are not = amon) the messen)ers Do% AllahEC4 he is an in%idel:7D1E uslim acceptance o% Fe1s and Christians4 particularly in ,pain 1hile it 1as part o% the 6ar=ul=Islam4 1as not a ;uestion o% :tolerance: in the modern sense o% the term 8ut o% reli)ious o8li)ation> e;ually mandatory 1as the Christians: insistence4 1hen they con;uered ,pain4 that Fe1s and uslims must either con5ert or 8e put to death7 1 uhammad is reported to ha5e said@ :I% anyone testi%ies that there is no deity other than Allah4 1ho has no partner4 and that uhammad is His ser5ant and His messen)er4 Dtesti%ies alsoE that Fesus is Allah:s ser5ant and messen)er = His $ord 1hich He cast into ary and a spirit %rom Him = and Dtesti%iesE that Paradise and hell are real4 then Allah 1ill cause him to enter Paradise 1hate5er he may ha5e done: $hile the uslim 1orld en9oyed a security 1hich must ha5e seemed destined to last %or e5er4 e3traordinary thin)s 1ere happenin) in the re)ion 1hich I8n !hald9in had dismissed as :those parts:7 Ironically4 it 1as %rom Islam that the :8ar8arians: had recei5ed the 8oo's o% "ree' philosophy and science4 no1 translated %rom Ara8ic into 0atin4 and a process o% %ermentation had 8een started7 .na8le to inte)rate the :ne1 learnin): into its structure on a selecti5e 8asis4 as Islamic ci5ili<ation had done4 Christendom = as an inte)ral 1hole4 su%%icient unto itsel%4 em8racin) e5ery aspect o% li%e and ans1erin) all the ;uestions that a Christian had the ri)ht to as' = 8e)an to disinte)rate> 1hat had pre5iously 8een no more than hairline crac's 1ere %orced upon 8y ideas 1hich the structure could not contain and European man4 8urstin) all 8onds4 de5eloped in directions ne5er 8e%ore tried or ta'en 8y humanity7 Fust as the process o% decomposition releases e3plosi5e )ases = or 9ust as 1ater4 runnin) do1nhill4 )enerates ener)y = so the Christian 1orld4 in the process o%

%ission4 )enerated immense material po1er7 The Church o% Rome could no lon)er impose restraints on the de5elopment o% this po1er4 1hich o8eyed its o1n lo)ic and its o1n la1s4 and 1ith the comin) o% the industrial re5olution4 and the uncontrolled )ro1th o% applied science4 the ener)ies 1hich had 8een released possessed the instruments 1hich could 8e e%%ecti5ely e3ercised in con;uest and e3ploitation7 No1 in1ard=loo'in)4 and perhaps o5er=con%ident4 the uslims had scarcely noticed 1hat 1as happenin)7 $hile the peripheral re)ions o% the 6ar=ul=Islam came under alien rule4 the heartland remained closed in upon itsel%4 %or)ettin) that the 1orld chan)es and that 1orldly dominion is4 as the ?ur:an teaches4 a transient thin)7 The shell 1hich had protected the heartland pro5ed to 8e no more than an e))shell7 It 1as 8ro'en 8y Napoleon 1hen he arri5ed in Ale3andria in Fuly 1+/-4 1ith plans %or marchin) on ecca and some tal' o% himsel% 8ecomin) a uslim7 The E)yptians could do nothin) to stop him> it 1as the En)lishman4 Nelson4 1ho destroyed his dreams o% a ne1 Islamic empire 1ith himsel% at its head7 From then on there 1as no e%%ecti5e resistance7 There 1ere heroic episodes = the Emir A8du:l= ?adir in Al)eria4 ,hamyl in the Caucasus4 6ipo Na)aro in Indonesia4 the : ahdi: in the ,udan = 8ut 8y the end o% the First $orld $ar almost the 1hole Islamic 1orld 1as under %orei)n domination7 The impossi8le had not merely 8ecome possi8le4 it had happened> and no )reat insi)ht 1as re;uired %or the uslims to see that they themsel5es 1ere at least partly to 8lame4 so that )uilt 1as 9oined to the humiliation o% de%eat and su89ection7 6espite $estern superiority in armaments4 technolo)y and administrati5e s'ills4 disaster could not ha5e %allen so s1i%tly or so totally had the Islamic 1orld remained true to its %aith and to the o8li)ations o% its %aith7 No matter 1hat had 8een accepted in practice = men 8ein) 1hat they are = Islam cannot in principle 8e di5ided into separate and mutually hostile units 1ithout sel%= 8etrayal7 An Islamic 1orld united %rom the Atlantic coast o% orocco to the outer islands o% the Indonesian archipela)o and %rom the Aral ,ea to the ,udan 1ould ha5e 8een no easy prey7 Fust as the disunity and internal ri5alries o% the .mmah had made possi8le the temporary triumph o% the Crusaders in Palestine4 so no1 these 5ices had laid it open to total su89ection and 1ould4 in the 1/-2s4 still %rustrate all hi)h am8itions7 $hat had occurred 1as not simply a matter o% physical con;uest7 Those 1ho had pre5iously made their impact upon the uslim 1orld had either 8een militarily stron) 8ut culturally 1ea' Aas 1ere the on)olsB or 5ice 5ersa7 No14 in their encounter 1ith $estern po1er4 the uslims met physical %orce 9oined to cultural dominance7 Had the e3perience o% colonialism 8een one o% sa5a)e oppression the 1ound 1ould ha5e 8een relati5ely shallo14 lea5in) only a super%icial scar7 The dead are soon 8uried4 and massacres are %or)otten7 &ut this 1as4 %or Islam as %or the rest o% the non=European 1orld4 an e3perience o% tutela)e to 1ell=intentioned masters 1ho thou)ht it their moral duty to instruct and impro5e the :nati5es:4 and 1ho sho1ed polite contempt %or the deepest 5alues 8y 1hich these :nati5es: li5ed> and polite contempt %or a creed or a deep=rooted tradition is %ar more deadly than persecution7 These masters destroyed4 not 8odies4 8ut souls = or at least the nourishment upon 1hich human souls su8sist7

Althou)h the con;uerors called themsel5es Christians4 they 1ere not4 %or the most part4 men o% reli)ion in any sense %amiliar to the su89ect peoples4 %or they alone 1ere not totally possessed 8y the reli)ious idea and 8y the sense o% the sacred7 They 1ere = or appeared to 8e = people indi%%erent to the essential 8ut de5oured 8y the inessential and there%ore immensely s'illed in dealin) 1ith inessentials7 0i'e ussolini in a later period4 they 'ne1 ho1 to ma'e the trains run on time7 There 1as no 1ay in 1hich they could understand or 8e understood 8y people %or 1hom the sacred too' precedence o5er e5erythin) else7 The Europeans 1ithdre14 8ut le%t their stin) 8ehind7 E3cept in Al)eria and Indonesia4 it cannot 8e said that they 1ere dri5en out7 Their empires collapsed %rom a lac' o% 1ill4 %rom sel%=dou8t and %rom 1eariness %ollo1in) on t1o )reat 1ars4 as 1ell as %rom economic %actors> 8ut in a8dicatin) they still tried to do their duty 8y imposin) upon the ne1ly independent nations entirely inappropriate systems o% )o5ernment and administration7 There may indeed ha5e 8een no alternati5e4 since traditional patterns o% rulership and o% social li%e had4 to a lar)e e3tent4 8een destroyed> 8ut no1here 1as there any ;uestion o% restorin) the :status ;uo ante:4 and in recent years 1e ha5e seen in .)anda Aa particularly stri'in) e3ampleB the results o% the deli8erate underminin) o% the traditional authority on the e5e o% independence7D1E 1 ,ir Andre1 Cohen:s 1eEl=intentioned and li8eral=minded destruction o% the !a8a'a had results 1hich mi)ht not ha5e 8een achie5ed 8y deli8erate male5olence7 The !a8a'a4 he thou)ht4 stood in the 1ay o% :pro)ress: and :democracy:> %or these t1o terms 1e are no1 %orced to su8stitute :chaos: and :8ar8arism: so %ar as .)anda is concerned7 There are today many educated uslims 1ho share Cohen:s contempt %or traditional patterns o% rulership7 They too may pro5e to ha5e 8een a)ents o% dar'ness7 The independence mo5ements in the colonies and protectorates came into 8ein)4 not throu)h a return to indi)enous 5alues on the part o% those concerned4 8ut throu)h the a8sorption o% occidental ideas and ideolo)ies4 li8eral or re5olutionary as the case mi)ht 8e7 The process o% moderni<ation = a euphemism %or $esterni<ation = %ar %rom 8ein) halted 8y this 1ithdra1al4 1as in %act accelerated7 The enthusiasm o% the ne1 rulers %or e5erythin) :modern: 1as not restrained4 as had 8een the enthusiasm o% their %ormer masters4 8y any element o% sel%=dou8t7 The irony implicit in this 1hole situation 1as tra)ically apparent in the Jietnam 1ar4 1hen the people o% that country %ou)ht4 not to preser5e their o1n traditions or to )ain the ri)ht to 8e truly themsel5es4 8ut under the 8anner o% a shoddy occidental ideolo)y and %or the pri5ile)e o% imitatin) their %ormer masters in terms o% nationalism and socialism7 The $est 1as at 1ar 1ith its o1n mirror ima)e in a 5icious 6ance o% 6eath7 It is o%ten said that althou)h only thirty years ha5e passed since Europe A1ith the e3ception o% RussiaB shu%%led o%% its imperial 8urden4 it is no lon)er possi8le to ima)ine a state o% mind4 a state o% inner sel%=con%idence4 1hich too' the imperial role %or )ranted7 Ho1 could those red=%aced sahi8s ha5e 8een so sure o% their o1n ri)hteousnessG The youn) %ind pictures o% 5iceroys and )o5ernors struttin) under

the palm trees in peculiar hats hilariously %unny7 And yet there has 8een no %undamental chan)e7 $estern 5alues remain the standard 8y 1hich all are 9ud)ed and most accept to 8e 9ud)ed7 uch o% the sel%=con%idence 1hich ena8led the sahi8 o% an earlier )eneration to 'eep a cro1d o% nati5es in order 1ith only a s1a))er=stic' in his hand persists4 since it is ta'en %or )ranted that the rest o% the 1orld must play 8y the rules 1hich $estern ci5ili<ation has laid do1n4 rules 1hich are the product o% European history7 The European po1ers are a small minority in the .nited Nations4 8ut a )lance at the Charter o% that or)ani<ation is enou)h to sho1 that it contains not one principle deri5ed %rom any other source4 and the same is true o% international la1 as it is at present understood7 The opinions4 pre9udices and moral principles o% the %ormer colonial masters remain as po1er%ul as 1ere European arms in the past4 and the only escape attempted has 8een do1n a 8lind alley4 the Fe1ish=European doctrine = or pseudo=reli)ion = o% ar3ism4 1ith its mi3ture o% Christian heresies4 Fudaic essianic dreams and du8ious science7 The 'ey=1ord is :ci5ili<ation:7 One may 8e a uslim4 a Hindu4 a &uddhist or4 %or that matter4 an Es'imo shaman> there is 9ust one condition that is o8li)atory %or all = one must con%orm to :ci5ili<ed 5alues: on pain o% 8ein) condemned as :8ac'1ard:7 Frith9o% ,chuon has de%ined :ci5ili<ation: as :ur8an re%inement in the %rame1or' o% a 1orldly and mercantile outloo':4 hostile 8oth to 5ir)in nature and to reli)ion4D1E and in ori)in the 1ord means no more than li5in) in cities Acommonly re)arded in the past as places o% spiritual corruption and physical dirtB7 It is nonetheless a 5ery potent 1ord and e5en the most ardent re5olutionary4 in the uslim 1orld as else1here4 %ears 8ein) descri8ed as :unci5ili<ed:7 Anti= colonialism on the political le5el has pro5ed to 8e a 'ind o% opium o% the people4 pre5entin) them %rom noticin) that 1hat matters most is the 1ay in 1hich their minds ha5e 8een coloni<ed7 1 0i)ht on the Ancient $orlds APerennial &oo'sB4 p) /7 The conse;uent traumas4 1hich a%%lict the )reater part o% the non=European 1orld4 ha5e 8een intensi%ied amon) the uslim peoples 8y special circumstances and a%%ect almost e5ery pu8lic mani%estation o% Islam today4 on the intellectual le5el as also on the political one7 In the attempt to 8eat the $est at its o1n )ame4 alien ideas and ideolo)ies are adopted and :Islamici<ed: o5erni)ht4 simply 8y tac'in) the ad9ecti5e :Islamic: on to them4 and one should not 8e surprised i% this results in an acute attac' o% indi)estion7 Politically4 de%iance o% the $est is seen as the most e%%ecti5e 1ay o% re=assertin) :Islamic 5alues:4 re)ardless o% ho1 deeply these 5alues may ha5e 8een corrupted4 and re)ardless o% the %act that hystencal 8eha5iour in response to insults = or ima)ined insults = is totally contrary to the spirit and ethos o% Islam7 It 8ecomes almost impossi8le %or the o8ser5er4 unless he possesses a touchstone 1ithin himsel%4 to disentan)le 1hat is truly Islamic %rom 1hat is merely a con5ulsi5e reaction to the traumatic e3perience throu)h 1hich the uslim 1orld has passed> nor are the ma9ority o% contemporary uslims su%%iciently sel%=analytical = or su%%iciently sel%=critical = to ma'e this distinction7 This 1ould su%%ice to e3plain much o% 1hat is happenin) no1 in the 1orld o% Islam4 as it does many o% the crises occurrin) in the Third $orld in )eneral4 8ut %or

uslims there is an additional %actor 1hich 'eeps old 1ounds open> as they see it4 $estern military and political po1er is still %irmly esta8lished in the midst o% the 6ar=ul=Islam under co5er o% the state o% Israel7 The Palestine ;uestion is so %rau)ht 1ith emotion that one 1ould 8e )lad to escape the necessity o% mentionin) it7 Necessity4 ho1e5er4 cannot 8e escaped4 and the e3istence o% the state o% Israel in Palestine Athe %irst territory 8eyond the Ara8ian peninsula to 8e con;uered 8y IslamB is the 'ey to the political orientation o% the 5ast ma9ority o% educated uslims in our time4 the cause o% most o% the trou8les 1hich ha5e a%%licted the Ara8 1orld o5er the past %orty years and a constant %actor o% insta8ility in the iddle East7 There are those 1ho 1ould add that it is also4 potentially4 a tri))er %or nuclear con%lict7 The .nited ,tates and the European Community mi)ht 8e less inclined to indul)e in 1ish%ul thin'in) on this issue i% they understood a little more a8out the uslim perspecti5e7 In the %irst place4 uslims do not in )eneral share the occidental o8session 1ith :race:7 Europeans and their American cousins4 e5en 1hen they are ;uite %ree %rom any hostile pre9udice4 automatically identi%y people in terms o% their racial ori)in7 The uslim4 on the other hand4 identi%ies and 9ud)es a man or a 1oman primarily in terms o% their reli)ion7 A :Fe1: is a %aith%ul adherent o% Fudaism 9ust as a uslim is an adherent o% Islam4 e5en i% his )rand%ather happened to 8e a Fe1ish Ra88i Aas is the case 1ith an eminent contemporary 1riter and scholar4 uhammad AsadB> as it happens a surprisin)ly hi)h proportion o% European and American con5erts to Islam o5er recent years ha5e 8een o% :Fe1ish ori)in:4 no dou8t on account o% the stron) a%%inities 8et1een these t1o reli)ious perspecti5es7 $hat the $est sees in Israel is the esta8lishment o% a homeland %or the Fe1ish :race:4 9ust recompense %or centuries o% persecution at the hands o% Europeans7 $hether or not the citi<ens o% the ne1 state happen to 8e indi5idually :reli)ious: seems ;uite irrele5ant7 The Na<is did not in;uire into a man:s piety 8e%ore sendin) him to the )as cham8er7 $hat the uslim sees in Israel is European and American settlers esta8lished in a uslim country 1ith the support o% the %ormer imperial po1ers4 maintained there 8y American arms and apparently determined to e3tend their territory still %urther into the 6ar=ul=Islam7 A :secular: Fe1 is4 %or him4 a contradiction in terms7 ,o %ar as he can 9ud)e4 most Israelis4 particularly those in the rulin) )roup4 are not Fe1s at all7 They loo' li'e Europeans4 they tal' li'e Europeans4 they thin' li'e Europeans and = most important o% all = they e3hi8it precisely those characteristics o% a))ressi5eness and administrati5e e%%iciency 1hich the uslim associates 1ith European imperialism7D1E The parallel 1ith the Crusades is pain%ully o85ious7 $esterners ha5e a)ain come to Palestine> they a)ain occupy the Holy City o% ?uds AFerusalemB7 The mis%ortunes o% the Fe1s as a race =the po)roms and the holocaust itsel% = 1ere certainly not the %ault o% the uslims7 Europe:s )uilt is Europe:s 8usiness4 and they do not see 1hy they should 8e e3pected to su%%er %or it7 :$hy do you not )i5e the Fe1s some o% the choicest lands o% "ermanyG: !in) A8du:l=A<i< I8n ,aud as'ed President Roose5elt7 He mi)ht as 1ell ha5e su))ested4 no less reasona8ly 8ut no more pro%ita8ly4 that the Americans4 i% they %elt so stron)ly on this su89ect4 could ;uite 1ell spare one o% their o1n %orty=ei)ht states ATe3as

perhapsB as a home %or the Fe1s7 The :1hite man:4 as the Ara8s see it4 is more inclined to )i5e a1ay other people:s territory than his o1n7 1 It is true that the oriental Fe1s4 the ,ephardim4 no1 outnum8er the :$esterners:4 the Ash'ena<im4 in Israel and are 8e)innin) to e3ercise decisi5e in%luence on )o5ernment> 8ut in politics appearances are more important than %acts7 The impression that Israel is a $estern colonial encla5e is rein%orced 8y pu8lic attitudes in Europe and America7 It is interestin)4 %or e3ample4 to note that Israelis the only non=European country to participate in the annual Euro5ision ,on) Contest4 1atched 8y an estimated (22 million 5ie1ers4 yet no one %inds this peculiar7 any uslims are con5inced that $estern support %or Israel can 8e ascri8ed ;uite simply to hypocrisy7 They 8elie5e that Europe and the .nited ,tates created Israel as a means o% riddin) themsel5es o% their Fe1ish populations7 Ho1e5er a8surd this accusation may seem to Europeans and Americans the %act remains that Kionism arose as a reaction to anti=,emitism and4 in the 5ie1 o% its %ounders4 :needed: anti= ,emitism7 Theodor Her<l himsel% 1as not a%raid to say that :the anti=,emites 1ill 8ecome our surest %riends and the anti=,emitic countries our allies:7 Precisely 8ecause4 in his time4 pre9udice a)ainst people o% Fe1ish ori)in 1as diminishin) and the process o% assimilation acceleratin)4 it 1as all the more necessary to emphasi<e that Fe1s 1ere :di%%erent: and did not really :8elon): in the countries o% their adoption4 an opinion in 1hich the anti=,emites heartily concurred7 Her<l 1as 1arned 8y a %riend4 the President o% the Austrian parliament4 that this emphasis upon the :separateness: o% the Fe1ish people 1ould e5entually :8rin) a 8lood8ath on Fe1ry:7 Fi%ty years later it 1as the holocaust and the sense o% )uilt pre5ailin) in Europe and the .nited ,tates A1hich could ha5e sa5ed so many li5es 8y an :open door: policy to1ards Fe1ish re%u)eesB that made possi8le the esta8lishment o% the state o% Israel7 This 1as made easier 8y the Palestinians: sel%=identi%ication as :Ara8s:7 It 1as = and still is = assumed 8y many people in the $est that this is an indication o% their racial ori)in7 In Islam the term :Ara8: is applied to anyone 1hose %irst lan)ua)e is Ara8ic> it tells us nothin) a8out his ancestry7 In %act the Palestinians are descended %rom the ancient Canaanites4 to 1hose :8lood: Ai% one must spea' in racialist termsB a do<en in5adin) peoples added their ;uota@ Philistines4 He8re1s4 "ree's4 Romans4 Persians4 Ara8s and Tur's4 to name 8ut a %e17 The only point to 8e made is that the Palestinians are not a people 1ho too' possession o% the land 8y %orce> they 1ere :al1ays: there7 Finally4 uslims = 1ith their %irst=hand e3perience o% colonialism = can see plainly enou)h that the notion o% settlin) people %rom else1here in a Third $orld country a)ainst the 1ishes o% the indi)enous inha8itants could only ha5e arisen in the conte3t o% colonialism and as a mani%estation o% the colonialist mentality7 Here a)ain the pu8lic statements o% the %oundin) %athers o% Kionism seem to them to support this 5ie17 The Kionist pioneers 1ere necessarily men o% their time4 and their time 1as the hi)h noon o% :imperialism:> they shared 1ith their %ello1= Europeans a set o% 5alues and 8elie%s 1hich 9usti%ied and e5en )lori%ied the coloni<ation o% Asia and A%rica in the 1orthy cause o% 8rin)in) ci5ili<ation to the

:nati5es:7 It is little 1onder4 %or e3ample4 that Aaron Aaronsohn4 addressin) an audience o% French colons in Tunisia in 1/2/4 should ha5e dra1n attention to the %act that Fe1ish immi)ration into Palestine 8e)an in the same year as the French coloni<ation o% Tunisia4 1--24 and compared the Fe1ish settler in Palestine to the French settler in Tunisia7 For educated uslims 1ho identi%y 1ith the Palestinians4 the humiliation o% 8ein) treated as :nati5es: 1ho could 8e pushed aside to ma'e room %or 1hite men and 1omen 1as intensi%ied 8y the %ailure o% superior Ara8 %orces to dislod)e these :settlers:7 At the 5ery time 1hen $estern imperial po1er 1as ma'in) a discreet 1ithdra1al else1here in the 1orld4 they 1ere a)ain %orced to reco)ni<e their o1n impotence in the %ace o% this po1er7 Humiliation 8e)ets ra)e4 and this ra)e has no1 sun' deep roots e5en in the more distant outposts o% the uslim 1orld4 most particularly amon) the youn)7 Tur8ulent emotions are not easily analysed 8ut one has the impression that these youn) people reser5e their most 8itter resentment4 not %or the Israelis4 8ut %or the Americans7 To some e3tent they understand that the Israelis act as they themsel5es mi)ht act under similar circumstances> they cannot4 ho1e5er4 %or)i5e the nation 8ut %or 1hose support the state o% Israel could not sur5i5e in its present %orm7 This has resulted in a distortion o% history 1hich4 i% it is not soon corrected4 may ha5e the most 8itter conse;uences %or all o% us7 Ho1e5er :decadent: the .nited ,tates may appear in uslim eyes4 this mi)ht 8e seen as a lesser 8lemish in comparison 1ith the a))ressi5e atheism o% the ,o5iet .nion7 For the %irst time since the Prophet:s triumphant return to ecca4 Islam has come %ace to %ace 1ith a po1er determined to eradicate the reli)ion as such and to con5ert uslims %rom %aith to in%idelity7 $ere it not %or the Palestinian ;uestion = the Palestinian trauma = this4 surely4 1ould 8e the o5erridin) concern o% contemporary Islam7 ,ome #( million uslims li5e under ,o5iet rule in Central Asia and the Causasus7 For si3ty years they ha5e stru))led to preser5e their %aith4 and to preser5e the principles and customs o% Islam4 despite almost constant persecution7 In all this time they ha5e recei5ed no e%%ecti5e support %rom the 1orld1ide community 1hose ri)ht to call itsel% the .mmah depends upon %ul%illin) the primary duty o% aidin) those o% its mem8ers 1ho are persecuted %or their %aith7 The un;uali%ied support )i5en 8y the .nited ,tates to Israel has persuaded a )reat num8er o% uslims that the ,o5iet .nion represents a lesser e5il7 ,ince they can only maintain this 5ie1 i% they 8lind themsel5es to the %acts4 i)nore the pli)ht o% their co=reli)ionists 5ictimi<ed 8y ,o5iet imperialism and misunderstand the nature o% the modern 1orld4 they no1 li5e in the midst o% political %antasies 1hich 8ear no relation to the realities o% the situation7 Althou)h Europeans and Americans ha5e recently = and lar)ely %or economic reasons = reco)ni<ed the need to understand the uslim 1orld4 it cannot 8e said that much pro)ress had 8een made7 The o8stacles are4 as 1e ha5e seen4 %ormida8le4 8ut the sur5i5al o% that sector o% humanity 1hich still ac'no1led)es that reli)ious %aith has a ri)ht to e3ist may yet depend upon these o8stacles 8ein) o5ercome7 A reconciliation 1ith Islam4 on the political as 1ell as the reli)ious le5el4 is no1 essential to the %uture o% the $est and should 8e amon)st its hi)hest

priorities7 Precise %i)ures cannot 8e esta8lished4 8ut it seems li'ely that there are no1 at least one 8illion uslims and this represents4 to say the least4 a decisi5e 1ei)ht to 8e placed in the scales o% the 8alance o% po1er7 The .mmah is di5ided 8y national 8oundaries and national ri5alries 8ut4 at the )rass=roots %rom orocco to Indonesia4 the sense o% unity and o% common interest has sur5i5ed the 5icissitudes o% history and is still the primary %ocus o% the peoples: loyalty7 :Thus ha5e 1e appointed you4: says the ?ur:an4 :a middle nation: Aor :a community o% the middle 1ay:B4 :so that you may 8ear 1itness to the truth 8e%ore man'ind 777: A?7271#3B7 Islam is a :middle nation: e5en in the purely )eo)raphical sense4 spannin) as it does the centre=line o% the planet> a :nation: 1hich is the heir to ancient and uni5ersal truths4 and to principles o% social and human sta8ility Ao%ten 8etrayed 8ut ne5er %or)ottenB o% 1hich our chaotic 1orld has desperate need> a nation 1hich 1itnesses to a hope that transcends the dead ends a)ainst 1hich the contemporary 1orld is 8atterin) itsel% to death7 In the midst o% a humanity polari<ed 8et1een East and $est4 North and ,outh4 lslam represents 8oth a connectin) lin' and a centre o% )ra5ity7 6i5ision4 de%eat4 su89ection and political con%usion ha5e not entirely destroyed the uslims: sense o% priorities7 :In a 1orld o% materialism4 hedonism and technolo)y4: 1rote a Fesuit priest recently in The Times o% 0ondon4 :the Islamic masses still contri5e to ma'e "od and not technolo)y the central certainty o% their li5es 777 ean1hile4 8et1een ar3ism and Americanism4 the choice must sometimes seem a poor one to people 1ho decided lon) a)o4 and ha5e seen %it to stand 8y their decision4 that man cannot li5e 8y 8read alone777:D1E 1 E3amimo) the root cause o% Islam:s present disc ontents:4 Francis Ed1ards4 ,7 F74 The Times4 2* Fanuary 1/-27 E5ery1here today 1e see the dislocation produced 8y the impact o% the modern $est upon 8elie%s and cultural patterns 1hich could not sur5i5e the encounter> 1hole peoples no1 e3ist in a spiritual and psycholo)ical 5acuum7 The 1orld o% Islam 1as sha'en4 i% not to its %oundations4 at least throu)hout its structure4 8ut it has sur5i5ed relati5ely intact = in this case one mi)ht spea' o% an irresisti8le %orce ha5in) come up a)ainst an immo5a8le o89ect = and pro5ides us 1ith the only %ully sur5i5in) e3emplar o% a di%%erent 1ay o% li5in)4 a di%%erent 1ay o% thin'in)4 a di%%erent 1ay o% doin) thin)s7 Its lin' 1ith the past has not 8een 8ro'en7 :From Indonesia to orocco4: 1rites ,eyyed Hossein Nasr4 :%or the o5er1helmin) ma9ority4 Islamic culture must 8e re%erred to in the present tense and not as somethin) in the past7 Those 1ho re%er to it in the past tense 8elon) to a 5ery small 8ut 5ocal minority 1hich has ceased to li5e 1ithin the 1orld o% tradition and mista'es its o1n loss o% centre %or the dislocation o% the 1hole o% Islamic society:7D1E The uslim attitude to time itsel% is di%%erent %rom that o% the Christian7 History4 %or the uslim4 is ne5er somethin) dead and 8uried7 The Companions = and the Prophet himsel% = to)ether 1ith the )reat and pious men o% earlier a)es4 seem to 'eep company 1ith the li5in)4 and in a sense the .mmah includes them4 thou)h they are in Paradise and 1e are encapsulated in this present time7 odern man li5es in %utile and illusory dreams o% the %uture> %or the uslim4 the past is not merely there 8ut also4 in a certain sense4 here and no17

The medie5al Christian 1ould ha5e understood the uslim 5ery 1ell i% he had allo1ed himsel% to do so7 odern man cannot e5en understand his o1n %ore8ears4 ha5in) 8ecome o5er recent centuries a type o% creature ne5er 8e%ore seen on earth4 )o5erned 8y 8elie%s 1hich correspond to nothin) in the traditional and reli)ious herita)e o% man'ind7 I% he could understand the uslim he mi)ht 8e)in to understand himsel% 8e%ore he 8lunders into sel%=destruction7 For the :a5era)e man:4 secular4 a)nostic Aor ;uite simply una1are o% reli)ion as a reality on any le5elB and rootless4 Islam may open the door to a 1hole uni5erse o% discourse4 %amiliar to his ancestors 8ut stran)e to him> %or the Christian4 there is the e3perience o% a closely related reli)ion 1hich has ta'en a completely di%%erent path to Christianity and has maintained its role as the dominant %orce in a 1hole ci5ili<ation4 intellectually4 culturally4 and socially7 &ut4 in considerin) the di%%erences 8et1een Christian and uslim4 one must distin)uish 8et1een those that are essential and those that are peripheral7 The place in 1hich the reli)ions meet is4 as it 1ere4 a secret cham8er in 1hich man4 stripped o% his temporal dress4 is alone 1ith "od4 or in 1hich the relati5e is seen as no more than a shado1 o% the A8solute7 From this centre the radii di5er)e4 to 8e di%%erentiated in terms o% theolo)y4 moral la14 social practice and4 %inally4 in terms o% human :climate:7 On the one hand there are the di%%erences 8et1een the reli)ions as such Ain the 1ay they percei5e RealityB and4 on the other4 the di%%erences 8et1een societies and indi5iduals moulded 8y a particular tradition> and4 in the latter case4 the most si)ni%icant %actor is 1hat people ta'e %or )ranted4 1hat appears to them sel%= e5ident7 $hat counts on the periphery is the :%la5our: o% the reli)ion and o% the culture it has shaped4 or the spiritual and human :climate: 1ithin 1hich its adherents li5e out their li5es and interpret their e3periences7 1 ,eyyed Hossein Nasr4 op7 cit74 p7 13(7 It is important to 'no1 1hat a reli)ion is in itsel%4 8ut one should also 8e a1are o% 1hat it is thou)ht to 8e and ho1 it is e3pressed in the pre9udices and instincti5e assumptions o% ordinary people7 The modern $esterner4 persuaded that he has a ri)ht to :thin' %or himsel%: and ima)inin) that he e3ercises this ri)ht4 is un1illin) to ac'no1led)e that his e5ery thou)ht has 8een shaped 8y cultural and historical in%luences and that his opinions %it4 li'e pieces o% a 9i)sa1 pu<<le4 into a pattern 1hich has nothin) random a8out it7 ,tatements 1hich 8e)in 1ith the 1ords :I thin'777: re%lect a climate created 8y all those strands o% 8elie% and e3perience = as also o% %olly and corruption = 1hich ha5e )one to %orm the current state o% mind and to esta8lish principles 1hich cannot 8e dou8ted 8y any sane and reasona8le man in this place and at this point in time7 The climate in 1hich the ordinary uslim li5es has 8een at least partly determined 8y the en5ironment into 1hich the reli)ion 1as pro5identially pro9ected and in 1hich it de5eloped@ the desert and4 so %ar as the Tur's and on)ols 1ere concerned4 the steppes o% Asia> in other 1ords4 the :open: = open space and clear hori<ons at the end o% the 1orld = and this is the polar opposite o% the human 1orld o% cities and culti5ated %ields and4 ultimately4 o% the man=made antheap7

Frith9o% ,chuon has remar'ed that the )enesis o% a ne1 reli)ion amounts to :the creation o% a moral and spiritual type:7 :In the case o% Islam4: he says4 :this type consists o% an e;uili8rium = parado3ical %rom the Christian point o% 5ie1 = 8et1een the ;ualities o% the contemplati5e and the com8ati5e4 and then 8et1een holy po5erty and sancti%ied se3uality7 The Ara8 = and the man Ara8i<ed 8y Islam = has4 so to spea'4 %our poles@ the desert4 the s1ord4 1oman and reli)ion7: The s1ord4 he adds4 represents death4 :8oth dealt and courted:4 1hile 1oman represents :lo5e recei5ed and lo5e )i5en4 so that she incarnates all the )enerous 5irtues4 compensatin) %or the per%ume o% death 1ith that o% li%e7 777 The sym8iosis o% lo5e and death 1ithin the %rame1or' o% po5erty and 8e%ore the %ace o% the A8solute constitutes all that is essential in Ara8 no8ility777CD1E 1 Islam and the Perennial Philosophy A$orld o% Islam Pu8lishin) CompanyB4 p7/17 This no8ility is still to 8e %ound4 thou)h not al1ays amon) pu8lic %i)ures in the Ara8 1orld or amon) those 1ho ha5e appointed themsel5es the o%%icial spo'esmen o% Islam> 8ut 1hat o% the mass o% the people conditioned 8y the Islamic climateG For the most part inarticulate4 they cannot spea' %or themsel5es4 and 1e are o8li)ed to rely upon neutral o8ser5ers7 ,uch an o8ser5er is Paul &o1les4 an American no5elist 1ho has li5ed %or many years in orocco7 He mi)ht 8e descri8ed as :neutral: 8ecause his interest has 8een solely in the people around him> he has had no concern 1ith reli)ion4 e3cept as he has seen it e3empli%ied in their daily li5es and ha8its o% thou)ht4 and in an essay entitled : ustapha and Friends: he summed up his o8ser5ations in a %ictional portrait o% a typical oroccan 8oy 1hose $estern e;ui5alent 1ould li5e only %or %oot8all and discothe;ues7 This ma'es his : ustapha: a 'ind o% test case %or comparison 8et1een the social periphery o% Islam on the one hand and4 on the other4 the contemporary $estern 1orld7 It must 8e admitted that many uslim academics and leaders o% opinion 1ould condemn this portrait and identi%y &o1les as 9ust another %orei)ner ill=disposed to1ards the :Ara8 nation: and to1ards :resur)ent Islam:7 They could not deny a certain authenticity to the portrait4 8ut they 1ould see : ustapha: as representin) somethin) that is to 8e o5ercome in a return to the pure %aith4 a sur5i5or %rom a past that is 8etter %or)otten7 .nli'e Christianity4 they mi)ht say4 Islam is a reli)ion o% this 1orld4 a reli)ion o% social responsi8ility and political idealism> : ustapha: must 8e disciplined and tau)ht true Islam so that he can parade 1ith other4 more 1orthy4 youn) men under a re5olutionary 8anner shoutin) :6eath to ,o=and=soI: and :6o1n 1ith the corrupt ser5ants o% imperialismI: This is a matter o% opinion7 Poor : ustapha: does not 'no1 much a8out imperialism4 8ut then he is %ree %rom the comple3es and inner torments 1hich a%%lict his more educated 8rothers4 and he is not a1are that the reli)ion he ta'es %or )ranted must 8e used as a means to re=esta8lish the pride o% the Ara8 nation7 No dou8t he could 8e descri8ed as %ec'less> 8ut : ustapha: is one o% :the people: Ain 1hose name the slo)ans are coinedB and4 throu)hout Islamic history4 1hile rulers ha5e murdered each other4 1hile doctors o% la1 and theolo)y ha5e ar)ued4 and 1hile re%ormers ha5e re%ormed4 the people ha5e )one their 1ay and ta'en little note o% 1hat the )reat men thou)ht or did7 It may e5en 8e that : ustapha:

and his %riends 1ill outli5e the )reat men> the Prophet4 curiously enou)h4 seems to ha5e had a %e1 : ustaphas: around him4 1hom he treated 1ith an amused 'indness and tolerance 1hich has not al1ays 8een imitated 8y the reli)ious authorities o% later times7 : ustapha4: says &o1les4 :may ha5e little education4 or he may 8e illiterate4 1hich is more li'ely7 He may o8ser5e his reli)ion to the letter4 or partially4 or not at all4 8ut he 1ill al1ays call himsel% a oslem7 His %irst loyalty is to1ards %ello1 oslems o% 1hate5er country777 The di%%erence 8et1een ustapha and us is possi8ly e5en )reater than it 1ould 8e 1ere he a &uddhist or a Hindu4 %or there is no reli)ion on earth 1hich demands a stricter con%ormity to the tenets o% its do)ma than that supra=national 8rotherhood called Islam7 E5en the most 5isionary and idealistic amon) us o% the $estern 1orld is more than li'ely to e3plain the purpose o% li%e in terms o% accomplishment7 Our de%inition o% that purpose 1ill 8e a dynamic one in 1hich it 1ill 8e assumed desira8le %or each indi5idual to contri8ute his share4 ho1e5er in%initesimal4 to the total tan)i8le or intan)i8le enrichment o% li%e7 ustapha does not see thin)s that 1ay at all7 To him it is sli)htly a8surd4 the stress 1e lay upon 1or'4 our cra5in) to Clea5e the 1orld 8etter than 1e %ound itC4 our unceasin) e%%orts to produce ideas and o89ects7 C$e are not put on earth to 1or'4C he 1ill tell you4 C$e are put here to pray> that is the purpose o% li%e777C ,uch social 5irtues as a taste %or the Cdemocratic 1ay o% li%eC and a sense o% ci5ic responsi8ility mean 5ery little to him7: ustapha is :the ad5enturer par e3cellence7 He e3pects li%e to ha5e somethin) o% the 5ariety and %la5our o% The Thousand and One Ni)hts4 and i% that pun)ency is lac'in) he does his 8est to supply it7 A 1holehearted 8elie5er in dan)erous li5in)4 he o%ten ta'es outra)eous chances:4 due4 says &o1les4 to a :re%usal to 8elie5e that action entails result7 To him4 each is separate4 ha5in) 8een determined at the 8e)innin) o% time4 1hen the ine3ora8le desi)n o% destiny 1as laid out 777 It is the most monstrous a8surdity to %ear death4 the %uture4 or the conse;uences o% one:s acts4 since that 1ould 8e tantamount to %earin) li%e itsel%7 Thus to 8e prudent is lau)ha8le4 to 8e %ru)al is despica8le4 and to 8e pro5ident 8orders on the sin%ul7 Ho1 can a man 8e so presumptuous as to assume that tomorro14 let alone ne3t year4 1ill actually arri5eG And so ho1 dare he tempt %ate 8y preparin) %or any part o% the %uture4 either immediate or distantG :The 1ise man is complete at e5ery moment4 1ith no strin)s o% hope%ulness stretchin) out to1ards the %uture4 entan)lin) his soul and possi8ly ma'in) it loath to lea5e this li%e7 ustapha 1ill tell you that the true oslem is al1ays ready %or death at an instant:s notice 777 He has a passion %or personal independence7 He does not loo' %or assistance %rom others 777 since all aid comes %rom Allah7 E5en the )i%t o% money a 8e))ar has mana)ed to elicit %rom a stran)er in the street 1ill 8e sho1n triumphantly to a %riend 1ith the remar'@ C,ee 1hat Allah )a5e meC 777 It has ne5er occurred to him that a man mi)ht 8e a8le to in%luence the course o% his o1n e3istence7 His )eneral idea a8out li%e is that it is a 5isit@ you come4 stay a 1hile4 and )o a1ay a)ain7 The circumstances and len)th o% the stay are 8eyond anyone:s control4 and there%ore only o% sli)ht interest7:D1E

This portrait4 despite certain distortions o% perspecti5e4 is rich in implications and may perhaps indicate more clearly than any amount o% theori<in) the )ul% 1hich separates those 1hose minds ha5e 8een %ormed in an Islamic climate %rom the :common man: o% the Occident7 The social and educational strata o% contemporary uslim society are sharply separated4 and the )ul% must 8e 8rid)ed on more than one le5el i% understandin) is e5er to 8e achie5ed7 1 Their Heads are "reen4 Paul &o1les A0ondon@ Peter O1enB4 pp7 -3=-/7 Chapter 2 CONTIN.ITH AN6 CONTRA,T An ancient tradition tells us Aand "od 'no1s 8est the truth o% itB that Adam4 the %irst man and the %irst prophet4 1as commanded to ma'e a )reat 9ourney7 Ha5in) %allen %rom Paradise to the dusty earth he 1as only a shado1 o% his %ormer sel%4 diminished in stature and in 5ision4 yet he 1as still one o% those to 1hom "od spea's %rom 8ehind the 5eils o% time and mortality7 ,o his 0ord spo'e4 sayin)@ :I ha5e a sanctuary directly 8eneath my Throne7 No1 )o and 8uild e there a House4 and )o around it in the 1ay you ha5e seen the an)els circlin) my Throne7: Then Adam set out %or the holy place4 1hich lies at the a3ial point o% e5ery circle7 There the hea5enly centre had cast its re%lection in the %orm o% a temple roo%ed 1ith one )reat ru8y4 supported on columns o% emerald and shelterin) a 1hite stone 1hich 1as luminous 8eyond any other earthly li)ht7 This stone 1as li'e the human soul in its primordial per%ection4 as yet undar'ened 8y the passa)e o% time7 He tra5elled %ar4 )uided 8y an an)elic po1er4 till he passed throu)h the deserts o% the He9a< and stood at last in a 5alley rin)ed 8y mountains4 a place o% roc' and sand seemin)ly e5en more remote %rom remem8ered Paradise than the %ra)rant land 1here he had %irst 8ro'en his %all7 There he encompassed the hea5enly 5ision 1ith an earthly house made %rom stones ta'en4 so it is said4 %rom ount ,inai4 the ount o% Oli5es4 ount 0e8anon and a %ourth mountain4 sometimes called el=Fudi4 on 1hich4 lon) a%ter1ards4 Noah:s ar' 1ould come to rest7 His tas' accomplished4 he per%ormed the prescri8ed rites and then departed4 as all creatures must 1hether they li5e %or a day or %or a thousand years> and %or a )reat period o% time silence descended upon this holy place and 1ind8lo1n: sand co5ered the temple Adam had 8uilt7 A%ter the passa)e o% the a)es Aand only "od 'no1s ho1 lon) this 1asB t1o stran)ers came o5er the desert to the eccan 5alley4 8rin)in) 1ith them a small child@ a tall man4 already in his ei)hties4 A8raham 8y name Aand a prophet 8y destinyB4 1ith Ha)ar4 the lo5ely E)yptian maid=ser5ant 1ho had 8orne him the son o% his old a)e4 Ishmael7 &eside the mound 1hich co5ered the sacred House4 A8raham a8andoned Ha)ar and their child to the di5ine mercy4 lea5in) 1ith them 8ut a %e1 dates and a s'in o% 1ater7 6istrau)ht and thirsty4 Ha)ar le%t the child in a sheltered place and %ollo1ed a trac' that led throu)h the hills7 From ,a%a she sa1 no sprin) nor si)n o% ha8itation4 and %rom ar1a she sa1 none7 ,e5en times she ran 8et1een these t1o hilloc's4

callin) upon "od:s mercy4 and then she heard the sound o% a 5oice and hastened 8ac' to her son7 &eside him stood an an)el 1ho no1 struc' the earth 1ith his 1in) so that s1eet 1ater )ushed %orth7 This 1as the sprin) called Kam<am4 %rom 1hich the pil)rims in their millions drin' today7 Here it 1as that she reared Ishmael4 ancestor o% the Ara8 race4 9oined e5entually 8y 1anderers %rom the north4 and here she died7 The 8oy had )ro1n to manhood 8y the time A8raham returned and to)ether they set a8out re8uildin) the House o% "od4 the !a:8a4 repeatin) Adam:s tas' as all men must in one 1ay or another4 8ein) o% Adam:s %lesh and 8lood7 Ishmael 8rou)ht the stones on his 8ac' 1hile his %ather set them one upon another 1ithout mortar@ :And 1hen A8raham and Ishmael raised the %oundations o% the House they said@ Our 0ord4 accept this Dser5iceE %rom us4 %or truly Thou art the All=Hearin)4 the All=!no1in): A?72712+B7 And 1hen he le%t the He9a<4 ne5er to return4 A8raham 8lessed the 5alley o% ecca and prayed@ :Our 0ord4 I ha5e settled a part o% my pro)eny in a 8arren 5alley close to Thy sacred House777: A?71#73+B> and he prayed also@ :Our 0ord4 raise up in their midst a essen)er %rom amon)st them4 1ho shall recite to them Thy re5elations and teach them the ,cripture and $isdom4 and puri%y them: A?727 12/B7 any centuries passed 8e%ore A8raham:s prayer 1as ans1ered7 The luminous stone 1as 8lac'ened 8y men:s sins and the 1ater o% Kam<am )re1 8rac'ish7 Once a)ain the holy place 1as a %or)otten sanctuary4 'no1n only to a scattered nomadic people o% 1hom history too' no account4 a1aitin) re=disco5ery and a1aitin) the ad5ent o% a reminder to man'ind> until4 the time 8ein) ripe4 there 1as 8orn %rom Ishmael:s seed4 amon) the Ara8s4 %rom the tri8e o% ?uraysh and the clan Hashim4 a essen)er o% "od4 the last Prophet o% Adam:s linea)e@ uhammad4 :the "lori%ied:7 That is one 1ay o% puttin) it7 Perhaps the 8est 1ay4 %or e3planations are al1ays second=8est compared 1ith the ima)inati5e ima)es they elucidate> and such ima)es are not to 8e dismissed as mere su89ecti5e %ancies7 The di5ine Ima)ination4 in 1hich all thin)s ha5e come into 8ein)4 8oth o5ershado1s and inspires the human ima)ination4 so lon) as it is recepti5e to inspiration> 8ut the manner in 1hich this tale is interpreted is a matter o% indi5idual 5ocation4 %or such tales contain a multitude o% meanin)s7 $hat emer)es most o85iously %rom this traditional account o% the %oundin) o% the !a:8a in ecca and the comin) o% uhammad is the sense o% continuity 1hich 8inds all sacred history to)ether and 1hich characteri<es e5ery mani%estation o% Islam7 It could not 8e other1ise7 The reli)ion o% unity and uni%ication must necessarily 8e the reli)ion o% continuity4 1hich allo1s no 8rea' 1ith the past and re%uses to allo1 time to disperse the interrelated elements o% the perennial Truth7 Had the messa)e o% the ?ur:an 8een somethin) entirely :ne1: it 1ould ha5e disrupted the pattern4 cut the thread o% continuity and cast dou8t upon the di5ine $isdom4 1hich is 8y its 5ery nature unchan)in)7 The ?ur:an itsel% con%irms this unam8i)uously@ :Nothin) is said unto thee D uhammadE other than 1hat 1as said to all the messen)ers 1ho preceded thee: A?7#1 7#3B7 Had "od chosen to contradict 1hat He had said in the past one mi)ht le)itimately as' 1hy He had

denied this )uidance to the people o% earlier times4 or 1hy He had 1aited so lon) to say 1hat needed to 8e said7 An important point o% contrast 8et1een the perspecti5es o% Christianity and Islam also emer)es %rom the story7 For Christians4 nothin) less than the sacri%icial death o% the "od=man Fesus could redeem Adam:s sin and restore the cosmic 8alance distur8ed 8y that sin7 In the Islamic 5ersion o% the Fall4 Adam 1as %or)i5en and his sin 8lotted out4 so that it counted %or nothin) Aalthou)h its conse;uences 1ere not4 as such4 a8olished> Adam 1as not restored to ParadiseB7 In the uslim 5ie14 1hat 1as re;uired o% Fesus4 as also o% uhammad4 1as not an act o% uni5ersal redemption 8ut simply the repetition4 in a %orm appropriate to these later times4 o% the a)e=old messa)e )i5en to Adam4 and man:s sin is there%ore primarily one o% %or)et%ulness7 I% 1e 1ere not 8y nature %or)et%ul4 and i% 1e 1ere not so readily inclined to idolatry Apre%errin) illusions to realityB4 there 1ould ha5e 8een no need %or either7 This is 1hy it is said that Islam is neither more nor less than a restoration o% the primordial reli)ion o% man'ind4 the :perennial philosophy:7 :He hath ordained %or you that reli)ion 1hich He en9oined upon Noah and 1hich $e ha5e re5ealed unto thee4 and 1hich $e en9oined upon A8raham and oses and Fesus4 so that you should ma'e %irm the reli)ion and not 8e di5ided therein: A?7#2713B7 This reli)ion4 this 1isdom4 is as much a part o% the total human situation as the 1inds and the tides and the earth itsel%7 A man has t1o eyes4 t1o ears and so on> and4 unless his heart is sic'4 he has = as man = this "od=)i5en 1isdom4 1hich is a part not merely o% his herita)e 8ut o% his nature7 E5en in those 1ho seem most i)norant4 most unenli)htened4 the pilot=li)ht still 8urns> 8ut %or this4 they 1ould not ;uali%y as human 8ein)s7 Islam ta'es its stand immo5a8ly upon the nature o% thin)s4 not as they mi)ht 8e 8ut as they are> in the %irst place4 upon the transcendent Reality 8eside 1hich e5ery other li)ht is dimmed4 and secondly4 upon the palpa8le A8ut contin)entB realities o% the 1orld and o% human e3perience7 Perhaps Napoleon 1as more uslim than mi)ht 8e supposed4 %or he said once@ : y master is the nature o% thin)s7: One o% the )reat 1ea'nesses o% contemporary Islam is the ea)erness 1hich 1hich uslims i)nore %acts and lose themsel5es in dreams4 contrary to the e3ample o% the Prophet4 1ho 1as a realist in e5ery possi8le sense o% the term7 Realism is 8y nature serene4 8ecause it cannot 8e surprised or disillusioned4 and it is in this spirit o% serenity that the uslim is re;uired to o8ser5e and endure the 5icissitudes o% time and history4 %orti%ied 8y a ;uality o% stillness and o% timelessness 1hich is at the heart o% his %aith7 E5erythin) around him mo5es and chan)es4 8ut he must remain rooted in stillness> and this is one reason 1hy uslims claim that all other reli)ions ha5e 8een4 in one 1ay or another4 corrupted and altered 8y the passa)e o% time4 1hereas Islam4 in accordance 1ith "od:s solemn promise4 remains and 1ill al1ays remain 1hat it is7 The %ollo1er o% Islam is re;uired to hold %ast to the human norm4 :%itrah:4 the di)nity and inte)rity o% the human creature as he issues %rom the hand o% "od@ :,o set thy %ace to1ard the reli)ion in upri)htness the :%itrah: o% Allah = in 1hich He hath created man: A?732732B7 It could e5en 8e said that the primary aim o% Islam is to persuade man to 8e truly man at e5ery le5el o% his 8ein)4 and 1oman to 8e

truly 1oman at e5ery le5el o% her 8ein)4 and to hold them 8ac' %rom the a8yss o% limitless multiplicity in 1hich = tossed to and %ro 8y the storms 1hich ra)e there = they ris' losin) 8oth di)nity and inte)rity and4 e5entually4 losin) themsel5es7 The per%ect uslim4 standin) upri)ht in the presence o% his a'er4 at once proud and su8missi5e4 %ree %rom all illusions and %rom any 8ias in dealin) 1ith his %ello1 men4 e3empli%ies :%itrah:7 He is 8oth per%ect master and per%ect ser5ant7 $ithin the planetary system o% monotheism Christianity 8ro'e the ritual %orms and sacred la1 o% Fudaism in %a5our o% spiritual %reedom and in1ardness7 A%ter this = as uslims see the matter = the di5ine purpose re;uired that the 8alance should 8e restored4 and that the last $ord should 8e spo'en in the %orm o% a synthesis or summin)=up7 It is %or this reason that Islam has to contain such rich di5ersity 1ithin its uni%ied structure4 as thou)h it 1ere a direct mani%estation o% the di5ine Name4 al=$asi A:the Jast: or :the Capacious:B4 preser5ed %rom %ra)mentation 8y three %actors@ the re5ealed 0a14 1hich )o5erns social 8eha5iour as it does the rites o% the Faith> the Pil)rima)e4 1hich dra1s all uslims to1ards the sacred House4 the !a:8a in ecca> and the 1ei)ht )i5en to the consensus o% opinion amon) pious and in%ormed 8elie5ers7 The 0a1 does not in5ade the pri5acy o% man:s in1ardness4 the relationship o% the human soul to "od4 nor is it concerned 1ith the 1ay in 1hich each indi5idual interprets the 8asic spiritual teachin)s o% the reli)ion Adeepenin) them in terms o% a truth that is 8oth out1ardly apparent and in1ardly realB4 pro5ided this does not e3press itsel% in 8eha5iour contrary to the interests o% the community4 8ut it pro5ides a %rame1or' o% social and psycholo)ical e;uili8rium 1ithin 1hich each indi5idual can %ollo1 his particular 5ocation7 Christianity operated4 as it 1ere4 %rom the opposite end o% the spectrum7 Ha5in) no ,hari:ah = no "od=)i5en 0a1 %or society = it concerned itsel% 1ith man:s in1ard relationship 1ith "od throu)h Fesus as intermediary> the out1ard 0a1 1as assem8led o5er the course o% time %rom the elements o% t1o 5ery di%%erent traditions4 the Fudaic and the Roman4 and in modern times it has readily adapted itsel% to the chan)in) currents o% secular opinion7 For the people o% Christ4 the in1ard landscape 1as mapped in detail 8y a rich and comple3 theolo)y> Islamic theolo)y4 on the other hand4 has ne5er 8een in a position to claim ma)isterial authority o5er the uslim:s spiritual li%e7 It may 8e used to illuminate points o% doctrine or it may 8e i)nored> a tool 1hich is4 %or the most part4 le%t on the 1or'8ench7 ,o %ar as his spiritual li%e is concerned4 the Christian depends upon his priest or upon the a88ot o% his monastery7 ,ince Islam has no priesthood and no monasticism4 the uslim is in1ardly alone 1ith "od4 %ace to %ace 1ith the a8solute Reality 1ithout meditation7 $hereas the Christian is %or e5er reachin) out to1ards the distant )oal 1ith a lon)in) that can 8e 8oth no8le and tra)ic4 the uslim does not see' to )o else1here = thou)h )reat e%%orts are demanded o% him i% he is to re=esta8lish 1ithin himsel% the human norm = %or all is here and all is no17 It is precisely in the li)ht o% this perspecti5e o% return to the norm and to essentials that Islam presents itsel% as the synthesis o% all that came 8e%ore7 The %inal 8ric' has 8een put in place in the )reat edi%ice o% di5ine Re5elation and4 %or this 5ery reason4 the uslim must e3pect his truth to 8e con%irmed in other reli)ions7

uhammad said@ :$isdom is the 8elie5er:s strayin) camel> he ta'es it %rom 1here5er he can %ind it and does not care %rom 1hat 5essel it has issued7: It is common enou)h %or occidental 1riters4 1hen considerin) the di%%erent %orms 1hich Islam has assumed amon) di%%erent peoples4 to say that it has %ailed to eradicate :pre=Islamic ideas:7 The reli)ion o% the ?ur:an did not come into this 1orld to eradicate such ideas4 unless they had 8een t1isted 8y human passions and %alsi%ied 8y human one=sidedness4 %or it is the heir to the spiritual treasures o% the past7 Nothin) true is alien to it7 any streams ha5e 8een a8sor8ed into this ri5er o5er the course o% time> it still %lo1s to1ards the sea7 :Truly $e ha5e sent messen)ers 8e%ore thee D uhammedE7 $e ha5e told thee concernin) some o% them> concernin) others $e ha5e not told theeC A?7#27+-B7 .nli'e Fudaism and Christianity4 says artin 0in)s4 Islam4 %rom :its stron)hold o% %inality as the last reli)ion o% this cycle o% time can a%%ord to 8e )enerous to other reli)ions7 oreo5er4 its position in the cycle con%ers on it somethin) o% the %unction o% a summer=up4 1hich o8li)es it to mention 1ith 9ustice 1hat has preceded it or at least to lea5e an open door %or 1hat it does not speci%ically mention>:D1E and in this conte3t 6r 0in)s ;uotes the %ollo1in) 5erse %rom the ?ur:an@ :Truly the 8elie5ers and the Fe1s and the ,a8ians and the Christians = 1hosoe5er 8elie5eth in "od and the 0ast 6ay and doeth deeds o% piety = no %ear shall come upon them neither shall they )rie5e: A?7(7*/B7 1 :$ith all thy ind:4 po8lished in ,tudies in Comparati5e Reli)ion A$inter4 1/+*B7

The pro%ound 8ond 1hich unites one particular reli)ion 1ith other "od=)i5en messa)es is4 in %act4 a clear si)n o% its orthodo3y in the most uni5ersal sense o% this term> and unless 1e possess a touchstone 8y 1hich to 9ud)e the orthodo3y o% the reli)ions4 1e ha5e no means o% passin) 9ud)ement on the %alse prophets and 5icious cults 1hich ha5e sur%aced in this century4 e3empli%ied 8y the late r Fones o% Fonesto1n in "uyana4 1ho led his %ollo1ers in an act o% mass suicide4 there8y demonstratin) = perhaps pro5identially = the true nature o% all such heresies7 &ut this 8asic orthodo3y is 8alanced Athou)h ne5er destroyedB 8y the di%%erences 8et1een one set o% out1ard %orms and doctrinal %ormulations and another7 A s;uare and a trian)le are ;uite di%%erent %i)ures4 8ut they may nonetheless 8e related to a sin)le )eometrical centre7 The comprehensi5eness o% the Faith as such cannot entirely o%%set a tendency to e3clusi5eness 1hich is inherent in human nature4 and the ;uestion is %re;uently as'ed 1hether uslims accept Christianity Aand the other traditional reli)ionsB as 1ays to :,al5ation: and mani%estations o% the Truth7 There is no simple ans1er to this7 Opinions ha5e di%%ered and still di%%er on this point and one sometimes hears it said that the adherents o% other %aiths escape condemnation only i% they ha5e ne5er had the opportunity to con5ert to Islam7 The %act that in practice Islam4 1hen it 1as dominant4 accepted 1ithout any di%%iculty the presence o% Fe1s and Christians in its midst is si)ni%icant4 8ut a num8er o% theolo)ians and 9urisprudents ha5e ta'en the 5ie1 that this %inal and conclusi5e re5elation o% the di5ine $ill entirely superseded all other re5elations and that there can 8e no 5alid e3cuse 8e%ore "od %or clin)in) to an earlier reli)ion7 They claim to %ind support in the

%ollo1in) ?ur:anic 5erse@ :$hosoe5er %ollo1s any other reli)ion than al=islam4 it shall not 8e accepted o% him4 and in the Herea%ter he shall 8e amon) the losers: A?737-(B7 ,ince the 1ord islam means :sel%=surrender Ato "odB:4 it is in this sense that most commentators and translators understand the 5erse4 ac'no1led)in) that the surrender o% heart and 1ill and mind to "od is a 8asic principle o% e5ery authentic reli)ion7 Accordin) to Kama'shari A12th century A6B the ?ur:an 8ears 1itness here as else1here to the transcendent unity o% all the re5ealed reli)ions 8ased upon 8elie% in One "od4 despite the di%%erences 8et1een them :in statutes and practices en9oined %or the 8ene%it o% the 5arious communities in accordance 1ith their conditions:7 There are ho1e5er many 8elie5ers4 1ithin the community o% Islam as in other communities4 1ho appear to deri5e pro%ound satis%action %rom the notion that they alone are on the ri)ht trac' and e5eryone else is astray7 The con5iction that theirs is the only true Faith4 nourished 8y the human tendency to e3clusi5eness4 %inds support in the %act that the di%%erent reli)ions must necessarily ha5e %irm outlines i% they are to 8e clearly distin)uished one %rom another7 The ordinary 8elie5er4 the :common man: in the community o% his Faith4 is li'ely to 8e con%used rather than enli)htened 1hen told that reli)ions other than his o1n are e%%ecti5e 1ays o% approach to "od7 This may seem to him to threaten his certainties and undermine the %oundations o% his happiness and security> and to undermine simple %aith4 e5en 1hen it seems to us 8oth narro1 and nai5e4 is indeed a )ra5e matter i% 1e ha5e nothin) to put in its place = nothin)4 that is4 that 1ould ma'e sense to the simple=minded7 In any case4 %aith 1ithout <eal is a poor thin) and 1e should pause 8e%ore distur8in) those 1hose <eal depends upon a narro1 perspecti5e7 In the e3traordinary conditions o% the late t1entieth century4 ho1e5er4 the pause should not 8e prolon)ed7 In earlier times reciprocal intolerance 8et1een4 %or e3ample4 uslims and Christians may ha5e ser5ed to preser5e the inte)rity o% di%%erent reli)ious :1orlds:4 each o% them spiritually sel%=su%%icient7D1E As the ?ur:an assures us4 it is in accordance 1ith the di5ine $ill that such di%%erent :1orlds: should co=e3ist 1ithin a sin)le humanity4 and it 1as natural enou)h that each should raise a protecti5e 1all around its territory to e3clude ideas 1hich did not accord 1ith its particular perspecti5e7 &ut in recent times the human situation has chan)ed so radically that there are those 1ho see in this trans%ormation a si)n that our time is nearin) its end and that the shado1 o% the 0ast Fud)ment4 at 1hich all the reli)ious communities 1ill stand 8e%ore the One "od4 has already %allen across the 1orld7 &e that as it may4 the reli)ions meet today in uneasy con%rontation and ;uestions 1hich did not arise in the past no1 %orce themsel5es upon us7 1 Needless to say our 8eside their o1n> 8ut4 shinin) directly a8o5e o8li;uely shinin) li)hts ancestors 1ere a1are o% the e3istence o% other reli)ions da<<led and penetrated as they 1ere 8y the )reat li)ht them4 the si)ht o% more remote and = %or them = more on the hori<ons could raise no positi5e interest nor did it

create pro8lems:7 artin 0in)s4 Ancient &elie%s and Paper8ac's= andala &oo's4 0ondon 1/-24 p7+27

odern ,uperstitions4 .n1in

These ;uestions can no lon)er 8e a5oided 8y the 8elie5er once he has encountered the adherents o% other Faiths4 and reli)ious e3clusi5eness = no lon)er protecti5e = 8ecomes a %actor o% 1ea'ness and 5ulnera8ility7 The uslim or the Christian 1ho has ha8itually re)arded all others as in%idels is compelled Aassumin) that he has a modicum o% intelli)enceB to as' himsel% 1hether he can continue to 8elie5e in a "od 1ho has apparently chosen to mislead the ma9ority o% His creatures throu)hout the a)es 8y permittin) them to %ollo1 %alse reli)ions and 1ho chooses to send them to hell %or 1orshippin) Him sincerely 8ut in the 1ron) 1ay7 Are 1e to suppose that He moc's sanctity 1hen it is achie5ed 8y methods other than our o1n and are prayers unheard unless A%rom the Christian point o% 5ie1B addressed to Him in the name o% Fesus or A%rom the uslim point o% 5ie1B 1ithin the %rame1or' o% the Islamic creedG To rest one:s %aith upon such suppositions is4 in the 1ords o% artin 0in)s4 :to thin' ill o% Pro5idence: and4 accordin) to I8n :Ara8i4 the common 8elie5er 1ho re%uses to ac'no1led)e the di5ine ,el%=mani%estation in reli)ions other than his o1n and reco)ni<es his 0ord only in the %orm 'no1n to his o1n reli)ion is )uilty o% sho1in) 8ad manners to1ards "od7 In %act4 as soon as these ;uestions are posed and their implications %ully percei5ed4 e3clusi5e %aith is under threat7 I% other men and 1omen o% )ood sense and )ood intent ha5e 8een so easily misled then = sooner or later = this 8elie5er as's himsel% 1hether he too mi)ht not 8e the 5ictim o% a )rand deception7 I% so many others 1ere and still are mista'en4 then it is a statistical pro8a8ility that he too is li5in) an illusion> at the end o% the day the doctrine in 1hose name all others 1ere condemned is itsel% %atally undermined7 :$hat is sauce %or the )oose is sauce %or the )ander:4 as the &ritish say7 O5er the past century this has 8een one o% the most potent %actors in the destruction o% reli)ious %aith in the $est7 The 8elie5er no1 %aces alternati5es to 1hich his ancestors 1ere ne5er e3posed7 Either all the reli)ions are %alse4 irreconcila8le %ictions de5ised 8y the human animal as a re%u)e %rom a meanin)less uni5erse and a li%e 1ithout purpose4 or else each is 5alid in its o1n 1ay and represents a particular perspecti5e in relation to a Truth 1hich cannot 8e %ully e3pressed in any sin)le %ormulation7 I% he is a8le to accept this second proposition4 despite the apparent contradictions 8et1een the Faiths4 then he %aces a %urther alternati5e7 On the one hand he may accept4 in a spirit o% humility4 the principle that the 1ays o% "od are 8eyond his rational understandin) 8ecause the In%inite escapes all %inite cate)ories7 In this conte3t the uslim is %ortunate in possessin) in the te3t o% the ?ur:an itsel% indications o% the uni5ersality o% the Truth 1hich transcends e5ery %ormulation7 :For each o% you $e ha5e appointed a di5ine 0a1 and a 1ay o% li%e7 Had Allah so 1illed He could ha5e made you one people> 8ut so that He mi)ht try you 8y that 1hich He hath 8esto1ed upon you AHe 1illed other1iseB7 There%ore compete in doin) )ood7 .nto Allah ye 1ill all return4 and He 1ill enli)hten you concernin) that

1herein ye di%%er:A?7(7#-B7 The uslim may then 1ait peace%ully %or this ultimate enli)htenment4 sure that his reli)ion 1ill pro5e to ha5e 8een the 8est o% all7 The Christian %aces more %ormida8le di%%iculties in ma'in) this act o% acceptance7 ,urely it is only throu)h Christ that 1e come to "odG He may ho1e5er %ind it possi8le to %ollo1 the e3ample o% a pre=Conciliar Pope 1ho 1as 8y no means reno1ned %or his ecumenicalism7 ,pea'in) to the dele)ate he 1as sendin) to 0i8ya some si3ty years a)o4 Pope Pius LI said@ :6o not thin' that you are )oin) amon) in%idels7 uslims attain to ,al5ation7 The 1ays o% "od are in%inite:7 On the other hand the 8elie5er may4 i% such is his 5ocation4 em8ar' upon the path o% metaphysics and o% intellectual intuition until he understands that :the "od o% the Faiths: Ato use I8n :Ara8i:s termB is not "od=as=such4 not the A8solute7 He 1ill see then that "od=as=such is 8eyond all de%initions = transcendin) e5ery concept and e5ery %orm = and there%ore 8eyond 1orship7 $e cannot pray to the utterly un'no1a8le7 For this 5ery reason He enters into the limitations 1hich the human 1orshipper imposes upon Him and allo1s Himsel% to 8e 'no1n and lo5ed as 1e are 8y nature inclined to 'no1 Him and lo5e Him7 He o1es us no less since it is He 1ho has )i5en us this nature4 imposed upon us these limitations and re5ealed Himsel% to us in a 5ariety o% mani%estations7 Once satis%ied that the di%%erent %orms are indeed 5eils assumed 8y the One Reality4 the 8elie5er can then return to his o1n reli)ious perspecti5e and %ollo14 1ith a %ree mind and a heart at ease4 the manner o% 1orship and the moral prescriptions 1hich relate to this perspecti5e7 Accordin) to the )reat mu9ahid Athe :1arrior in the path o% Allah:B4 the Emir A8du:l= ?adir4 :our "od and the "od o% all the communities opposed to ours are in truth One "od 777 despite the 5ariety o% His mani%estations 777 He has mani%ested Himsel% to uhammad:s people 8eyond e5ery %orm 1hile mani%estin) Himsel% in e5ery %orm 777 To Christians He has mani%ested Himsel% in the %orm o% Christ777 and to the 1orshippers o% 1hate5er %orm it may 8e 777 in the 5ery %orm o% this thin)> %or no 1orshipper o% a %inite o89ect 1orships it %or its o1n sa'e7 $hat he 1orships is the epiphany in this %orm o% the attri8utes o% the true "od 777 Het that 1hich all the 1orshippers 1orship is one and the same7 Their error consists only in the act o% determinin) it in a limitati5e manner:7D1E A8du:l=?adir %ou)ht the Christians 1ho in5aded his land4 Al)eria4 8ecause he 1as a uslim7 E3iled in 6amascus4 he protected the Christians a)ainst massacre 8y ta'in) them into his o1n home 8ecause he understood7 Those 1ho 1ould challen)e him or accuse him o% heresy should 8e prepared to %ace his s1ord and accept death %rom its 8lade since small men ris' their nec's 1hen they challen)e )reat ones7 1 ?uoted %rom a1;i% 23* in the a1a;i% o% A8du:l=?adir AFrench translation 8y Chod'ie1ic< pu8lished 8y Editions do ,euil4 Paris4 1/-2B7 7

No uslim denies or e5er could deny that the ?ur:an is the sacred )round in 1hich the doctrines and the practice o% his reli)ion are rooted 8ut 1hen this is ta'en to mean that only 1hat has 8een speci%ically spelled out in the ,cripture can 8e accepted as truly :Islamic: = all else 8ein) 8id:ah4 inno5ation = then the uni5ersality and comprehensi5eness to 1hich the ,cripture itsel% 8ears elo;uent 1itness is denied7 It is more in accordance 1ith the spirit o% Islam to say that 1hen the ?ur:an calls to mind certain ancient truths %ound in earlier traditions or in

mytholo)ies datin) %rom 8e%ore the da1n o% history or4 perhaps4 in metaphysical doctrines such as Neoplatonism4 then it has per%ormed one o% its essential %unctions as a :rope o% sal5ation: %or men and 1omen o% e5ery 'ind and o% e5ery persuasion7 It has reminded us o% a uni5ersal truth or o% an aspect o% the primordial truth as such = the :din ul=%itrah: = Adam:s truth7 It has reminded us also that "od did not decei5e the people o% earlier times nor did He lea5e them 1ithout )uidance7 The $ord o% "od4 pro9ected into human cate)ories and human lan)ua)e4 does not necessarily dot e5ery :i: and cross e5ery :t:4 nor does it e3empt us %rom spiritual4 intellectual and ima)inati5e e%%ort7 Those 1ho insist that no opinion is accepta8le unless supported 8y a rele5ant ;uotation %rom the ?ur:an Aor at least %rom an appro5ed hadithB thin' that they are protectin) the purity o% the Faith4 8ut they are in %act limitin) the uni5ersality o% Islam and4 in the lon) run4 reducin) it to the status o% one cult amon) others7 Ho1e5er un1illin) they may 8e to admit it4 they ha5e 8een deeply in%luenced 8y those 5ery :orientalists: 1hom they so %iercely condemn7 The idea that Islam4 in the course o% the centuries4 :8orro1ed: elements %rom other traditions4 there8y chan)in) its 1hole character4 ori)inated in the $est> and 1hat the orientalists really meant 1as that the reli)ion o% the ?ur:an 1as too :primiti5e: to ha5e )i5en rise to a )reat culture4 rich in art4 mysticism and philosophy7 Incredi8ly4 uslim puritans = or perhaps :purists: 1ould 8e a more appropriate term = ha5e accepted this idea uncritically and made it their o1n7 :Puri%y Islam %rom alien elements and all 1ill 8e 1ell: is an enticin)ly simple ans1er to the pro8lems o% the uslim 1orld4 e5en i% it means denyin) that reli)ion de5elops4 9ust as a plant de5elops the possi8ilities contained in its seed or tu8er7 And 8ecause illo)ical attitudes are seldom consistent4 the 5ery same people 1ho call %or the :puri%ication: o% the reli)ion %rom alien :superstitions: and %rom :un=Islamic practices: are ready enou)h to 8orro1 %rom occidental ideolo)ies4 s1allo1in) the ordures o% modernism 1ith a )ood appetite Ao%ten on the )rounds that Islam 1ould ha5e de5eloped alon) the same lines had it not 8een :corrupted:B and 1elcomin) secular and scienti%ic ideas 1hich are rooted in the denial o% "od4 characteri<ed 8y indi%%erence to the sacred and 8uilt upon the assumption that human li%e has no ultimate meanin)7 It is no coincidence that many so=called :%undamentalists: are attracted 8y political ideas 1hich ha5e their ori)in in ar3ism7 It is per%ectly le)itimate %or uslims to :8orro1: %rom other reli)ions 1hat is in %act already theirs 8y ri)ht = their :strayin) camel: = 8ut nothin) that has its roots in secularism and a)nosticism can 8e incorporated into Islam 1ithout poisonin) the 1hole system7 The sacred is one4 in that it re%lects the One in ine3hausti8le 5ariety> there is no dan)er o% corruption in admittin) that a particular truth inherent in the ?ur:an may ha5e 8een 1ell and e%%ecti5ely e3pressed in Christian theolo)y4 in the Fe1ish !a88alah or in Hindu Jedanta4 8ut this is anathema to uslim purists7 The tri5ialities o% $estern secular philosophy4 on the other hand4 are treated 1ith respect7 The ;uestion as to 1hat can or cannot 8e assimilated into Islam 1ithout dan)er 8oth to the Faith and the community presses hard upon uslims today and admits

o% no easy ans1ers7 It is not only a matter o% determinin) 1hether a particular idea or practice is halal Apermissi8leB or haram A%or8iddenB in the li)ht o% ?ur:an and hadith4 8ut also o% 9ud)in)4 8y means o% an in1ard touchstone4 1hether it accords 1ith the spirit = or climate = o% Islam4 and this spirit is more easily e3perienced than de%ined7 In ma'in) this 9ud)ement4 learned men 1ell 5ersed in the letter o% the 0a1 may )o astray4 1hile simple and uninstructed 8elie5ers4 relyin) upon an instincti5e sense o% 1hat is %ittin) and harmonious4 may pro5ide the ri)ht ans1ers7 Emile 6ermen)hem4 choosin) to li5e in an Islamic climate thou)h himsel% a Catholic4 cau)ht somethin) o% this spirit in a stri'in) passa)e 1ritten almost %orty years a)o7 Islam4 he 1rote4 o%%ers :the possi8ility o% real and e%%ecti5e li8erty and o% e;uili8rium 8et1een society and the indi5idual4 a sense o% 9ustice4 o% e;uality in 5ariety4 o% tolerance e5en in 1ar4 o% spiritual po5erty e5en 1ithin the most ostentatious cities4 o% di)nity e5en in 1retchedness4 o% rite and ritual purity4 o% the con5iction that nothin) matters 8eside the A8solute4 1ith the corollary that e5erythin) 1hich e3ists does so only 8y participation in the A8solute4 that is to say4 that e5erythin) is CpricelessC in the dou8le sense4 that all that happens is Cadora8leC Aas 0eon &loy saidB and that nothin) is o% any importance outside this participation in Reality:7D1E These are ;ualities the loss o% 1hich 1ould empty Islam o% its content e5en i% the letter o% the 0a1 1ere still strictly o8ser5ed7 1 :Temoi)na)e de l:Islam:4 pu8lished in 0es Cahiers du ,ud4 1/#+7 T1o particular sayin)s o% the Prophet are si)ni%icant in this conte3t7 :"od has created nothin) more no8le than intelli)ence4: he said4 :and His 1rath is on him 1ho despises it:> and here intelli)ence mi)ht 8e de%ined as the capacity to percei5e and assimilate the truth on e5ery le5el4 on the one hand distin)uishin) 8et1een the A8solute and the relati5e4 and on the other4 percei5in) that t1o and t1o ma'e %our7 He said also@ :"od is 8eauti%ul and He lo5es 8eauty7: This relates closely to the concept o% :%itrah:4 %or the human norm is one o% 8eauty o% spirit4 8eauty o% soul4 8eauty o% comportment and4 %inally4 the 8eauty o% those thin)s 1ith 1hich 1e choose to surround oursel5es = home4 dress4 utensils and so on7 An)er4 condemned4 in ?ur:an and hadith on moral )rounds4 is condemned also 8ecause it dis%i)ures the human countenance7 An u)ly 8uildin) is unIslamic4 ho1e5er %unctional it may 8e4 as is e5erythin) cheap and ta1dry7 The true and the 8eauti%ul4 there%ore4 8elon) to this %inal %aith in a 5ery special 1ay7D2E ,tupidity and u)liness ha5e no place in it7 2 Those 1ho ha5e o8ser5ed only the moralistic4 :puritanical: aspect o% Islam may dismiss this 5ie1 as untypical7 T1o remar's made to the author 8y uslims %rom opposite ends o% the educational spectrum su))est other1ise7 The %irst remar' 1as made 8y a mos;ue ser5ant4 an Al)erian 1ho had spent most o% his 1or'in) li%e at sea7 :$hy4: he as'ed4 :do learned people ar)ue so muchG Islam is simple7 Islam is to lo5e the 8eauti%ul thin)s in the 1orld7: The second 1as made 8y an E)yptian pro%essional man 1or'in) in 0ondon@ :,hall I tell you my concept o% "odG I can put it in one 1ord &eautyI I% I )o into a shop and see a %ine pair o% shoes4 per%ectly cra%ted4 I reali<e that they are 8eauti%ul 8ecause they are per%ect4 and that 8rin)s "od to mind7 His 8eauty is the 8eauty o% Per%ectionI:

Each o% them di%%erently shaped yet ser5in) the same purpose4 the reli)ions are ships 8uilt to carry a multitude across the tur8ulent seas o% e3istence4 in 1hich they 1ould other1ise dro1n7 &ut %or the di5ine mercy there 1ould ha5e 8een no such ships to support men 1ho had %or)otten ho1 to s1im7 :And a si)n %or them is that $e carried their seed in a laden ship4 and $e ha5e created %or them the li'e thereo% 1herein they tra5el4 and had $e so 1illed $e mi)ht ha5e dro1ned them4 1ith none to ans1er their cry4 nor are they sa5ed e3cept as a mercy %rom .s and en9oyment o% li%e %or a 1hile:A?73*7#1B7 The %rame1or' o% each ship is di5inely ordained to 8rin) the human person to a sa%e land%all4 dri5en 8y that same 1ind to 1hich Islam ascri8es creation itsel%4 the &reath Ana%asB o% the erci%ul7 &ut no ship is alone upon the 1aters> the oceans are 1ide and the hea5ens are 1ider still4 and those carried in the ship 1ill hear the 1hisper o% other messa)es and 1ind8orne %ra)ments o% other prayers4 1hich they 1ill understand Aor %ail to understandB accordin) to their )reatness o% heart7 Islam has 8een principally concerned 1ith the ships closest to it on the ocean4 the reli)ions descended = as it is itsel% = %rom the undi%%erentiated monotheism o% A8raham7 Precisely 8ecause these three %aiths Aunli'e4 %or e3ample4 Hinduism or &uddhismB e3press themsel5es in similar terminolo)y4 their di%%erences o% perspecti5e stand out 5ery clearly> and yet 1hat they ha5e in common out1ei)hs these di%%erences7 Fe1s4 1hen they come into contact 1ith in%ormed uslims4 are %re;uently astonished 8y the e3tent o% this common )round7 any aspects o% Islam 1hich seem alien to the Christian = such as the re5ealed 0a1 = present no pro8lem to the Fe14 1ho %inds in the ?ur:an many echoes o% his o1n %aith4 as he does in the uslim:s characteristic attitude to li%e7 As has o%ten 8een o8ser5ed4 the Torah = the Pentateuch = ne5er employs any He8re1 term correspondin) to the 1ord :reli)ion:4 since it does not reco)ni<e any separate compartment o% personal or pu8lic li%e 1hich could 8e descri8ed as :pro%ane:> i% reli)ion encompasses e5erythin)4 then the 1ord itsel% 8ecomes redundant4 and in Fudaism = as in Islam = all the normal and re)ular acts o% human li5in)4 do1n to the most :mundane:4 are sancti%ied7 Either there is a "od or there is not7 I% there is4 then it %ollo1s that nothin) can 8e 8eyond His dominion and His concern7 For the same reason4 there are many uslims 1ho o89ect to the translation o% the ?ur:anic term din as :reli)ion:4 pre%errin) :1ay o% li%e:4 1ith all the inclusi5eness that this phrase implies7 There is4 moreo5er4 the matter o% racial a%%inity7 The 1ord :,emitic: is a du8ious one4 since the 0e5ant = that part o% Asia 1hich 8orders the editerranean = has 8een a meltin)=pot o% races4 pro8a8ly to a )reater e3tent than any other part o% the 1orld> and as the Fe1s lay claim to a Palestinian ori)in they are o8li)ed to ac'no1led)e their close 'inship 1ith the Ara8ic=spea'in) people o% the 0e5ant7 It is hardly surprisin) that only a hundred years a)o the opponents in &ritain o% 6israeli:s Eastern Policy attac'ed the Prime inister on the )rounds that4 as a Fe14 he 1as 8ound to 8e pro= uslim Aand4 8y implication4 anti=ChristianB7 Fe1s held positions o% )reat eminence in the uslim 1orld o% the iddle A)es and 1ere

respected %or their inte)rity7 It is only recently4 under the impact o% Kionism4 that this sense o% 'inship has 8een destroyed7 The ?ur:an4 ho1e5er4 8lames the %ollo1ers o% Fudaism Ait must 8e emphasi<ed that 1e are spea'in)4 not o% a race4 hut o% the adherents o% a particular %aith4 many o% them = in the Prophet:s time = o% Ara8 ancestryB on t1o counts@ %irst4 that they 8etrayed the sacred mission entrusted to them and4 uni;uely pri5ile)ed as they 1ere 8y a 1ealth o% prophetic re5elation4 scorned many o% their prophets Aincludin) FesusB> secondly4 that they plotted a)ainst uhammad 1hen he had treated them 1ith trust and %riendship7 ,een throu)h a ;ui<<in) )lass o% one colour4 Islam has more in common 1ith Fudaism than 1ith Christianity> seen throu)h a )lass di%%erently tinted4 the situation is re5ersed4 and it is 1ith the %ollo1ers o% Fesus that uslims appear to ha5e the closest a%%inity7 :Thou 1ilt %ind the stron)est o% man'ind in enmity to the 8elie5ers to 8e the Fe1s 777: says the ?ur:an> :and thou 1ilt %ind the closest in a%%ection to the 8elie5ers Dto 8eE those 1ho say@ &eholdI $e are Christians7 This is 8ecause there are amon) them priests and mon's4 and 8ecause they are not arro)ant7 For 1hen they reco)ni<e the truth o% 1hat has 8een re5ealed to this messen)er4 thou seest their eyes o5er%lo1 1ith tears:A?7(7-2=-3B7 Here4 ;uite apart %rom the applications o% this passa)e to e5ents in the time o% the Prophet4 the pride and hypocrisy o% the scri8es and the Pharisees is contrasted 1ith the de5otion and sel%=sacri%ice o% priests and mon's4 dedicated to the 1orship o% "od> and their sin o% shir' Aascri8in) di5inity to FesusB is miti)ated4 accordin) to uhammad Asad4 8y the %act that it :is not 8ased on conscious intent4 8ut rather %lo1s %rom their Co5ersteppin) the 8ounds o% truthC in their 5eneration o% Fesus:7D1E His ;uotation is %rom a 5erse in the precedin) sura@ :O People o% the &oo'4 do not o5erstep the 8ounds Do% truthE in your reli)ious 8elie%s4 and do not say o% Allah anythin) 8ut the truth7 Christ Fesus4 son o% ary4 1as 8ut a messen)er o% Allah and His $ord4 8esto1ed on ary4 and a spirit proceedin) %rom Him> so 8elie5e in Allah and His messa)es 777:A?7#71+1B7 Fesus and his Jir)in other are4 accordin) to the ?ur:an4 a si)n or sym8ol o% di5ine )race4 and the Prophet said that all men and 1omen 1ere mar'ed at 8irth 8y the de5il:s cla14 e3cept %or these t1o alone7 One o% the sternest reproaches made 8y Islam a)ainst the Fe1s is %or their calumnies a)ainst ary7 :Allah has chosen thee4: the An)el o% the Annunciation told her4 :and e3empted thee %rom all stain7 Thou are the pre%erred amon)st 1omen: A?737#2B> and she is a reminder to man'ind o% the di5ine mercy and 8ounty7 Accordin) to the ?ur:an4 Kachariah4 1hene5er he came to see' her in the prayer=niche o% the Temple4 %ound her supplied 1ith %ood Athe sym8ol o% ine3hausti8le spiritual nourishmentB7 He 1ould as' her then@ :O ary4 1hence came this unto theeG: and she 1ould reply@ :It is %rom Allah> truly Allah )i5eth 8eyond measure to 1hom He 1ill:A?7373+B7 This 5erse is %re;uently inscri8ed a8o5e the prayer=niches in mos;ues4 and the arian messa)e A:Allah )i5eth 8eyond measure to 1hom He 1ill:B occurs a num8er o% times in the ?ur:an4 indicatin) an o5er%lo1in) )enerosity to 1hich no human limits can 8e set7 The incompara8le 0ady 1ho presides o5er 1hat mi)ht 8e called the %eminine aspect o% Islam is also the lin' 8et1een Islam and Christianity7

1 The

essa)e o% the ?ur:an4 p7 1*24 note /+7

In 6ermen)hem:s 5ie14 1hen the ?ur:an mentions the Incarnation and the Trinity4 1hat it really condemns is not so much these do)mas in themsel5es as their heretical interpretation@ it 8lames onophysitism4 Eutychianism4 Collyridism and other more or less a8errant %orms o% Christianity rather than the orthodo3 idea7D1E This is perhaps an o5ersimpli%ication4 8ut 1hen uslims and Christians are at lo))erheads o5er the doctrine o% the Incarnation Apro8a8ly the sin)le most unaccepta8le dement in Christianity as uslims see itB one sometimes 1onders 1hether they are ar)uin) a8out anythin) more than the meanin) o% 1ords7 Christians themsel5es ha5e interpreted this do)ma in many di%%erent 1ays4 and these are re)ions o% conceptuali<ation and discourse in 1hich e5erythin) depends upon ho1 one understands a particular term7 The t1o reli)ions dre1 %urther apart in the course o% time as they de5eloped in accordance 1ith their o1n inherent lo)ic> 8ut4 as Hichem 69ait has pointed out4 one o% the historical e%%ects o% the rise o% Islam 1as the triumph o% $estern Christianity o5er Eastern Christianity7 In the time o% the Prophet4 Christianity 1as primarily a reli)ion o% the Near East4 e3empli%ied today 8y the Coptic and aronite Churches7 Eastern Christianity4 ho1e5er4 8ecame politically su89ect to Islam4 and it 1as the :8ar8arians: o% the $est 1ho 1ere to carry the torch and )i5e the reli)ion its 0atin Aand later "ermanicB colourin)7 The 8itter ar)uments 1hich too' place re)ardin) the doctrines o% the Trinity and the Incarnation 1ere to some e3tent4 accordin) to ont)omery $att4 disputes 8et1een "ree'=spea'in) Christians and oriental Christians 1ho spo'e ,yriac4 Armenian or Coptic7 :The %ormulations that 1ere e5entually accepted as orthodo34: says ont)omery $att4 :represented a compromise 8et1een the "ree'=spea'in) and the 0atin=spea'in)> it pro5ed impossi8le to %ind %ormulations 1hich 1ould satis%y the orientals as 1ell4 and they 1ere there%ore e3cluded %rom the Church as heretics7:D2E 1 The 0i%e o% ahomet4 p711l7 2 Islam and the Inte)ration o% ,ociety4 $7 ont)omery $att4 p7 2*-7 It 1as this e3clusion 1hich led the oriental Christians to 1elcome their uslim con;uerors as li8erators4 and they 1ere indeed li8erated %rom persecution at the hands o% their %ello1 Christians7 This had %ar=reachin) historical conse;uences7 From Ale3ander:s con;uest o% Persia in 332 &C until the comin) o% Islam4 the 0e5ant4 to)ether 1ith E)ypt and North A%rica as a 1hole4 had 8een part o% the $estern 1orld4 and as a pro5ince o% the Roman Empire4 it 1as inte)rated into a political4 economic and cultural pattern 1hich also included &ritain and "aul7 Islam inherited the "raeco=Roman culture o% the area4 and it 1as not until the uslim capital 1as trans%erred %rom 6amascus to &a)hdad that the di5idin) curtain %inally descended 8et1een East and $est7 From then on it 1as the di%%erences 8et1een these t1o %aiths 1hich 1ere emphasi<ed = or4 in the case o% the Christian polemicists4 e3a))erated = and opportunities %or %ruit%ul contact diminished7 It is these di%%erences4 to)ether 1ith

those 8et1een Islam and Fudaism4 1hich chie%ly concern us here4 in so %ar as they ser5e to clari%y the particular characteristics o% each reli)ion and to dra1 in 8road stro'es the )eometrical %i)ures = s;uare4 circle4 trian)le = 8y 1hich each mi)ht 8e represented4 1ithout losin) si)ht o% the %act that their common centre is the di5ine .nity4 the One "od4 and their common ori)in the %aith o% the patriarch A8raham7 In the uslim 5ie14 Fudaism :nationali<ed: monotheism4 claimin) it %or one people alone4 1hile in Christianity the person o% Fesus as it 1ere eclipsed the "odhead4 as the sun is eclipsed 8y the moon> or a)ain4 Fudaism sta8ili<ed this monotheism4 )i5in) it a home and an army4 8ut at the same time con%iscated it> Christianity uni5ersali<ed the truth4 8ut diluted it> Islam closed the circle and restored the purity o% the %aith o% A8raham4 )i5in) to oses and to Fesus positions o% pre= eminence in its uni5erse and sei<in) upon the ;uintessential nature o% monotheism4 sin)le=minded 1orship o% the One4 and upon the re%lection o% the di5ine .nity in personal and social e;uili8rium = a 8alance 8et1een all contrary %orces and 8et1een the di%%erent le5els o% human e3perience7 I8n Taymiyyah Ad7 A6 #32-B maintained that Islam com8ined the osaic la1 o% 9ustice 1ith the Christian la1 o% )race4 ta'in) a middle 1ay 8et1een the se5erity o% Fudaism and the mercy o% Fesus> and he said that 1hile oses had proclaimed "od:s a9esty and Fesus His "oodness4 uhammad proclaimed His Per%ection7 In the same conte3t4 it is said that Fesus re5ealed 1hat oses had 'ept hidden4 the secrets o% the di5ine ercy and the richness o% the di5ine 0o5e4 and that Islam %inally 8rou)ht e5erythin) into perspecti5e in the li)ht o% total Truth7 It has 8een said also that Fudaism is the reli)ion o% Prophecy4 Christianity the reli)ion o% a Person4 and Islam the reli)ion o% "od> in the 1ords o% assi)non4 Israelis rooted in hope4 Christianity is 5o1ed to charity4 and Islam is centred upon %aith7 The latter is4 o% course4 a Christian 5ie1 o% this triune di5ersity> uslims 1ould say that the Fe1s con%ined the true %aith to a sin)le people and the Christians limited it a sin)le mani%estation4 1hereas Islam proclaims that it cannot 8e limited or possessed in any 1ay4 or e3hausted 8y any historical mani%estation7 At the 5ery heart o% Islam lies an almost ruthless determination not to impose human standards = or the cate)ories o% human thou)ht = upon "od or to con%ine Him 1ithin any de%inition7 &y the same to'en4 human li'es and disli'es can ha5e no rele5ance to the o89ecti5e truth4 and the idea that 1e4 His creatures4 mi)ht 9ud)e "od in terms o% our o1n interests seems4 to the uslim4 a monstrous presumption7 $hat uslims re9ect in Christianity is the 1ay in 1hich "od appears to su%%er in the process o% history4 there8y ceasin) to 8e totally independent and 1holly sel%=su%%icient4 as the ?ur:an descri8es Him4 unin5ol5ed in the re%lections o% His po1er and 8ene5olence 1hich shine throu)h e5ery %ra)ment o% His creation7 As uslims see it4 Christians ha5e 8een so possessed and o5er1helmed 8y the splendour o% their prophet4 Fesus4 as to compromise the di5ine transcendence> and in their culti5ation o% personal piety4 they ha5e allo1ed human society to slip a1ay %rom ri)hteousness4 lea5in) the conduct o% 1orldly a%%airs to secular %orces indi%%erent to the priority d% the eternal norms7 It had 8ecome necessary to redeem the situation4 not 8ecause there 1ere shortcomin)s in the messa)e 8rou)ht 8y Fesus Aor in the messa)e 8rou)ht 8y osesB4 8ut 8ecause o% 1hat men had made o% these re5elations in the course o% time and the manner in 1hich the 8alance

characteristic o% e5ery di5ine messa)e had 8een distur8ed7 A %inal and unam8i)uous statement o% the truth 1as there%ore added to 1hat had )one 8e%ore4 deli5ered 8y a messen)er o% "od 1ho 1ould interpret it and li5e it 1ith unde5iatin) precision7 oreo5er4 the community shaped 8y this di5ine inter5ention 1as to preser5e the messa)e 1ith scrupulous care and to carry it to the ends o% the earth4 1ithout any possi8ility o% error or distortion7 It is %or this reason that uslims ha5e so pro%ound a horror o% anythin) that sa5ours o% 8id:ah4 :inno5ation:4 includin) 1hat modern Christians 1ould re)ard as necessary adaptations o% reli)ion to the chan)in) times7 an:s %unction in the scheme o% thin)s4 his destiny and his duties4 ha5e 8een declared 1ith unprecedented clarity> since all that needed sayin) has 8een said4 there can ne5er a)ain 8e any need %or a :reminder: to man'ind7 I% men and 1omen %all once more into %or)et%ulness4 or i% they a)ain distort the "od=)i5en truth4 then there can 8e no hope %or them7 It is not al1ays easy %or Christians to )rasp or li5e 1ith the seemin)ly :a8stract: truth 1hich lies at the heart o% monotheism7 The miraculous comin) o% Fesus and the su8limity o% the e3ample 1hich he sets da<<le them4 so that truth itsel% 8ecomes personal rather than o89ecti5e7 In Islam4 "od does not Himsel% descend into the human matri3 or con5ert 8y miracles7 He ma'es 'no1n 1hat He is and 1hat He 1ishes4 and this lea5es at least some part o% the tas' o% :redemption: = 1hich4 %or the Christian4 %alls 1ith an all 8ut crushin) 1ei)ht upon Fesus = to man as the 5icere)ent and earthly representati5e o% "od7 Islam ta'es man as he is and4 on that 8asis4 teaches him his duties and )uides him to his )oal7 It is a8le to do so 8ecause it re9ects the Christian do)ma that human nature is corrupted in its 5ery su8stance7 an is 1ea'4 %oolish and %or)et%ul4 8ut his centre is uncorrupt and he does not need a miracle to sa5e him7 Christianity4 on the other hand4 locates the core o% sin and de5iation in the heart o% e5ery man and 1oman 8orn> moreo5er the natural 1orld as a 1hole is seen to ha5e participated in the Fall4 each lea% and each %lo1er stained 8y the primal sin> a 5ie1 1hich4 in a seculari<ed 1orld4 has made possi8le the 8rutal e3ploitation o% nature to satis%y human appetites7 $e are told in the 8oo' o% 6euteronomy that :the 0ord thy "od is a consumin) %ire:4 and this element in the Fudaic re5elation li5es on in Christianity throu)h the Old Testament7 The %ire o% lo5e and the %ire o% sacri%ice li;ue%y the hardened heart4 and the Christian see's 1armth e5en as the uslim see's space4 the :open:7 I% 1e associate %ire 1ith Christianity it is possi8le to summon up the ima)e o% sno1 in connection 1ith Islam4 althou)h = %or o85ious reasons = the ?ur:an does not mention this particular :si)n o% "od:> Islam has somethin) o% the ;uality o% a 5ast4 pure 8lan'et o% sno1 1hich co5ers e5en u)ly and unseemly o89ects 1ith its cool luminescence7 Coolness and so8riety relate to the same reli)ious perspecti5e7 Con5ersion to Christianity4 says Frith9o% ,chuon4 :seems in certain respects li'e the 8e)innin) o% a )reat lo5e 1hich ma'es all a man:s past li%e loo' 5ain and tri5ial = it is a Cre8irthC a%ter a CdeathC> con5ersion to Islam is4 on the contrary4 li'e an a1a'enin) %rom an unhappy lo5e or li'e so8riety a%ter drun'enness4 or a)ain li'e the %reshness o% mornin) a%ter a trou8led ni)ht7 In Christianity the soul is C%ree<in) to deathC in its con)enital e)oism4 and Christ is the central %ire 1hich 1arms and restores it to li%e> in Islam4 on the other hand4 the soul is Csu%%ocatin)C in the

constriction o% this same e)oism4 and Islam appears as the cool immensity M o% space 1hich allo1s it to C8reatheC and Ce3pandC to1ards the 8oundless:7D1E 1 "nosis@ 6i5ine $isdom4 F7 ,chuon Fohn urray4 0ondon4 1/(+B p71(7

In all such comparisons 8et1een the reli)ions 1hat concerns us is not do)matic theolo)y 8ut di%%erences in :climate:4 di%%erences 1hich a%%ect not only 1ays o% thou)ht 8ut also ima)ination and sensi8ility7 The rays o% the sun 1hich4 in the southern deserts4 'ill men and 8easts are %iltered in northern latitudes to create not only a di%%erent climate 8ut also a di%%erent landscape7 The %act remains that there is 8ut one sun in our planetary system7 T8e circumstances o% human li%e present us on e5ery side 1ith alternati5es and 1ith the necessity %or ma'in) a choice 8et1een them7 $e cannot 8e in t1o places at once or adopt t1o ;uite di%%erent perspecti5es simultaneously4 e5en i% 8oth seem e;ually desira8le> this is the most o85ious reason %or the complete impossi8ility o% creatin) some 'ind o% uni5ersal reli)ion out o% the :8est elements: o% each7 It is in the 1ay the di%%erent reli)ions see the ma9or %orces and episodes o% human li%e that they pro5ide the most illuminatin) clues to their essential character4 and it is in their attitudes to human se3uality that their perspecti5es are de%ined 1ith particular clarity7 This is especially so 1hen 1e contrast Islam 1ith Christianity4 and no other aspect o% their lon)4 endurin) con%rontation has )i5en rise to more persistent misunderstandin)s7 .ntil the :permissi5eness: o% recent years in%iltrated the churches Are5ersin) the situation4 in so %ar as uslims no1 reproach Christians %or the la3ity o% their se3ual moralsB4 nothin) in Islam horri%ied = and %ascinated = Christians more than 1hat 1as seen as the :licensed sensuality: o% the uslim> uhammad 1as condemned as much %or 8ein) a :5oluptuary: as %or 8ein) a :%alse prophet:7 E5en to this day4 9o'es a8out the :harem: are )ood %or a sni))er> and in response to the Christian polemic4 uslim apolo)ists ha5e )one to a8surd len)ths4 tryin) to su))est4 in tones o% coy puritanism4 that the Prophet himsel% made lo5e to his 1i5es only %rom a sense o% duty7 Attempts ha5e 8een made to classi%y the reli)ions o% the 1orld 8y distin)uishin) 8et1een those that are :li%e=a%%irmin): and those that are :li%e=denyin):7 This has led to )ross o5er=simpli%ications4 8ut it may 8e one 1ay o% e3pressin) the am8i)uity characteristic o% creation as a 1hole and indeed o% all that is = or appears to 8e = :other=than="od:7 On the one hand the 1orld is a di5ine creation4 a creation 1hich4 accordin) to "enesis4 "od %ound to 8e :)ood:> and Islam teaches that creation %lo1s %rom the di5ine ercy4 to 1hich all its 9oys and all its 8eauties 8ear elo;uent 1itness7 On the other hand4 this 1orld is mar'ed 8y separation %rom its source> its :%issures: = death4 su%%erin) and the disappointment o% human hopes = mar' only too pain%ully the e3tent o% this separation7 It is so close to nothin)ness = to the 8lac'ness o% the 5oid = that e5erythin) in it is ephemeral4 emer)in) 8rie%ly out o% the .nseen and disappearin) into it once a)ain7 In other 1ords4 creation as such is 8oth centri%u)al and centripetal7 Throu)h it "od pro9ects out1ardly and 8rin)s 8ac' in1ardly4 so that the 1orld may 8e seen either

as a road 1hich leads a1ay %rom the li)ht o% hea5en or4 ;uite literally4 as a ,hari:ah4 a road 8ac'> or it may 8e seen as 8oth at once7 There are many ?ur:anic passa)es 1hich spea' o% ho1 "od 8oth :misleads: and :)uides: His creatures4 and it is as thou)h the )reat 1ind o% creation carries the indi5idual essences out to the ed)e o% the a8yss and then4 pro5ided they ha5e not cut themsel5es o%% completely and %or)otten their ori)in4 the ma)netism o% the di5ine Centre dra1s them 8ac' a)ain7 It has 8een said4 and not only 8y uslims4 that e5erythin) in the 1orld = e5ery o89ect4 e5ery ener)y4 e5ery e5ent = has t1o %aces4 the one li)ht and the other dar'> the one turned to1ards "od and insepara8ly related to its ori)in4 the other turned to1ards nothin)ness and %atally condemned to disinte)ration> the one transparent4 the other opa;ue7 Al= "ha<<ali Ad7 A6 1111B said that e5erythin) has :a %ace o% its o1n and a %ace o% its 0ord> in respect o% its o1n %ace it is nothin)ness4 and in respect o% the %ace o% its 0ord it is &ein):7 &oth %aces e3ist@ the 1hole ;uestion is to 1hich o% them 1e attach oursel5es7D1E 1 This point4 1hich is one o% the essential 'eys to understandin) the human situation4 1as per%ectly e3pressed 8y Rumi in his athna1i7 E5ery e3istent Dthin)E that has emer)ed %rom non=e3istence is poison %or one person and su)ar %or another:A 7 (7#23*B> and4 Each and e5ery part o% the 1orld is a snare %or the %ool and a means o% deli5erance %or the 1ise:A 7*7#2-+B7 Traditional Christianity4 8ecause it posits man:s corruption throu)h ori)inal sin4 must assume that his natural inclination 1ill 8e to choose the dar' %ace7 Islam4 8ein) realistic4 cannot ta'e an entirely opposite point o% 5ie14 8ut it 8ases its perspecti5e on the assumption that4 ri)htly )uided and controlled4 man is capa8le o% choosin) the li)ht one and o% percei5in)4 throu)h phenomena4 the Face o% "od7 The am8i)uity o% creation is crystalli<ed in the %eminine and in se3uality as such7 It is here that the contrast 8et1een the :transparency: o% phenomena and their :opa;ueness: is most si)ni%icant7 For Islam it is the ;uality o% transparency that ta'es precedence4 since all thin)s are4 accordin) to the ?ur:an4 :si)ns o% "od:> they sho1 Him4 they e3press Him4 and throu)h them He can 8e %ound7 Christianity does not deny this transparency in principle4 8ut it dou8ts 1hether human 8ein)s are capa8le o% pro%itin) %rom it and tends to re)ard phenomena = and particularly se3uality = as temptations7 It is important to 8e clear a8out this di%%erence4 neither e3a))eratin) it nor underratin) it7 Islam disappro5es o% casual promiscuity as does Christianity> 8ut the uslim ta'es it %or )ranted that 1hen a man sees a 8eauti%ul 1oman he 1ill desire physical union 1ith her4 and that 1hen a 1oman sees a man 1ho appeals to her she 1ill 8e dra1n to him4 and this mutual desire is seen as %lo1in) directly %rom the nature o% thin)s as 1illed 8y "od7 It is in itsel% an un;uali%ied )ood4 ho1e5er much it may need to 8e hed)ed a8out 1ith restrictions7 This di%%erence o% perspecti5e may 8e illustrated 8y t1o ;uotations7 The %irst is %rom ,t Thomas A;uinas4 1ho said that marria)e 8ecomes :more holy sine carnale commi3ione:4 in other 1ords 1hen se3ual desire is a8sent> and althou)h in traditional Christianity4 se3ual intercourse is permitted %or the sa'e o% procreation4

this permission is )ranted4 as it 1ere4 1ith re)ret4 and se3ual intercourse %or its o1n sa'e is condemned7 The second ;uotation is %rom I8n :Ara8i4 the ,panish mystic and philosopher sometimes 'no1n as the ,hay'h al=A'8ar4 the :)reatest o% spiritual masters:7 :The most intense and per%ect contemplation o% "od4: he said4 :is throu)h 1omen4 and the most intense union is the con9u)al act7: I% 1e come to the present day4 Pope Fohn Paul II has spo'en o% the e5ils o% :lust: e5en 1ithin marria)e4 1hereas a contemporary uslim 1riter remar's in passin)@ :On the marria)e ni)ht 1hen t1o people come to)ether Allah %or)i5es them all their pre5ious sins4 so much does He li'e marria)e7: The Prophet said that marria)e is :hal% the reli)ion:4 and he astonished his companions 8y tellin) them that there is a re1ard in hea5en %or e5ery act o% intercourse 8et1een a man and his 1i%e> he said on another occasion@ :$hen a hus8and and 1i%e hold each other 8y the hand4 their sins pass out throu)h their %in)er tips 777777 Nothin) shoc's Christians more than the tales A1hether apocryphal or not is irrele5antB o% the Prophet:s se3ual potency7 :$e used to say4: reported his companion Anas4 :that the Prophet 1as endo1ed 1ith the potency o% thirty men7: At least amon) simple uslims4 una%%ected 8y the em8arrassment o% modern academics4 this hadith only increases the %orce o% the di5ine essa)e and the presti)e o% the messen)er7 No less shoc'in) to the Christian are the ?ur:anic re%erences to the 1ide=eyed maidens o% Paradise4 o% 1hom it is said Ain the traditionsB that 1ere one o% them to let do1n her scar% upon the 1orld4 the 1hole earth 1ould 8e per%umed7 Ho1 can this 8e reconciled 1ith Fesus:s statement that there is no marryin) or )i5in) in marria)e in hea5enG It is a ;uestion4 surely4 o% 1hat mi)ht 8e descri8ed as di5ine e3pediency@ since people 1ill al1ays 8e inclined to ta'e ima)es o% Paradise in too narro1 and too earthly a sense4 they must 8e told that :it is not li'e that at all:> 8ut since nothin) that is )ood or 8eauti%ul or dear to us on earth can 8e a8sent %rom Paradise4 1e may ta'e these as %oretastes o% hea5enly 9oy4 1hile tryin) to understand ho1 inade;uate such ima)es are7 Christianity emphasi<es their inade;uacy> the ?ur:an4 on the other hand4 :spea's in terms o% the pleasure o% the senses4 8ecause these direct pleasures are in %act the earthly pro9ections or shado1s o% the Paradisal archetypes 1hich it is see'in) to con5ey7 Ha5in) their roots in these archetypes4 the sensations ha5e po1er to recall them4 %or the CtetherC 1hich attaches the sym8ol to its reality not only traces the path 8y 1hich the sym8ol came into e3istence 8ut can 8ecome4 in the opposite direction4 a 5i8ratin) chord o% spiritual remem8rance:> and 1hile remindin) the soul that Paradise is intensely desira8le4 these descriptions ser5e also :to re=endo1 li%e on earth 1ith a lost dimension:7D2E 1 ercy Oceans4 ,h7 Na<im ?i8risi4 p7 1#+7 2 $hat is ,u%ismG4 N .n1in4 0ondon 1/+(B p7((7 artin 0in)s4 AAllen

Here a)ain 1e encounter the am8i)uity inherent in our e3perience4 the %act that the sym8ol represents an other1ise indescri8a8le and un'no1a8le reality4 and the %act that it is not4 in itsel%4 the reality in ;uestion7 The thin)s o% this 1orld are 8oth shado1y ima)es o% hea5enly thin)s and at the same time %alse and misleadin)4 in

so %ar as they are thou)ht to ha5e any independent reality7 E3pediency determines 1hich o% these opposite points o% 5ie1 should 8e adopted in a )i5en conte3t7 One reason 1hy I8n :Ara8i chose to emphasi<e the importance o% se3ual union is that4 %or the uslim4 nothin) o% such po1er and intensity could come %rom any1here other than %rom "od7 Not only is it amon) the )reatest o% His )i%ts4 8ut it is also a ra5ishin) a1ay o% all that 1e are in our petty e5eryday sel5es> an ima)e4 there%ore4 o% that ra5ishin) 8y the ,pirit 1hich is the )oal o% reli)ion7 Christianity sees %irst and %oremost the 8indin) ;uality o% this e3perience4 as it does the 8indin) ;uality o% all earthly 8eauty Acondemned4 as such 8eauty is4 to corruption as soon as it has cau)ht our %ancyB7 Islam re)ards its carnal and ephemeral character as no more than a 5eil4 and 8y insistin) upon the :)reater a8lution: = 1ashin) %rom head to toe = a%ter intercourse4 chose a means o% 1ashin) a1ay 1hat is earthly and mortal in the act4 lea5in) 8ehind all that sa5ours o% the eternal &eauty7 It is e5ident4 in any case4 that the 8eauty o% a human 8ody is a radiance that has %allen upon this poor %lesh %rom else1here4 and a1areness o% this radiance is itsel% a %orm o% contemplati5ity7 In certain e3treme se3ual per5ersions one may o8ser5e a desperate e%%ort to )rasp and possess 1hat can ne5er 8e )rasped or possessed7 Islam concerns itsel% 1ith the :transparency: o% phenomena4 that is to say it see's to %ind their Creator throu)h them> the Christian tendency4 as ,chuon has said4 is to :rend the 5eil: upon 1hich phenomena are 1o5en4 castin) it aside in order to reach the li)ht 8ehind7 $e do not need to 8eat our heads a)ainst a 1all or to ar)ue %rom set positions as to 1hich point o% 5ie1 is :ri)ht: and 1hich is :1ron):> 8oth correspond to the realities o% human li%e and to our situation 1ithin the matri3 o% reality7 It is si)ni%icant that in the &i8lical account o% the Fall4 E5e 1as the instrument o% Adam:s trans)ression4 and 1oman as :temptress: is central to the occidental ima)ination7 This element plays no part in the ?ur:anic account o% the Fall4 in 1hich it is :I8lis: = the satanic %orce = 1ho alone 8rin)s do1n the %irst couple7 Christianity 1as o8li)ed 8y its :mytholo)y: to adopt a stern and suspicious attitude to 1omen as :5essels o% 1rath:4 and it is per%ectly lo)ical that Christians should 8e said to :%all: throu)h their se3uality4 and that on the popular le5el se3ual humour mer)es readily into the scatolo)ical7 It is as thou)h the Christian and his secular heirs e3perienced their mortality most acutely throu)h their se3ual nature4 and they %ind it incomprehensi8le that a uslim ascetic 1ho eats the minimum to 'eep 8ody and soul to)ether4 1ho spends hal% his ni)hts in prayer and 5i)il4 denies himsel% e5en le)itimate pleasures and is4 so %ar as the 1orld is concerned4 :li'e a dead man 1al'in):4 should none the less marry = and perhaps marry more than one 1i%e7 The occidental4 1hether 8elie5er or un8elie5er4 %eels that celi8acy 1ould 8e more in accordance 1ith such a 5ocation7 The uslim4 on the other hand4 re9oices that this holy person has not remo5ed himsel% %rom the human community 8ut ta'es pains to %ollo1 in the %ootsteps o% the Prophet7 There is a %urther cultural %actor 1hich conditions the Christian Aand post= ChristianB 5ie1 o% human se3uality7 Christianity 1as o8li)ed4 in terms o% its 1hole perspecti5e4 to react a)ainst the naturalism o% the classical 1orld 1hich it 1as

destined to trans%orm4 a naturalism that had lost its sacred character and 8ecome tri5ial and pro%ane7 Occidental man re)ards nature4 i% not as an enemy4 at least as somethin) to 8e con;uered and dominated7 He cannot appro5e o% 8ein) su89ected to the la1s aad re;uirements o% the natural 1orld4 1hether 8eyond him or 1ithin himsel%> la1s and re;uirements 1hich4 %or the uslim4 are di5ine in ori)in and sacred in character7 The Christian and his heirs hold moral heroism in hi)h esteem and sometimes see ad5anta)es in 8ein) surrounded 8y temptations4 1hich o%%er an opportunity %or e3ercisin) control and discipline o5er their natural instincts7 The uslim is inclined to 8elie5e that man has somethin) more important to do than en)a)e in a 1restlin) match 1ith temptation4 1hich he sees as a distraction %rom his principal 8usiness4 the constant a1areness o% "od7 ,ince he also 8elie5es 1hat the ?ur:an tells him a8out human 1ea'ness4 he thin's it unli'ely that men and 1omen 1ill resist temptation 1hen it is o%%ered and there%ore ta'es measures to remo5e occasions %or temptation4 hence the rules concernin) the se)re)ation o% the se3es and %eminine dress7 It is e5en ta'en %or )ranted in some communities that i% a man and a 1oman are le%t to)ether in pri5acy %or a short time4 they are as sure to come to)ether as are iron %ilin)s 8rou)ht close to a ma)net7 Not %or nothin) has "od created the t1o se3es and inspired in them a passion to unite4 and this is a cause %or 1onder rather than %or reproach7 Accordin) to certain authorities4 1hen the Prophet accidentally sa1 Kaina8 Ahis %reedman:s 1i%e4 1hom he himsel% later marriedB in a state o% disarray4 he e3claimed@ :Praise 8e to Allah 1ho trans%orms our hearts and does 1ith them as He pleasesI: It is precisely 8ecause Islam )oes so %ar in acceptin) the natural instincts4 and in sancti%yin) them4 that it is o8li)ed to :dra1 the line: so %irmly and to punish 1ith such se5erity departures %rom the norm and e3cursions 8eyond the limits esta8lished 8y the reli)ious 0a17 The re;uirements o% social and psycholo)ical e;uili8rium4 the need to protect 1omen and the security o% children are the moti5es that determine this 0a14 and4 since the 1hole social structure is anchored in the %amily4 its in%rin)ements threaten society as a 1hole and are punished accordin)ly7 As a ci5ili<ation and a :1ay o% li%e: Islam stands or %alls in terms o% the delicate 8alance maintained 8et1een order and li8erty4 as also 8et1een society and the indi5idual7 Amon) the orientalists some ha5e descri8ed Islam as :indi5idualistic:4 1hile others ha5e seen it as :collecti5ist:7 It is 8oth7 ,tandin) shoulder to shoulder in strai)ht lines in the communal prayer4 the uslims %orm a sin)le 8loc'4 an indi5isi8le army o% "od in 1hich the indi5idual is mer)ed into the sacred community> and yet one man prayin) alone in the desert4 isolated %rom all others4 represents in himsel% the %ullness o% the community and e3ercises the di5ine authority on earth> the rest mi)ht ha5e died4 yet Islam is present 1here he is present7 The same may 8e said o% those 1ho %ollo1 the e3ample o% the Prophet in risin) to pray in the still hours o% the ni)ht> the 1orld sleeps4 8ut the .mmah is a1a'e and stands 8e%ore its 0ord7 E5en in the midst o% the community4 the indi5idual reco)ni<es no ultimate authority4 spiritual or temporal4 8ut that o% "od4 1hich is one reason 1hy the ?ur:an tells us that i% 1e 'ill a sin)le man un9ustly it is as thou)h 1e had :'illed all man'ind:A?7(732B7

In this4 as in all the particular characteristics and points o% emphasis 1hich distin)uish Islam %rom other reli)ions4 the essential con%ession o% %aith = la ilaha illa :0hah = determines e5ery element in an inte)rated pattern4 and the principle o% .nity is re%lected in the sin)le indi5idual4 complete in himsel% and con%ormin) to the human norm4 as it is in the community united in prayer and in o8edience to the 0a17 Chapter 3 TR.TH AN6 ERCH To those 1ho %ind it di%%icult to 8elie5e in any deity4 let alone a multitude o% )ods4 and 1ho thin' o% idolatry as a primiti5e cult = as remote %rom rational people as canni8alism = the Credo o% Islam4 :I 8ear 1itness that la ilaha illa :0hah: = :There is no di5inity 8ut "od: = seems meanin)less4 particularly i% they are una1are that the 1hole ?ur:an could 8e descri8ed as a commentary on these %our 1ords4 or as an ampli%ication o% them7 Het 8oth Fe1s and Christians ha5e4 in their o1n tradition = the Torah or Pentateuch = a compara8le statement7 ,pea'in) to oses %rom the 8urnin) 8ush4 "od descri8es Himsel% in these 1ords@ :I am That I am:7D1E Perhaps this too is meanin)less to many o% those 1hose ,cripture is the &i8le> they as' to 8e told 1hat :That: is4 althou)h :That: is = 8y de%inition = 8eyond all de%initions7 1 Eheyeh asher eheyeh: AE3odus III7 1#B7 The %irst ,hahada = 1itnessin) to the di5ine .nity = is the %ountainhead o% all Islamic doctrine4 as it is o% all uslim practice7 :No di5inity 8ut "od: indicates that nothin) is a8solute 8eside the sole A8solute> nothin) is entirely real other than that Reality 1hich is One and indi5isi8le> %or ho1 could thin)s 1hich come and )o in time = li'e pictures %lashed 8rie%ly upon a screen4 here today and )one tomorro1 = 8e considered :real: in the %ull sense o% the termG It %ollo1s that nothin) 1hich e3ists4 1hether %or millennia or %or a %raction o% a second4 does so e3cept 8y participation in the One or4 to use a di%%erent ima)ery4 8y the 1ill o% "od4 1ho :says unto a thin) C&eIC and it is7: $hen its time comes4 the peopled earth 1ith all its ornaments disappears li'e a pu%% o% smo'e@ :e5erythin) thereon perishes e3cept the Face o% thy 0ord o% a9esty and &ounty:A?7((72+B7 0a ilaha illa :0lah@ "od is4 He is 8ecause He is4 ha5in) no cause7 :,ay@ He is Allah4 One4 the Totally ,el%=,u%%icient .ncaused Cause4 He 8e)ets not neither is He 8e)otten4 and there is no thin) that is li'e unto Him:A?71 12B7 It %ollo1s also that there is no po1er 8ut the Po1er4 no lo5e 8ut the 0o5e4 no mercy 8ut the ercy4 no helper 8ut the Helper> and4 on the dar'er side o% human e3perience4 there is no slayer 8ut the ,layer4 and no a5en)er 8ut the A5en)er> and it %ollo1s4 a)ain4 that He alone upli%ts and He alone casts do1n4 )i5es prosperity or 1ithdra1s it4 ma'es happy or ma'es sad7 He alone is the A)ent and He alone is the Cause7 0et a thousand men come a)ainst me4 armed to the teeth4 they cannot touch me unless He so 1ills7 0et my enemies plot till they s1eat 5enom4 they are impotent unless He 1ills other1ise7 The ,hahadah distin)uishes 8et1een other=than="od and "od Himsel%4 and it 8rin)s the %ormer = all that appears to 8e :other: = 8ac' to its ori)in and its true identity7 Per%ect incompara8ility means that nothin) can 8e set 8eside the Incompara8le7 Accordin) to a hadith ;udsi Aone o% the directly inspired sayin)s o%

the ProphetB4 :Allah 1as4 and there 1as nothin) 8eside Him:> to 1hich :Ali is said to ha5e added@ :And He is no1 e5en as He e5er 1as7 &ut this e3treme remoteness Atan<ihB implies or contains its complement7 ,ince nothin) can 8e opposed to the One = %or it 1ould then 8e a :di5inity: in its o1n ri)ht = e5ery contin)ent reality must 8e a re%lection o% the one Reality4 and e5ery meanin) 1e mi)ht )i5e to the 1ord :di5inity: is transposed :in di5inis:7 Islam means su8mission to the One and4 as the ?ur:an tells us4 there is nothin) that does not su8mit4 :1illin)ly or un1illin)ly4: at e5ery moment = as also in its ori)in and in its end = to the "od other than 1hom there is nothin)> no thin)4 no 8ein)4 no li)ht4 no 1ord4 no 8reath7 :,ay@ $ho pro5ides %or you %rom the hea5ens and %rom the earth> 1ho is the o1ner o% hearin) and o% si)ht 777G:A?71O731B7 $e cannot spea'> He spea's7 $e cannot see> He sees7 $e cannot hear> He hears7 $e cannot taste> He tastes7 $e cannot en9oy apart %rom Him4 %or 9oy is His alone7 He lends us these po1ers4 throu)h his mercy4 8ut their root remains in Him7 To ;uote one o% uhammad:s %a5ourite ?ur:anic sayin)s@ 0a ha1la 1a la ;u1ata illa 8i :0lah4 :there is no stren)th and no po1er e3cept 1ith Allah:7 "od is sometimes descri8ed as al=&ayyin4 translated as the E5ident4 the Apparent> 8ut such tepid 1ords cannot con5ey the %orce o% meanin) inherent in the 1ord7 To a man in the desert the sun is more than simply :apparent:> it is 8la<in)ly and undenia8ly present4 and he cannot escape it> such is the actuality o% the 6i5ine %or the uslim7 Frith9o% ,chuon spea's o% the nomads :scorched 8y the e5er present and e5er eternal 6i5ine ,un:7 :In the %ace o% this ,un4 man is nothin)@ that the Caliph :.mar should con;uer a part o% the ancient 1orld or that the Prophet should mil' his )oat amounts to more or less the same thin)> that is to say4 there is no Chuman )reatnessC in the pro%ane and Titanes;ue sense4 and thus no humanism to )i5e rise to 5ain )lories> the only )reatness admitted is the lastin) one o% sanctity4 and this 8elon)s to "od7:D1E There can 8e no mystery a8out somethin) so o5er1helmin)ly clear7D2E In the climate o% Islam one mi)ht reasona8ly say@ :"od is plain and e5ident7 I am o8scure and hard to discern7: ystery lies in the shado1s and in all the am8i)uities o% the human 1orld4 am8i)uities inherent in relati5ity precisely 8ecause it is relati5e4 not a8solute7 It may happen that the lon)er a man li5es the more a1are he 8ecomes o% the comple3ities o% human su89ecti5ity4 and o% the encounters 8et1een human su89ecti5ities4 until he turns a1ay %rom sortin) out such tan)led s'eins to see' and %ace that 1hich is alone clear and unam8i)uous7 1 6imensions o% Islam4 Frith9o% ,chuon4 p7*/7 2 Accordin) to the Persian poet ahmud ,ha8istari@ the A8solute is so na'edly apparent to man:s si)ht that it is not 5isi8le7: The ,hahadah may 8e analysed in 5arious 1ays4 al1ays 1ith the o89ect o% impressin) it the more deeply upon our minds and our hearts7 It can4 %or e3ample4 8e di5ided into t1o parts4 a denial and an a%%irmation@ :No di5inity: relates to the 1orld and reduces it to nothin)ness4 in so %ar as it is separated = or en5isa)ed as separated = %rom its source> :i% not Allah: relates to Truth4 and ha5in) said :No: to a 1orld Aor an e)oB 1hich presumes to set itsel% up as a little )od4 the ,hahadah

says :Hes: 1ithin this same %rame1or' and restores the 1orld Aor e)oB to an e3istence 1hich is ;uali%ied 8y its total dependence upon the One7 A)ain4 the %ormula may 8e considered 1ord 8y 1ord4 and this too helps M us to assimilate its meanin)7 0a> :No:4 1hen spo'en 8y an Ara8 has an almost e3plosi5e %orce4 and here it is the e3plosi5e ne)ati5e 1hich destroys all illusions4 shatterin) multiplicity as a sel%=su%%icient uni5erse o% o89ects and sel%hoods7 E5erythin) in our e3perience can 8e treated = and4 at one time or another4 is treated = as thou)h it had a separate e3istence4 as thou)h it 1ere a :di5inity: in competition 1ith Allah4 and the 1ord ilaha there%ore stands %or anythin) and e5erythin) that is so treated7 The third 1ord o% the %ormula4 illa4 is a contraction o% in la A:i% not:B> it is sometimes called the :isthmus: A8ar<a'hB 8et1een ne)ation and a%%irmation = the lin' = and 8eyond this stands the true Reality4 Allah> and all that has 8een denied is restored to its true identity in "od7 There is no end to the 1ays in 1hich these 1ords may 8e illuminated4 8ut a particularly stri'in) one is in terms o% li)ht> %or accordin) to the ?ur:an4 :Allah is the 0i)ht o% the hea5ens and the earth4: and Islamic doctrine accounts %or the e3istence o% 1hat appears separated %rom Him in terms o% the :5eilin): o% that li)ht 8y 5eils 8eyond num8er7 Accordin) to this teachin)4 la represents the 5eils in so %ar as they conceal the li)ht4 8ein) entirely opa;ue> ilaha is the re%lection o% the li)ht4 separated %rom its source> illa indicates the transparent 5eil 1hich communicates the li)ht4 and Allah is 0i)ht as such7 The 'no1led)e that la ilaha illa :0lah4 thou)h )i5en out1ardly throu)h re5elation as a :reminder:4 can 8e re)arded as inherent in the deepest layer o% human nature> 8ut harsh measures may 8e re;uired to 8rin) it into consciousness7 :Oh the 6ay 1hen the deniers are e3posed to the Fire they 1ill 8e as'edE@ Is not this realG They 1ill say@ Hea4 8y our 0ordI:A?7#*73#B7 This is the encounter 1ith Reality in the manner to 1hich 1e are predisposed 8y our nature = and destined throu)h our actions = to encounter it7 Face to %ace 1ith Reality in its most compellin) mani%estation4 the :denier: is una5oida8ly a :8elie5er:4 and he says@ :Hea4 8y our 0ordI:D1E Only in dreams can the 0ord 8e denied4 only throu)h sel%=deception can Reality 8e entirely 5eiled7 :As %or the deniers4 their actions are li'e a mira)e in a desert7 The thirsty one ta'eth it %or 1ater4 till he cometh to it and %indeth it nothin)4 and %indeth in its place Allah4 1ho payeth him his due777:A?72#73/B7 :$heresoe5er thou turnest4 there is the Face o% Allah: A?72711(B7 On e5ery hori<on4 at the end o% e5ery road and in e5ery secret cham8er4 there is the Face4 inescapa8le in its omnipresence> and 1e ha5e to 8e care%ul that the road 1e ta'e leads to the Face o% ercy and not to that o% $rath7 1 $hen the screens4 1ith their innumera8le pictures and patterns Atheir landscapes4 e5ents and peopleB4 are torn a1ay 8y the termination o% a 1orld or o% an indi5idual e3istence4 then there is 8ut one possi8le cry@ :Can ye see yoursel5es 1hen 777 the Hour cometh upon you4 cryin) unto other than AllahG777 Nay4 8ut unto Him ye 1ill cry 777 For)otten 1ill 8e all that ye A%ormerlyB associated 1ith Him:A?7JI7#2=1B7

That 1hich4 %or the philosopher4 is Reality or the A8solute is4 %or the ordinary man or 1oman immersed in their e5eryday 8usiness4 po1er7 It is as :po1er: that 1e encounter Reality in our normal e3perience> and it is in the lan)ua)e o% normal e3perience that the ?uran spea's to man'ind7 The ,hahadah is not only doctrine4 it is also practice = or the 'ey to practice7 Its truth is somethin) to 8e assimilated and li5ed4 1hich is 1hy4 1hen 1e spea' o% the Islamic Credo4 1e are spea'in)4 not o% an a8straction4 8ut o% the 1ay in 1hich men and 1omen order their 1hole li5es4 their 1a'in) and their sleepin)4 their 1or' and their rest4 the 1ords they use in spea'in) to one another and the )estures they ma'e in lo5in) one another4 the plantin) o% a seedlin) and the reapin) o% a crop4 the turnin) on o% a tap %rom 1hich 1ater %lo1s and its turnin) o%%4 and the li%e and the death o% all creatures7 To understand ho1 decisi5e this %ormula is one must o8ser5e the place it occupies in the li%e o% the ordinary uslim4 1ho 1ill pronounce these 1ords in e5ery crisis and at e5ery moment 1hen the 1orld threatens to o5er1helm him4 as he 1ill 1hen death approaches7 A pious man4 sei<ed 8y ra)e4 1ill appear suddenly to ha5e 8een stopped in his trac's as he remem8ers the ,hahadah and4 as it 1ere4 1ithdra1s4 puttin) a )reat distance 8et1een himsel% and his tur8ulent emotions7 A 1oman cryin) out in child8irth 1ill as suddenly %all silent4 remem8erin)> and a student4 8o1ed an3iously o5er his des' in an e3amination hall4 1ill raise his head and spea' these 1ords4 and a 8arely audi8le si)h o% relie% passes throu)h the 1hole assem8ly7 This is the ultimate ans1er to all ;uestions7D1E 1 A %riend o% the author:s4 dn5in) 1ith his 1i%e and t1o small children in a remote and seemin)ly uninha8ited part o% East A%rica4 s1er5ed into a ditch7 All e%%orts to start the car ha5in) %ailed4 he stood aside and e3claimed@ la ilaha illa :0lah7 Immediately a num8er o% uslim 5illa)ers4 1ho had 8een 1atchin) in concealment4 emer)ed %rom the 8ush4 ri)hted the car and then entertained the %amily 1ith the 8est that their mea)re resources could pro5ide7 It %ollo1s that there can 8e no )ra5er sin %or the uslim than shir'4 the :association: o% other :)ods: 1ith "od> in other 1ords4 idolatry or polytheism7 :Indeed Allah %or)i5eth not that a partner should 8e ascri8ed unto Him7 He %or)i5eth Dall elseE e3cept that to 1hom He pleaseth777: A?7#7#-B7 Idolatry and polytheism are seen4 not as simple errors a8out the nature o% reality4 8ut as the %inal sta)e o% a process o% corruption or dissocation in 1hich the human 1ill plays a ma9or role7 No1 that nai5e theories concernin) the :e5olution: o% reli)ion4 current in the last century4 ha5e 8een put to sleep4 it is )enerally reco)ni<ed that polytheism arises 1hen di5ine :ener)ies:4 ori)inally seen as aspects o% the one supreme 6eity4 ta'e on a li%e o% their o1n and are 1orshipped as thou)h they 1ere independent entities7 The moti5es 8ehind this process can al1ays 8e attri8uted to 1orldliness in one %orm or another> and this scenario may 8e o8ser5ed in the reli)ion o% ancient "reece4 in A%rican tri8al reli)ion and in :popular: Hinduism7 The ?ur:an 8ears 1itness to 9ust such a de5elopment amon) the Ara8s4 8e%ore the ad5ent o% Islam as a :reminder: o% 1hat they had chosen to %or)et7 They 1ere not una1are o% Allah4 8ut they had ascri8ed to Him :sons: and :dau)hters: = and sundry partners =

con5enient4 com%orta8le and ser5icea8le deities 1ho 1ere easy to deal 1ith and made no demands on their adherents7 Idolatry is4 in essence4 the 1orship o% sym8ols %or their o1n sa'e4 1hether these ta'e the %orm o% )ra5en ima)es or su8sist only in the human ima)ination7 :In the CclassicalC and CtraditionalC cases o% pa)anism4: says Frith9o% ,chuon4 :the loss o% the %ull truth and o% e%%icacity %or sal5ation essentially results %rom a pro%ound modi%ication in the mentality o% the 1orshippers and not %rom an ultimate %alsity o% the sym8ols 777 A mentality once contemplati5e and so in possession o% a sense o% the metaphysical transparency o% %orms had ended 8y 8ecomin) passional4 1orldly and4 in the strict sense4 superstitious7 The sym8ol throu)h 1hich the reality sym8oli<ed 1as ori)inally clearly percei5ed 777 8ecame in %act an opa;ue and uncomprehended ima)e or an idol 777:D1E The eccans o% uhammad:s time had4 ho1e5er4 ta'en a %urther step on the do1n1ard slope 1hich leads %rom the 1orship o% uncomprehended sym8ols to the 1orship o% man=made dolls and toys4 idols 1hich represent nothin) Ali'e si)nposts pointin) no1hereB7 The uslim:s %ierce suspicion o% anythin) that sa5ours e5en remotely o% idolatry = as4 %or e3ample4 the sculptin) o% human or animal %i)ures = may 8e attri8uted to the %act that 1hen human 8ein)s ha5e lost the capacity to :see throu)h: ima)es o% the 6i5inity4 percei5in) 1hat lies 8ehind them4 and see them only as material o89ects4 then it is 8ut a short step to treatin) any and e5ery material o89ect as thou)h it 1ere sel%=e3istent and 1orshippin) it %or its o1n sa'e7 Polytheism and idolatry mi)ht 8e descri8ed as institutionali<ed shir'4 8ut shir' can also ta'e more su8tle and more uni5ersal %orms7 It is not di%%icult to see that the modern scientist4 not as an o8ser5er and recorder 8ut as a theorist4 is a mushri' Aone 1ho is )uilty o% :association:B4 since he re)ards the %orces o% nature and all causati5e a)encies as independent po1ers rather than as the instruments o% a sin)le omnipotent $ill7 ,o is the man 1ho sets his heart upon some 1orldly pri<e = po1er or 1ealth4 %or e3ample = in %or)et%ulness o% the only pri<e 1orth see'in)4 and so too is anyone 1ho 1ants to possess some o89ect %or its o1n sa'e more than he 1ants to please "od> %rom this point o% 5ie1 e5ery act o% diso8edience to the di5ine commands has the smell o% shir' a8out it and 1e are all4 in one 1ay or another4 )uilty7 :I% Allah 1ere to ta'e man'ind to tas' %or the ill they do Don earthE He 1ould not lea5e upon it a li5in) creature> yet He )rants them respite %or an appointed time777:A?71*7*1B7 It is usual to add to the ,hahadah the 1ords la shari'a lahu4 :no partner hath He4: and there are a million di%%erent 1ays in 1hich = 1hether in thou)ht or action = 1e can ascri8e partners to the One 1ho has no partners7 $ere it not %or the inter5ention o% the di5ine mercy and the o5er%lo1in) o% the di5ine %or)i5eness none 1ould escape the trial 8y %ire4 oreo5er4 the ultimate :%alse )od:4 the shado1y presence 8ehind all others4 is the human e)o 1ith its pretensions to sel%=su%%iciency7 1 .nderstandio) Islam4 Frith9o% ,chuon4 p7 ,,7 ,ome1here alon) the road 1hich leads %rom li)ht to dar'ness4 shir' mer)es into 'u%r4 the denial o% "od4 atheismD2E or a)nosticism7 The 1ord 'a%ir is usually translated as :un8elie5er: or :in%idel:4 1hich 1ill ser5e so lon) as one reco)ni<es in

this term an acti5e4 5oluntary element> a corruption o% the 1ill as much as o% the intellect7 uhammad Asad translates it as :one 1ho denies the truth:4 and the %act that :un8elie%: is somethin) much more than a simple intellectual ina8ility to accept a )i5en proposition is clear %rom the root meanin) o% the 1ord7 A 'a%ir is :one 1ho co5ers:4 as a %armer co5ers A'a%araB the seed he has so1n 1ith earth4 or as the ni)ht :co5ers: the 5isi8le 1orld in dar'ness7 :In their a8stract sense4 says Asad4 :8oth the 5er8 and the nouns deri5ed %rom it ha5e a connotation o% Cconcealin)C somethin) that e3ists or Cdenyin)C somethin) that is true7 Hence4 in the usa)e o% the ?uran 777 a 'a%ir is Cone 1ho deniesC Aor Cre%uses to ac'no1led)eCB truth in the 1idest spiritual sense o% this latter term> that is4 irrespecti5e o% 1hether it relates to a co)nition o% supreme truth = namely the e3istence o% "od or to a doctrine or ordinance enunciated in the di5ine $rit4 or to a sel%=e5ident moral proposition4 or to ac'no1led)ment o%4 and there%ore )ratitude %or4 %a5ours recei5ed7:D1E 2 Atheism as an acti5e :anti=%aith: is rare in the $est = a la<y indi%%erence to reli)ion is more common = 8ut it is the o%%icial creed o% the ,o5iet .nion4 and it arouses in the uslims su89ected to its impact a seerin) contempt7 :To the uslims a real atheist is not deemed to 8e a romantic re8el or a superior philosophical %ree=thin'er4 8ut a su8human o% limited intellect 777 de)raded to the le5el o% 8estiality4 i% not 8elo17: The Islamic Threat to the ,o5iet ,tate4 Ale3andre &enni)sen and arie &ro3up ACroom Helm4 1/-3B7 1 The essa)e o% the ?ur:an4 uhammad Asad4 p7 /2+4 note #7 This should in %act 8e o85ious as soon as one reco)ni<es that the truths in ;uestion are inherent in human nature4 thou)h :%or)otten:4 as the ?ur:an asserts a)ain and a)ain7 It is not a matter o% 8ein) una8le to accept somethin) 1e are told4 8ut rather o% re%usin) %rom sel%=interested moti5es to admit somethin) 1e already 'no17 The act o% concealin) somethin)4 e5en %rom onesel%4 is an act o% the 1ill7 The demerit o% un8elie%4 says Frith9o% ,chuon4 :lies in the passionate sti%%enin) o% the 1ill and in the 1orldly tendencies 1hich 8rin) a8out this sti%%enin)7 The merit o% %aith is %idelity to the supernaturally natural recepti5ity o% primordial man> it means remainin) as "od made us and remainin) at his disposition 777:D2E $hat is commonly called :realism: is closely related to this sti%%enin) and this 1orldliness4 8ecause 8elie% in the total and sel%=su%%icient reality o% this 1orld is 1hat persuades us to pile thin)s4 o89ects and dreams upon the in1ardly 'no1n and out1ardly re5ealed truth7 2 0o)ic and Transcendence4 Frith9o% ,chuon4 p7 2227 :Nay4 8ut 1hat they ha5e done is rust upon their hearts7 Nay4 8ut truly on that 6ay they 1ill 8e co5ered %rom Dthe mercyE o% their 0ord:A?7-371#O1(B7 Here a)ain the %actor o% 1il%ulness is emphasi<ed4 8ut this time 1hat concerns us is not a sin)le and de%initi5e act o% denial4 8ut rather the cumulati5e e%%ect o% a 1hole series o% small actions 1hich carry 1ith them an implied denial o% "od> the sinner has in e%%ect 8eha5ed as thou)h "od did not e3ist and as thou)h he 1ere %ree to act e3actly as he pleased4 that is to say as a little )od in his o1n ri)ht7 And i%4 as the ,u%is say4 the di5ine mercy is present as an ine3hausti8le sprin) in the heart o%

e5ery human 8ein)4 then he may 8e said to ha5e co5ered o5er this immanent mercy and isolated himsel% %rom it7 The practical distinction 8et1een 8elie5er and un8elie5er Aor :denier:B is ine5ita8ly simplistic7 It is immensely important as an indication o% a man:s primary orientation = the direction in 1hich he %aces spontaneously as a result o% 1hat he is and all that he has done = 8ut it ta'es no account o% the am8i)uities and inconsistencies o% human nature4 or o% the ;uestion mar' 1hich has to 8e placed a%ter e5ery 9ud)ement 1e ma'e concernin) our %ello1 men and 1omen> nor does it allo1 %or our incapacity to see oursel5es as others see us and the correspondin) incapacity o% others to see into our hearts and assess our deepest moti5es7 People are not al1ays 1hat they say they are = or e5en 1hat they thin' they are7 There is 8ut One 1ho sees us o89ecti5ely4 and 1e ha5e reason to 8e than'%ul that He is called the erci%ul4 the Compassionate4 the For)i5in)7 E5ery man and 1oman is in1ardly a city in 1hich there are many %actions4 one )ainin) the upper hand today4 another tomorro17 The only people in 1hom this 1ar%are o% the %actions is appeased are4 on the one hand4 the saints4 those 1holly inte)rated 8ein)s 1ho ha5e 8rou)ht all such contrary %orces under the control o% the hi)hest principle4 and on the other4 those 1ho ha5e surrendered entirely to the most po1er%ul and 8rutal %action in their ma'e=up and so en9oy an illusion o% peace 1orse than any 1ar%are7 &et1een these t1o e3tremes lies a 8attle%ield7 The %act that there are many people 1ho li5e ;uiet li5es o% routine4 loo'in) neither to ri)ht nor to le%t4 neither up1ards to1ards the hea5ens nor do1n1ards into the a8yss4 is misleadin)4 %or there are %orces lur'in) 1ithin e5eryone 1hich may remain dormant so lon) as no )reat pri<e is 1ithin reach or so lon) as no )reat dan)er threatens7 $hen a man turns to reli)ion these %orces are a1a'ened4 1hether %or )ood or ill4 and = i% %or ill = may try to sei<e hold o% it and use it %or their o1n purposes7 No e)o is more in%lated than the one 1hich %eeds upon reli)ion and 9usti%ies its )reed and its %ury in reli)ious terms> it can e5en happen that the inhi8itions 1hich restrain murderous impulses in those 1ho li5e only %or this 1orld are released 1hen the opportunity arises to murder in the name o% "od7 Those 1ho see' Paradise 1al' a ti)htrope o5er hell> the )reater the pri<e4 the )reater the ris'7 &ut li)ht is li)ht> 8y its 5ery nature it sho1s up thin)s 1e mi)ht pre%er to 'eep hidden> it re5eals and e3poses4 as does that Fud)ement to 1hich 1e must all %inally su8mit7 The a)nostic has a 5ery curious notion o% reli)ion7 He is con5inced that a man 1ho says :I 8elie5e in "od: should at once 8ecome per%ect> i% this does not happen4 then the 8elie5er must 8e a %raud and a hypocrite7 He thin's that adherence to a reli)ion is the end o% the road4 1hereas it is in %act only the 8e)innin) o% a 5ery lon) and sometimes 5ery rou)h road7 He loo's %or consistency in reli)ious people4 ho1e5er a1are he may 8e o% the inconsistencies in himsel%7 The %act that 1e do e3pect consistency o% others = and are astonished 8y their lac' o% it = is su%%icient proo% o% our a1areness that the human personality ou)ht to 8e uni%ied under one command7 Perhaps the most di%%icult o% all the re;uirements o%

reli)ion is simplicity4 %or the simple man is all o% one piece> he does not lea5e 8its o% himsel% scattered all o5er the landscape o% his li%e7 He is4 so to spea'4 the same all throu)h4 1hiche5er 1ay you slice him4 and it has 8een said that only the saint has a ri)ht to say :I:> the rest o% us 1ould do 8etter to con%ess : y name is le)ion:7 This in1ard multiplicity = the multiplicity o% the :%actions: = is li'e an echo 1ithin the human personality o% out1ard polytheism> on the one hand many persons 1ithin a sin)le en5elope o% %lesh4 on the other many )ods in a %ra)mented uni5erse7 onotheism is not only a theolo)y> it is also a psycholo)y7 As is the ,hahadah = la ilaha illa :0lah7 The a)nostic also has di%%iculty in understandin) that those 1ho are capa8le o% 8elie% and assent to a %aith may 8elie5e ;uite di%%erent and irreconcila8le thin)s at di%%erent le5els o% their personality7 A stri'in) illustration o% this inconsistency 1as )i5en 8y the 1riter and diplomat Conor Cruise O:&rien4 in a recent ne1spaper article7 He ;uoted an Irish priest in a remote parish 1ho4 1hen as'ed 1hat the ma9ority o% Catholics in his care really 8elie5ed a8out li%e a%ter death4 said that they 8elie5ed 1hat the Church teaches them a8out the immortality o% the soul4 the resurrection o% the 8ody4 re1ard and punishment7 He added that they also 8elie5ed that 1hen a man 1as dead he 1as dead li'e an animal4 :and that:s that:7D1E In any case the :8elie5er: is more o%ten 8orn than made> he calls himsel% a Christian or a uslim 8ecause he 1as 8orn into this or that reli)ious en5ironment7 He thin's that he shares the 8elie%s common to the people around him> 1ith a part o% himsel% he 8elie5es4 and 1ith another part he dis8elie5es7 &ut 8y the same to'en4 those 8orn into a secular4 a)nostic society4 and mouthin) the slo)ans imposed 8y their education and their conditionin)4 may none the less 8e closer to %aith than they 'no1> in this case the :rust: 1hich co5ers their hearts has come %rom 1ithout rather than %rom 1ithin themsel5es7 A %e1 years 8e%ore his death in 1/3# the )reat Al)erian ,hei'h4 Ahmad al=:Ala1i4 8ecame %riendly 1ith a Frenchman4 6r7 Carret4 1ho had 8een treatin) him %or 5arious minor ailments7 One day Carret tried to e3plain his a)nosticism to the ,hei'h4 addin)4 ho1e5er4 that 1hat most surprised him 1as that people 1ho did claim to 8e reli)ious :should 8e a8le to )o on attachin) importance to this earthly li%e:7 A%ter a pause4 the ,hei'h said to him@ :It is a pity that you 1ill not let your ,pirit rise a8o5e yoursel%7 &ut 1hate5er you may say and 1hate5er you may ima)ine4 you are nearer to "od than you thin':7D2E In this con%used a)e in 1hich 1e no1 %ind oursel5es there may 8e many a 8elie5er 1ho is a 'a%ir under the s'in4 and many a 'a%ir 1ho is closer than he 'no1s to the "od in 1hom he thin's he does not 8elie5e7 1 The O8ser5er4 0ondon4 22 Fe8ruary 1/-17 2 A ,u%i ,aint o% the T1entieth Centory4 artin 0in)s4 p72/7 It is important to 8e a1are o% these parado3es 8ecause the distrust o% reli)ion = or at least o% :or)ani<ed reli)ion: = 1hich is so 1idespread in the $estern 1orld4 deri5es less %rom intellectual dou8ts than %rom a critical 9ud)ement o% the 1ay in 1hich reli)ious people are seen to 8eha5e7 The a)nostic does not concern himsel% 1ith the supernatural dimensions o% reli)ion4 let alone 1ith ultimate truth7 He sees only that part o% the ice8er) 1hich is 5isi8le a8o5e the sur%ace4 and he 9ud)es this

to 8e misshapen7 The 1hole sad story is summed up in the 1ise child:s prayer@ :0ord4 please ma'e )ood people reli)ious and ma'e reli)ious people )ood7: The %ollo1er o% Islam is called a uslim A:one 1ho su8mits:B4 not a u:min A:one 1ho 8elie5es:B4 and 1ith )ood reason7 :The Ara8s say@ $e 8elie5eI ,ay rather@ $e ha5e su8mittedI For the %aith hath not yet entered your hearts:A?7#/71#B7 There are three dimensions 1hich may 8e identi%ied in e5ery reli)ious conte3t7 They relate to %ear4 to lo5e and to 'no1led)e4 and it is the %irst o% these that commonly presides o5er the initial sta)e o% the spiritual 9ourney7 :The %ear o% "od is the 8e)innin) o% 1isdom:> and there are elements in the human personality 1hich respond only to the threat o% punishment4 9ust as there are other elements 1hich are dra1n into the pattern o% unity 8y lo5e4 and yet others 1hich %all into place in the li)ht o% 'no1led)e7 ,ome de)ree o% order is imposed upon the city:s 1arrin) %actions 8y %ear4 and only then is a place made ready %or the 'indlin) %ire o% lo5e and %or Iman AFaithB4 1hich Islam de%ines as the state in 1hich the heart accepts the truth and li5es 8y it4 the lips and ton)ue ma'e pro%ession o% the truth4 and the lim8s e3ecute 1hat is re;uired o% them 8y the truth7 &eyond this is the 'no1led)e 1hich is e;ui5alent to certainty4 that is to say to direct 5ision7 &ut the %irst o% uhammad:s titles his :titles o% "lory: = is not : essen)er: or :Prophet: 8ut :sla5e: A:a8dB4 %or man must 8e a sla5e to the truth 8e%ore he can 8e its messen)er4 and the sla5e is4 8y de%inition4 one 1ho su8mits 8ody and soul to his master4 claimin) no ri)hts4 as'in) no ;uestions and o1nin) nothin) that he can call his o1n7 It is %or the master4 i% he 1ill4 to raise him to a hi)her status7 A )reat deal o% misunderstandin) has surrounded these ima)es o% su8mission7 Partly %rom pre9udice4 8ut partly also %rom the )enuine di%%iculty that one culture has in )raspin) the deepest moti5ations o% another4 the $est has o%ten pictured the uslim as crin)in) 8e%ore a tyrant 0ord and su8mittin) as a 8east su8mits to its incomprehensi8le %ate7 Nothin) could 8e %urther %rom the truth7 The uslim %ears "od 8ecause he is a realist> he 'no1s that there are thin)s to 8e %eared and that all thin)s = the 8itter as 1ell as the s1eet = ha5e 8ut one Creator7 He su8mits 8ecause he 8elie5es that there e3ists a di5ine pattern or scheme o% thin)s 1hich is 8oth intelli)ent and 8eauti%ul4 and he 1ishes to %ind his place in this pattern and con%orm to it> he 'no1s that he cannot do so 1ithout instructions = 1hich must 8e %ollo1ed meticulously in 5ie1 o% their sacred ori)in7 He does not simply resi)n himsel% to the di5ine $ill> he see's it ea)erly and4 1hen he %inds it4 deli)hts in it7D1E 1 In order to understand the :ine5ita8ility: o% e5erythin) that happens to us4 it is essential to )rasp the %act that :my: destiny is as much a part o% :me: as the physical and psycholo)ical characteristics 8y 1hich :I: am identi%ied7 Certain mystical philosophers ha5e personi%ied 6estiny4 and %rom this point o% 5ie1 each man:s personal destiny is his archetype or :other sel%: = his :an)el: = 1ith 1hom he must 8e reunited i% he is to rise a8o5e his %ra)mentary identity as a 1orldlin) and 8ecome 1hole4 as he is Aand al1ays has 8eenB in the mind o% "od7 ,e)mented 8y time4 1e are ne5er truly oursel5es in this li%e7 Each 8ein) is unrolled4 month 8y month4 year 8y year4 li'e a )reat carpet 1hich cannot 8e 5ie1ed as a sin)le coherent pattern until the 1hole is e3posed> and to spea' o% this is4 in %act4 to spea' o% the :0ast Fud)ement:7

In an auto8io)raphy 1ritten in the early 1/(2s4 uhammad Asad recounts an incident 1hich 8rin)s this aspect o% the uslim perspecti5e 5i5idly to li%e7 As a youn) man tra5ellin) throu)h ,inai he came to an area ra5a)ed 8y %ierce 1inds and 1as entertained to a meal 8y the local 5illa)e headman7 : ay "od )i5e you li%e4: says his host> :This house is your house> eat in the name o% "od7 This is all 1e ha5e4 8ut the dates are not 8ad7: The dates pro5ed to 8e the 8est Asad has e5er tasted4 and his host continues@ :The 1ind4 the 1ind4 it ma'es our li%e hard> 8ut that is "od:s 1ill7 The 1ind destroys our plantations7 $e must al1ays stru))le to 'eep them %rom 8ein) co5ered 8y sand777 &ut 1e do not complain7 As you 'no14 the Prophet = may "od 8less him = told us@ C"od says4 Re5ile not destiny4 %or 8ehold = I am destinyC7: :Ne5er4: says Asad4 :ha5e I seen4 e5en in a happy people4 a CHesC to reality e3pressed 1ith so much ;uiet and sureness7 $ith a 1ide4 5a)ue4 almost sensual turn o% his arm he descri8es a circle in the air = a circle 1hich encompasses e5erythin) that 8elon)s to this li%e@ the poor4 dus'y room4 the 1ind and its eternal roar4 the relentless ad5ance o% the sands> lon)in) %or happiness and resi)nation to 1hat cannot 8e chan)ed> the platter %ull o% dates> the stru))lin) orchards 8ehind their shield o% tamaris's> the %ire on the hearth> a youn) 1oman:s lau)hter some1here in the courtyard 8eyond@ and in all these thin)s4 and in the )esture that has 8rou)ht them out and to)ether4 I seem to hear the son) o% a stron) spirit 1hich 'no1s no 8arriers o% circumstance and is at peace 1ith itsel%7:D1E ,u8mission4 1hen it is su8mission to the truth = and 1hen the truth is 'no1n to 8e 8oth 8eauti%ul and merci%ul = has nothin) in common 1ith %atalism or stoicism as these terms are understood in the $estern tradition4 8ecause its moti5ation is di%%erent7 Accordin) to Fa'hr ad=6in ar=Ra<i4 one o% the )reat commentators upon the ?ur:an@ :The 1orship o% the eyes is 1eepin)4 the 1orship o% the ears is listenin)4 the 1orship o% the ton)ue is praise4 the 1orship o% the hands is )i5in)4 the 1orship o% the 8ody is e%%ort4 the 1orship o% the heart is %ear and hope4 and the 1orship o% the spirit is surrender and satis%action in Allah7:D2E There is a simple e;uation here@ su8mission to destiny as it comes upon us out o% the un'no1n e;uals al=islam4 sel%=surrender to "od4 and this in turn e;uals 1orship4 1hich is positi5e4 acti5e and 9oy%ul7 Throu)h our destiny "od spea's to us4 and throu)h our 1orship 1e spea' to Him7 In human e3perience su8mission is somethin) that 8elon)s to the realm o% dar'ness4 8ecause 1e can %ind no simple e3planation %or the e5ents and circumstances 1hich sei<e us 8y the throat and impose themsel5es upon us = li%e is :senseless: in rational terms = 8ut throu)h his su8mission the uslim see's li)ht4 assured that it is to 8e %ound at the end o% the tunnel7 Concernin) the %inal rec'onin)4 the ?ur:an says@ :On that 6ay thou 1ilt see the 8elie5ers4 men and 1omen4 their li)ht shinin) 8e%ore them 777 The hypocritical men and the hypocritical 1omen 1ill say unto the 8elie5ers@ 0oo' upon us that 1e may 8orro1 %rom your li)ht7 It 1ill 8e said@ "o 8ac' and see' %or li)ht777I:A?7(+712=13B7 To surrender to the li)ht )i5en %rom 8eyond oursel5es = to 1hich the inner li)ht responds = is to de5elop a passionate appetite %or )reater li)ht7 :O Allah4 appoint %or me li)ht in my heart and li)ht 8e%ore me and li)ht 8ehind me4 li)ht on my ri)ht

hand and li)ht on my le%t4 li)ht a8o5e me and li)ht 8elo1 me4 li)ht in my si)ht and li)ht in my perception4 li)ht in my countenance and li)ht in my %lesh4 li)ht in my 8lood and li)ht in my 8ones> increase %or me li)ht and )i5e me li)ht7:D3E 1 The Road to ecca4 uhammad Asad A,imon N ,chuster4 1/(#B4 p7/37 2 ?uoted 8y Constance Pad1ic' in ushm 6e5otions A,7P7C7!7B 3 pad1ic' op7 cit7 The %irst ,hahadah = or %irst part o% the con%ession o% %aith 1hich identi%ies a man or 1oman as uslim = states a truth 1hich4 %rom the human point o% 5ie14 1ould remain an a8straction4 thou)h da<<lin) in its simplicity4 i% it had no se;uel7 It is there%ore %ollo1ed 8y these 1ords@ 7777 and I 8ear 1itness that uhammadun rasulu :0lah4 : uhammad is the messen)er o% "od7: The %irst testimony tells us that "od alone truly is> the second that all thin)s are related to Him7 :Truly unto Allah 1e 8elon) and unto Him 1e return: A?7271(*B7 The state o% separation in 1hich 1e li5e Aand 8ut %or 1hich 1e 1ould not :li5e: as 1e understand the termB is due to the 5eils 1hich hide Him %rom our si)ht> 8ut e5en in apparent separation 1e are ne5er alone or uno8ser5ed> He sees not only our e5ery action 8ut our e5ery thou)ht> He is al=!ha8ir4 the Totally A1are4 %rom 1hose all=em8racin) consciousness nothin) is hidden7 And a%ter a 5ery short time 1e return 1hence 1e came@ :And on the 6ay 1hen He shall )ather them to)ether Dit 1ill seem to themE as i% they had tarried Don earthE %or no more than an hour777: A?71 27#(B7 Our period o% separation may then seem no more than a dream durin) a 8rie% sleep Athe Prophet is reported to ha5e said@ : en sleep4 and 1hen they die they a1a'en:B4 thou)h our dream has 8een 5ery real to us4 since our e3perience o%%ers us nothin) more real that 1ould pro5ide a standard o% comparison> it could not 8e other1ise4 %or the dream is 1illed and determined 8y That 1hich is in%initely more real than 1e are4 and it is shot throu)h 1ith ima)es o% 1hat has its 8ein) else1here7 It could 8e said that the second ,hahadah 8rin)s the %irst do1n to earth4 and to deny the second 1ould 8e to se5er all connection 1ith the %irst7 The Prophet is 8y de%inition close to "od4 8ein) His messen)er> and :the Prophet is closer to the 8elie5ers than their o1n sel5es: A?73(7*B7 He is there%ore the lin' 8et1een Creator and creature7 The name uhammad means :the "lori%ied:4 and since he is a man and nothin) more than a man4 this indicates Aamon) other thin)sB the per%ection and splendour o% creation 1hen it remains true to its Creator:s intention = :and "od sa1 that it 1as )ood4: as the &oo' o% "enesis tells us7 He represents the human norm and is there%ore the model %or e5ery uslim7 $ithout this model 1e 1ould ha5e no idea o% ho1 to con%orm4 in our persons and in our li5es4 to the truth enunciated 8y the %irst ,hahada8> and i% he 1ere a superhuman 8ein)4 or an an)el sent to preach to man'ind4 1e could not attempt to imitate him and 1ould not try to do so7 It is 8ecause he is 8ashar4 %lesh and 8lood = poor mortal clay li'e us = that he is a8le to %ul%il his e3emplary %unction4 thou)h it is said o% him that he is :man4 yet not as other men 8ut as a 9e1el amon) stones:7

From %ear o% idolatry4 and %rom %ear o% distractin) the uslim:s attention %rom the sin)le o89ect o% his 1orship4 the Islamic perspecti5e cannot tolerate any notion that implies4 e5en remotely4 the possi8ility o% incarnation:> "od does not 8ecome man since He does not :8ecome: in any sense o% the 1ord> He is4 and al1ays 1as and al1ays 1ill 8e7 &ut He communicates to us somethin) o% 1hat He is7 The Prophet is reported to ha5e said@ :$hosoe5er has seen me has seen the Truth7: The si)ni%icance o% this hadith is e3plained 8y Frith9o% ,chuon in these terms@ :$hen the sun is re%lected in a la'e4 one can distin)uish %irstly the sun4 secondly the ray4 and thirdly the re%lection> it 1ould 8e possi8le to discuss intermina8ly 1hether a creature 1ho sa1 only the re%lection = the sun 8ein) hidden %rom si)ht 8y some o8stacle = sa1 only the 1ater or4 on the contrary4 really sa1 somethin) o% the sun7 This much is indisputa8le@ 1ithout the sun the 1ater 1ould not e5en 8e 5isi8le4 and it 1ould not carry any re%lection 1hatsoe5er> it is thus impossi8le to deny that 1hoe5er sees the re%lected ima)e o% the sun there8y also sees in a certain manner the sun itsel%777: No dou8t :intermina8le discussions: 1ill continue on ;uestions o% this 'ind until the 1orld ends and speech is silenced4 8ut to 8rea' heads on account o% de%initions is an idle pursuit7 uhammad is usually re%erred to in Ara8ic as the rasulu :0lah4 the :messen)er o% "od:4 1hereas in $estern usa)e the term :prophet: Ana8i in Ara8icB is more common4 no dou8t 8ecause it is more %amiliar to those 1hose ,cripture is the &i8le7 Islam ma'es a clear distinction 8et1een the t1o titles7 A rasul is one 1ho recei5es a messa)e %rom "od and is commanded to declare this messa)e pu8licly4 so that it may pro5ide a spiritual %rame1or' %or a 1hole sector o% humanity7 The 1ord na8i means :one 1ho has 8een in%ormed: Aor :one 1ho has recei5ed ne1s:B4 and the in%ormation re5ealed to him may supplement an esta8lished reli)ion 1ith ne1 insi)hts or = as 1as the case 1ith many o% the Fe1ish prophets = correct distortions 1hich had led to the decadence o% an esta8lished reli)ion7 E5ery :messen)er: A oses4 Fesus4 uhammad and such others as may ha5e appeared in the course o% human historyB is also a :prophet:4 8ut not e5ery :prophet: is a :messen)er:7 The modern mentality4 impatient o% restraints and ri)id %rame1or's as it is o% rules and re)ulations4 pre%ers the :prophet: to the :messen)er:7 E5en in a country such as En)land4 1here practisin) Christians are in a minority4 most people = accordin) to recent sur5eys = claim to :8elie5e in a "od:4 thou)h they ha5e no use %or :or)ani<ed reli)ion:7 The poetry o% prophetic utterance4 all %ire and ice4 has immense attraction compared 1ith :reli)ion:4 1hich is thou)ht to imprison the %ree spirit and 1hich is4 in the last resort4 dull> it puts duties in the place o% %eelin)s and it re;uires association 1ith some 5ery unattracti5e people7 Poetry4 ho1e5er4 does nothin) to 8uild a house in 1hich uninspired men and 1omen can li5e out their li5es in terms o% a re5ealed pattern %or li5in)4 1hich may 8e one reason 1hy the ?ur:an tells us speci%ically that uhammad is :not a poet:7 $hat a :messen)er: 8rin)s to us is not only ne1s %rom hea5en 8ut also the 8lueprint %or an earthly structure 1hich 'eeps us sa%e %rom hell7 1 6imensions o% Islam4 Frith9o% ,chuon4 p7+(7

As 1as mentioned earlier4 uhammad 8ears another title 1hich is4 as it 1ere4 the human 8asis %or his %unction as messen)er7 He is :a8du :0lah4 the :sla5e o% "od:7 odern translators usually pre%er the 1ord :ser5ant: 8ecause o% the u)ly and e5en sinister connotations 1hich the 1ord :sla5e: has in the $est4 due on the one hand to the racialism 1hich 1as the 8asis o% sla5ery in the Americas4 and on the other to the cruelty and e3ploitation associated 1ith it7 ,la5ery in the simple society o% ancient Ara8ia had none o% these %eatures and 1as not there%ore a term o% dishonour7 Althou)h the 1ord :ser5ant: has o85ious ad5anta)es in this conte3t4 it 1ea'ens and e5en %alsi%ies the meanin) o% the Ara8ic term :a8d7 A ser5ant 1or's %or his 1a)es4 he may depart i% the conditions o% his ser5ice do not please him4 and he may4 i% he chooses4 set his 1ill a)ainst that o% his employer7 &ut "od is not an employer4 nor are His messen)ers employees7 The :sla5e o% "od: surrenders his 1ill to that o% his aster4 e3empli%yin) the ;uality o% spiritual po5erty A%a;rB 1hich lies at the 5ery root o% Islam7D1E This ;uality o% :sla5ehood: = o% o8edient passi5ity = is a pre=condition o% the messen)er:s acti5ity in the 1orld7 The truth o% the messa)e itsel% 1ould 8e 8rou)ht into dou8t i% there 1ere the sli)htest suspicion that a human 1ill had inter5ened in the process o% re5elation7 In his recorded sayin)s uhammad spo'e as the man he 1as and4 e3cept 1hen he 1as directly inspired4 ac'no1led)ed his o1n %alli8ility4 8ut as the instrument 8y 1hich the ?ur:an 1as con5eyed %rom hea5en to earth his aim 1as to 8e an attenti5e and accurate :scri8e:7 He said@ :A simple 5erse o% the &oo' o% Allah is 1orth more than uhammad and all his %amily4: and 8ecause his conduct in e5ery aspect o% daily li%e e3empli%ied these ;ualities o% recepti5ity and attenti5eness4 he 1as himsel% an aspect o% this messa)e %rom "od to man7 ,een %rom an unpre9udiced Christian point o% 5ie14 :in its %inest %orm4 as e3empli%ied 8y the Prophet himsel% and 8y such successors as :.mar4 this relation o% the :a8d to his 0ord means a constant ;uality o% consciousness and 1ill uni;ue to Islam>:D2E and in his translation o% the ?ur:an4 uhammad Asad renders the 'ey 1ord ta;1ah4 usually translated as :%ear o% "od:4 as :"od=consciousness:4 there8y emphasi<in) the ;ualities o% constant a1areness4 recollectedness and readiness 1hich characteri<e the uslim 1ho is true to his %aith7 1 An alternati5e translation %or :a8d is :8ondsman:> a some1hat archaic term4 8ut one that has the ad5anta)e o% emphasi<in) the :8indin) to "od: 1hich none escape4 1hile a5oidin) the emotional connotations o% sla5ery7 2 Call o% the inaret4 Re57 !enneth Cra))4 p7 #*7 Not only does the messen)er 1ho is also a sla5e su8ordinate his o1n 1ill to that o% his 0ord> there is nothin) in his mind or in his memory that could o8struct the %ree passa)e o% the re5elation7 uhammad is :a8d and rasul> he is also na8i al= ummi4 the unlettered Prophet> a 8lan' pa)e set 8e%ore the di5ine pen7 On this pa)e there is no mar' made 8y any other pen4 no trace o% pro%ane or indirect 'no1led)e7 A prophet does not 8orro1 'no1led)e %rom the human store4 nor is he a man 1ho learns in the slo1 human 1ay and then transmits his learnin)7 His 'no1led)e deri5es %rom a direct inter5ention o% the 6i5ine in the human order4 a ta9alli4 or pourin) out o% the truth upon a 8ein) pro5identially disposed to recei5e it and stron) enou)h to transmit it7 The purity o% the stream o% re5elation remains

unsullied in its course %rom the sprin) 1hich is its ori)in to the la'e into 1hich it %lo1s> in other 1ords4 the ?ur:an e3ists in 1ritten %orm e3actly as it issued %rom the di5ine Presence7 Fust as the Catholic Church insists upon the primordial purity o% the Jir)in ary4 8ecause it is throu)h her that the $ord o% "od 1as )i5en to this 1orld4 so Islam insists that uhammad 1as :unlettered:4 that is to say uncontaminated 8y pro%ane 'no1led)e4 8y the ar)uments o% the philosophers4 8y idolatry or 8y any 1orldly in%luence7 This has 8een an area o% constant misunderstandin) 8et1een the t1o reli)ions7 Christians compare uhammad to Fesus4 al1ays to the discredit o% the %ormer4 8ecause he is %ound to 8e unli'e Fesus in so many 1ays4 and they also compare the ?ur:an 1ith the &i8le> 8ut4 as ,chuon and others ha5e pointed out4 the only le)itimate comparison 1ould 8e 8et1een the Prophet and ary on the one hand and on the other 8et1een the ?ur:an and Fesus7 For Christians the $ord 1as made %lesh4 1hereas %or uslims it too' earthly shape in the %orm o% a 8oo'4 and the recitation o% the ?ur:an in the ritual prayer %ul%ils the same %unction as the eucharist in Christianity> at the same time4 ary )a5e 8irth to Fesus 1ithout passin) on to him any taint o% earthly sin4 and uhammad acted as a channel %or the $ord 1ithout lendin) it any taint o% merely human 1isdom7 It is not as :,a5iour:4 let alone as di5ine incarnation4 that uslims lo5e uhammad and model themsel5es upon him4 yet this lo5e is central in the spiritual li%e o% Islam4 lendin) to an other1ise austere reli)ion somethin) that is at once passionate and )entle7 He is lo5ed %or his coura)e and %or his tenderness4 not only as a 1arrior and a master o% men4 8ut also as the per%ect hus8and4 the per%ect %ather and the per%ect %riend = and the hum8lest4 most 1retched man or 1oman4 thin'in) o% him4 1ill dream o% ha5in) such a %riend7 Those 1ho 1ere closest to him are 'no1n4 not as :disciples: 8ut as :companions:> almost %ourteen centuries a%ter his death4 it is in this companionship that the uslim %inds com%ort in loneliness and coura)e in ad5ersity4 and this 1orld 1ould 8e a cold and inhospita8le place 1ithout him7 :No one:4 1rote Constance Pad1ic'4 a Christian cau)ht in the net o% this lo5e4 :can estimate the po1er o% Islam as a reli)ion 1ho does not ta'e into account the lo5e at the heart o% it %or this %i)ure7 It is here that human emotion4 repressed at some points 8y the austerity o% the doctrine o% "od as de5eloped in theolo)y4 has its %ull outlet = a 1arm human emotion 1hich the peasant can share 1ith the mystic7 The lo5e o% this %i)ure is perhaps the stron)est 8indin) %orce in a reli)ion 1hich has so mar'ed a 8indin) po1er7:D1E 1 uslim 6e5otions4 Constance Pad1ic' A,MP7C!MB4 p7 1#(7

Century a%ter century poems ha5e 8een composed in praise o% the Prophet4 poems as %it to 8e chanted 8eside the cradle as 8eside the death=8ed or in the assem8lies o% the %aith%ul4 e3pressin) a de5otion 1hich o%ten astonishes those 1ho 'no1 only one side o% Islam7 They sometimes 8etray a pro%ound nostal)ia %or that )olden a)e in 1hich e5ery pious uslim 1ould ha5e 1ished to li5e4 not only %or the s1eet and no8le companionship 8ut also 8ecause4 in retrospect4 it is seen as a time 1hen e5erythin) 1as as it should 8e = and as it has ne5er 8een since7 No detail o% the

Prophet:s li%e4 ho1e5er tri5ial it mi)ht seem in 1orldly terms4 is %ound un1orthy o% praise4 and e5erythin) 1ith 1hich he came into contact has 8een4 as it 1ere4 sancti%ied 8y his touch7 There is a little oroccan poem 1hich con5eys somethin) o% this ;uality o% 1onder7 :They sleep in the ni)ht o% the )ra5e4 those 1omen 1hose luminous hands 1o5e uhammad:s cloa'7 $here = lon) 1hitenin) = are the 8ones o% the sheep 1hich )a5e their 1ool %or uhammad:s cloa'G To1ards 1hat stars ha5e ascended the drops o% 1ater 1hich rose as mist 1hen the 1ool o% those sheep lay dryin) in the sunG It 1as supple as smo'e7 $hen uhammad A8lessin)s and peace upon himB let it loose on the 8ree<e you 1ould ha5e thou)ht it a cloud 8illo1in) in the 1ind7 It 1as transparent as air7 And those 1ho 'issed its hem no1 drin' %rom the streams 1hich sin) in Paradise4 and Allah smiles upon them throu)h all eternity7:D1E They are lon) )one4 those 1omen and those sheep and that cloa' itsel%4 and the 1orld is 8ere%t7 1 ?uoted in aroc@ Terre et Ciel P0ausanne@ 0a "uide du 0i5re4 1/(#B7

To lo5e uhammad is one thin)4 8ut to imitate him = to try to 8e :li'e: him = is another7 He 1as the last messen)er and the last prophet4 so ho1 can 1e e3pect to imitate 1hat is 8y de%inition uni;ue and unrepeata8leG In the %irst place his 5irtues are to 8e imitated4 and they 1ere pro5identially e3empli%ied in the e3traordinary 5ariety o% human e3perience throu)h 1hich he passed in his si3ty=t1o years o% li%e7 He 1as an orphan4 yet he 'ne1 the 1armth o% parental lo5e throu)h his )rand%ather:s de5oted care %or him> he 1as the %aith%ul hus8and o% one 1i%e %or many years4 and a%ter her death4 the tender and considerate hus8and o% many 1i5es> he 1as the %ather o% children 1ho )a5e him the )reatest 9oy this 1orld has to o%%er4 and he sa1 all 8ut one o% them die> he had 8een a shepherd and a merchant 1hen youn)4 and he 8ecame a ruler4 a statesman4 a military commander4 and a la1=)i5er> he lo5ed his nati5e city and 1as dri5en %rom it into e3ile4 %inally to return home in triumph and set an e3ample o% clemency 1hich has no e;ual in human history7 Not only do 1e 'no1 almost e5erythin) that he did4 1e 'no1 the e3act manner in 1hich he did it7 &ut 1hat o% his %unction as the essen)er o% "odG The man 1ho is truly 1hat he should 8e is descri8ed in the ?ur:an as al='hali%atu :0lah %i:l=ardh4 the 5icere)ent or representati5e o% "od on earth> he is not rasul4 since he does not recei5e the di5ine messa)e directly %rom hea5en4 8ut he recei5es it none the less = mediated throu)h uhammad = and is re;uired to con5ey it 1ith e;ual accuracy and 1ith a compara8le purity o% intention4 allo1in) no personal opinions or %eelin)s to inter5ene7 In this sense4 the pious uslim per%orms = in a minor 'ey = the tas' 1hich the Prophet %ul%illed on a uni5ersal scale7 &ut there is one o% uhammad:s :titles o% "lory: in 1hich e5ery 8elie5er shares4 the title o% :a8d7 uhammad 1as the per%ect :sla5e:7 The 8elie5er must stri5e to1ards this per%ection7 Fust as the essen)er could not ha5e %ul%illed his %unction had he not 8een the :sla5e o% "od:4 so the 5icere)ent is e%%ecti5e and true to his 5ocation only accordin) to the depth and purity o% his :sla5ehood:7 $ith the assertion o% man:s 5icere)al status 1e step into dan)erous territory7 People need little enou)h encoura)ement to attri8ute )randeur to themsel5es7 To

tell them that they represent "od on earth mi)ht seem li'e an in5itation to me)alomania7 The modern a)e4 sentimental and idealistic despite its super%icial cynicism4 is e5en more deeply shoc'ed than 1ere earlier a)es 8y the human capacity %or 1ic'edness7 This 1ic'edness is indeed the measure o% the )randeur o% our 5ocation Ano animal is 1ic'edB4 and li'e a deep shado1 it 8ears 1itness to a )reat li)ht7 The monstrous e5ils o% arro)ance and oppression are due to men assumin) the ro8es o% :5icere)ency: 1ithout %irst su8mittin) as :sla5es: Aand 'no1in) themsel5es to 8e :sla5es:B7 an alone is capa8le o% monstrosity on this scale4 8ecause man alone stands a8o5e = or is capa8le o% standin) a8o5e = the tide o% time and contin)ency7 It mi)ht e5en 8e said that i% there 1ere no 5icere)ency there could 8e no hell4 %or none 1ould merit hell7 It is %or the 8etrayal o% our 5ocation = there%ore sel%=8etrayal = that 1e are punished4 and it is %or li5in) 8eneath oursel5es that 1e run the ris' o% 8ein) trodden under%oot7 The messa)e 1hich is to 8e con5eyed in its inte)rity 8y the 5icere)ent4 as it 1as 8y the essen)er4 has many %acets4 matched to the multi=%aceted human personalities to 1hom it is addressed4 8ut there is a )olden thread 1hich runs throu)h the 1hole pattern o% re5elation and 8inds it to)ether> this is the thread o% mercy7 $ithout the lin' pro5ided 8y the second ,hahadah and 8y the messa)e = the ?ur:an = to 1hich it relates4 this 1orld 1ould 8e li'e a %ro<en planet4 too %ar %rom the sun to recei5e its li%e=)i5in) 1armth> this lin' is there%ore itsel% an aspect o% mercy7 :$e sent thee not sa5e as a mercy to the 1orlds:A?721712+B7 One o% uhammad:s titles is the :!ey to ercy:4 and mercy is the ;uality 1hich presides o5er the road leadin) to "od7 :Aisha as'ed him@ :6oes one come to Paradise only 8y the mercy o% AllahG: He repeated three times o5er@ :No one comes to Paradise e3cept 8y the mercy o% AllahI: :Not e5en you4 essen)er o% AllahG: she as'ed7 :Not e5en I4 unless Allah en%olds me in His mercy7: He told his companions@ :$hen Allah completed the creation He 1rote the %ollo1in)4 1hich is 1ith Him a8o5e His Throne@ C y mercy ta'es precedence o5er y 1rathC4: and this hadith is decisi5e %or the uslims> it states cate)orically that all the :names: and attri8utes 8y 1hich the ?ur:an indicates 5arious aspects o% the di5ine nature as they relate to humanity are su8ordinate to this supreme and essential attri8ute7 A desert Ara84 seein) the Prophet 'iss his )randson4 al=Hasan4 said contemptuously@ :$hat4 do you 'iss childrenG $e ne5er do soI: to 1hich the Prophet replied@ :I cannot help you4 %or Allah has 1ithdra1n mercy %rom your heart7: ,pea'in) in the %irst person in the ?ur:an4 "od says@ : y mercy em8raceth all thin)s:A?7+71(*B4 and this mercy communicates itsel% to those 1ho are recepti5e@ :Indeed4 those 1ho 8elie5e and do )ood4 the erci%ul 1ill endo1 them 1ith lo5in) 'indness A1uddanB: A?71/7/*B> and@ :$ho else 8ut those 1ho ha5e lost their 1ay could despair o% the mercy o% their 0ordG:A?71(7(*B7D1E 1 Accordin) to a hadith recorded 8y 8oth &u'hari and uslim4 some capti5es 1ere 8rou)ht to the Prophet4 amon) them a 1oman 1hose 8reasts oo<ed mil'7 ,he ran to and %ro4 and 1hen she %ound her child4 put him at once to her 8reast7 The Prophet said to his companions4 :6o you thin' this 1oman 1ill cast her child into

the %ireG: $hen they replied that she 1ould not4 he said@ "od is more merci%ul to His ser5ants than this 1oman to her child7: A%ter the t1o ,hahadahs4 the %ormula most %re;uently on the lips o% the uslim is the &asmillah@ :In the name o% Allah the erci%ul Aar=RahmanB4 the compassionate Aar=RahimB4: and it is 1ith this %ormula that e5ery chapter o% the ?ur:an A1ith one e3ceptionB opens7 The 1orld itsel%4 1e are told 8y some authorities4 1as created 8y :the &reath Aor E3halationB o% ar=Rahman:7 It is4 accordin) to this 5ie14 throu)h the innate e3pansi5e and radiatin) po1er o% mercy4 its impulse to )i5e itsel% and to 8esto1 its li)ht and its 1armth4 that creation and all that appears to 8e out1ard and separate comes into 8ein)> and 1hile4 8y de%inition4 "od has no needs = 8ein) totally sel%=su%%icient = yet it mi)ht 8e said4 i% only as a %i)ure o% speech4 that He has a need to communicate Himsel%4 8ecause His inmost nature is this radiatin) mercy4 this richness 1hich cries out to 8e displayed in phenomena more numerous than all the sands o% all the oceans7 &ecause the &asmillah has 8een pronounced o5er creation as such4 the uslim pronounces it 8e%ore em8ar'in) upon any action4 there8y sancti%yin) the action and re=attachin) it to its true Cause = 8ut %or 1hich it 1ould 8e as empty and as %utile as the con5ulsi5e mo5ements o% a corpse7 The ,u%is4 da<<led 8y this mercy4 ha5e sometimes seen it as all=encompassin) not only in principle 8ut also in the most immediate and practical sense7 It is related o% the Persian A8u:l=Hasan !hur;ani Ad7 A6 1233B that one ni)ht 1hen he 1as prayin) he heard a 5oice %rom hea5en@ :O A8u:l=HasanI 6ost thou 1ish me to tell the people 1hat I 'no1 o% thy in1ard state4 so that they may stone thee to deathG: :O 0ord "od4: he replied4 :dost Thou 1ish me to tell the people 1hat I 'no1 o% Thy mercy and 1hat I percei5e o% Thy )race4 so that none o% them may e5er a)ain 8o1 to Thee in prayerG:D1E :!eep thy secret4: said the 5oice4 :and I 1ill 'eep ine7:D2E &ut the more )eneral 5ie1 is that mercy responds only 1hen repentance in5ites it to do so4 and that the unrepentant = :co5ered: as they are4 their hearts sealed in rust = are impenetra8le7 1 Accordin) to a hadith recorded 8y &u'hari and uslim4 the Prophet said on one occasion that the 8elie5er has a ri)ht to e3pect %rom "od that He should not punish anyone 1ho is %ree %rom the sin o% associatin) other deities 1ith Him7 A man as'ed@ :,hall I )i5e this )ood ne1s to the peopleG: :No4: said the Prophet4 :do not tell them lest they trust in this alone7: 2 ystics o% Islam4 R7 A7 Nicholson ARontled)e N !e)an PaulB4 p713*7 In Ara8ic the three consonants RH 4 %rom 1hich the 1ord rahmah AmercyB and its deri5ati5es4 ar=Rahman Athe erci%ulB and ar=Rahim Athe CompassionateB4 are %ormed4 ha5e the primary meanin) o% :1om8:4 1hich indicates 5ery clearly the maternal character o% mercy4 nurturin) and protectin) the helpless human creature in its )entle em8race7 In a related lan)ua)e4 ,yriac4 this same root has the meanin) o% :lo5e:7 It is said that ar=Rahman is li'e the 8lue s'y4 serene and %ull o% li)ht4 1hich arches o5er us and o5er all thin)s4 1hereas ar=Rahim is li'e a 1arm ray comin) %rom that s'y4 touchin) indi5idual li5es and e5ents and 5i5i%yin) the earth7 Accordin) to the

?ur:an4 :the erci%ul re5ealed the ?ur:an4 created man4 tau)ht him articulate speech4: and it could 8e said that i% "od4 the One Aal=AhadB4 1ere not also ar= Rahman4 there 1ould 8e no creation4 no out1ardness4 8ut only the eternally sel%= su%%icient in1ardness o% the di5ine essence> and i% He 1ere not also ar=Rahim4 the 1hole creation 1ould turn to ice7 Indeed4 the man or 1oman in 1hom there is no mercy4 no compassion4 is one 1hose heart is %ro<en and can 8e melted only 8y %ire7 I% ar=Rahman is simply 1hat is there = a s'y %ull o% li)ht = then it mi)ht also 8e translated as :9oy:4 and 9oy 8y its 5ery nature is e3pansi5e and communicates itsel%> in this case ar=Rahim represents that act o% communication7 This has an application to all human acts o% communication4 includin) art4 hence the ?ur:anic re%erence to :speech: in the conte3t o% :creation 8y the erci%ul:7 &et1een human 8ein)s4 separated in this 1orld 8y such 8arriers = each little e)o in its o1n shell = communication is the mercy 1hich unites4 the instrument o% lo5e4 as is sacred art4 and as such it )i5es a %oretaste o% Paradise7 $e spea' and4 i% 1e are understood4 a 1all o% ice has 8een melted and %rom it %lo1 streams li'e those 1hich 1ater the )ardens o% Paradise7 &ut communication 8et1een the In%inite and the %inite4 the A8solute and the contin)ent4 seems lo)ically impossi8le and there%ore ;uali%ies4 in the proper sense o% the term4 as a miracle4 1hich is 1hy the ?ur:an is called the supreme miracle o% Islam7 Across unima)ina8le distances "od spea's to man and is heard4 and 1hat cannot 8e descri8ed in 1ords4 as 1e descri8e a tree or a house4 is none the less descri8ed4 not so that 1e should stop at the sur%ace meanin) li'e animals4 1hich see only 1hat is to 8e seen4 8ut li'e a 8ait to dra1 us out o% this uni5erse o% 1ords into a uni5erse o% meanin)7 There is a uslim in5ocation 1hich su))ests somethin) o% this miracle@ :O Thou 1ho art descri8ed thou)h no description reaches Thy true 8ein)> Thou 1ho art a8sent %rom us in mystery yet ne5er lost> Thou ,eer 1ho art ne5er seen> Thou 1ho art sou)ht and %ound> neither the hea5ens nor the earth nor the space 8et1een is 5oid o% Thee %or the %lic'er o% an eyelid> Thou art the 0i)ht o% li)hts4 the 0ord o% lords4 encompassin) all7 "lory to Him 1hom nothin) resem8les> the All=Hearer4 the All=,eer7: Part II The a'in) o% the Faith

Chapter # THE $OR06 OF THE &OO! There is )round to 8e cleared 8e%ore 1e can ha5e any hope o% comin) close to the ?ur:an> thorny )round4 all the more di%%icult to ne)otiate 8ecause the thorn trees are not immediately 5isi8le7 In e5ery reli)ious tradition and in e5ery ancient le)end sacred thin)s and sacred places are closely )uarded4 approacha8le only throu)h e%%ort and puri%ication7 The ?ur:an is no e3ception7 ,o %ar as the occidental:s misunderstandin) o% Islam is concerned it starts here4 at the source o% the reli)ion7 The non= uslim 1ho = %or 1hate5er reason = 1ishes to learn somethin) a8out Islam is encoura)ed to ta'e in his hands a :translation: o% the ?ur:an4 o% 1hich there are said to 8e at least thirty in En)lish alone7 He has 8een told = and ri)htly so = that this 8oo' is the %oundation o% the Faith4 and that in

it he 1ill %ind all he needs to 'no1 a8out the uslim4 his 8elie%s4 his moti5ation4 his political aspirations and his cultural conditionin)7 The reader may set o%% 1ith the 8est intentions4 see'in) 1isdom as he understands this term and a1are that a 8oo' 1hich has meant so much to so many cannot 8e de5oid o% interest7 The outcome is only too o%ten 8a%%lement and disappointment7 There is nothin) here that accords 1ith the occidental:s sense o% order> on the contrary4 he %inds only a 1orld o% 1ords 1hich seems totally incoherent and to 1hich he has no 'ey7 $e ha5e come yet a)ain to the )ul% o% incomprehension 1hich di5ides t1o reli)ions4 t1o mentalities4 t1o cultures7 On the one hand4 the simple uslim cannot understand 1hy anyone 1ho reads the ?ur:an is not immediately con5erted to Islam> on the other4 the non= uslim is inclined to %eel that4 i% this is 1hat uslims re)ard as a sacred scripture4 then they must indeed 8e simple=minded7 ,ince many o% those 1ho set out to read the ?ur:an in translation )i5e up 8e%ore they are hal%=1ay throu)h the 8oo'4 the order in 1hich the ,urahs4 the :chapters:4 are arran)ed rein%orces this ne)ati5e impression7 The re5elation o% the te3t too' place o5er a period o% t1enty=t1o or t1enty=three years7 The earlier and more :poetic: re5elations come to1ards the end o% the 8oo'4 1hereas the later ones4 dealin) 1ith 1hat are seen as :mundane: issues4 are placed at the 8e)innin)7 The %ormer appro3imate more closely to 1hat the occidental e3pects since they are :prophetic: in character and in lan)ua)e4 dealin) 1ith the end o% the 1orld4 the %inal destiny o% man and so on4 1hereas in the latter the element :messa)e: o5ershado1s the element :prophecy:7 Thus the 8oo' presents a mirror=ima)e o% the process o% re5elation or :descent:7 The reason %or this may 8e that man4 in respondin) to the re5elation and %ollo1in) the 1ay o% :ascent: to 1hich he is called4 starts out %rom the realm o% practical a%%airs and needs to 'no1 ho1 to 8eha5e in his 1orldly li%e 8e%ore he sets %oot on the path 1hich leads 8eyond this 1orld7 There is4 ho1e5er4 a more %ormida8le 8arrier 1hich %aces the reader o% a :translation: o% the ?ur:an4 the 8arrier o% lan)ua)e7 The po1er and e%%icacy o% the re5ealed messa)e reside not only in the literal meanin) o% the 1ords employed 8ut also in the 8ody in 1hich this meanin) is incorporated7 It is not only the content 8ut also the container that constitutes the re5elation as such4 and the t1o cannot 8e separated = as they are in translation = 1ithout impo5erishment7 The ?ur:an de%ines itsel% speci%ically as an :Ara8ic scripture:4 and the messa)e is shaped to the comple3 structure o% the chosen lan)ua)e4 a structure %undamentally di%%erent to that o% any European ton)ue7 E5en = i% one understands no Ara8ic = as is the case 1ith the 5ast ma9ority o% uslims = it is essential to 'no1 ho1 meanin) and lan)ua)e4 essence and %orm4 are married in the te3t o% the ?ur:an7 E5ery Ara8ic 1ord may 8e traced 8ac' to a 5er8al root consistin) o% three consonants %rom 1hich are deri5ed up to t1el5e di%%erent 5er8al modes4 to)ether 1ith a num8er o% nouns and ad9ecti5es7 This is re%erred to as the triliteral root4 and speci%ic 1ords are %ormed %rom it 8y the insertion o% lon) or short 5o1els and 8y

the addition o% su%%i3es and pre%i3es7 The root as such is :dead: = unpronouncea8le = until 8rou)ht to li%e4 that is to say 5ocali<ed4 8y the 5o1els4 and it is accordin) to their placin) that the 8asic meanin) is de5eloped in a num8er o% di%%erent directions7 The root has sometimes 8een descri8ed as the :8ody: 1hile the 5o1ellin) is the :soul:> or a)ain4 it is %rom the root that a )reat tree )ro1s7 :In Ara8ic4: says Titus &urc'hardt4 :the CtreeC o% 5er8al %orms4 o% deri5ations %rom certain roots4 is ;uite ine3hausti8le> it can al1ays 8rin) %orth ne1 lea5es4 ne1 e3pressions to represent hitherto dormant 5ariations o% the 8asic idea = or action7 This e3plains 1hy this &edonin ton)ue 1as a8le to 8ecome the lin)uistic 5ehicle o% an entire ci5ili<ation intellectually 5ery rich and di%%erentiated7:D1E 1 Art o% Islam@ 0an)ua)e and Pu8lishin) Co7 0tdB4 p7 #37 eanin)4 Titus &urc'hardt A$orld o% Islam Festi5al

A certain am8i)uity is inherent in lan)ua)e as such 8ecause it is ali5e and %orms a 8rid)e 8et1een li5in) and thin'in) 8ein)s7 The opposite to the 8are precision o% mathematics is not 5a)ueness o% de%inition 8ut a 1ealth o% interconnected meanin)s4 sometimes mer)in) into one another4 al1ays enrichin) each other4 1hich cluster around a sin)le 8asic idea Aor4 in Ara8ic4 a simple actionB = in this case the triliteral root7 ,uch 5ariations upon a sin)le theme may )i5e rise to 1ords 1hich appear4 on the sur%ace4 unconnected7 A1areness o% their relationship to their root ma'es the connection apparent4 so that the 1hole :e3tended %amily: o% 1ords is illuminated7 This may 8e illustrated in terms o% a 1ord re%erred to earlier4 %itrah Aprimordial natureB7 The root FTR )i5es us4 in the %irst place4 the 5er8 %atara4 meanin) :he split:4 :he 8ro'e apart:4 :he 8rou)ht %orth: or :he created:7 The connection 8et1een :splittin): and :creatin): is interestin)4 particularly i% 1e 8ear in mind the element o% continuity so characteristic o% Islam> ancient traditions %rom many di%%erent cultures descri8e the %irst step in creation as the :8rea'in) apart: o% hea5en and earth7 "od is re%erred to in the ?ur:an as %atir as=sama1ati 1a:l=ardh4 Creator Aor :Ori)inator:B o% the hea5ens and the earth7 From the same root 1e ha5e the :Id ul= %itr4 the %esti5al 1hich mar's the end o% the sacred month o% Ramadan4 and i%tar4 meanin) :8rea'%ast:7 Amon) other deri5ations there are %atr4 a :crac': or :%issure:4 %itri :natural: or :instincti5e:4 and %atirah4 :unlea5ened 8read or pastry:4 %resh and li%e=)i5in)7 It is as thou)h each indi5idual 1ord emer)ed %rom a matri3 1hich contains4 potentially4 a 5ariety o% meanin)s that are all su8tly interrelated4 or as thou)h4 1hen one strin) is pluc'ed4 many others 5i8rate in the 8ac')round> and it is precisely throu)h such interrelationships that ta1hid = the :unity: 1hich is the 8asic principle o% Islam %inds e3pression in the midst o% limitless di5ersity7 $ord associations = echoes and re5er8erations in the ear and in the mind = pro5ide a )limpse o% unsuspected depths and e3tend our perception o% the interconnectedness o% all thin)s7 Accordin) to uhammad4 there is no 5erse in the ?ur:an 1hich does not ha5e an inner as 1ell as an outer aspect4 to)ether 1ith a num8er o% di%%erent meanin)s4 and e5ery de%inition is potentially a source o% enli)htenment7 In other 1ords4 the &oo' is %ull o% :doors: out o% the prison o% this 1orld into the :open:7 Islamic art 8ears 1itness to this7 $ritin) o% the si)ni%icance

o% the :palmettes: Alittle palm treesB placed in the mar)ins o% illuminated copies o% the ?ur:an4 artin 0in)s identi%ies them as reminders :that the readin) or chantin) o% the ?ur:an is the 5irtual startin)=point o% a limitless 5i8ration4 a 1a5e that ultimately 8rea's on the shore o% eternity> and it is a8o5e all that shore that is si)ni%ied 8y the mar)in4 to1ards 1hich all the mo5ement o% the paintin) = in palmette4 %inial4 crenellation and %lo1 o% ara8es;ue = is directed7:D1E It is in the nature o% a primordial lan)ua)e such as Ara8ic that a sin)le 1ord should imply all possi8le modes o% an idea4 %rom the concrete to the sym8olical and4 indeed4 the supernatural7 The 8arriers 1hich occidental man places 8et1een the spiritual and the mundane are4 as it 1ere4 pierced 8y the lan)ua)e itsel%7 An e%%ort o% the ima)ination is re;uired o% those accustomed only to En)lish or other hy8rid lan)ua)es4 in 1hich a noun indicates a thin) in isolation %rom all others4 i% they 1ish to enter the 1orld o% the ?ur:an7 Not only 1ere the o89ects o% nature saturated 1ith meanin) %or the men o% earlier times4 8ut lan)ua)e itsel% re%lected this richness4 and it is said that the Ara8ic o% the se5enth century A6 1as more ancient in %orm e5en than the He8re1 spo'en 8y oses nearly t1o thousand years pre5iously>D2E it is im8ued 1ith ;ualities 1hich lie outside all our %rames o% re%erence and all our limitin) de%initions4 and it is this a8o5e all that made it the appropriate 5ehicle %or the re5elation o% unity in multiplicity7 1 The ?ur:anic Art o% Calli)raphy and Illumination4 artin 0in)s A$orld o% Islam Festi5al Trust Pu8lishin) Co7 0td7B4 p7+#7 2 ,ee Ancient &elie%s and odern ,nperstitions4 artin 0in)s A0ondon4 1/*#B4 p71#7 It %ollo1s that a :translation:4 ho1e5er e3cellent it may 8e in its o1n 1ay and ho1e5er use%ul as an aid to understandin)4 is not and cannot 8e the ?ur:an4 and it is not treated as such7 No uslim 1ill place a copy o% the Ara8ic ?ur:an under other 8oo's or 8eneath any o89ect on a ta8le or a des'> it must al1ays occupy the hi)hest place7 $e may do as 1e please 1ith a translation4 and this 1ould still 8e so e5en i% it con5eyed the principles o% the ?ur:anic messa)e 1ith impecca8le accuracy7 The distinction 8et1een re5elation and inspiration = e5en inspiration 1hich has its ori)in in the di5ine = is o% %undamental importance in Islam4 and this can 8e another cause o% con%usion %or the occidental 1ho has 8een told that the ?ur:an is the uslim :&i8le:7 The Old Testament contains material attri8uta8le to a num8er o% di%%erent authors e3tendin) o5er a 5ery lon) period o% time4 sometimes directly inspired and sometimes indirectly4 1hile the Ne1 Testament is compara8le to the :traditions: o% the Prophet4 his acts and sayin)s4 rather than to the ?ur:an as such7 The &i8le is a coat o% many colours7 The ?ur:an is a sin)le %a8ric to 1hich nothin) can 8e added and %rom 1hich nothin) can 8e a8stracted7 In the uslim 5ie14 re5elation 8ypasses human intelli)ence and the limitations o% that intelli)ence4 1hereas inspiration enli)htens intelli)ence 8ut does not a8olish its limitations> an inspired 1or' is still a 1or' o% human authorship7 The orthodo3 5ie1 in Islam is that the ?ur:an is :uncreated:4 althou)h = as the 8oo' 1e hold in our hands = its mode o% e3pression is necessarily determined 8y human contin)encies7 The celestial ?ur:an4 the %ullness o% 1isdom that is 1ith "od and

remains 1ith Him e5erlastin)ly4 contains intentions 1hich4 in our earthly e3perience4 may 8e e3pressed throu)h a 5ariety o% created %acts and e5ents7 It is as thou)h a hea5enly su8stance4 itsel% inarticulate4 1ere crystalli<ed in a lan)ua)e and in modes o% thou)ht determined 8y its predestined milieu7 There is4 ho1e5er4 an incalcula8le disproportion 8et1een the truth as such and the slender resources o% human lan)ua)e and o% the mentalities to 1hich it relates7 E5en in the most ordinary circumstances 1e4 as human creatures4 %ind it di%%icult enou)h to e3press our deepest %eelin)s in speech 1ith any de)ree o% accuracy4 or to con5ey to other people the precise outlines o% ideas 1hich are ;uite clear in our o1n minds4 e5en thou)h this speech is a tool %itted to our needs7 Ho1 much more di%%icult4 then4 %or "od to e3press the 1ealth o% meanin) He 1ishes to con5ey in the lan)ua)e o% men7 It is shredded4 it 8ends and crac's4 under this 8urden> and 1e %ind a)ain and a)ain in the ?ur:an un%inished sentences or the omission o% 1ords re;uired to complete the sense o% a passa)e A1ords usually supplied in 8rac'ets 8y the translatorsB4 )aps o5er 1hich our understandin) must ma'e a leap in the dar'7 :It is4: says Frith9o% ,chuon4 :as thou)h the po5erty=stric'en coa)ulation 1hich is the lan)ua)e o% mortal man 1ere4 under the %ormida8le pressure o% the hea5enly $ord4 8ro'en into a thousand %ra)ments or as i% "od4 in order to e3press a thousand truths4 had 8ut a do<en 1ords at His command and so 1as compelled to ma'e use o% allusions hea5y 1ith meanin)4 o% ellipses4 a8rid)ements and sym8olical syntheses7:D1E 1 .nderstandin) Islam4 Frith9o% ,chuon A"eor)e Allen N .n1inB4 pp7 ##=#(7 :And i% all the trees on earth 1ere pens4 and the sea = 1ith se5en seas added = A1ere in'E yet the 1ords o% Allah could not 8e e3hausted:A?731 72+B7 For the ?ur:an to contain more than a thim8le%ul o% the messa)e it must rely upon ima)es4 sym8ols and para8les 1hich open 1indo1s on to a 5ast landscape o% meanin)4 8ut 1hich are ine5ita8ly lia8le to misinterpretation7 The Prophet:s 1i5es once as'ed him 1hich o% them 1ould 8e the %irst to die7 :The one 1ith the lon)est armI: he said7 They set a8out measurin) each other:s arms 1ith )reat seriousness4 and not until lon) a%ter1ards did they understand that he meant the one 1ho e3tended her arm %urthest in acts o% charity7 There ha5e al1ays 8een uslims 1ho4 li'e the Prophet:s 1i5es4 ha5e ta'en %i)ures o% speech literally and others 1ho ha5e maintained that the inner meanin) o% the te3t 1ill 8e re5ealed to us only on the 0ast 6ay4 1hen the secrets o% hearts are e3posed to)ether 1ith the secrets o% the &oo'> others4 a)ain4 ha5e re)arded the literal meanin) as a 5eil co5erin) the ma9esty o% the content and protectin) it %rom pro%ane eyes7 The disputes 1hich ha5e arisen on this su89ect lead no1here and are there%ore o% no conse;uence7 Each man must %ollo1 his 1ay accordin) to his nature7 &ut in 1hate5er sense it may 8e understood = super%icially or in depth = a scripture such as the ?ur:an pro5ides a rope o% sal5ation %or people o% e5ery 'ind4 the stupid as 1ell as the intelli)ent4 and limited interpretations do not diminish its e%%icacy4 pro5ided they satis%y the needs o% particular souls7 No 8oo' o% human authorship can 8e :%or e5eryone:4 8ut this is precisely the %unction o% a re5ealed scriptute4 and %or this reason it cannot 8e read in the 1ay that 1or's o% human ori)in are read7 The sun and the moon are %or e5eryone = the rain too = 8ut their action in relation

to each indi5idual is di%%erent and4 ultimately4 to some they 8rin) li%e and to some death7 It could 8e said that the ?ur:an is :li'e: these natural phenomena4 8ut it 1ould 8e more e3act to say that they are :li'e: the ?ur:an Athey ha5e one and the same :author:B and are4 as it 1ere4 illustrations inserted 8et1een the pa)es o% the &oo'7 It is an article o% %aith in Islam that the ?ur:an is :inimita8le:> try as he may4 no man can 1rite a para)raph that is compara8le 1ith a 5erse o% the re5ealed &oo'7 This has little to do 1ith the literary merit o% the te3t> in %act a per%ect 1or' o% literature could ne5er 8e :sacred: precisely on account o% the ade;uacy o% its lan)ua)e to its content7 No con9unction o% 1ords4 ho1e5er e3cellent4 could e5er 8e ade;uate to a re5ealed conteur7 It is the e%%icacy o% the 1ords = their trans%ormin) and sa5in) po1er = that is inimita8le4 since no human 8ein) can pro5ide others 1ith a rope o% sal5ation made %rom strands o% his o1n person and his o1n thou)hts7 The ?ur:an4 set on a shel% 1ith other 8oo's4 has a %unction entirely di%%erent to theirs and e3ists in a di%%erent dimension7 It mo5es an illiterate shepherd to tears 1hen recited to him4 and it has shaped the li5es o% millions o% simple people o5er the course o% almost %ourteen centuries> it has nourished some o% the most po1er%ul intellects 'no1n to the human record> it has stopped sophisticates in their trac's and made saints o% them4 and it has 8een the source o% the most su8tle philosophy and o% an art 1hich e3presses its deepest meanin) in 5isual terms> it has 8rou)ht the 1anderin) tri8es o% man'ind to)ether in communities and ci5ili<ations upon 1hich its imprint is apparent e5en to the most casual o8ser5er7 The uslim4 re)ardless o% race and national identity4 is unli'e anyone else 8ecause he has under)one the impact o% the ?ur:an and has 8een %ormed 8y it7 Other 8oo's are passi5e4 the reader ta'in) the initiati5e4 8ut re5elation is an act4 a command %rom on hi)h = compara8le to a li)htnin) %lash4 1hich o8eys no man:s 1him7 As such4 it acts upon those 1ho are responsi5e to it4 remindin) them o% their true %unction as 5icere)ents o% "od on earth4 restorin) to them the use o% %aculties 1hich ha5e 8ecome atrophied =li'e unused muscles = and sho1in) them4 not least 8y the e3ample o% the Prophet4 1hat they are meant to 8e7 To say this is to say that re5elation4 1ithin the limits o% 1hat is possi8le in our %allen condition4 restores to us the condition o% %itrah7 It )i5es 8ac' to the intelli)ence its lost capacity to percei5e and to comprehend supernatural truths4 it )i5es 8ac' to the 1ill its lost capacity to command the 1arrin) %actions in the soul4 and it )i5es 8ac' to sentiment its lost capacity to lo5e "od and to lo5e e5erythin) that reminds us o% Him7 It could ne5er 8e said that the ?ur:an does not e3ist to in%orm4 indeed the &oo' itsel% asserts that this is one o% its %unctions4 8ut it is 5ery much more than a source o% in%ormation7 It e3ercises its e%%ect not only upon the mind 8ut on the 5ery su8stance o% the 8elie5er4 althou)h it can do this only in its inte)ral character4 that is to say as the Ara8ic ?ur:an7 For the listener the sound = and %or the reader the script = ha5e a pro%ound trans%ormin) e%%ect7 The modernist 1ould no dou8t su))est that this e%%ect is e3ercised upon the :unconscious:7 This is to introduce ideas and theories 1hich ha5e no place here4 8ut it could 8e said that there is an e%%ect upon re)ions o% the personality 1hich are in practice concealed

%rom conscious thou)ht or control7 A)ain4 1hen 1e re%er to the human :su8stance: 1hat is meant is not merely the sum total o% our %aculties4 8ut also the su8stratum 1hich %inds e3pression in these %aculties7 &ecause the ?ur:an is the di5ine $ord Ain 1hich 1e oursel5es ori)inatedB it is a8le to %ill e5ery cre5ice o% our 8ein) and4 in a sense4 to replace the de8ris 1hich pre5iously %illed that space 1ith somethin) o% hea5enly ori)in7 The Prophet said@ :A 8elie5er 1ho recites the ?ur:an is li'e a citron 1hose %ra)rance is s1eet and 1hose taste is s1eet7774: and he said also that :he 1ho learns it and )oes to sleep ha5in) it 1ithin him is li'e a 8a) 1ith mus' tied up in it7: $hen he told his companions that :hearts 8ecome rusty 9ust as iron does 1hen 1ater )ets at it: and they as'ed him ho1 this rust 1as to 8e remo5ed4 he replied@ :&y %re;uent remem8rance o% death and %re;uent recitation o% the ?ur:an7:D1E 1 Accordin) to I8n as:ud Aa Companion o% the ProphetB4 anyone 1ho has learned the ?ur:an and holds it lo5in)ly in his heart 1ill :5alue his ni)hts 1hen people are asleep4 his days 1hen people are )i5en to e3cess4 his )rie% 1hen people are 9oy%ul4 his 1eepin) 1hen people lau)h4 his silence 1hen people chatter and his humility 1hen people are arro)ant:7 In other 1ords e5ery moment o% li%e 1ill 8e precious to him4 and he should there%ore 8e :)entle:4 ne5er harsh nor ;uarrelsome4 :not one 1ho ma'es a clamour in the mar'et nor one 1ho is ;uic' to an)er:7 The ?ur:an4 says Frith9o% ,chuon4 is li'e a 1orld o% multiplicity 1hich leads directly to the underlyin) unity7 :The soul4 1hich is accustomed to the %lu3 o% phenomena4 yields to this %lu3 1ithout resistance> it li5es in phenomena and it is 8y them di5ided and dispersed 777 The re5ealed 6iscourse has the 5irtue that it accepts this tendency 1hile at the same time re5ersin) the mo5ement on account o% the celestial nature o% the content and the lan)ua)e4 so that the %ishes o% the soul s1im 1ithout distrust and 1ith their ha8itual rhythm into the di5ine net 777 The ?ur:an is li'e a picture o% e5erythin) the human 8rain can thin' and %eel4 and it is 8y this means that "od e3hausts human dis;uiet4 in%usin) into the 8elie5er silence4 serenity and peace7:D1E 1 .nderstandin) Islam4 Frith9o% ,chuon A"eor)e Allen and .n1inB4 p7 (27 The %aith%ul uslim4 there%ore4 li5es simultaneously in t1o 1orlds@ the %irst is that o% common e3perience and the 8usiness o% time> the second4 1hich he enters 1hen4 as a ne18orn 8a8y4 he hears the 1ords o% the ,hahadah recited in his ear4 is the 1orld o% the &oo'7 As a child he learns sections o% the ?ur:an4 he recites it in his prayers 1hen he is old enou)h to pray and4 i% he is %ortunate4 he dies listenin) to its recital7 At the same time4 the 1orld o% common e3perience is 5i5i%ied 8y the ?ur:anic %ormulas constantly introduced into e5eryday speech7 The $esterner4 1hether Christian or a)nostic4 says :Than' "od: or :"ood8ye: = :"od 8e 1ith you: = or e5en :"od 1illin):4 8ut these 1ords ha5e %or the most part 8een emptied o% meanin)7 There are many decadent uslims 1ho use ?ur:anic phrases in an e;ually thou)htless 1ay4 8ut there is little dou8t that the 5ast ma9ority4 1hen they say al=hamdu li :0lah A:"od 8e praised:B4 'no1 e3actly 1hat they are sayin) and mean it7 This phrase ends and sancti%ies e5ery action4 9ust as

the &asmillah A:In the name o% Allah4 the erci%ul4 the Compassionate:B inau)urates action7 Allahu a'8ar4 1hich is li'e a paraphrase o% the %irst ,hahadah4 indicates not only that :"od is most )reat: 8ut also that He is incompara8ly )reater than any ima)ina8le )reatness7 .nder all possi8le circumstances it reminds us o% the insi)ni%icance o% the human 8e%ore the 6i5ine4 the 1ea'ness o% the mi)htiest human po1er 8e%ore Omnipotence4 and the littleness o% e5erythin) that is other than "od7 It may also e3press the a1e 1hich the pious man %eels 1hen he loo's upon the 1onders o% creation> and 1ithout a sense o% a1e there is no piety7 &y the 1ords in sha:a Allah4 :"od 1illin):4 the uslim reco)ni<es his total dependence upon the di5ine $ill and ac'no1led)es that he can ma'e no %irm plans nor commit himsel% irre5oca8ly to any course4 since he is not the master o% his o1n destiny7 $e may e3press an intention or a hope4 8ut no 5alid predictions can 8e made re)ardin) %uture e5ents still hidden in the 1om8 o% the unseen and 'no1n only to "od7 This and other such phrases4 punctuatin) e5ery con5ersation4 are li'e little %la)s = reminders o% transcendence = pinned on a 1all=map alon) the route 1e ta'e 8et1een 8irth and death4 addin) an e3tra dimension to its other1ise %lat sur%ace7 The 8elie5er is commanded not to approach the ?ur:an :in haste:4 9ust as he is told not to run to the communal prayers4 e5en i% he is late in 9oinin) the con)re)ation> %or it is said that slo1ness and deli8eration come %rom "od4 1hereas haste is o% satanic ori)in7 In the ,urah called al=Fur;an the de%inition o% true uslims includes those 1ho4 :1hene5er they are reminded o% their 0ord:s messa)es4 do not %lin) themsel5es upon them Das i%E dea% and 8lind: A?72(7+3B> 1ho4 in the 1ords o% the commentator Kama'hshari4 :listen to it 1ith 1ide=a1a'e ears and loo' into it 1ith seein) eyes:7 The ?ur:an holds up a mirror to those 1ho approach it4 and i% they come to it %or the 1ron) reasons or in the 1ron) spirit4 they 1ill %ind nothin) there7 I% they are 8y nature super%icial they 1ill %ind in it only super%icialities4 and i% pro%ound4 pro%udities in correspondin) measure7 I% they come arro)antly they 1ill interpret certain 5erses as 9usti%ication %or their arro)ance = it is true enou)h that :the de5il can ;uote ,cripture: = and i% they see' immediate personal re1ard they 1ill 8e re1arded 1ith 8itter %ruit7 Falaluddin Rumi Ad7 A6 12+3B compared the &oo' to a 8ride4 un1illin) to li%t her 5eil 8e%ore a rou)h and importunate lo5er> and most importunate o% all are those 1ho see' to plum8 its depths 1ithout e%%ort4 patience or humility7 It is no mere %i)ure o% speech to say that those 1ho 1ish to 1in the ?ur:an must indeed 1oe it4 and the illiterate man 1ho 1ears a 5erse around his nec' as a :talisman:4 and 1ho lo5in)ly 'isses the &oo' he cannot read4 may 8e closer to the truth than is the casual reader7 $e are told that 1hen Adam and E5e had 8een e3pelled %rom Paradise4 :Adam recei5ed %rom his 0ord 1ords Do% re5elationE4 and He accepted his repentance4 %or indeed He alone is the Relentin)4 the erci%ul7 $e said@ "o do1n to)ether %rom hence4 8ut certainly there cometh to you )uidance %rom e> and as %or those 1ho %ollo1 y )uidance4 no %ear shall come upon them neither shall they )rie5e:A?7273+=3-B7

The precondition %or recei5in) this )uidance4 or at least %or pro%itin) %rom it4 is a1areness o% our need4 a1areness o% the %act that 1e cannot hope to %ind our 1ay across the landscape o% our li5es 8y the use o% purely human %aculties7 For the uslim = as %or the Christian o% earlier times = it is a3iomatic that reason and lo)ic )o to 1or' on material pro5ided4 in the %irst instance4 8y the Creator7 To say this is to e3pose the tri5iality o% :modern: thou)ht4 philosophy and theori<in)4 1hich attempt to operate in a 5acuum4 dealin) only 1ith the %acts o% the physical en5ironment4 i% %acts they are7 Reason is not a source o% 'no1led)e 8ut an instrument %or dealin) 1ith 'no1led)e7 It does not contain 1ithin itsel% any su8stance upon 1hich it could operate Apace 6escartes: :co)ito er)o sum:B4 8ut 1or's 1ith material supplied %rom else1here = 8y re5elation4 intellectual intuition4 or the senses7 For us to 8e a8le to say4 :This is true4 there%ore that must %ollo14: :this: must 8e supplied7 To insist that reason is true to itsel% only 1hen it operates on the o8ser5ed phenomena o% this 1orld is to restrict its %unction ine3cusa8ly7 The antithesis 8et1een re5elation and reason4 so %re;uently de8ated4 is surely a %alse one7 Reason does not 8ecome somethin) di%%erent simply 8ecause it is put to 1or' on in%ormation supplied supernaturally rather than 8y the physical senses> it is still the same %aculty4 and its %unction is unchan)ed7 A 'ni%e is made %or cuttin) su8stances7 I% no su8stance is pro5ided4 it remains unemployed and unemploya8le7 And 1hat is commonly descri8ed as :rationalism: has little to do 1ith reason as such> it indicates no more than the assumption4 in itsel% irrational4 that only the o89ects o% the senses are :real: and that these alone are the proper o89ects o% rational consideration7 $hat is really at issue4 in the conte3t o% rationalism4 is a deep=seated con5iction that only the physical senses pro5ide in%ormation that is certain and un;uestiona8le4 a con5iction 1hich persists in the popular mind in spite o% the %act that science4 in this century4 has in e%%ect demolished the concept o% :solid matter: as it is commonly understood7 This attitude o% mind has to do 1ith 1hat Rene "uenon descri8ed as the :solidi%ication: o% the 1orld = and o% the 1ay in 1hich the 1orld is e3perienced = in the last days o% our cycle o% time7D1E Perhaps the %irst step to1ards %aith in our a)e is a thorou)h)oin) scepticism4 1hich pours its corrosi5e acid upon %alse certainties and 8rin)s a1areness that 1e are li'e s1immers in an ocean amidst 1a5es 1hich chan)e their shape %rom moment to moment and o%%er no hold to our )raspin) %in)ers7 It is only 1hen 1e are truly :at sea: that 1e learn to distin)uish 8et1een 1hat is endurin) and 1hat is ephemeral7 1 ,ee The Rei)n o% ?uantity and the ,i)ns o% the Times4 Rene "uenon4 A0u<ac N Co74 0ondonB7 ,ooner or later in the course o% considerin) Islam4 not only as it is in itsel% = uni;ue and sel%=su%%icient = 8ut also in relation to other reli)ions4 it 8ecomes necessary to raise a ;uestion 1hich admits o% no simple ans1er7 :$ho: re5ealed the ?ur:anG In other 1ords4 do uslims 8elie5e in a :personal: "od as Christians understand this termG To say that the ans1er depends upon 1hat 1e mean 8y :personal: is true enou)h 8ut does not ta'e us 5ery %ar7 The Re5ealer o% the ?ur:an = Allah = is ultimately inde%ina8le 1ithin the cate)ories o% human thou)ht4 let alone those o% lan)ua)e7 6e%initions apply to created thin)s4 and He is the Creator7 $hat His

hands ha5e made = and e5en the use o% the 1ord :hands: immediately demonstrates that all tal' o% "od is %i)urati5e = cannot )rasp Him7 The :most 8eauti%ul names: applied to Him in the ?ur:an indicate aspects o% His nature4 8ut they do not tell us 1hat He is in Himsel%7 :No 5ision encompasseth Him4 yet He encompasseth all 5ision7 He is the ,u8tle4 the A1are: A?7*7123B7 An aspect o% the ?ur:an 1hich the non= uslim %inds particularly con%usin) is its use o% pronouns7 The Re5ealer spea's as :I:4 :$e: and :He:4 and these pronouns are o%ten closely 9u3taposed@ :He is One "od4 so o% e stand in a1e: A?71*7(1B7 ,trictly spea'in) such pronouns are applica8le only to %inite creatures7 Fust 1hen 1e are ready = in our an3iety to reduce :Him: to a mana)ea8le concept = to settle upon a precise de%inition o% the 6i5ine4 :He: e5ades us7 Ha5in) done so4 He none the less permits us to approach Him throu)h concepts7 Accordin) to a hadith ;udsi one o% the Prophet:s sayin)s in 1hich "od spo'e throu)h him@ :I am as y ser5ant thin's I am4 and I am 1ith him 1hen He remem8ers e: Aan alternati5e translation o% this immensely si)ni%icant sayin) 1ould 8e@ :I am 1ith the opinion y ser5ant has o% e4 and I am 1ith him 1hen he ma'es mention o% e:B7 The Andalusian mystic I8n :Ara8i4 1ith a darin) that has shoc'ed the orthodo3 e5er since4 said that 1hat the ordinary 8elie5er 1orships is an ima)e he himsel% has made = or :pro9ected: = and that "od4 in His mercy4 accepts to 8e present in this ima)e7 Ho1e5er distaste%ul this idea may8e to many uslims4 it does preser5e 1hat mi)ht 8e called the di5ine :anonymity: 1hile ma'in) "od accessi8le to 1orship7 For the $estern un8elie5er4 1ho has 8een persuaded that concepts o% the 6i5ine Aincludin) :"od: as suchB are :pro9ections: o% the human mind4 it may e5en 8e enli)htenin)7 In Islam it cannot 8e said that "od is :not a Person:4 %or this 1ould su))est that He is in some 1ay less than this7 0an)ua)e o%%ers no means o% descri8in) 1hat is 8oth personal and in%initely more than personal4 1hich is 1hy anthropomorphism is sometimes called an :allusion: or :indication: AisharahB> there is a su8tle 8ut 5ery important distinction 8et1een an :allusion: on the one hand and4 on the other4 a de%inition7 The same mi)ht 8e said o% the many ?ur:anic re%erences to "od as :seein): and :hearin):7 Our human %aculties o% si)ht and hearin) are indications4 ho1e5er remote4 o% somethin) inherent in the di5ine nature> and yet they are no more than dim re%lections o% 1hat is %ully itsel% only in "od7 He :sees: e5erythin) = e5en4 so 1e are told4 an ant under a roc' on a dar' ni)ht = 1hereas 1e see only 1hat is 8e%ore our eyes4 1ith their 5ery limited ran)e7 He :hears: the rustlin) o% e5ery lea% and the secret thou)hts o% His creatures> 1e hear only sounds that are either 5ery loud or 5ery close to us7 $e ha5e the use o% these %aculties only 8ecause He has them4 8ut 1e ha5e them in so limited a %orm that only 8y courtesy can 1e 8e said to see and to hear7 From the same point o% 5ie14 it could 8e said that "od is supremely a Person4 1hereas our personal identity trem8les on the ed)e o% dissolution and it is only di5ine courtesy that permits us to say :I:7 In Christianity4 as the uslim sees it4 "od has 8een personali<ed4 e5en :humani<ed:4 to such a de)ree that this has 8ecome the dominant element in the reli)ion7 Pro%ound ideas = and the concept o% the di5ine Person is certainly pro%ound = are e5entually simpli%ied to the point o% crudity4 and Christian personalism has 8een one o% the principal causes o% un8elie% and a)nosticism in the modern a)e7 For many people in the $est4 :"od lo5es me: has 8een ta'e to

mean that a person :9ust li'e you and me: = only more po1er%ul = situated in some unima)ina8le place lo5es us in the 1ay human 8ein)s lo5e> %rom this it is a 5ery short step to as'in) ho1 such a person can allo1 us to su%%er as 1e do and 1hy4 i% he is omnipotent4 he has not created a per%ect and pain=%ree 1orld7 There are4 o% course4 no ans1ers to such ;uestions on the le5el on 1hich they are as'ed7 The uslim4 1hen he o5ersimplies4 tends to see "od as a mi)hty !in) 1ho does as he pleases %or entirely inscruta8le reasons and o% 1hom 1e ha5e no ri)ht to as' ;uestions7 This ima)e may 8e no less inade;uate than that o% the lo5in) and indul)ent Father4 8ut in strictly practical terms it seems to protect %aith more e%%ecti5ely than does the contemporary Christian concept7 The %act remains4 ho1e5er4 that all the ima)es 1e ma'e = ser5icea8le as they may 8e to human needs = are inade;uate and there%ore 5ulnera8le to the sceptic:s ar)uments7 Ha5in) as'ed :1ho: the Re5ealer is4 1e may then as' to 1hom the re5elation is )i5en7 :Had $e caused this ?ur:an to descend upon a mountain4 thou 1ouldst indeed ha5e seen it hum8led and cle%t asunder %rom %ear o% Allah7 ,uch ima)es do $e coin %or man'ind that perhaps they may re%lect: A?7(-721B7 &ut it descended upon a man4 and he 1as not cle%t asunder4 since he 1as the predestined recipient o% this 'no1led)e7 Inspiration comes to men diluted or4 as it 1ere4 so%tened> 8ut re5elation is na'ed po1er = an in=8rea' o% reality into the 1orld o% appearances7 Nothin) distin)uishes man more clearly %rom the rest o% creation than the %act that he alone o% all thin)s made is capa8le o% 1ithstandin) this shoc' and a8sor8in) the di5ine messa)e into himsel% 1ithout 8ein) crushed7 Het this is only one aspect o% the 8urden 1hich the human creature 8ears the 8urden 1hich ma'es him human = and he 8ears it4 not on account o% some ar8itrary di5ine decree4 8ut as somethin) %reely accepted7 :$e o%%ered the Trust AamanahB to the hea5ens and the earth and the mountains4 8ut they demurred %rom 8earin) it and %eared to do so7 It 1as man 1ho 8ore it777:A?7337+2B7 The mountains represent %irmness and sta8ility and are true to these ;ualities in 1hich they 1ere created> the earth4 1ith all its 5ariety4 o8eys the natural la1s to 1hich it is su89ect> and the hea5ens4 1hether as celestial space or as the realm o% the an)elic po1ers4 o8ey the di5ine $ill and do not de5iate %rom it7 There ha5e 8een many di%%erent opinions as to the precise nature o% this :trust:4 8ut in )eneral it represents those ;ualities 1hich distin)uish man %rom the rest o% creation@ re%le3i5e consciousness4 a 1ill that is relati5ely %ree4 the capacity to choose 8et1een )ood and e5il4 and an a1areness to 1hich no limits are set7 The supreme trust 1as )i5en to the open=eyed creature4 capa8le o% choice and4 %or that 5ery reason4 capa8le o% 8etrayal7 As such he recei5es the re5elation4 and as such he is sho1n the la1 o% his 8ein)4 not as animals recei5e it Athrou)h irresisti8le instinctB 8ut as a )uidance 1hich he may %reely accept or re9ect7 $hen he 8etrays this trust he has 8ro'en his 1ord7 The ?ur:an spea's o% 1hat is 'no1n as :the 6ay o% Alast:7 :And 1hen thy 0ord 8rou)ht %orth %rom the children o% Adam4 %rom their loins4 their descendants4 and made them testi%y concernin) themsel5es Dsayin)E@ Am I not your 0ord AAlastu 8i ra8hi'umBG They said@ Hea4 truly4 1e testi%yI:A?7+71+2B> and the passa)e concludes 8y e3plainin) that this is :lest you should claim on the 6ay o% Resurrection that you 1ere una1are o% this4 or

lest you should claim@ Our %athers ascri8ed partners to Allah %rom ancient times4 and 1e are descended %rom them7: In other 1ords4 1e ha5e 8y our 5ery nature = 8ecause 1e are 1hat 1e are = committed oursel5es e5en 8e%ore our conscious li%e 8e)an7 A )reat part o% the ?ur:an is de5oted to the story = or series o% stories = o% the con%lict 8et1een %aith and in%idelity4 or 8et1een those 1ho 1ere true to this commitment and those 1ho 8etrayed it7 On the one hand 1e %ollo1 the unceasin) stru))le o% uhammad a)ainst the pa)ans o% ecca> on the other4 1e are told tales o% earlier prophets4 8oth Fe1ish and Ara84 1ho 8rou)ht the )i%t o% re5elation to their peoples and 1ere re9ected and persecuted7 The )reat drama o% "od:s sel%= re5elation to the ,emites is un%olded4 and 8eside it all pro%ane history could 8e said to record little more than the scuttlin) o% mice in a larder7 It has 8een remar'ed4 as a curiosity4 that one o% the earliest uslim historians de5oted the ma9or section o% his history o% the 1orld to the story o% Husu% Athe &i8lical FosephB4 1hile dismissin) the rise and %all o% the Roman Empire in a couple o% pa)es7 This order o% priorities is entirely understanda8le4 %or the real history o% human'ind has little to do 1ith ne1spaper headlines4 or 1ith the e5ents that 1ould ha5e made headlines7 There is an uno8ser5ed4 almost unrecorded history that is ultimately more si)ni%icant than the succession o% day=to=day e5ents4 1hich are soon scattered li'e ashes in the 1ind7 $ho no1 cares that such=and=such a )reat 'in) li5ed and died lon) a)oG $hereas the stoiy o% the prophets is timeless and is presented as such in the ?ur:an4 1ith an indi%%erence to chronolo)y that has distur8ed many $estern orientalists7 They ha5e 8een distur8ed also 8y the apparent contradiction 8et1een the claim that uhammad 1as :unlettered: and the inclusion in the ?ur:an o% stories and :le)ends: = sometimes o% &i8lical ori)in = 1hich 1ere part o% the cultural herita)e o% the Ara8s7 A %alse alternati5e is put %or1ard@ either he recei5ed his 'no1led)e directly %rom "O6 or else he a8sor8ed it %rom the milieu in 1hich he li5ed7 The ?ur:an states e3plicitly that :ne5er did $e send any messen)er sa5e 1ith the lan)ua)e o% his people4 that he mi)ht ma'e Dthe messa)eE clear to them:A?71#7#B4 and in this case the term :lan)ua)e: has a 1ide si)ni%icance and means a )reat deal more than the collection o% 1ords used 8y the people concerned> it includes the ima)es and thou)ht=%orms = indeed the 1hole culture = %amiliar to them4 %or only in this 1ay can the messa)e 8e clearly understood7 The &i8lical stories in ;uestion4 to)ether 1ith certain traditional Ara8 materials4 such as the stories o% Hud and ,alih4 1ere part o% the milieu in 1hich the ?ur:anic messa)e 1as em8odied7 Fust as the re5elation clothes itsel% in 1ords that are in common use rather than in an incomprehensi8le ton)ue ne1=minted %or its purpose4 so it ma'es use o% illustrati5e stories %ound in the store o% common 'no1led)e7 It is a3iomatic in e5ery reli)ious conte3t that "od 1or's 1ith the materials a5aila8le to Him in a )i5en milieu4 materials 1hich are4 in any case4 His o1n creations7 The ?ur:an as it e3ists in this 1orld = thou)h in its essence :uncreated: = is composed out o% elements o% the en5ironment into 1hich it 1as pro9ected4 9ust as the spirit4 humani<ed4 clothes itsel% in the physical and psychic material o% the 1orld into 1hich it has entered7

The di5ine intention4 ho1e5er4 is to :sa5e: and :remind: man'ind4 not to pro5ide us 1ith historical in%ormation7 :All that $e relate to thee concernin) the messen)ers is to stren)then thy heart there8y> and in this has come to thee the truth and a reminder %or 8elie5ers: A?7117122B7 In other 1ords4 their purpose is to con%irm the messa)e )i5en to uhammad in terms o% continuity = demonstratin) that there is nothin) stran)e or outlandish in it = 1hile at the same time callin) to mind the persecution o% earlier messen)ers and the un1illin)ness o% man'ind throu)hout history to %ace the truth and %ul%il the :Trust:7 :It cannot 8e stressed too o%ten4: says uhammad Asad4 :that Cnarrati5eC as such is ne5er the purpose o% the ?ur:an> 1hene5er it relates the stories o% earlier prophets4 or alludes to ancient le)ends or to historical e5ents that too' place 8e%ore the ad5ent o% Islam or durin) the li%etime o% the Prophet4 the aim is in5aria8ly a moral lesson> and since one and the same e5ent4 or e5en le)end4 usually has many %acets re5ealin) as many moral implications4 the ?ur:an re5erts a)ain and a)ain to the same stories4 8ut e5ery time 1ith a sli)ht 5ariation o% stress on this or that aspect o% the %undamental truths underlyin) the ?ur:anic re5elation as a 1hole7:D1E Else1here he adds that the :many=sided4 many=layered truth: underlyin) these stories in5aria8ly has a 8earin) :on some o% the hidden depths and con%licts 1ithin our o1n human psyche:7D1E 1 The essa)e o% the ?uran4 uhammad Asad4 p73217

The ?ur:an is not a 8oo' o% philosophy4 8ut it is the source=8oo' o% philosophy> not a treatise on psycholo)y4 8ut the 'ey to a psycholo)y7 $ritin) %rom an entirely di%%erent point o% 5ie14 yet in per%ect a)reement 1ith Asad4 ,eyyed Hossein Nasr remar's that the messa)e couched in historical terms is :addressed to the human soul:7 :The hypocrite Amuna%i;B 1ho di5ides people and spreads %alsehood in matters concernin) reli)ion also e3ists 1ithin the soul o% e5ery man4 as does the person 1ho has )one astray4 or he 1ho %ollo1s the C,trai)ht PathC 777 All the actors on the sta)e o% sacred history as recounted in the ?ur:an are also sym8ols o% %orces e3istin) 1ithin the soul o% man7 The ?ur:an is4 there%ore4 a 5ast commentary on man:s terrestrial e3istence7:D2E 2 ldeals and Realities o% Islam4 ,eyyed Hossein Nasr A"eor)e Allen N .n1inB4 p7 (17 It mi)ht 1ell 8e as'ed 1hat rele5ance to his o1n li%e the uslim o% the iddle A)es 1ould ha5e seen in the constant ?ur:anic re%erences to the 'a%irun = the :un8elie5ers: or :deniers: = i% he 1as una1are o% this psycholo)y4 %or he 1as unli'ely e5er to ha5e met such creatures4 and unless he 1as a learned man4 mi)ht 1ell ha5e supposed them to 8e e3tinct7 E5en in our time a tra5eller in Ara8ia noted recently that some &edouin 1ith 1hom he tal'ed in a remote part o% the country thou)ht that e5eryone in the 1orld 1as uslim> it had not occurred to them that there mi)ht still 8e Christians4 let alone un8elie5ers4 sur5i5in) in odd corners o% the )lo8e7 The uslim 1ho %ollo1s the ?ur:anic in9unctions to :thin': and to :meditate: 'no1s that he har8ours a 5ariety o% 'a%irun 1ithin his o1n soul and that he must 1a)e 1ar on them i% he is to sur5i5e as a man o% %aith7 The Christian tal's o% :dou8ts:

and sometimes treats them 1ith respect = are not all opinions 1orthy o% respectG = 1hereas the uslim is more li'ely to identi%y them as 1hisperin)s o% the de5il4 1hose ha8it it is4 accordin) to the last ,urah o% the ?ur:an4 to :1hisper in the 8reasts o% men:7 :Aisha recounted ho1 one ni)ht the Prophet le%t her 8ed %or a 1hile and she 1as trou8led7 $hen he returned he as'ed 1hat 1as the matter 1ith her and 1hether she 1as 9ealous7 :$hy should someone li'e me not 8e 9ealous concernin) someone li'e youG: she as'ed7 :Hour de5il has come to youI: he said7 : essen)er o% Allah4 ha5e I a de5ilG: He told her that she had4 so she as'ed i% he had one too7 :Hes4: he said4 :8ut Allah has helped me a)ainst him777: This stri'es a note 1hich the occidental4 1ith his Christian 8ac')round4 %inds stran)e and someho1 out o% place in the traditions o% the Prophet> 1hen he meets 1ith somethin) similar in the te3t o% the ?ur:an he is usually either astonished or shoc'ed7 He as's ho1 it is possi8le to 8elie5e that the Creator o% the hea5ens and the earth could concern Himsel% = in a re5elation destined to trans%orm a )reat sector o% humanity = 1ith instructin) the Prophet:s 1i5es in their duty4 1arnin) uhammad:s dinner )uests not to outstay their 1elcome4 or clearin) a youn) )irl o% un9ust suspicions7 It is the last o% these e3amples4 the case o% :Aisha:s nec'lace4 1hich has 8een the %ocus o% the most derisory comments7 Accordin) to traditional accounts o% the incident4 the Prophet 1as returnin) 1ith his troops %rom a campai)n in the si3th year a%ter the Emi)ration to edina> they halted 8rie%ly in the desert on the %inal sta)e o% their 9ourney7 :Aisha le%t her litter to ans1er a call o% nature7 Returnin) to the encampment she reali<ed that she had lost her nec'lace o% Hemenite a)ates and 1ent 8ac' to loo' %or it7 The time had come to 8rea' camp4 and the people 1ho li%ted her litter on to a camel did not reali<e that she 1as no lon)er in it7 The army continued on its 1ay4 lea5in) her 8ehind7 Findin) hersel% a8andoned4 she sat do1n in the sand and %ell asleep4 and it 1as here that a youn) man %ollo1in) in the rear)uard disco5ered her7 ountin) her on his camel4 he hurried on and cau)ht up 1ith the main 8ody o% the army7 Ton)ues 1a))ed4 as they 1ere 8ound to do4 and those 1ho resented her in%luence or4 more pro8a8ly4 that o% her %ather 1ere ;uic' to 5oice their suspicions7 Hostilities and ri5alries pre5iously un5oiced came to the sur%ace4 and the Prophet himsel% 1as assailed 1ith contradictory ad5ice7 His son=in=la14 :Ali4 pointed out that trou8les o% this 'ind a%%licted many hus8ands and that there 1ere4 a%ter all4 plenty o% other 1omen in the 1orld4 a remar' %or 1hich :Aisha ne5er %or)a5e him4 1ith %ar=reachin) historical conse;uences> she hersel%4 8et1een %its o% 1eepin)4 remained de%iant7 $hen uhammad came to her4 sad and deeply trou8led4 she told him@ :I 'no1 1hat they are sayin) a8out me7 Hou seem to 8elie5e it7 I am li'e Faco8 1hen he said@ CPatience is most 8ecomin)4 and Allah it is 1hose help is to 8e sou)htC7: A month passed4 a month durin) 1hich the Prophet recei5ed no %urther re5elations7 Then :Aisha:s patience 1as re1arded4 not throu)h a dream 1hich 1as the most %or 1hich she had dared to hope = 8ut in the 5erses contained in the ,urah called :0i)ht:4 a re5elation 1hich e3onerated her and condemned her detractors4 1ho 1ere told@ :$hen you too' it up 1ith your ton)ues4 utterin) 1ith your mouths somethin) o% 1hich you had no 'no1led)e4 you thou)ht it a tri%le7 In

the si)ht o% Allah it is somethin) immense: A?72#71(B7 $ith this came 5erses o% le)islation concernin) accusations o% adultery 1hich ha5e remained 5alid %or e5er a%ter7 An a%%air that mi)ht ha5e seemed a mere tri%le = and mi)ht seem so still under di%%erent circumstances = 1as sho1n to 8e :somethin) immense in the si)ht o% "od:7 :Aisha could not ha5e understood the 5ast dimensions o% the sta)e upon 1hich she had 8een summoned to play her part4 8ut e5erythin) that happened upon this sta)e too' place in so 8rilliant a li)ht = and had such tremendous conse;uences = that 1e should not thin' it stran)e i% "od chose to inter5ene in the matter> nor is it di%%icult 1ith hindsi)ht4 a1are o% the si)ni%icance o% this incident in the de5elopment o% Islam4 to reali<e that the loss o% a nec'lace 8y a %i%teen=year= old )irl tra5ellin) throu)h an earthly desert mi)ht 8e o% )reater si)ni%icance than )alactic catastrophes or the death o% stars7 Amon) the comedies o% misunderstandin) 1hich can arise 8et1een men o% di%%erent cultures none is more %rustratin) than the situation in 1hich t1o people say the same thin) in almost the same 1ords and mean ;uite di%%erent thin)s 8y 1hat they say7 The occidental4 loo'in) up at the ni)ht s'y and re%lectin) on astronomical space 1ill con%ess4 sometimes 1ith a shi5er4 ho1 insi)ni%icant he %eels in the midst o% such distances7 The uslim readily ac'no1led)es his insi)ni%icance 8e%ore "od 0a ilaha illa :0lahI = 8ut he ne5er %eels alone in an alien uni5erse7 The uslim 1ill also say that the natural 1orld 1as created %or man> the occidental a)rees 1ith enthusiasm and proceeds to tear up the earth 1ith his 8ulldo<ers7 The uslim does not %eel d1ar%ed 8y the immensities o% nature 8ecause he 'no1s himsel% to 8e the 5icere)ent o% "od standin) upri)ht in the midst o% these immensities7 $e4 thou)h small in stature4 see the stars> they do not see us7 $e hold them 1ithin our consciousness and measure them in accordance 1ith our 'no1led)e> they 'no1 us not7 $e master them in their courses7 Immensity cannot 'no1 itsel%> only in human consciousness can such a concept e3ist7 In this sense man is the eye o% "od and is there%ore the measure o% all thin)s4 and they4 %ar %rom 8ein) alien Aand there%ore menacin)B4 ha5e e3istence 1ithin our a1areness o% them and are there%ore li'e e3tensions o% our 8ein)7 As to the 1orld 8ein) made %or man4 the uslim means 8y this that it is li'e a 5ast picture=8oo' throu)h 1hich "od communicates 1ith His 5icere)ent = the o8ser5er o% the uni5erse = and 1ith him alone7 He has no inclination to tear this picture=8oo' to pieces li'e an unruly child7 The ?ur:an and the )reat phenomena o% nature are t1in mani%estations o% the di5ine act o% ,el%=re5elation7 For Islam4 the natural 1orld in its totality is a 5ast %a8ric into 1hich the :si)ns: o% the Creator are 1o5en7 It is si)ni%icant that the 1ord meanin) :si)ns: or :sym8ols:4 ayat4 is the same 1ord that is used %or the :5erses: o% the ?ur:an7 Earth and s'y4 mountains and stars4 oceans and %orests and the creatures they contain are4 as it 1ere4 :5erses: o% a sacred 8oo'7 :Indeed Allah disdaineth not to coin the similitude o% a )nat or o% somethin) e5en smaller than that: A?7272*B7 Creation is one4 and He 1ho created the ?ur:an is also He 1ho

created all the 5isi8le phenomena o% nature7 &oth are a communication %rom "od to man7 :In your creation and in all the 8easts scattered on the earth there are si)ns %or people o% sure %aith7 In the alternation o% ni)ht and day and in the pro5ision Allah sendeth do1n %rom the hea5ens 1here8y He ;uic'eneth the earth a%ter its death4 and in the distri8ution o% the 1inds4 are si)ns %or people 1ho are intelli)ent:A?7#,7M*B7 And@ :Truly in the creation o% the hea5ens and o% the earth4 and the succession o% ni)ht and day4 and in the ships 1hich speed throu)h the sea 1ith 1hat is use%ul to man4 and in the 1aters 1hich Allah sendeth do1n %rom the hea5ens 777 and in the order o% the 1inds4 and the clouds that run their appointed courses 8et1een hea5en and earth4 are si)ns indeed %or people 1ho are intelli)ent:A?7271*#B7 &ecause@ :He it is 1ho hath spread the earth 1ide and placed in it %irm mountains and runnin) 1aters4 and created therein t1o se3es o% Dmany 'inds o%E plant4 and causeth the ni)ht to co5er the day7 Truly in all this are si)ns %or people 1ho re%lect7: $hether 1e scan )reat distances or loo' 1ithin oursel5es4 the messa)e is the same@ :$e shall sho1 them Our si)ns on the hori<ons and 1ithin themsel5es until they are assured that this is the truth7 6oth not thy 0ord su%%ice thee4 since He is o5er all thin)s the $itnessG:A?7#17(3B7 The 5ie1 o% the natural 1orld as a :8oo':D1E is %amiliar in occidental poetry4 8ut this ima)e is usually %i)urati5e i% not %anci%ul or sentimental7 For the uslim it is %act4 as sure as the %act that a man has t1o eyes and a nose7 $hether 1e can read these si)ns or not4 their presence all around us is somethin) concrete4 li'e 1ritin) on a pa)e7 Another 1ay o% puttin) this 1ould 8e to say that4 %or Islam4 there is nothin) that does not ha5e a meanin)4 and these meanin)s are not isolated 1ords on the pa)e> they are coherent and interconnected4 and it may 8e mentioned in passin) that the ancient science o% astrolo)y is %ounded4 not on the impro8a8le notion that the stars and the planets :in%luence: human li5es4 8ut upon the 8elie% that 1e and they are part o% a sin)le pattern4 and that a relationship necessarily e3ists 8et1een the di%%erent elements 1hich ma'e up the pattern7 1 :That uni5ersal and pu8lic manuscript4: as ,ir Thomas &ro1ne called it7 This leads directly to the 'ey concept o% ta$Hi64 sometimes translated as :monotheism: and occasionally treated as an alternati5e desi)nation %or the reli)ion o% Islam7 The root $H6 has the meanin) o% 8oth unity and the act o% uni%ication7 $ahada means :he 1as uni;ue:> 1hen the :h: is dou8led the 5er8 means :he united: or :he made into one:4 and 1ahid is :one:> 1ahdaniyah is :solitude:4 a mu1ahhid is a :monotheist:4 and a muta1ahhid is a :solitary:7 ,ince the 8asic theme o% Islam is the oneness o% "od and the unity o% His creation4 it is o85ious that the terms deri5ed %rom this root are at the heart o% the reli)ion7 The principle o% ta1hid is demonstrated 8y the unity o% the 5ery su8stance o% the uni5erse4 %rom the %arthest )ala3ies to our o1n 8odies and e5erythin) 1e handle4 as it is 8y the physical la1s 1hich )o5ern them7 $hate5er may 8e percei5ed or surmised a8out the inner structure o% :matter:4 its ultimate nature is a mystery 'no1n only to :the !no1er o% the unseen and the apparent:7 $hat can 8e clearly seen is that the entire natural 1orld is a sin)le %a8ric o% innumera8le threads4 and

that the li5es o% all the creatures in it depend4 directly or indirectly4 upon the li)ht o% the sun and the outpourin) o% 1ater4 9ust as all depend4 %rom one moment to the ne3t4 upon the di5ine 0i)ht and the outpourin) o% 5i5i%yin) )race7 &ein) is one4 and all that has 8ein) participates in this oneness7 There is no 1ay in 1hich &ein) could 8e di5ided into separate and sealed compartments4 %or such a compartment 1ould at once %all 8ac' into nothin)ness7 odern man has ta'en the road to death precisely 8ecause4 in his study and his treatment o% the natural 1orld4 he has acted as thou)h such di5isions e3isted7 In all li5in) thin)s4 as also in the 5ery su8stance o% roc's and soil4 1e see the un%oldin) o% chemical cycles dependin) upon interaction 8et1een the sun:s heat4 the atmosphere and the oceans> in all o% them the role o% 1ater is crucial4 and this is the su8stance most %re;uently mentioned in the ?ur:an7 :Allah created out o% 1ater e5ery creature 777 Allah createth 1hat He 1ill7 &ehold4 Allah is o5er all thin)s all=determinin):A?72#7#(B7 $ater is sho1n as the li%e=)i5in) sym8ol o% 8lessin)4 mercy4 %ecundity and purity4 and in the cycle o% its mo5ements = ascendin) to %orm clouds and descendin) as rain it is the supreme intermediary 8et1een 1hat is a8o5e and 1hat is 8eneath7D1E The Prophet:s close companion Anas reported@ :A sho1er o% rain %ell 1hen 1e 1ere 1ith the messen)er o% Allah and he remo5ed his )arment until some o% the rain %ell upon him7 $e as'ed him 1hy he did this and he replied@ C&ecause it has so recently 8een 1ith its 0ordC7: 1 For these4 and other o8ser5ations in this chapter re)ardin) the relationship 8et1een the phenomena o% the natural 1orld and the ?ur:anic re5elation4 the author is inde8ted to an as yet unpu8lished 1or' 8y r F7 Peter Ho8son7 The trans%ormations o% 1ater = the only su8stance 1e %ind in its natural state in the three %orms o% solid4 li;uid and 5apour = in themsel5es constitute a :messa)e:7 $e thin' o% it as cool4 yet it is uni;ue in its capacity to store heat> the placid sur%ace o% a la'e is a common sym8ol o% peace and ;uietude4 yet 1ater is trans%ormed into lashin) rain4 tempestuous seas and %lood=s1ollen ri5ers7 In the Far East it is the sym8ol o% humility4 yet it is not inert4 and 1ithout it the chemistry o% li%e 1ould 8e impossi8le7 For the uslim it is the )reat puri%yin) a)ent 1hich 1ashes a1ay e5en the most deeply rooted sins4 and it has 8een chosen 8y "od to 8e intimately associated 1ith our prayers throu)h the a8lution 1hich precedes them7 :6o not the un8elie5ers see that the hea5ens and the earth 1ere o% one piece 8e%ore $e clo5e them asunder4 and $e made %rom 1ater e5ery li5in) thin)7 $ill they not then 8elie5eG:A?721732B7 I% the term :science: has any precise meanin) = relatin) it to 'no1led)e o% the real = then it is the science o% ta1hid7 It could 8e said4 and 1ith )ood reason4 that the 'a%ir should ne5er 8e permitted to approach the physical sciences or to in5ol5e himsel% in them7 He does not possess the 'ey to them4 and he is there%ore 8ound to )o astray and to lead others astray7 He di5ides 1hen he should unite4 and his %ra)mented mind deals only 1ith %ra)ments@ it is little 1onder that he splits the atom4 1ith de5astatin) results7 Those 1ho 'no1 nothin) o% the Principle are incompetent to study its mani%estations7 :Pursue not that o% 1hich thou hast no 'no1led)e7 ,urely hearin) and si)ht and heart = all these = shall 8e called to account:A?71+73*B7

Althou)h si)ns may 8e %ound in e5erythin) that comes to us4 as thou)h a ri5er at our doorstep carried these messa)es on its sur%ace4 the ?ur:an Ali'e other sacred 8oo'sB spea's in terms o% empirical e3perience4 since it is intended to endure throu)h the a)es and cannot 8ind itsel% to the :scienti%ic: theories o% any particular time7 Its ima)es are the phenomena o% nature as they appear to us in our e3perience = the risin) and settin) o% the sun4 the domed s'y a8o5e and the mountains4 1hich are li'e 1ei)hts set upon the earth7 ,cienti%ic o8ser5ations chan)e accordin) to the preconceptions o% the o8ser5er and the instruments at his disposal4 and the speculations 1hich 8lin'ered human minds construct on the 8asis o% these o8ser5ations chan)e no less s1i%tly7 &ut man:s e3perience o% the 5isual uni5erse does not chan)e7 The sun :rises: %or me today as it :rose: %or the man o% ten thousand years a)o7 ,ym8olism resides also in the incidents and patterns o% our e3perience4 8ut it is less easily %ound in the underside o% thin)s = the mechanism 8y 1hich they are 8rou)ht a8out7 A cloc' is a cloc'7 The hands mo5in) on its %ace con5ey in%ormation7 Its inner 1or's do not tell us the time7 To 8e %ully a1are o% this %lood o% messa)es re;uires a closeness to the natural 1orld that is uncommon in our time4 and the man 1ho is 1holly indi%%erent to nature is much li'e the man 1ho is dea% to the ?ur:an> not only is he separated %rom the 1orld a8out him4 8ut he is ine5ita8ly di5ided 1ithin himsel%7 The French 1riter Fac;ues Ellul4 1hose 8oo' 0a Techni;ue is amon) the most pro%ound and percepti5e criti;ues o% the modern 1orld pu8lished in this century4 has remar'ed Aas ha5e many othersB that the sacred has al1ays 8een an e3perience related to nature4 to the phenomena o% 8irth4 death4 )eneration4 the lunar cycles and so on7 : an 1ho lea5es that milieu is still im8ued 1ith the %eelin) and ima)ery deri5ed %rom the sacred4 8ut these are no lon)er re5i5ed and re9u5enated 8y e3perience7 The city person is separated %rom the natural en5ironment and4 as a conse;uence4 the sacred si)ni%ications no lon)er ha5e any point o% contact 1ith e3perience7 They soon dry up %or lac' o% support in man:s ne1 e3perience 1ith the arti%icial 1orld o% ur8an technolo)y7 The arti%icial4 the systemati<ed4 and the rational seem incapa8le o% )i5in) 8irth to an e3perience o% the same order77:D1E He adds that it 1as :in relation to the %orest4 the moon4 the ocean the desert4 the storm> the sun4 the rain4 the tree777 that the sacred 1as ordered:4 and else1here he de%ines the sacred Ain relation to manB as :the )uarantee that he is not thrust out into an illo)ical space and a limitless time:7 The no5elty o% our era4 he says4 :is that man:s deepest e3perience is no lon)er 1ith nature777 an in the presence and at the heart o% the technical milieu %eels the ur)ent need to )et his 8earin)s4 to disco5er meanin) and an ori)in4 an authenticity in this inauthentic 1orld7:D2E The outcome4 he says4 is :a sacrali<ation o% society:4 as also o% the :masters o% desacrali<ation in our modern era A ar34 Niet<sche4 FreudB:4 1hile political mani%estos replaced sacred scriptures7 Then 8lood 8e)ins to %lo1 and the 8ro'en 8odies pile up4 and a ne1 idolatry4 more deadly than the old4 demands human sacri%ice7 To sa5e him %rom %allin) into this trap the uslim needs the ?ur:an4 8ut he also needs its complement4 the re5elation 1ritten in natural phenomena> 1ithout this4 much o% the ?ur:an is incomprehensi8le7

1 The Ne1 6emons4 Fac;ues Ellul A o18rayB4 p7 *27 2 l8id74 pp7*(=*+7 The sacred rites o% Islam4 in particular the %i5e daily prayers and the month o% %astin)4 are intimately related to the natural cycles rather than to mechanical time7 The times o% prayer are determined 8y the 8rea'in) o% da1n4 the risin) o% the sun4 its comin) to the <enith4 its mid=decline4 sunset and the close o% day7 And althou)h the calendar tells us 1hen the month o% Ramadan 8e)ins and ends4 it is considered essential that the dates should 8e esta8lished 8y the physical si)htin) o% the ne1 moon4 so that the li5ed e3perience ta'es precedence o5er all scienti%ic calculations7 A computer can esta8lish not only the minute 8ut the e3act second at 1hich the ne1 moon 1ill 8ecome 5isi8le in a )i5en locality> this counts %or nothin) 8eside the actual si)htin) o% that slim luminous crescent on the hori<on7 &y clin)in) stu88ornly to the principle o% :si)htin):4 the uslims not least those li5in) in the $est = demonstrate their a1areness that the :si)ns: o% "od are to 8e %ound in our e3perience o% nature rather than in our thou)ht processes7 The natural 1orld 1as compared earlier to a :picture=8oo':> it must no1 8e added that this is a 8oo' %illed 1ith li%e and acti5ity4 and that these pictures leap out %rom the pa)e7 Their acti5ity is praise4 and their li%e is nourished and sustained 8y the di5ine mercy7 :,eest thou not that it is Allah 1hom all thin)s in the hea5ens and the earth praise = and the 8irds in %li)ht outstretchedG Each 'no1eth its Dmode o%E prayer and praise to Him4 and Allah is a1are o% all that they do:A?72#7#1B7 And a)ain@ :The se5en hea5ens and the earth and all that they contain praise Him4 nor is there anythin) that does not cele8rate His praise4 thou)h ye understand not their praise7 &ehold4 He is clement4 %or)i5in): A?71+7##B7 And@ :Hast thou not seen that unto Allah prostrate themsel5es 1hatsoe5er is in the hea5ens and 1hatsoe5er is in the earth = the sun and the moon and the stars and the hills and the trees and the 8easts and many o% man'ind777G:A?72271-B7 Accordin) to a hadith4 uhammad told his people that there 1as once a prophet 1ho 1as stun) 8y an ant and there%ore ordered that a colony o% ants should 8e 8urned4 and "od reproached him@ :&ecause an ant stun) thee4 thou hast 8urned a community 1hich )lori%ied e7: All creatures and all phenomena are instructed in their courses and )uided to1ards the %ul%ilment o% their destiny A1hich is their place in the uni5ersal patternB@ :And thy 0ord inspired the 8ee@ Choose %or thysel% d1ellin)s in the mountains and in the trees and in 1hat DmenE 8uild> then eat o% all %ruits and %ollo1 hum8ly the paths o% thy 0ord made smooth777:A?7 1*7*-=*/B7 The praise 1hich ascends %rom all creation re%lects4 as thou)h in mirrors 8eyond num8er4 the mercy 1hich descends %rom hea5en and 1hich 8rou)ht e5erythin) into 8ein)7 Natural 8eauty and the nourishment 1hich 'eeps all li5in) creatures in e3istence4 to)ether 1ith the rain 1hich re5i5es the dry earth4 are the most %re;uently ;uoted e3amples o% the operation o% this mercy7 :The earth4 He set it do1n %or li5in) creatures> in it are %ruit and date=palms 1ith their sheaths4 the )rain 1ith its %odder=lea%4 and the %ra)rant her8s7 $hich then o% thy 0ord:s 8ene%actions 1ill ye 8oth )ainsayG:A?7((712=13B7 And so@ :0et man loo' upon his nourishment@ ho1 $e pour out the pourin) rain and split the %urro1ed earth4 and

therein )ro1 )rain and )rapes and clo5er4 oli5es and palms4 orchards rich 1ith trees4 and %ruit and pro5ender4 a ministration %or you and your %loc's:A?7-272#=32B7 Here a)ain the principle o% ta1hid is 8ut thinly 5eiled 8y multiplicity4 %or all creatures are sustained 8y %ood e3chan)ed 8et1een them in a 5ast 1e8 o% mutual dependence4 in 1hich 8oth competition and co=operation play their part4 the death o% one 8ein) the li%e o% another4 the )i%t o% one 8ein) the sustainin) o% another or o% many7 This %ra)ile 1e8 o% mutual dependence 1ithin 1hich all creatures e3ist4 protected %rom lethal radiation only 8y the thin co5erlet o% the atmosphere4 is situated in a precarious con%ine 8et1een the un'no1a8le e3tent o% the cosmos and the impenetra8le depths o% the earth 1ith its %iery interior7 &oth a8o5e and 1ithin these physical realms o% the un'no1n is the )reater :.n'no1n: Aal=)hay8B4 8eyond the %irmament and 8eneath the deepest layers o% our e3istence7 $ithin this narro1 con%ine = 5ulnera8le as 1e are = 1e must tread care%ully upon the earth4 treatin) it 1ith the same respect that 1e sho1 to the &oo' o% Allah4 %or althou)h :He hath made the earth hum8led to you:4 and althou)h 1e are %ree :to 1al' in its tracts and eat o% His pro5idin):4 yet@ :Are ye assured o% Him that is in hea5en that He mi)ht not cause the earth to s1allo1 youG For 8eholdI The earth is ;ua'in):A?7*+71(=1*B7 A)ain and a)ain the ?ur:an reminds us o% the %ra)ility o% all that e3ists7 The 5e)etation 1hich sprin)s into li%e under the 8lessin) o% rain is soon cut do1n and 8ecomes :as stra1:7 E5en the mountains = ima)es o% sta8ility = are precarious@ :And thou seest the mountains4 1hich thou deemest so %irm4 pass a1ay as clouds pass a1ay777:A?72+7--B7 The alternations o% li%e and death4 li'e those o% day and ni)ht4 are as a shado1=play in 1hich nothin) endures under the moon = that ine3ora8le time='eeper = 1hich4 a%ter 1a3in)4 :returns li'e an a)ed sic'le=8ranch o% a palm:A?73*73/B7 Het the transience o% all thin)s = nothin) endurin)4 nothin) e3empt %rom death = has a positi5e aspect4 %or it is precisely this %ra)ility 1hich ma'es the thin screen o% e3istence transparent to 1hat lies 8eyond it> 1ere it solid4 it 1ould 8e opa;ue7 E5en on the simplest human le5el4 no man 1ould thin' o% "od i% he did not 'no1 that he has to die7 &eyond the multiplicity o% created phenomena and the apparent endlessness o% space and time stands Allah4 the One4 a%ter the mention o% 1hose name the pious uslim adds4 :"lori%ied 8e He and %ar a8o5e all association4: 5eiled = so it is sometimes said = 8y se5enty thousand 5eils o% li)ht and o% dar'ness> %or 1ere He to sho1 Himsel% plain4 un5eilin) His ma9esty o5er the 1orld4 e5erythin) 1ould dissol5e in the instant4 as 1ould this earth i% 8rou)ht close to the sun7 For a little 1hile4 then4 1e are %ree to 1ander in a 'ind o% t1ili)ht and e5en 1ith an illusion o% sa%ety4 o8edient to the re5ealed 0a1 or diso8edient as the case may 8e4 8lind and dea% to the truth i% 1e choose to 8e so7 In this 1ay 1e commit oursel5es4 identi%y oursel5es4 demonstratin) openly 1ho and 1hat 1e are> and 5ery soon our :little 1hile: is o5er4 and 1e come to 9ud)ement7 One o% the su8sidiary names sometimes )i5en to the ?ur:an is al=Fur;an4 deri5ed %rom a 5er8al root meanin) :he separated: and usually translated as :The 6iscrimination: or :The Criterion:7 This identi%ies the &oo' as a :,1ord o%

6iscrimination: 1hich cuts throu)h the con%usion in human e3perience 8et1een truth and %alsehood4 as also 8et1een )ood and e5il7 In a chaotic en5ironment people li5e out their li5es in a 'ind o% :)rey <one: in 1hich all distinctions are 8lurred7 The ?ur:an 1arns repeatedly that the comin) o% a messen)er 1ith a re5elation %rom hea5en is li'e a %oretaste o% the 0ast Fud)ement4 a%ter 1hich there can 8e no e3cuse %or remainin) in a state o% uncertainty7 Re5elation casts upon the 1hole scene a 8rilliant li)ht in 1hich e5erythin) can 8e seen as it is and assi)ned its proper place7 :There is no coercion in reli)ion7 The ri)ht 1ay is hence%orth distinct %rom error7 He 1ho re9ecteth the po1ers o% e5il and 8elie5eth in Allah hath indeed )rasped a %irm handhold777: A?7271(*B7 $e are told that :thy 0ord 1ould ne5er destroy a community %or their 1ron)doin) so lon) as they 1ere una1are:A?7*7131B4 8ut :%or e5ery people there is a messen)er and4 1hen their messen)er hath come4 it 1ill 8e 9ud)ed 8et1een them %airly and they 1ill not 8e 1ron)ed:A?7127#+B7 Ho1e5er neutral an indi5idual may appear to 8e so lon) as he is in an undi%%erentiated milieu4 and ho1e5er o8scure his %undamental tendencies 1hile he is in this milieu4 these tendencies are actuali<ed on contact 1ith the li)ht o% re5elation7 Fust as the 8ri)htness o% physical li)ht 8rin)s out all potential contrasts4 so spiritual li)ht )i5es each thin) the primary ;ualities o% positi5e or ne)ati5e 5alue7 The messen)er says in e%%ect@ :I ha5e 8een sent to 1arn you7 No1 choose4 and li5e %or e5er 1ith the conse;uences o% your choice:> 1hich is no dou8t 1hy it is said that 1hen the )ates o% Paradise are opened> the )ates o% hell open li'e1ise7 In the 1ords o% a popular American phrase4 1e are in5ited :to hear the truth 8e%ore it 8ites you:7 One o% the %undamental themes o% the ?ur:an is man:s %li)ht %rom reality7 "i5en the 8asic premise that "od is4 and that His 8ein) 8oth transcends and encompasses all e3istence4 then un8elie% is precisely such a %li)ht7 en and 1omen throu)hout the centuries ha5e tried at e5ery opportunity to e5ade total Reality and to ta'e re%u)e in little corners o% pri5ate dar'ness7 E5en at the simplest e5eryday le5el there is constant a5oidance o% the thou)ht o% death> there is e5asion o% our in1ard solitariness4 1hich no amount o% con5i5iality can entirely o5ercome4 and there is a re%usal to ac'no1led)e our limitations and our sins7 Not only is it the innate tendency o% %allen man to :%or)et: "od4 8ut there comes a8out a lu3uriant )ro1th o% %or)et%ulness in e5ery sphere7 The s1ord o% the ?ur:an cuts also throu)h the dreams 1hich hold men and 1omen in their net e5en 1hen out1ard circumstances = li'e a sho1er o% ice=cold 1ater = mi)ht persuade them to open their eyes to reality> dreams4 the last re%u)e o% the 1ould=8e escaper4 still clin) 1hen all other temptations ha5e lost their )rip on the soul7 In the 1ords o% the Christian author "usta5e Thi8on@ :It is not a)ainst sleep 8ut a)ainst the dream that 1e must %orti%y oursel5es7 One 1ho dreams is more di%%icult to a1a'en than one 1ho sleeps 777 ,leep is the a8sence o% "od4 8ut the dream is His phantom ima)e> and "od is dou8ly a8sent in the dream4 %irst 8ecause His place is empty4 secondly 8ecause it is occupied 8y somethin) that is not He7 The 6ay o% the 0ord 1ill come li'e a thie% in the ni)ht less %or those 1ho sleep than %or those 1ho dream7:D1E

1 0:Echelle de Faco84 "osta5e Thi8on AParis@ 0ardanchetB4 p712-7 There are4 moreo5er4 a num8er o% passa)es in the ?ur:an 1hich e3pose 1hat mi)ht 8e considered a typically modern illusion4 the 8elie% that 1e can4 as it 1ere4 slip ;uietly a1ay and not 8e noticed4 so lon) as 1e do not dra1 attention to oursel5es and so lon) as 1e li5e = accordin) to our o1n opinion = a decent and harmless li%e7 It is the tearin)=a1ay o% all such illusions o% security that characteri<es 8oth the 0ast Fud)ement and its anticipation in the ?ur:an> and this is the 8ac')round a)ainst 1hich li%e is seen as a 8rie% 8ut immensely precious opportunity4 o%%erin) a once=and=%or=all choice7 Hence the sense o% ur)ency 1hich in%orms the 1hole ?ur:an4 ma'in) the 5ery thou)ht o% :passtimes: an outra)e a)ainst common sense> %or to 1aste the little time 1e ha5e seems to the uslim li'e insane pro%li)acy7 The common plea o% those descri8ed in the ?ur:an as :the losers: Aal='hasirunB = those 1ho %ace damnation = is to 8e sent 8ac'4 i% only %or a short 1hile4 to human li%e> and one understands that e5en a sin)le day in 1hich to ma'e )ood use o% time 1ould 8e4 %or them4 a treasure 8eyond anythin) they desired 1hile li5in)7 :,o 1arn man'ind o% the 6ay 1hen the punishment comes to them and the 1ron)doers e3claim@ Our 0ordI "rant us respite %or a short 1hile = 1e 1ill o8ey Thy call and %ollo1 the messen)erI:A?71#7##B7 &oth ?ur:an and hadith emphasi<e the helplessness o% those 1ho ha5e died and 1ho are )oin) throu)h the period o% trial or ;uestionin) 1hich culminates in the Fud)ement4 and it is in contrast to this that the supreme pri5ile)e o% the li5in) is seen as that o% %ree mo5ement and opportunity7 This %reedom is a mercy %rom hea5en and an aspect o% the :Trust: accorded to man4 %or :Had $e so 1illed $e could indeed ha5e %i3ed them in their place4 lea5in) them po1erless to )o %or1ard or to turn 8ac':A?73*7*+B7 Fust as the paraple)ic 1ill remem8er the days 1hen he could put one %oot in %ront o% the other as a time o% unappreciated happiness4 so do the dead loo' 8ac' upon their %ormer a)ility4 1hich is 1hy it is o%ten said in Islam that :only the dead 'no1 the 5alue o% li%e:7 And once 9ud)ement is pronounced4 re)ret and repentance ha5e no %urther %unction@ :$hether 1e ra)e or patiently endure is no1 all one to us> 1e ha5e no re%u)e:A?71 #721B7 This aspect o% the matter is already %amiliar to the Christian4 1ho reads in ,t 0u'e:s "ospel o% the day :1hen they 8e)in to say to the mountains4 %all upon us4 and to the hills4 co5er us:4 and 1ho learns %rom the &oo' o% Re5elations that :in those days shall men see' death and shall not %ind it4 and shall desire to die and death shall %lee %rom them:7 $hen the 1arnin)s ha5e 8een )i5en4 the rules laid do1n4 the stories told and all the ima)es coined4 then the ?ur:an turns to the moment :1hen the sun is %olded up4 and 1hen the stars are dar'ened4 and 1hen the mountains pass a1ay 777 and 1hen the seas 8oil o5er777 and 1hen the scrolls are laid open4 and 1hen the s'y is torn a1ay4 and 1hen hell is 'indled4 and 1hen the "arden is 8rou)ht close = then shall e5ery soul 'no1 1hat it has prepared D%or itsel%E:A?7-171=1#B7 $hen that moment comes4 :man'ind 1ill 8e as thic'ly scattered moths4 and the mountains as carded 1ool:A?71217#=(B4 and all that 1as hidden4 deeply 8uried in the patient

earth4 %rom the 8e)innin) o% time to the end o% time4 1ill 8e made apparent4 :1hen the earth is sha'en 1ith her con5ulsion and the earth casts up her 8urdens 777 on that 6ay 1ill she declare her tidin)s %or her 0ord 1ill ha5e enli)htened her:A?7//71= (B7 This is the in8rea' o% the Real and the destruction o% the entire %a8ric o% the dream in 1hich 1e li5ed@ :That 1ill 8e the 6ay o% Reality> there%ore let 1hoso 1ill ta'e a Dstrai)htE return to his 0ord7 $e ha5e indeed 1arned you o% a penalty that is close = the 6ay 1hen man 1ill see 1hat his hands ha5e 1rou)ht4 and the un8elie5er 1ill say@ $oe unto me = 1ould that I 1ere dustI: That moment4 althou)h chronolo)ically at the end o% time4 o5ershado1s the present almost as thou)h it 1ere in si)ht4 8ecause the Real necessarily o5ershado1s 1hat is less real and 8ecause the timeless is al1ays4 in a certain sense4 here and no1> moreo5er4 each indi5idual death is = %or the indi5idual concerned = a pre%i)uration o% the end o% all thin)s under the sun7 :E5en 8elie5ers themsel5es4: says Frith9o% ,chuon4 :are %or the most part too indi%%erent to %eel concretely that "od is not only Ca8o5eC4 in CHea5enC4 8ut also CaheadC o% us at the end o% the 1orld4 or e5en simply at the end o% our o1n li5es> that 1e are dra1n throu)h li%e 8y an ine3ora8le %orce and at the end o% the course "od a1aits us> the 1orld 1ill 8e su8mer)ed and s1allo1ed up one day 8y an unima)ina8le irruption o% the purely miraculous = unima)ina8le 8ecause surpassin) all human e3perience and standards o% measurement7 an cannot possi8ly dra1 on his past to 8ear 1itness to anythin) o% the 'ind4 any more than a may%ly can e3patiate on the alternation o% the seasons> the risin) o% the sun can in no 1ay enter into the ha8itual sensations o% a creature 8orn at midni)ht 1hose li%e 1ill last 8ut a day 777 And it is thus that "od 1ill come7 There 1ill 8e nothin) 8ut this one ad5ent4 this one presence4 and 8y it the 1orld o% e3periences 1ill 8e shattered7:D1E 1 0i)ht on the Ancient $orlds4 Frith9o% ,chuon A0ondon@ Perennial &oo'sB4 p7#/7 Each o% us in his little corner is a participant in a drama = 8oth cosmic and metacosmic = 8eside 1hich the )reatest earthly con5ulsions o% storm and hurricane4 o% earth;ua'e and 5olcanic eruption4 are little more than the shi%tin) o% theatre scenery7 &ut the dominant theme 1hich runs throu)h the ?ur:an %rom 8e)innin) to end is the mercy o% "od4 in 1hose hands e5en such a drama as this is 8ut a small thin)4 and 1e are assured that those 1ho ha5e )rasped the :%irm handhold: o%%ered to them ha5e nothin) to %ear7 At 9ourney:s end is the )reetin)@ :O thou soul at peace = Return unto thy 0ord4 content in His contentment:A?7-/72+=2-B@ :As %or such4 He hath inscri8ed %aith upon their hearts and stren)thened them 1ith a ,pirit %rom Himsel%4 and He 1ill 8rin) them into "ardens 8eneath 1hich %lo1 ri5ers Do% )raceE4 therein to a8ide7 Allah is content 1ith them4 and they are content 1ith Him:A?7(-722B7 Chapter ( THE E,,EN"ER OF "O6 The encounter 1ith the story o% uhammad:s li%e4 li'e the encounter 1ith the ?ur:an4 re;uires a shi%t in perspecti5e 8oth on the part o% the Christian and o% the

secularist4 as also on the part o% all those Aincludin) contemporary minds ha5e 8een shaped 8y a :modern: education7

uslimsB 1hose

The Christian4 i% he 1ishes to understand Islam4 must resist the temptation to compare uhammad 1ith Fesus4 %or these t1o had entirely di%%erent roles in the scheme o% thin)s> and the secularist is in5ited to taste = i% only as a hypothesis = the %la5our o% the sacred and o% a human li%e totally determined 8y a di5ine intention7 The contemporary mind see's %or causes to :e3plain: phenomena and4 ha5in) disco5ered ho1 this or that came to e3ist4 %or)ets to as' 1hy it came to e3ist7 For the traditional uslim4 on the other hand4 a person4 a thin)4 or an e5ent is 1hat it is 8ecause "od has loo'ed upon this possi8ility hidden in His treasury = as yet unmani%ested4 une3pressed = and has there8y 8rou)ht it out into the li)ht o% e3istence@ :His command 1hen He intendeth a thin) Dto come into 8ein)E is only that He saith unto it@ &eI and it is:A?73*7-2B7 $hat 1e see as a causal se;uence o% e5ents is then seen as a pattern already complete in the mind o% "od7 Causal %actors can 8e disco5ered %or e5ery e5ent4 since they e3ist in the net1or' o% relationships 1hich ma'e up the total pattern4 and the human mind %unctions in the conte3t o% causality = li'e a 8lind man %eelin) his 1ay %rom one o89ect to the ne3t = 8ut they do not e3plain 1hy such an e5ent 1as necessary7 odern 8io)raphers o% uhammad say4 in e%%ect4 that 8ecause such and such chance e5ents came his 1ay4 there%ore he 1as the man he 1as4 acted as he did and said 1hat he said7 This approach ma'es no sense to the traditional uslim4 %or 1hom this man 1as 1hat he had to 8e4 did 1hat he had to do and said 1hat he had to say in accordance 1ith the di5ine intention7 :$e ha5e not created hea5en and earth and all that is 8et1een them 1ithout meanin) and purpose = as is the surmise o% those 1ho are 8ent on denyin) the truth:A?73-72+ in 7 Asad:s translationB7 Orientalists = in particular 5on "rune8aum = spea' o% uhammad:s :luc':4 as thou)h the 1orld 1ere so lac'in) in direction and so empty that a reli)ion must depend upon luc' to esta8lish itsel%> or as thou)h4 ha5in) decided to trans%orm a )reat part o% humanity 8y means o% a di5ine re5elation4 "od turned His 8ac' and le%t the 1hole matter to 8lind chance7 It %ollo1s that4 %rom the uslim point o% 5ie14 the 1orld into 1hich uhammad 1as 8orn = Ara8ia in the se5enth century o% the Christian era = 1as a 1orld pro5identially desi)ned to recei5e him and to )i5e 8oth the messa)e o% the ?ur:an and the messa)e contained in the story o% his li%e the precise shape and colourin) they ha5e7 The )em=stone 1as matched to its settin)4 as 1as the settin) to the )em> and to suppose that either could ha5e 8een other than they 1ere is to introduce a concept o% :chance: 1hich has no place in this conte3t7 Ara8ia in that period 1as di5ided into three <ones7 The north li5ed under the shado1 o% t1o )reat empires4 Christian &y<antium A'no1n to the Ara8s as :Rome:B and Koroastrian Persia4 empires in perpetual con%lict and so e5enly matched that neither could achie5e de%initi5e 5ictory o5er the other7 These )reat po1ers occupied the sta)e4 1hile in the shado1s = in the 1in)s = the Ara8s o% the northern re)ion allied themsel5es no1 1ith one4 no1 1ith the other4 accordin) to 1here their ad5anta)e lay7

In the south li5ed the people o% a:in4 ,a8a:4 ?ata8an and Hadrama1t4 no stran)ers to history4 %or this 1as the land o% %ran'incense and myrrh and :all the per%umes o% Ara8ia:4 the happy land called 8y the Romans Ara8ia Feli37 .n%ortunately4 the south 1as desira8le property7 The con5ersion o% the Ethiopian ruler4 the Ne)us4 to Christianity had 8rou)ht his country into alliance 1ith &y<antium4 and it 1as 1ith &y<antine appro5al that the Ethiopians crossed the narro1 straits early in the si3th century and too' possession o% this %ertile territory4 pro5in) = as has 8een pro5ed so o%ten 8e%ore and since = that to 8e %ortunate is not al1ays )ood %ortune7D1E &e%ore their ruin at the hands o% a ruthless con;ueror4 ho1e5er4 the southerners had opened up the deserts o% central Ara8ia to trade4 introducin) a measure o% or)ani<ation into the li%e o% the &edouin A1ho ser5ed as )uides %or their cara5ansB and esta8lishin) tradin)=posts in the oases7 1 :Thus more than one thousand years o% de5eloped ci5ili<ation came to an end7 The 5ery settlements 1ere a8andoned as the people dri%ted o%% either into a primiti5e nomadic e3istence or tre''ed into the mountains to car5e small %ields out o% the slopes 777 The )lory that 1as a:in4 ?atahan4 Ausan4 and Radramaut4 and a8o5e all ,a8a and Himyar4 %aded in the collecti5e memory7 The incense route 1as %or)otten 777 E5en the Himyaritic inscriptions had 8ecome meanin)less 1ithin a hundred years7 The incense tree 8ecame a rarity4 due to ne)lect o% or)ani<ed culti5ation7 The irri)ation schemes %ell into disuse and the %ields returned to desert sand7: Hemen Redisco5ered4 ichael Fenner A0oo)man4 1/-3B7 The early uslims had4 close at hand4 a stri'in) e3ample o% the dissolution o% a ci5ili<ation7 I% the sym8ol o% these sedentary people 1as the %ran'incense tree4 that o% the arid <one 1as the date=palm> on the one hand the lu3ury o% per%ume4 on the other necessary %ood7 No one could ha5e re)arded the He9a< =:1here no 8ird sin)s and no )rass )ro1s:4 accordin) to a southern poet= as desira8le property7 There 1as nothin) in that re)ion to attract the predators7 The su8ordination o% man to man and o% one people to another has 8een the common and %ormati5e human e3perience throu)hout the a)es4 8ut the tri8es o% the He9a< had ne5er e3perienced either con;uest or oppression> they had ne5er 8een o8li)ed to say :,ir: to any man7 In this they must ha5e 8een almost uni;ue> the only possi8le comparisons mi)ht 8e 1ith the on)ols o% the ,i8erian steppes and the Indians o% North America 8e%ore the comin) o% the 1hite man7 Po5erty 1as their protection4 8ut it is dou8t%ul 1hether they %elt poor7 To %eel poor one must en5y the rich4 and they en5ied no one7 Their 1ealth 1as in their %reedom4 in their honour4 in their no8le ancestry and in their incompara8le lan)ua)e4 the pliant instrument o% the only art they 'ne14 the art o% poetry7 All that 1e 1ould no1 call :culture: 1as concentrated in this one medium4 1hich re;uired no hea5y 8a))a)e such as 1ould ha5e encum8ered them on their 9ourneyin)7 0an)ua)e 1as somethin) they could shape and model to )lori%y coura)e and %reedom4 to praise the %riend and moc' the enemy4 to e3tol the 8ra5ery o% the men o% the tri8e and the 8eauty o% its 1omen4 in poems chanted at the %ireside or in the 5astness o% the desert under the 5ast 8o1l o% the s'y4 8earin) 1itness to the )randeur o% this little human creature %or e5er tra5ellin) across the 8arren spaces o% the earth7

For the &edouin the 1ord 1as as po1er%ul as the s1ord7 $hen hostile tri8es met %or trial in 8attle it 1as usual %or each side to put up its %inest poet to praise the coura)e and no8ility o% his o1n people and heap contempt upon the i)no8le %oe7 It is said that there 1ere occasions 1hen a poet:s ton)ue 1as so elo;uent and his 1ords so compellin) that the opposin) tri8e 1ould slin' a1ay4 de%eated4 8e%ore a 8lo1 had 8een struc'7D1E 1 Perhaps 1e may detect a 5esti)e o% this e5en today 1hen some Ara8 leader ma'es a 5iolent speech4 %ull o% 8lood and thunder4 and returns home con5inced that he has 1on a 1ar and destroyed his enemies7 He is )enuinely pu<<led 1hen these same enemies re%use to lie do1n and play dead7 Had he not cut them to pieces 1ith his ton)ueG ,uch 8attles4 in 1hich com8at 8et1een ri5al champions 1as a ma9or %eature4 1ere more sport than 1ar%are as 1e no1 understand the term> a%%airs o% tumult4 8oastin) and display4 1ith %e1 casualties7 They ser5ed a clear economic purpose throu)h the distri8ution o% 8ooty4 and %or the 5ictor to press his ad5anta)e too %ar 1ould ha5e 8een contrary to the concept o% honour7 $hen one side or the other ac'no1led)ed de%eat the dead on 8oth sides 1ere counted and the 5ictors 1ould pay 8lood=money in e%%ect reparations = to the 5an;uished4 so that the relati5e stren)th o% the tri8es 1as maintained in healthy 8alance7 The contrast 8et1een this and the practices o% ci5ili<ed 1ar%are is stri'in)7 $hether in con%lict or in desert 1anderin)4 sur5i5al depended upon ;ualities o% coura)e and endurance4 loyalty to the tri8e and a cult o% e3cellence4 1hich carried 1ith it all the o8li)ation to protect the 1ea'4 in particular 1omen = the 8earers and nurturers o% li%e = and children4 in 1hose %rail e3istence the %uture o% the tri8e 1as enshrined7 The hero o% pre=Islamic Ara8 poetry 1as al1ays the &edouin :'ni)ht:4 standin) upri)ht4 true to himsel%4 in a 1orld reduced4 as it 1ere4 to the 8are 8ones o% sun4 s'y4 sand and roc'4 proud e5en in po5erty and see'in) 9oy in sel%=mastery4 scorn%ul o% security and all the am8i)uities o% 1ealth4 and ready to loo' death in the %ace 1ithout %linchin)7 Amon) such people one %inds neither the dre)s o% humanity nor the scum4 1hich is one 1ay o% sayin) that the principles 8y 1hich they li5ed and died 1ere those 1hich the $estern tradition associates 1ith aristocracy in the true sense o% the term7 These are not the principles 1hich )o5ern the li5es o% to1ns%ol'4 and 8y the si3th century o% the Christian era the Ara8s o% the He9a< had disco5ered the pleasures and temptations o% city li%e7 The ancient !a:8a had lon) 8een the centre o% this little 1orld4 1ith the tents o% the nomads pitched around it4 8ut late in the pre5ious century a certain ?usayy4 chie%tain o% the po1er%ul tri8e o% ?uraysh4 had esta8lished a permanent settlement7 This 1as the city o% ecca Aor :&a''a:4 a 1ord deri5ed %rom a ,a8aean term meanin) :sanctuary:B7 The circumstances o% the time %a5oured its de5elopment as a ma9or commercial centre7 The 1ars 8et1een Persia and &y<atitium had closed the more northerly tradin) routes 8et1een east and 1est4 1hile the in%luence and prosperity o% southern Ara8ia had 8een destroyed 8y the Ethiopians7 oreo5er4 the city:s presti)e 1as enhanced 8y its role as a centre o% pil)rima)e4 as 1as that o% ?uraysh as custodians o% the !a:8a4 en9oyin) the 8est o% 8oth 1orlds7 The com8ination o% no8ility = 1ere they not

descended %rom A8raham throu)h IshmaelG = 1ith 1ealth and spiritual authority )a5e them )rounds %or 8elie5in) that their splendour4 compared 1ith that o% any other people on earth4 1as as the splendour o% the sun compared 1ith the )litter o% the stars7 The trade routes %anned out %rom the city7 $ealthy merchants dispatched their pri5ate cara5ans throu)hout the year4 8ut there 1ere also t1o )reat annual cara5ans4 to Hemen in the summer and to ,yria in the 1inter4 in 1hich the entire population 1as in5ol5ed7 A sophisticated system o% credit ena8led e5en the poorest citi<ens to su8scri8e4 and 5ast armies o% t1o or three thousand camels carryin) )old4 sil5er4 leather and precious )oods4 and supported 8y up to 322 men4 8rou)ht pro%it to all concerned7 The city 1as ne5er still7 The camel trains passed throu)h the narro1 streets in %ile4 their 8ells tin'lin)4 amidst a cro1d 1hich included Christians4 Fe1s and A%ricans4 1i<ards4 con9urors and prostitutes4 1hile the )reat merchants 1al'ed in %inery4 dressed in sil' 1ith am8er in their hair and per%umed 8eards4 and the 8usy money=chan)ers cried their rates %or Persian and &y<antine currency7 The &edouin4 so o%ten cheated 1hen they came to sell their poor 1ares4 said that the name ?uraysh 1as deri5ed %rom a 1ord meanin) :shar':7 E5ery spiritual centre is a sym8ol o% the Heart4 the centre o% man:s 8ein)4 8ut ecca 1as so in more than one dimension4 since the trade routes 1ere li'e 5eins and arteries supplyin) sustenance to the outlyin) lands and 8earin) 1ealth 1hich ultimately clo)s the heart7 Corruption had set in on t1o le5els7 In the %irst place4 the !a:8a 1as no lon)er the temple o% the One "od7 The Ara8s4 li'e others 8e%ore and since4 had %ollo1ed the do1n1ard slope 1hich leads %rom monotheism to idolatry7 They had not lost all a1areness o% Allah4 8ut thou)ht o% Him as a supreme deity too remote and too impersonal to concern th8m in their daily li5es7 Practical help 1as to 8e e3pected %rom lesser )ods and %rom the unseen spirits4 the 9inn4 and some 3*2 idols surrounded the !a:8a in a %orest o% %alse deities4 caterin) %or e5ery taste amon) the pil)rims 1ho came each year to 1orship 1homsoe5er they chose and 1ho 8rou)ht 1ith them %urther pro%it %or ?uraysh7 The heart 1as cluttered 1ith de8ris7 At the same time the ,partan 5irtues o% the desert Ara8s %ound no place in so 1ealthy a city7 The connection 8et1een idolatry and 1orldliness is o85ious4 and the oli)archy o% tri8al elders4 success%ul merchants and outstandin) orators Athe po1er o% the 1ord 1as still respectedB 1hich controlled the a%%airs o% ecca4 re)ulatin) trade and ad9udicatin) in disputes4 had de5eloped a taste %or the )ood li%e 1hich their %ore%athers 1ould ha5e considered despica8le7 6run'enness and )am8lin) 1ere ri%e4 and the eccans speculated on rates o% e3chan)e4 the price o% commodities4 the arri5al or loss o% cara5ans and the spoils o% 1ar7 Honour had de)enerated into %alse pride4 and the o8li)ation to protect the 1ea'4 althou)h still o8ser5ed 1ithin the )reat %amilies4 1as not applied to the :%orei)ners: 1ho had %loc'ed into the city and 1ho had no place in 1hat 1as still essentially a tri8al social structure7 ,uch a city 1as necessarily 5ulnera8le4 a temptin) pri<e4 and in the year (+2 o% the Christian era A8raha4 the Ethiopian Jiceroy o% Hemen4 mounted a )reat e3pedition a)ainst ecca7 He had 8uilt a splendid cathedral in ,ana:a4 and

?uraysh4 seein) in this a ri5al centre o% pil)rima)e to the !a:8a4 had sent one o% their people to pollute it7 A8raha needed no %urther e3cuse7 Jo1in) to ra<e the !a:8a to the )round4 he set out 1ith a lar)e army4 placin) in the %ore%ront an elephant4 a 8east ne5er 8e%ore seen in those parts> and there 1as no serious opposition to his ad5ance7 He 1as 1ithin stri'in) distance o% ecca = and ?uraysh had already e5acuated the city = 1hen the elephant halted4 re%usin) to )o %urther7 ,ome say that the Ara8 )uide 1ho accompanied the army4 ha5in) 8y no1 learned the 1ords o% command to 1hich the 8east 1as accustomed4 had 1hispered in its ear> 1hate5er the reason4 the elephant made its decision and the army stopped in its trac's7 At this point there occurred a miracle 1hich is recorded in the ?ur:an4 althou)h its e3act nature remains o8scure@ :Hast thou not seen ho1 thy 0ord dealt 1ith the o1ners o% the elephantG 6id He not 8rin) their plans to nau)ht and send a)ainst them s1arms o% %lyin) creatures777G:A?712,B7 A8raha turned 8ac'4 his army in disarray4 and the !a:8a remained in5iolate4 as it had 8een %rom the 8e)innin) o% time7 It 1as in this year4 'no1n as the Hear o% the Elephant4 that uhammad 1as 8orn4 pro8a8ly = so %ar as can 8e esta8lished = on 22 Au)ust7 His %ather4 A8dullah4 1as a )reat=)reat=)randson o% ?usayy4 the %ounder o% the city4 and 8elon)ed to the Hashimite 8ranch o% ?uraysh4 and his mother4 Amina4 1as descended %rom ?usayy:s 8rother4 Kuhrah7 Returnin) 1ith a cara5an %rom ,yria and Palestine4 A8dullah stopped to 5isit relati5es in Hathri84 an oasis to the north o% ecca4 %ell ill there and died se5eral months 8e%ore his son:s 8irth7 It 1as customary to send the sons o% ?uraysh into the desert to 8e suc'led 8y a 1et=nurse and spend their early childhood 1ith a &edouin tri8e7 Apart %rom considerations o% health4 this represented a return to their roots4 an opportunity to e3perience the %reedom o% the nomad and to learn4 in a %ormati5e period o% their li5es4 1hat it meant to 8e a 0ord o% ,pace4 mo5in) 1ith the %loc's and e3periencin) the impact o% the chan)in) seasons7 Thus the 8ond 1ith the desert 1as rene1ed in each )eneration4 and the alliances %ormed in this 1ay 8et1een &edouin and to1nsmen 1ere use%ul to 8oth7 A %atherless 8oy4 ho1e5er4 1as an unattracti5e in5estment7 uhammad 1as accepted 8y Halima4 the 1i%e o% a shepherd o% the &anu ,a:d4 only 8ecause she 1as amon) the poorest o% those 1ho came that year to see' suc'lin)s and could %ind no other7 He spent %our or %i5e years 1ith this &edouin %amily4 tendin) the sheep as soon as he 1as old enou)h to 1al'4 learnin) the 1ays o% the desert and4 accordin) to the traditional stories4 8rin)in) )reat )ood %ortune to his %oster parents7 $hen he 1as si34 not lon) a%ter he had re9oined his mother4 she too' him on a 5isit to Hathri84 1here his %ather had died4 and hersel% %ell ill 1ith one o% the %e5ers pre5alent in the oasis4 dyin) on the return 9ourney7 The Ara8s: %ondness %or children and the nature o% the e3tended %amily assured the security o% an orphan4 and uhammad no1 came under the )uardianship o% his )rand%ather4 :A8du:l= uttali84 chie% o% the Hashimite clan7 The old man Ahe 1as in his ei)htieth yearB4 althou)h he had many children o% his o1n = includin) a son4 Ham<ah4 1ho 1as the same a)e as uhammad = had de5eloped a particular a%%ection %or his little )randson and made a point o% 'eepin) the 8oy 1ith him 1hen4 as 1as his custom4 he rested in the e5enin)s on a carpet set do1n %or him in the shado1 o% the !a:8a7

Here the t1o o% them could 1atch the 1orld )o 8y4 one too old to participate and the other too youn)4 1hile the )reat men o% ?uraysh strolled past in the cool o% e5enin) discussin) the a%%airs o% the city7 $hen the 8oy 1as ei)ht years old :A8du:l= uttali8 died and he 8ecame the 1ard o% the ne1 Hashimite chie%tain4 his uncle A8u Tali8 1ho4 as soon as he 1as old enou)h4 too' him on the cara5an 9ourney to ,yria so that he could :learn the trade:7 In the %ormati5e years o% childhood and adolescence he had e3perienced dou8le 8erea5ement4 the 9oys and ri)ours o% desert li%e4 intimate association 1ith the sacred sanctuary o% the !a:8a4 tra5el in the :ci5ili<ed: 1orld and4 accordin) to le)end4 a %ate%ul meetin) 1ith a Christian mon'4 1ho reco)ni<ed in him one o% "od:s chosen7 He had )ro1n up in the midst o% li%e:s am8i)uity7 6eath had struc' do1n those he lo5ed most4 yet he had 8een surrounded 1ith a%%ection and 'indness> impressed upon his heart 1as an intense a1areness 8oth o% human %ra)ility and o% the only thin) that ma'es this %ra)ility 8eara8le4 human a%%ection7 $hen he 1as t1enty he 1as in5ited to ta'e char)e o% the )oods o% a merchant 1ho 1as himsel% una8le to tra5el4 and success in this enterprise led to %urther similar commissions7 The penniless orphan 1as ma'in) a reputation %or himsel%7 Amon) the su8stantial %ortunes o% ecca 1as that o% the t1ice=1ido1ed !hadi9a7 Impressed 8y 1hat she heard o% uhammad4 1ho 1as no1 commonly 'no1n as al=Amin4 :the trust1orthy:4 she employed him to ta'e her merchandise to ,yria7 E5en more impressed 8y his competence4 1hen this tas' 1as completed4 as also 8y his appearance and personal charm4 she sent a 1oman %riend to as' him ho1 it 1as that he had not married7 He e3plained that he did not yet ha5e the means7 :,upposin)4: as'ed the )o=8et1een4 :that you 1ere o%%ered the hand o% a no8le lady 1ho com8ines 8eauty 1ith 1ealthG: He as'ed 1ho she had in mind4 and she ans1ered that it 1as his employer4 !hadi9a7 :Ho1 could such a match 8e mineG: :0ea5e that to me4: she told him7 :For my part4: he said4 :I am 1illin)7: At this time uhammad 1as t1enty=%i5e and !hadi9a %orty4 thou)h still a remar'a8ly handsome 1oman7 It 1as ine5ita8le that her %amily should disappro5e o% such an alliance4 8ut her %ather 1as pre5ailed upon to )i5e his consent> 1hile A8u Tali84 1ith a )enerosity he could ill a%%ord4 paid a 8ride=price o% t1enty camels4 and at the 8etrothal party made a speech e3tollin) his nephe1:s 5irtues 1hich 1as a mar5el o% Ara8 elo;uence7 !hadi9a presented her hus8and 1ith a youn) sla5e4 Kayd4 1ho 1as %reed 8y uhammad> 8ut 1hen his relati5es came to ransom him4 he chose to remain 1ith the %amily7 The household 1as %urther increased 8y the adoption o% :Ali4 one o% A8u Tali8:s sons4 and !hadi9a 8ore uhammad si3 children4 includin) at least one 8oy4 al=?asim4 1ho died 8e%ore his second 8irthday7 A pattern o% personalities 1hich 1ould only 8ecome clear many years later 1as %ormin)4 a pattern 1hich the %in)er o% history pro8es 1ith an uncertain and an3ious touch7 In the year *2( the )o5ernin) council o% ?uraysh4 the mala> decided that the !a:8a should 8e re8uilt7 Althou)h this temple o% A8raham is4 in essence4 timeless4 its earthly %orm = 8ein) perisha8le = has 8een reconstructed a num8er o% times7 In that year a &y<antine ship had 8een 1rec'ed on the coast4 pro5idin) e3cellent

tim8er %or the purpose4 and there 1as a Christian carpenter li5in) in ecca 1ho 1as competent to erect the sca%%oldin)7 The main 1or' o% construction 1as di5ided 8et1een the clans4 8ut 1hen it 1as done4 disa)reement arose as to 1ho should ha5e the honour o% replacin) the sacred &lac' ,tone in its niche7 It 1as decided that the %irst man to enter the s;uare 8y a particular )ate should 8e as'ed to act as ar8itrator4 and the %irst comer 1as uhammad7 He told the people to 8rin) a lar)e cloa'4 placed the stone on it and called upon representati5es o% each o% the clans to 9oin to)ether in raisin) it into position> he himsel% then %i3ed the stone in its niche7 He 1as 8y no1 a man o% su8stance4 respected in the community4 admired 8oth %or his )enerosity and his )ood sense7 His %uture seemed assured7 In due course4 ha5in) re=esta8lished the prosperity o% his clan4 he 1ould 8ecome one o% the more in%luential elders o% the city and end his li%e4 perhaps4 as his )rand%ather had done4 reclinin) in the shade o% the !a:8a and recollectin) lon) years 1ell spent in terms o% the 1orld:s accountin)7 Het his spirit 1as uneasy and 8ecame increasin)ly so as he approached middle a)e7 A need %or solitude possessed him and dro5e him out o% the 8usy city into the roc'y hills and 1astelands 1hich surround ecca7 There he 1as sei<ed 8y certain premonitions and 5isions4 sometimes %ri)htenin) and sometimes :li'e the comin) o% da1n:7 0ittle is 'no1n concernin) the e3act nature o% these e3periences4 8ut the accounts that ha5e come do1n to us su))est that a )reat %orce = a li)ht4 a splendour = 1as approachin) e5er closer4 and4 li'e a 8ird 8eatin) 1ith its 1in)s a)ainst a 1indo1=pane4 tryin) to reach him throu)h the mem8rance 1hich isolates us in our little 1orld o% e3perience7 ,uch an approach must ha5e its repercussions in nature4 1hich trem8les 8e%ore the po1er o% unseen dimensions7 $e are told that the 1orld o% stones and roc's and 8arren 5alleys seemed to uhammad to ha5e come to li%e> he heard stran)e 5oices callin)4 and he co5ered himsel% in his cloa'4 %earin) death or madness in the em8race o% some dar' po1er7 It seemed as thou)h the demons 1hich cluster in such desert places and 8u<< a8out the tra5eller:s ears pursued him e5en to the ca5e in 1hich he too' re%u)e on ount Hira7 His %amily and %riends o8ser5ed the chan)e in him 1ith increasin) an3iety4 8ut there 1as nothin) he could e3plain to them> there 1as no 1ay in 1hich he could ha5e understood that his deepest nature 1as 8ein)4 as it 1ere4 %or)ed ane1 = its recepti5ity laid 8are = durin) these solitary 5i)ils4 %ull o% terror and e3pectation7 In the 8la<e o% day and durin) the clear desert ni)hts4 1hen the stars seem sharp enou)h to penetrate the retina o% the eye4 his 5ery su8stance 1as 8ecomin) saturated 1ith the :si)ns: in the hea5ens4 so that he mi)ht ser5e as an entirely ade;uate instrument %or a re5elation already inherent in these :si)ns:7 It 1ould come 1hen he had 8een made entirely ready7 It came on a ni)ht late in the sacred month o% Ramadan4 the ni)ht 'no1n to us as 0aylatu:l=?adr4 the :Ni)ht o% Po1er:7 It is said that on that ni)ht nature %alls asleep@ :The streams cease to %lo14 the 1inds are still and the e5il spirits %or)et to 1atch o5er the 1onders o% the earth7 In the ni)ht o% al=?adr one can hear the )rass )ro1 and the trees spea'777 the sands o% the desert lie in deep slum8er7 Those 1ho

e3perience the ni)ht o% al=?adr 8ecome saints or sa)es4 %or in this ni)ht man may see throu)h the %in)ers o% "od7:D1E ,ince no one can 8e sure 1hich ni)ht this is4 the 8elie5er is in5ited to prepare himsel%4 to open the )ates o% a1areness4 sharpen his )a<e and tune his hearin) to recei5e 1hat comes 1hen it comes7 uhammad 1as asleep in the ca5e on ount Hira7 He 1as a1a'ened 8y the An)el o% Re5elation4 the same 1ho had come to ary the mother o% Fesus4 "a8riel Acalled 8y the Ara8s Fi8ra:ilB4 1ho 1as clothed in li)ht and 1ho sei<ed him in a close em8race7 A sin)le 1ord o% command 8urst upon him@ :I;ra:: = :ReciteI: He said@ :I am not a reciterI: 8ut the command 1as repeated7 :$hat am I to reciteG: he as'ed7 He 1as )rasped 1ith o5er1helmin) %orce and thro1n do1n4 and no1 the %irst :recitation: o% the ?ur:an came upon him@ :Recite in the name o% thy 0ord 1ho created = created man %rom a clot7 Recite@ %or thy 0ord is ost &ounti%ul4 1ho teacheth 8y the pen4D2E teacheth man that 1hich he 'ne1 not:A?7/*71=(B7 1 ?uoted %rom ohammed 8y Essad &ey A0ondon@ Co8den=,anderson4 1/3-B7 2 The si)ni%icance o% the pen has 8een richly ela8orated in the traditions7 It is said that the %irst o% all thin)s to 8e created 1as the preser5ed ta8let: upon 1hich 1as entered all that is to 8e throu)hout time7 Then Allah created4 %rom a sin)le 9e1el4 a mi)hty pen4 :the point o% 1hich is split and %rom 1hich li)ht %lo1s as in' %lo1s %rom the pens o% this 1orld7 Then a command came to the Pen4 C$riteIC 1hereupon the Pen trem8led and shoo' %rom terror at this summonin)4 so that there 1as a ;ui5erin) in its tas8ih A)lori%icationB li'e the rum8lin) o% thunder7 Then it entered on the Ta8let all that Allah 8ade it enter o% all that is to 8e till the 6ay o% Resurrection: A%rom the ?isas all=An8iya: o% al=!isa:iB7 The phallic sym8olism o% the pen is 1ell 'no1n4 8ut this is merely one aspect o% its role as the supremie instrument o% creation7 The implied connection 8et1een :'no1led)e: and :creation: as such is particularly si)ni%icant in the Islamic conte3t7 The story o% this %irst re5elation has 8een told as o%ten as any story in the 1orld4 yet to )ain some personal in'lin) o% 1hat it 1as li'e 1e are o8li)ed to ma'e an ima)inati5e leap throu)h the screen 1hich 'eeps us loc'ed into our ha8itual e5eryday e3perience7 There is no simple 1ay o% pro5o'in) this act o% release4 since each indi5idual is di%%erent4 his nature unloc'a8le only 8y a particular 'ey7 Those 1ho ha5e come %ace to %ace 1ith the most po1er%ul amon) the mani%estations o% the natural 1orld = )reat storms at sea4 hurricanes4 5olcanic eruptions = may %ind in their e3perience a clue to 1hat is meant 8y an encounter 1ith a po1er %rom another dimension o% 8ein)4 8ut the people o% our time %ind it di%%icult to ima)ine the shatterin) o% the ha8itual personality 1hich ta'es place in the presence o% the :mysterium tremendum:4 in the presence o% the ,u8lime7 No dou8t the appropriate 1ord is :a1e:4 yet this 1ord has 8ecome so de5alued in the En)lish lan)ua)e that it 1ill no lon)er ser5e unless 1e can cleanse it %rom tri5ial associations7 E5en in our time4 ho1e5er4 one occasionally meets a pious man 1ho has 8een accorded the rare pri5ile)e o% enterin) the Prophet:s tom8 in edina4 and 1ho has 8een so trans%ormed 8y 1onder and 8y a1e that the e3perience can only 8e descri8ed in terms o% :terror: in the %ull and ma9estice sense o% this term7 I% the human su8stance is so sha'en in the place 1here this man:s 8ody 1as 8uried lon) a)o4 1e may 9ud)e %rom this 1hat 1as his o1n e3perience 1hen the an)el approached him7

At the same time = since past e5ents are seen in the li)ht o% their conse;uences = 1e ha5e to 8ear in mind that this encounter o% an Ara84 %ourteen centuries a)o4 1ith a 8ein) %rom 8eyond the screen 1as an e5ent o% momentous si)ni%icance 1hich 1ould mo5e 1hole peoples across the earth and a%%ect the li5es o% hundreds o% millions o% men and 1omen4 8uildin) )reat cities and )reat ci5ili<ations4 pro5o'in) the clash o% mi)hty armies and raisin) %rom the dust much 8eauty and much splendour> it 1ould also 8rin) teemin) multitudes to the "ates o% Paradise and4 8eyond4 to the 8eati%ic 5ision7 The 1ord I;ra:4 echoin) around the 5alleys o% the He9a<4 8ro'e the mould in 1hich the 'no1n 1orld 1as %i3ed> and this man4 alone amon) the roc's4 too' upon his shoulders and into his heart a 8urden 1hich 1ould ha5e crushed the mountains had it descended upon them7 uhammad 1as %orty years old and he had )ro1n to maturity in the 1orld7 The impact o% this tremendous encounter may 8e said to ha5e melted his su8stance7 The person he had 8een 1as li'e a s'in scorched 8y li)ht and 8urned a1ay4 and the man 1ho came do1n %rom the mountain and sou)ht re%u)e 8et1een !hadi9a:s 8reasts 1as not the same man 1ho had clim8ed it7 For the moment4 ho1e5er4 he 1as li'e a man pursued7 As he descended the slope he heard a )reat 5oice cryin)@ : uhammad4 thou art the essen)er o% Allah and I am Fi8ra:il7: He loo'ed up1ards4 and the an)el %illed the hori<on7 $hiche5er 1ay he turned his head4 the %i)ure 1as still there4 inescapa8ly present7 He hastened home and called to !hadi9a@ :Co5er meI Co5er meI: ,he laid him do1n4 placin) a cloa' o5er him4 and as soon as he had reco5ered himsel% a little he told her 1hat had happened7 ,he held him a)ainst her 8ody4 )i5in) him4 as it 1ere4 the earthly contact 1hich sa5es a man:s sanity a%ter such an encounter7 ,he reassured him 1ith human reassurance and 8elie5ed in the truth o% his 5ision7 $hen she had settled him and he had %allen into a deep sleep4 she 1ent at once to see her cousin $ara;a4 one o% the huna%a Athese 1ere isolated indi5iduals 1ho re9ected idolatry4 see'in) 'no1led)e o% the One "od either in the tradition o% A8raham or throu)h ChristianityB7 A%ter listenin) to her account o% her hus8and:s e3perience4 $ara;a told her@ :&y Him in 1hose hand is the soul o% $ara;a4 i% 1hat you say is true there has come to uhammad the )reat Namus4 e5en he 1ho came to oses7 Truly uhammad is the Prophet o% this people7 Calm your hus8and:s %ears and 8anish your o1nI: ,ome %urther re5elations came to uhammad = it is not 'no1n precisely 1hich or ho1 many = and then the hea5ens 1ere silent %or some 1ee's4 perhaps %or many months7 6ar'ness descended upon his spirit7 Ho1e5er terri%yin) the )reat 5ision mi)ht ha5e 8een4 the an)el:s a8sence 1as e5en more distur8in)4 %or he 1as no1 le%t alone 1ith his human 1ea'ness7 It 1as as thou)h a crac' had opened in the carapace 1hich encloses this 1orld4 so that he had seen and heard thin)s 1hich ma'e the ordinary li%e o% man'ind appear un8eara8ly narro1 and su%%ocatin)> no1 it had closed7 Ha5in) 8een ta'en out o% this 1orld and made a stran)er to his o1n people4 he %ound himsel% a8andoned in a 'ind o% no man:s land 8et1een hea5en and earth7 He had as'ed !hadi9a@ :$ho 1ill 8elie5e meG: and she had ans1ered4 :I

8elie5e youI: &ut this 1as lo5e spea'in)7 Ho1 could he e3pect others to 8elie5e 1hen he himsel% 1as in dou8t as to the nature o% his 5isionG The %ear o% insanity4 1hich had 8een 1ith him %or some time4 no1 8ecame acute7 He had seen such people o%ten enou)h@ lunatics ra5in) a8out the :unseen:4 aliens in the community and o89ects o% scorn to the sensi8le4 hard=headed to1nsmen7 He himsel% had al1ays 8een a practical man4 a man o% 8usiness4 and he 8elon)ed to a race 1hich tends to ta'e a do1n=to=earth 5ie1 o% thin)s and to re)ard spiritual e3tra5a)ance 1ith suspicion Aa dreamer 1ould not sur5i5e %or lon) in the desertB7 $al'in) alone in the hills4 hopin) %or some relie%4 he came to a steep precipice and his %oot dislod)ed a stone4 1hich tum8led into the a8yss7 He 1as sei<ed 8y the impulse to %ollo1 it7 :I 1anted4: he said lon) a%ter1ards4 :to %ind lastin) repose and to rid my soul o% its pain7: It is said that he 1as a8out to thro1 himsel% o5er the cli%% 1hen the an)el:s 5oice inter5ened4 sayin)@ : uhammad4 you are the true Prophet o% AllahI: He returned home4 and soon a%ter this a %resh re5elation came to him@ the ,urah called ad=6uha4 :The ornin) Hours:7 :&y the mornin) hours and 8y the ni)ht 1hen it is most still4 thy 0ord hath not %orsa'en thee nor doth He hate thee7 Truly that 1hich is to come shall 8e 8etter %or thee than that 1hich came 8e%ore4 and truly thy 0ord shall )i5e unto thee and thou shalt 8e 1ell pleased7 6id He not %ind thee an orphan and shelter theeG 6id He not %ind thee 1anderin) and direct theeG 6id He not %ind thee needy and enrich theeG There%ore oppress not the orphan4 neither repulse the 8e))ar4 8ut declare the )oodness o% thy 0ord:A?7/3B7 From this time on the re5elations continued %or the rest o% his li%e4 memori<ed and 1ritten do1n 8y his companions on pieces o% sheeps'in or 1hate5er else 1as at hand7 :,ometimes4: he said4 :they come to me li'e the re5er8erations o% a 8ell4 and that is the hardest upon me> the re5er8erations a8ate 1hen I am a1are o% their messa)e7 And sometimes the an)el ta'es the %orm o% a man and spea's to me4 and I understand 1hat he says7: !hadi9a had 8een the %irst to 8elie5e7 The ;uestion as to 1ho 1as the second is a matter o% dispute 8et1een ,unnis and the ,hi:a sector o% Islam7 The %ormer say that it 1as the merchant A8u &a'r4 uhammad:s close %riend4 a ;uiet4 sensiti5e man o% hum8le ori)in 1ho 1as much respected as a conciliator7 any years later the Prophet said o% him@ :I ha5e ne5er called anyone to Islam 1ho 1as not at %irst %illed 1ith dou8t4 ;uestions and contradictions4 1ith the e3ception o% A8u &a'r7: The ,hi:a 8elie5e that it 1as :Ali4 1ho 1ould ha5e 8een a8out ten years old at the time4 and certainly the other mem8er o% the household4 Kayd4 %ollo1ed soon a%ter7 It is unli'ely that there 1ere more than t1enty :con5erts: in the %irst t1o or three years4 and 1hen uhammad in5ited all the senior mem8ers o% his clan to a )rand dinner4 and preached the messa)e to them4 the occasion ended in disaster7 One o% his uncles4 A8u 0aha84 1as openly a8usi5e and soon 8ecame the most implaca8le enemy o% the ne1 reli)ion7 The situation chan)ed 1hen the command came to him to preach openly and to spea' out a)ainst idolatry7 At %irst the elders o% ?uraysh had 8een a8le to i)nore this stran)e little )roup4 treatin) uhammad as a sad case o% sel%=deception4 8ut no1 they 8e)an to reali<e that his preachin)4 1hich 1as attractin) adherents

amon) the poor and the dispossessed Aand could there%ore 8e seen as su85ersi5eB4 represented a threat 8oth to the reli)ion and the prosperity o% ecca7 Open con%lict4 ho1e5er4 1ould ha5e 8een a)ainst their interests7 Their po1er depended upon their unity4 and 1ith the e3ample o% Hathri8 = torn asunder 8y %actional con%lict = as a )rim 1arnin) o% 1hat could happen in their o1n city4 they 1ere o8li)ed to 8ide their time> moreo5er4 the clan Hashim4 1hate5er it mi)ht thin' pri5ately o% its ro)ue mem8er4 1as 8ound 8y custom to de%end him i% he 1as attac'ed7 They con%ined themsel5es %or the time 8ein) to moc'ery4 perhaps the most e%%ecti5e 1eapon in the common man:s de%ence a)ainst the in8rea' o% truth4 since it does not in5ol5e the de)ree o% commitment inherent in 5iolence7 His %ormer )uardian A8u Tali84 8e))ed him to )o slo1ly and not to roc' the 8oat7 :O my uncle4: he said4 :e5en i% they set a)ainst me the sun on my ri)ht and the moon on my le%t4 I 1ill not a8andon my purpose until Allah )rants me success or until I die7: A8u Tali8 ans1ered 1ith a si)h@ :O my 8rother:s son4 I 1ill not %orsa'e you7: Tension in the city increased )radually4 month 8y month4 as uhammad:s spiritual in%luence spread4 underminin) the he)emony o% the elders o% ?uraysh and 8rin)in) di5ision into their %amilies> and this in%luence 8ecame e5en more dan)erous to the esta8lished order 1hen the content o% the successi5e re5elations 1as 8roadened to include denunciation o% the callousness o% the eccan plutocracy4 their )reed %or :more and more: and their a5arice7 The opposition 1as no1 led 8y a certain A8u Fahl4 to)ether 1ith A8u 0aha8 and the latter:s 8rother=in= la14 a youn)er man 1ho 1as more su8tle and more talented than either o% them4 A8u ,u%yan7 Returnin) one day %rom the hunt4 uhammad:s 8oyhood %riend Ham<ah4 1ho had so %ar remained neutral4 1as so an)ered on 8ein) told o% the insults heaped upon his %riend that he sou)ht out A8u Fahl4 struc' him on the head 1ith his 8o1 and announced there and then his con5ersion to Islam7 ore important still 1as the con5ersion o% one o% the most %ormida8le youn) men in the city4 :.mar i8n al=!hatta87 In%uriated 8y the increasin) success o% the ne1 reli)ion = so contrary to all that he had 8een 8rou)ht up to 8elie5e = he s1ore to 'ill uhammad re)ardless o% the conse;uences7 He 1as told that 8e%ore doin) so he should loo' into the a%%airs o% his o1n %amily4 %or his sister and her hus8and had 8ecome uslims7 &urstin) into their home he %ound them readin) the ,urah called :Ta=Ha:4 and 1hen his sister ac'no1led)ed that they 1ere indeed con5erts4 he struc' her a harsh 8lo17 ore than a little ashamed o% himsel%4 he then as'ed to see 1hat they had 8een readin)7 ,he handed him the te3t4 and as he read these 5erses o% the ?ur:an4 his nature under1ent a trans%ormation so sudden and so total that this incident has sometimes 8een compared to the con5ersion o% Paul on the road to 6amascus7 He 1ent directly to uhammad and accepted Islam7 en such as these 1ere too important in the social hierarchy to 8e attac'ed4 8ut most o% the ne1 uslims 1ere either poor or in sla5ery7 The poor 1ere 8eaten and the sla5es tortured to ma'e them deny their %aith4 and there 1as little uhammad could do to protect them7 A 8lac' sla5e named &ilal 1as pe))ed do1n na'ed under the de5ourin) sun 1ith a hea5y stone on his 8reast and le%t to die o% thirst7 In his torment he cried out repeatedly AhadI AhadI A:OneI OneI "od is OneI:B and it 1as in this state4 on the

point o% death4 that A8u &a'r %ound him and ransomed him %or an e3or8itant %ee7 He 1as nursed 8ac' to health in uhammad:s home and 8ecame one o% the closest and 8est=lo5ed o% the companions7 $hen4 much later4 the ;uestion arose as to ho1 the %aith%ul should 8e summoned to prayer4 :.mar su))ested the human 5oice as the 8est o% all instruments4 and &ilal 8ecame the %irst mu:e<<in o% Islam@ a tall4 thin 8lac' man 1ith a ma)ni%icent 5oice and4 so it is said4 the %ace o% a cro1 under a thatch o% )rey hair> a man %rom 1hom the sun had 8urned out4 durin) his torment4 e5erythin) 8ut lo5e o% the One and o% the messen)er o% the One7 The persecution 8ecame so se5ere that uhammad ad5ised the more de%enceless o% the ne1 uslims to emi)rate4 at least temporarily4 to Ethiopia4 1here they 1ould 8e 1ell recei5ed 8y the Christian Ne)us4 :an upri)ht !in):7 A8out ei)hty con5erts %led there in A6 *1# and 1ith them 1ent the %uture Caliph4 :.thman i8n :A%%an7 He had lon) 8een in lo5e 1ith uhammad:s dau)hter Ru;ayya4 1ho had 8een pre5iously married to her cousin4 one o% A8u 0aha8:s sons7 The choleric :Father o% Flame: Aas he 1as called on account o% his red %aceB had compelled his son to di5orce her4 and as soon as she 1as %ree4 :.thman had entered Islam and married her7 This apparent alliance 1ith a %orei)n po1er %urther in%uriated the eccans and they sent en5oys to the Ne)us demandin) the uslims: e3tradition7 A )reat de8ate 1as held at Court and the uslims 1on the day4 %irst 8y demonstratin) that they 1orshipped the same "od as the Christians and then 8y recitin) one o% the ?ur:anic passa)es concernin) the Jir)in ary4 1hereupon the Ne)us 1ept and said@ :Truly this has come %rom the same source as that 1hich Fesus 8rou)ht 777: Frustrated on e5ery side the eccan oli)archy4 under the leadership o% A8u Fahl4 no1 dre1 up a %ormal document declarin) a 8an or 8oycott a)ainst the clan Hashim as a 1hole> there 1ere to 8e no commercial dealin)s 1ith them until they outla1ed uhammad4 and no one 1as to marry a 1oman o% Hashim or )i5e his dau)hter to a man o% the clan7 The 8an lasted %or t1o years 8ut4 li'e sanctions in later times4 pro5ed ine%%ectual7 The structure o% ?uraysh 1as too 1ell inte)rated4 particularly 8y intermarria)e 8et1een the clans4 %or such an act o% e3clusion to 8e 1or'a8le7 In any case4 it 1as 8ad %or trade7 The proclamation o% the 8an4 so it is said4 1as eaten 8y insects lea5in) only the 1ords :In thy name4 O Allah: as a si)n %or those 1ho 1ere prepared to understand it7 The year *22 o% the Christian era4 ho1e5er4 is 'no1n to history as :The Hear o% ournin):7 No1 o5er ei)hty years old4 A8u Tali8 died7 Hence%orth uhammad could no lon)er rely 1ith any certainty upon the protection o% his clan7 His enemies no1 encircled him4 1arily 8ut 1ith )ro1in) determination4 con5inced that i% they could destroy him no more 1ould 8e heard o% the reli)ion o% Islam7 Then !hadi9a died7 The t1o pillars upon 1hich his personal and emotional security had rested 1ere )one4 and the 1orld 1as a colder place than it had 8een 8e%ore7 I% e5er there 1as a time %or a miracle = a di5ine inter5ention to supplement the ?ur:anic re5elations = this 1as it7 To1ards the end o% that year the miracle came7 The rele5ant 5erses o% the ?ur:an are4 to say the least4 succinct> %irst@ :"lori%ied 8e He AAllahB 1ho carried His sla5e 8y ni)ht %rom the sacred os;ue to the %ar=distant

os;ue4 1hose precincts $e ha5e 8lessed4 in order that $e mi)ht sho1 him some o% our si)ns7 He AAllahB is the Hearer4 the ,eer:A?71+71B7 ,econdly@ :$hen there 5eiled the 0ote Tree that 1hich 5eils4 the eye 1a5ered not nor did it trans)ress7 Truly he 8eheld = o% all the si)ns o% his 0ord = the )reatest:A?7(371*=1-B7 These 5erses re%er to t1o successi5e e5ents@ the Isra: A:Ni)ht Fourney:B and the i:ra9 A:Ascension:B7 They ha5e 8een illuminated 8y the authentic sayin)s o% the Prophet4 ela8orated 8y tradition and em8roidered in le)end7 The reli)ious ima)ination has )one to 1or' on the a5aila8le material and )i5en 8irth to a 5ast literature4 so that it is o%ten di%%icult to locate the di5idin)=line 8et1een %act and %antasy> perhaps this does not really matter4 8ecause the Creator o% all %acts is also the Creator o% those products o% the inspired ima)ination 1hich re5eal the underlyin) si)ni%icance o% the %actual7 "a8riel4 the an)elic messen)er4 came to uhammad 1hen he 1as sleepin) in a room close to the !a:8a and touched him 1ith his %oot> the sleeper a1o'e 8ut4 seein) nothin)4 lay do1n a)ain7 :A second time he came> and a third time4 and then he too' me 8y the arm and I rose and stood 8eside him4 and he led me out to the )ate o% the os;ue4 and there 1as a 1hite 8east4 8et1een a mule and an ass Din appearanceE 1ith 1in)s at his sides 1here1ith he mo5ed his le)s4 and his e5ery stride 1as as %ar as his eye could see7:D1E l ?uoted %rom the li%e o% the Prophet 8y I8n Isha;7 He mounted this stran)e 8east4 1hose name 1as &ura; Ameanin) :0i)htnin):B4 and 1as carried at a speed 8eyond all concei5a8le speeds across the mountains and the deserts4 haltin) 8rie%ly at ount ,inai4 1here oses had recei5ed the ta8lets o% the 0a14 and at the 8irthplace o% Fesus in &ethlehem4 8e%ore ali)htin) in Ferusalem4 the city already sacred to the t1o other monotheistic %aiths and thence%orth sacred also to Islam7 The threads 1hich mi)ht seem so 1idely separated 1ere 'nit to)ether4 and in Ferusalem uhammad led a host o% prophets = 1ith A8raham4 oses and Fesus at their head = in prayer to the One "od7 Here4 1here the Temple o% ,olomon had once stood and 1here the 6ome o% the Roc' 1ould one day 8e 8uilt4 a )reat ladder 1as placed 8e%ore him = :the li'e o% 1hich %or 8eauty I had ne5er seen 8e%ore:7 This4 it is said4 is the ladder 1hich the dead yearn to see 8rou)ht %orth4 %or it leads to all that human'ind could e5er desire4 and on1ards4 8eyond desire4 to the realms o% :li)ht upon li)ht:7 "uided 8y the an)el4 he mounted throu)h the hea5enly spheres4 meetin) a)ain those prophets 1ith 1hom he had prayed in Ferusalem7 There they had appeared to him in their human %orms4 8ut no1 he sa1 them in their celestial reality = trans%i)ured = e5en as they no1 sa1 him7 O% the )ardens 1hich adorn each hea5enly sphere he 1as to say later@ :A %ra)ment o% Paradise the si<e o% a 8o1 is 8etter than all 8eneath the sun 777 and i% a 1oman o% the people o% Paradise appeared unto the people o% earth she 1ould %ill the space 8et1een the hea5ens and here 8elo1 1ith li)ht and 1ith %ra)rance7: In each hea5en he met the an)el o% an)els presidin) o5er it4 each o% them commandin) a host o% thousands4 each o% 1hom has under his command many

thousands more7 Accounts o% the i:ra9 and commentaries upon it are %illed 1ith ima)es o% astonishin) richness and pro%usion4 as aspect is piled upon aspect and num8ers are multiplied 8y e5er )reater %actors4 ima)es that da<<le and con%use 8ecause4 i% 1e are not sometimes da<<led and con%used4 1e may thin' that 1e ha5e )rasped in an earthly manner 1hat can ne5er 8e )rasped in this 1ay7 The same techni;ue4 1here8y it is partially possi8le to descri8e the indescri8a8le and to ima)ine the unima)ina8le4 1as employed 8y the early Christian Fathers in 1ritin) o% the Cheru8im and ,eraphim and other ran's o% the an)elic hosts7 Here4 %or e3ample4 is "a8riel seen throu)h uslim eyes@ :He has si3 thousand 1in)s and 8et1een each pair is a distance o% a 9ourney o% %i5e hundred years4 and he has pluma)e 1hich )oes %rom his head to his %eet and 1hich is o% the colour o% sa%%ron4 and each plume loo's li'e the li)ht o% the sun7 He plun)es each day si3 hundred and si3ty times into the ocean o% 0i)ht7 $hen he comes %orth drops o% li)ht %all %rom him and Allah creates %rom these drops an)els in the ima)e o% Fi8ra:il 1ho )lori%y Allah until the 6ay o% Resurrection7: &ut e5en such a creature as this4 in all his splendour4 is still a sla5e o% "od4 hardly more than a spec' o% dust in the radiance o% the di5ine ma9esty> and ha5in) )uided uhammad to the 0ote Tree o% the .ttermost &oundary4 he could )o no %urther7 This is the limit o% creation4 8oth natural and supernatural4 human and an)elic4 and here "a8riel spread his 1in)s sayin)@ :O uhammad4 approach as close as you may and prostrate yoursel%7: Alone4 e3alted a8o5e time and space and e5en a8o5e the an)elic spheres4 uhammad 1ent %or1ard and 8o1ed do1n 8e%ore the Throne o% "od7 $ith the Eye o% his Heart he contemplated his 0ord4 and 1ith the 5oice o% his spirit held con5erse 1ith Him4 1hile in the depths 8eneath the an)el hosts cried out@ :$e 8ear 1itness that the ost Hi)h is One and 0i5in) and there is no other )od 8ut He4 and 1e 8ear 1itness that uhammad is His sla5e and His messen)er:7 $hen4 in his earthly identity4 he 1as as'ed@ :6id you see your 0ordG:4 he replied@ :I sa1 0i)ht7: Here 1e lea5e 8ehind us e5ery possi8ility o% comment or e3planation4 and it may 8e %or this 5ery reason that the record no1 turns to practical matters7 uhammad 1as commanded that he and his community should pray %i%ty times each day> this num8er 1as reduced %irst to %orty4 then thirty and %inally to %i5e7 This easin) o% the 8urden 1as accompanied 8y the promise that 1hoe5er recites these %i5e prayers daily4 8elie5in) sincerely in their e%%icacy4 1ill recei5e the re1ard due %or %i%ty7 The connection 8et1een these instructions and the 5ision o% "od is not %ar to see'7 In relation to such a 5ision it must surely 8e a3iomatic that a constant state o% prayer is the only reasona8le condition in 1hich a man or 1oman can e3ist> reasona8le4 that is to say4 in terms o% Reality4 no1 'no1n at %irst hand7 In reco)nitition4 ho1e5er4 o% human 1ea'ness and o% the %act that 1e seldom i% e5er use our spiritual %aculties = or e5en our mental %aculties = to their %ull potential4 %i5e daily prayers are as much as can 8e e3pected o% us> not that this diminishes the a8surdity o% the li%e li5ed 8et1een these prayer=sessions unless 1e retain4 in the midst o% 1orldly acti5ity4 an a1areness o% the connection esta8lished in prayer and somethin) o% its %la5our7

Returnin) %rom the supreme station4 uhammad 1as a)ain met 8y "a8riel4 1ho sho1ed him the 8oundless 5istas o% Paradise and the su%%ocatin) corridors o% hell> deli)ht and misery4 8eauty and u)liness4 harmony and uproar4 the open and the closed7 $hat 1as said earlier re)ardin) the utter incommensura8ility 8et1een human lan)ua)e on the one hand and celestial = or in%ernal = realities on the other applies 1ith particular %orce here> 8ut since all thin)s are lin'ed a lin' must e3ist and must 8e disco5era8le in our human e3perience4 pro5ided 1e are a8le to e3tend our a1areness 8eyond the local causes o% such e3perience and see' its essence7 Real 9oy = the 9oy o% Paradise = may to some e3tent 8e tasted throu)h ima)es o% earthly 9oy> and the ultimate pain may 8e )limpsed throu)h the pain 1e su%%er here7 uhammad said once@ :Paradise is closer to you than the thon) o% your sandal4 and the same applies to hell>: it mi)ht e5en 8e said that this %ollo1s lo)ically %rom the ?ur:anic statement that "od is closer to man than his 9u)ular 5einA?7(271*B7 The 1hole mystery o% human e3istence turns upon the %act that "od = and all that lies 8eyond our sphere = is so 5ery close to man4 1hile man4 at least in his e5eryday e3perience4 is so 5ery %ar %rom "od and %rom other dimensions o% Reality7 Ima)ery such as that employed in traditional accounts o% the Prophet:s 5ision o% hea5en and hell4D1E ho1e5er e3a))erated and e5en %antastic it may sometimes appear4 is there to ser5e as a 8rid)e o5er this )ul%4 8ut it can do so only i% it is used as a 'ey to intuiti5e understandin) rather than ta'en literally7 1 A ,panish priest4 Fr Asin Palacios4 de5oted t1enty=%i5e years o% his li%e to tracin) the Florentine poet 6ante:s inde8tedness to these Islamic soorces %or the ima)ery o% the 6i5ine Comedy7 ,ee Islam and the 6i5ine Comedy4 i)oel Asin Palacios4 trans7 Harold ,utherland AFran' Cass N Co74 1/2*B7 There is4 ho1e5er4 one ;uestion 1hich has 8een hotly de8ated in the Islamic 1orld %rom that day to this7 6id the Prophet tra5el and ascend only in spirit or did he do so 8odilyG $hat 8oth sides in the ar)ument seem to %or)et is that the 1orld 1e e3perience throu)h our senses is not a lump o% inert matter4 isolated %rom other dimensions> they %or)et that 1hat 1e see here is4 as it 1ere4 8athed in the unseen4 penetrated 8y it in e5ery atom7 The 8ody comes4 the 8ody )oes4 chan)in) as the clouds chan)e %orm4 %inally to 8e resurrected4 transmuted> and the uslim 'no1s that 1hat "od has created He can = i% He 1ill = re=create4 here4 there4 or any1here4 no1 or at any time in the %uture7 6id the Prophet ascend 8odily or spirituallyG He ascended7 $as his e3perience :su89ecti5e: or :o89ecti5e:G It 1as real> 1hich is all that matters7 His companions4 certainly raised this ;uestion 1hen the tra5eller returned to time and space and met 1ith them in the earthly day4 %or they 1ere practical men concerned 1ith practical matters7 Only a %e1 intimates 1ere told the %ull story4 8ut e5en so the idea that he could ha5e tra5elled in the t1in'lin) o% an eye %rom ecca to Ferusalem and 8ac' a)ain 1as hard %or some to accept7 It is one thin) to 'no1 in principle that "od4 1ho made the la1s o% nature4 can o5erride them i% He 1ishes to do so4 ;uite another to accept that this has actually happened7 ,ome o% the dou8ters consulted A8u &a'r7 :6id the essen)er o% "od himsel% tell you thisG:

he as'ed them7 :Hes4: they said7 :Then it is trueI: From that day on A8u &a'r 1as 'no1n as as=,iddi;4 :the Truth%ul: or :the $itness to truth:7 Not %or the %irst time or the last = the people 1ere 8ein) tested7 They held %irm7 Jery soon they 1ould emi)rate 1ith the Prophet to the city in 1hich Islam 1as to 8ecome a 1orld reli)ion7 They 1ere the nucleus4 and it 1as upon their %aith that e5erythin) depended7 Chapter * THE CITH OF THE PROPHET Particularly )allin) to ?uraysh 1as uhammad:s practice o% )oin) amon) the pil)rims in the annual season o% pil)rima)e and preachin) his messa)e7 It 1as easy to )uess 1hat he must 8e sayin) a8out their )ods to these :%orei)ners: 1ho had come to 1orship at the shrines4 come = moreo5er = 1ith money in their 8a))a)e> nor did they 1elcome the idea o% a domestic dispute 8ein) noised a8road throu)hout the len)th and 8readth o% the Ara8ian peninsula7 ?uraysh 1ere nothin) i% not proud o% their city and its reputation7 It 1as pro8a8ly in the Hear o% ournin) that he made his %irst con5erts amon) the pil)rims %rom Hathri87 This to1n4 2+2 miles to the north4 1as %ortunate in its location in a pleasant oasis4 %amous e5en to this day %or the e3cellence o% its dates4 8ut un%ortunate in e5ery other 1ay7 It seems ori)inally to ha5e 8een a Fe1ish settlement Aalthou)h these Fe1s 1ere pro8a8ly Ara8s con5erted to FudaismB4 8ut at some time in the past t1o tri8es %rom the Hemen4 !ha<ra9 and A1s4 had arri5ed there4 li'ed 1hat they %ound and stayed on7 The oasis had 8een the scene o% almost unceasin) %actional stri%e7 Fe1s %ou)ht Fe1s and Ara8s %ou)ht Ara8s> Ara8s allied themsel5es 1ith Fe1s and %ou)ht other Ara8s allied 1ith a di%%erent Fe1ish community7 $hile ecca prospered4 Hathri8 li5ed in 1retchedness7 $hat 1as needed = as any sensi8le person could see = 1as a leader capa8le o% unitin) the people4 8ut no leader chosen %rom one %action or another 1ould 8e accepta8le to all7 There 1as much to 8e said %or see'in) an outsider to %ill this role4 and it seems li'ely that some o% the pil)rims4 deeply impressed 8y uhammad:s personality and %orce o% character4 8e)an to discuss amon) themsel5es a startlin) possi8ility7 ,ince this man 1as in trou8le in his o1n city4 should they in5ite him to emi)rate to Hathri8G Apart %rom all other considerations4 this 1ould 8e a nicely calculated insult to ?uraysh4 1hose arro)ance must ha5e 8een 5ery tryin) to them and 1hose prosperity could only arouse en5y7 In the summer o% A6 *21 a8out a do<en men %rom Hathri84 representin) 8oth !ha<ra9 and A1s4 met secretly 1ith uhammad at :A;a8a in the 5alley o% ina on the outs'irts o% ecca and pled)ed themsel5es to him4 in their o1n names and in those o% their 1i5es4 underta'in) to associate no other creature 1ith "od4 neither to steal nor to commit adultery nor to 'ill their in%ants4 e5en in dire po5erty> and they undertoo' to o8ey this man in all thin)s 9ust7 This is 'no1n as the First Pled)e o% :A;a8a4 or the $omen:s Pled)e4 not 8ecause any 1oman 1as present 8ut 8ecause it contained no pro5ision %or %i)htin)7 $hen they returned to Hathri8 they too' 1ith them one o% the Prophet:s companions4 us:a84 a man 'no1n %or his diplomatic s'ills 1ho4 in addition to teachin) ne1 con5erts the rudiments o% the %aith4 1as competent to ne)otiate 1ith the clan chie%tains in the oasis7

In Fune the %ollo1in) year4 as soon as the pil)rima)e 1as ended4 se5enty=t1o men and three 1omen slipped ;uietly into the 5alley o% ina and sat 1aitin) to)ether on the roc's at :A;a8a7D1E At midni)ht a small )roup o% 1hite=cloa'ed %i)ures came to them out o% the dar'ness4 uhammad and some o% his companions4 to)ether 1ith his uncle4 al=:A88as Aanother o% A8du:l= uttali8:s numerous pro)enyB4 not himsel% a uslim 8ut present as the o%%icial representati5e o% the clan Hashim7 The proceedin)s opened 1ith a speech %rom al=:A88as and4 as one 1ould e3pect o% an elder o% ?uraysh4 he spo'e elo;uently and 1ith authority7 He made a modest 8ut pointed re%erence to his o1n role in protectin) his nephe1 a)ainst the latter:s many enemies and continued in a tone sli)htly reminiscent o% a Jictorian %ather interro)atin) a suitor %or his dau)hter:s hand7 :He4: he said Are%errin) to uhammadB4 :has resol5ed to turn to you and 9oin himsel% 1ith you7 I% you can 8e sure that you 1ill 'eep to 1hat you promise him and that you 1ill protect him a)ainst all 1ho oppose him4 yours shall 8e the 8urden you ha5e ta'en upon yoursel5es7 &ut i% you thin' you 1ill %ail him and 8etray him a%ter he has )one out to you4 then lea5e him no17: 1 Considerin) ho1 misty are the outlines o% Enropean history in the se5enth century4 it is remar'ahle ho1 detailed are the records o% e5ents in the Prophet:s li%e4 particularly %rom this point on7 I8n !athir actually records the names o% e5ery one o% the pil)rims present at :A;a8a7 A spo'esman %or the people o% Hathri8 then made the pled)e o% alle)iance4 8ut a man o% A1s interrupted and said@ :O essen)er o% Allah4 there are ties 8et1een us and other men: he meant the Fe1s = :and 1e are 1illin) to se5er them7 &ut mi)ht it not 8e that4 i% 1e do this and i% therea%ter Allah )i5es you 5ictory4 you 1ill then return to your people and lea5e usG: uhammad smiled and said@ :I am yours and you are mine7 Him you 1ar a)ainst4 him shall I 1ar a)ainst7 $ith 1homsoe5er you ma'e peace4 1ith him I shall ma'e peace7: &e%ore the matter 1as concluded4 a man o% !ha<ra9 reminded his companions o% 1hat al=:A88as had said addin)@ :I% you thin' that 1hen you su%%er the loss o% possessions and some o% your no8les are slain4 you 1ill %orsa'e him4 then %orsa'e him no1777 &ut i% you thin' you 1ill %ul%il your pled)e4 then ta'e him4 %or in this = 8y AllahI = is the 8est o% this 1orld and o% the ne3t7: The people then pled)ed themsel5es4 one 8y one4 underta'in) to de%end the Prophet as they 1ould their o1n 1i5es and children7 This is 'no1n as the Pled)e o% $ar4 8ecause it in5ol5ed protectin) the person o% the Prophet4 8y arms i% necessary> 8ut some dou8t e3ists as to 1hen the ?ur:anic 5erses permittin) holy 1ar in de%ence o% the reli)ion 1ere re5ealed7 These 5erses are crucial in the history o% Islam@ :Permission is )i5en unto those 1ho %i)ht 8ecause they ha5e 8een 1ron)ed4 and Allah is indeed a8le to )i5e them 5ictory> those 1ho ha5e 8een dri5en %rom their homes un9ustly only 8ecause they said = Our 0ord is AllahI For 1ere it not that Allah repels some people 8y means o% others4 monasteries and churches and syna)o)ues and mos;ues in 1hich the name o% Allah is e3tolled 1ould surely ha5e 8een destroyed777:A?72273/=#2B7 Accordin) to the earliest o% the Prophet:s 8io)raphers4 I8n Isha;4 this re5elation came 8e%ore the ,econd Pled)e o% :A;a8a4 1hereas all other authorities date it soon a%ter the emi)ration to Hathri87

&e that as it may4 a turnin)=point had come %or uhammad4 %or the uslims and %or the 1orld7 It 1as uhammad:s destiny = and an aspect o% his prophetic %unction = that he should demonstrate the alternati5es open to the persecuted and the oppressed> on the one hand4 %or8earance and the :turnin) o% the other chee':> on the other4 1hat is called 8y Christians the :9ust 1ar:4 8ut %or 1hich = in the 1ords o% a later ?ur:anic re5elation =:corruption 1ould surely o5er1helm the earth:A?7272(1B7 For almost thirteen years he and his people had su%%ered persecution4 threats and insults 1ithout raisin) a hand in sel%=de%ence7 They had pro5ed that this 1as humanly possi8le7 Circumstances 1ere no1 chan)in) and called %or a 5ery di%%erent response i% the reli)ion o% Islam 1as to sur5i5e in the 1orld7 Peace has its seasons4 8ut so has 1ar4 and the uslim ne5er %or)ets that e5ery man 8orn is 8orn to 1ar in one %orm or another4 at one le5el or another> i% not physical4 then spiritual7 Those 1ho try to i)nore this %act are4 sooner or later4 ensla5ed7 In t1os and threes the uslims slipped out o% ecca and too' the road to Hathri87 The Hi9ra had 8e)un7 This 1ord has 8een ;uite 1ron)ly translated as :%li)ht:4 or else4 ;uite accepta8ly4 as :emi)ration:4 8ut the precise meanin) relates to the se5erin) o% all past relationships in preparation %or %ormin) ne1 ones> a 8rea' 1ith the past4 a %resh start7 Houses once %ull o% people and noisy 1ith li%e no1 stood empty and silent7 E5erythin) in this prosperous and united city had chan)ed in ten years4 as it does in the human personality 1hen spiritual li)htnin) stri'es7 For ?uraysh the limits o% 1hat 1as 8eara8le had 8een passed7 Enemies 1ithin the city 1ere 8ad enou)h4 8ut no1 these enemies 1ere settin) up a ri5al centre to the north7 Restrained hitherto 8y principles inherited %rom their &edouin %ore%athers and 8y the %ear o% causin) a trou8lesome 8lood=%eud4 the leaders decided that uhammad must die7 A8u Fahl proposed a simple plan7 Houn) men should 8e chosen %rom di%%erent clans4 each one to stri'e a mortal 8lo14 so that uhammad:s 8lood 1ould 8e upon all o% them7 Hashim could not see' retri8ution %rom all the other clans7 ean1hile4 the Prophet4 1ith a %e1 intimates4 had 8een a1aitin) the di5ine command to 9oin the other uslims in Hathri87 He did not %eel %ree to emi)rate until this command came to him4 8ut o5er the course o% se5eral 1ee's A8u &a'r had 8een preparin) t1o %ast she=camels %or the 9ourney4 %eedin) them on )um= acacia lea5es to enhance their po1ers o% endurance7 At last the command came7 The assassins 1ere already surroundin) his house 1hen uhammad slipped out unseen7 They could not enter the house4 since this 1ould ha5e in5ol5ed 5iolatin) the pri5acy o% the 1omen Ano one could say that the youn) men o% ?uraysh 1ere not )entlemenB4 8ut one o% them peered throu)h a 1indo1 and sa1 a %i)ure curled up on the Prophet:s sleepin)=mat7 .na1are that this 1as in %act :Ali4 actin) as a decoy4 they settled do1n to 1ait %or mornin)7 To con%use pursuit4 uhammad and A8u &a'r headed south4 a %riendly shepherd usin) his sheep to co5er their trac's4 and too' re%u)e in a ca5e on ount Tha1r on the road to Hemen7 Here A8u &a'r:s son A8dulla8 came to them4 8rin)in) ne1s that ?uraysh had o%%ered a re1ard o% a hundred camels %or their capture4 1hile his dau)hter Asma: 8rou)ht pro5isions and 1as 'no1n e5er a%ter as :,he=o%=the=t1o=

)irdles:4 8ecause 1hen they needed a rope she cut her )irdle in t1o and )a5e them hal% o% it7 ean1hile4 %indin) no trace o% the %u)iti5es to the north4 the hunters e3tended their search4 and one e5enin) the sound o% stran)e 5oices 1as heard close to the mouth o% the ca5e7 Fi5e or si3 men had )athered there and 1ere de8atin) 1hether to search the interior7 A8u &a'r %eared that the end had come4 8ut uhammad as'ed him@ :$hat thin' you o% t1o 1hen Allah ma'es a thirdG: A%ter a little 1hile the 5oices %aded into the distance4 and 1hen uhammad 1as a8le sa%ely to emer)e4 he sa1 the reason %or their %ailure to search %urther7 A shru84 1hich had not 8een there pre5iously4 had )ro1n in a matter o% hours4 partially co5erin) the ca5e entrance4 a spider had 1o5en its 1e8 8et1een this plant and the roc' 1all4 and a pair o% do5es had 8uilt their nest close 8y7 Nature4 reconciled to ,pirit4 had protected "od:s messen)er7 :These three thin)s4: remar's 6ermen)hem4 :are the only miracles recorded in authentic uslim history@ the 1e8 o% a spider4 the lo5e o% a do5e4 the sproutin) o% a %lo1er = three miracles accomplished daily on "od:s earth7:D1E 1 0i%e o% ahomet4 Emile 6ermen)hem4 p7 1#/7

The specially prepared camels 1ere no1 8rou)ht to them and4 s'irtin) round ecca to the $est4 they made their 1ay to1ards Hathri84 si)htin) the oasis a%ter t1el5e days7 They rested in a 5illa)e on the outs'irts4 1here :Ali4 1ho had made the 9ourney on %oot4 no1 9oined them7 The Hi9ra had 8een completed7 It 1as 2# ,eptem8er *22 8y Christian rec'onin)4 and the Islamic era = the uslim calendar = 8e)ins on the %irst day o% the Ara8ic year in 1hich this e5ent too' place@ 1* Fuly7 And %rom this day on Hathri8 had a ne1 name4 a name o% )lory@ adinat=an=Na8i4 the City o% the Prophet> in 8rie%4 edina7 6ressed in %esti5e )arments uhammad entered the to1n accompanied 8y se5enty riders4 one o% 1hom carried 8e%ore him a )reen tur8an %i3ed to the end o% a lance7 The persecuted 5isionary 1as no1 a ruler 1ith the authority to impose a re5ealed pattern o% harmony and order upon human chaos7 E5en as he crossed the 8oundary4 ho1e5er4 he %aced an immediate political pro8lem7 $here should he stopG In the territory o% 1hich %actionG One a%ter another the people )rasped the halter o% his camel4 ?as1a7 :0et her )o her 1ay4: he said4 :%or she is under the command o% Allah7: A%ter 1anderin) %or some distance4 seemin) ready to settle Aamidst )ro1in) e3citementB4 then am8lin) %or1ard a)ain4 ta'in) her time and %ul%illin) her destiny4 ?as1a at last halted and san' to the )round4 1ith all the )roanin) and )rum8lin) o% 1hich a no8le and sel%=important camel is capa8le7 Here 1as 8uilt4 in due course4 the %irst mos;ue o% Istam4 to)ether 1ith the Prophet:s house and the apartments o% his 1i5es7 ecca had its %amous sanctuary4 8ut 1as 8etter still7 edina no1 had a li5in) Prophet4 and that

The people o% the oasis did not achie5e unanimity o5erni)ht4 8ut the outlines o% an ordered society 1ere esta8lished 1ith surprisin) speed7 uhammad made a co5enant o% mutual o8li)ation 8et1een his people and the Fe1s o% edina in 1hich it 1as a)reed that they 1ould ha5e e;ual status and %i)ht as one i% attac'ed7 Those amon) the Ara8 inha8itants 1ho resented the ne1comers held their peace

%or the time 8ein)7 The most po1er%ul man o% !ha<ra94 I8n .8ayy4 accepted Islam as a matter o% %orm4 thou)h he 1ould later sho1 his true colours as the leader o% the :hypocrites:4 the muna%i;un7 Thin)s %ell into place4 and the eddies 1hich had pre5iously s1irled in opposite directions no1 %ormed a pattern around the Prophet7 &y sheer %orce o% character4 com8ined 1ith e3traordinary diplomatic s'ill4 he 8e)an to reconcile the %actions7 To unite the :emi)rants: Amuha99irinB 1ith the local uslims4 the :helpers: AansarB4 he esta8lished a system o% personal relationships@ each :helper: too' an :emi)rant: as his 8rother4 to 8e treated as such under all circumstances and to stand in order o% inheritance 8e%ore mem8ers o% the natural %amily7 $ith a %e1 e3ceptions = in particular :.thman i8n :A%%an4 1ho placed his 1ealth at the ser5ice o% the community = the :emi)rants: had lost e5erythin) they possessed and 1ere completely dependent upon their ne1 8rothers7 In 5ie1 o% the clannishness o% the Ara8s4 one is tempted to descri8e as a :miracle: the %act that this situation seems to ha5e caused no resentment 1hate5er amon) those 1ho 1ere so suddenly o8li)ed to ta'e complete stran)ers into their %amilies7 ,eldom has the po1er o% reli)ious %aith to chan)e men 8een more clearly demonstrated7 The eccan uslims4 ho1e5er4 had not %or)otten their old s'ills7 The tale is told o% an :emi)rant: 1ho4 1hen his ne1 8rother said to him4 :O poorest o% the poor4 ho1 can I help youG y house and my %unds are at your disposalI: replied@ :O 'indest o% 'ind %riends4 9ust sho1 me the 1ay to the local mar'et7 The rest 1ill ta'e care o% itsel%7: This man4 it is said4 started 8y sellin) 8utter and cheese4 soon 8ecame rich enou)h to pay the 8ride=price o% a local )irl and4 in due course4 1as a8le to e;uip a cara5an o% +22 camels7 O% another4 uhammad said@ :He could ma'e a %ortune sellin) sand7: ,uch enterprise 1as encoura)ed4 8ut there 1ere also those o% a more contemplati5e temperament 1ho had neither the s'ills nor the inclination to earn their o1n li5in)4 and they = as thou)h to pro5e that the uslim does not ha5e to 8e an :acti5ist: = 1ere )i5en an honoured place in the community7 A space 1as %ound %or them to sleep in the co5ered section o% the ne1 mos;ue and they came to 8e 'no1n as :the People o% the &ench:7 They 1ere %ed 1ith %ood %rom the Prophet:s o1n ta8le4 1hen there 1as any to spare4 and 1ith roasted 8arley %rom the community chest> and o% all these the most %amous 1as A8u Huraira4 1hich means :Father o% the little cat:4 1ho %ollo1ed uhammad e5ery1here = 9ust as his little cat %ollo1ed him = and to 1hose prodi)ious po1ers o% memory 1e o1e a )reat num8er o% the recorded hadiths7 Perhaps he mi)ht 8e re)arded as the %irst o% those o% 1hom uhammad 1as to say@ :The in' o% the scholars is more 5alua8le than the 8lood o% the martyrs7: uhammad himsel% had no 1ish to li5e in any less ,partan %ashion than did his people7 His main meal 1as usually a 8oiled )ruel called sa1i;4 1ith dates and mil'4 his only other meal o% the day 8ein) dates and 1ater> 8ut he %re;uently 1ent hun)ry and de5eloped the practice o% 8indin) a %lat stone a)ainst his 8elly to assua)e his discom%ort7 It 1as only too 1ell 'no1n that :he could re%use nothin):7 One day a 1oman )a5e him a cloa' = somethin) he 8adly needed = 8ut the same e5enin) someone as'ed him %or it4 to ma'e a shroud4 and he promptly )a5e it up7

He 1as 8rou)ht %ood 8y those 1ho had a small surplus4 8ut he ne5er seemed to 'eep it lon) enou)h to taste it7 There 1as al1ays someone in )reater need7 $ith diminished physical stren)th = no1 %i%ty=t1o years old = he stru))led to 8uild a nation 8ased upon reli)ion out o% the 5aried assortment o% people "od had )i5en him as his ra1 material7 It 1as o85ious4 ho1e5er4 that the emi)rants4 1hose property in ecca had 8een con%iscated4 could not continue inde%initely as the impo5erished )uests o% the ansar4 1ho 1ere themsel5es li5in) at su8sistence le5el7 At this rate ?uraysh needed only to 1ait until Islam died o% hun)er7 Ara8 tradition4 1hich permitted tri8es that had 8een impo5erished 8y mis%ortune to raid those more %ortunate than themsel5es = 8ut %or 1hich the desert Ara8s mi)ht not ha5e sur5i5ed throu)h the centuries = to)ether 1ith the re5elation concernin) the ri)ht o% those 1ho had 8een :dri5en un9ustly %rom their homes: to ta'e up arms4 o%%ered the only solution7 Early raids on the eccan cara5ans4 ho1e5er4 had little success7 The decision 1as then made to attac' the )reat annual cara5an %rom ,yria4 1hich 1as under the personal command o% A8u ,u%yan7 ,couts reported that it 1ould 8e haltin) at the 1ells o% &adr4 and the uslims no1 prepared themsel5es %or 1ar7 Ne1s o% these preparations reached A8u ,u%yan on his south1ard 9ourney4 and he himsel% led a scoutin) party to &adr4 1here the stones o% edina dates 1ere identi%ied in camel dun) close to the 1ells7 Readin) the si)ns correctly4 he sent an ur)ent messa)e to ecca that an army should 8e dispatched to deal 1ith the uslims> soon a%ter1ards he di5erted his cara5an = 5alued4 it is said4 at appro3imately three million dollars in modern currency = to an alternati5e route alon) the seashore7 A eccan army num8erin) a8out a thousand men marched north1ards4 1hile the :emi)rants: and the :helpers:4 num8erin) in all 32(4 made their 1ay as 8est they could to &adr> they had only se5enty camels and three horses 8et1een them4 so the men rode 8y turns = or se5eral on one 8east7 They 1ere already on their 1ay 1hen ne1s came o% A8u ,u%yan:s chan)e o% plan7 The Prophet held an immediate council7 ,hould they pursue the cara5an or %ace the armyG The decision 1as not really in dou8t7 They 1ent %or1ard to 1hat is 'no1n in history as al ya1m al= %urcan4 the 6ay o% 6iscrimination> discrimination 8et1een li)ht and dar'ness4 )ood and e5il4 ri)ht and 1ron)7 The 8attle 1as %ou)ht on 1+ Ramadan in the second year o% the Hi9ra> Friday 1+ arch A6 *2#7 It 8e)an in the customary manner 1ith sin)le com8at 8et1een opposin) champions4 three %rom each side4 and in this :Ali4 Ham<ah and a third uslim 1ere 5ictorious7 This 1as %ollo1ed 8y )eneral %i)htin)4 in 1hich the eccans pro5ed rather less than enthusiastic 1hereas the uslims = lean and hun)ry = re9oiced in the opportunity to a5en)e their 1ron)s7 uhammad had de5ised a tactic un%amiliar in Ara8 1ar%are4 'eepin) his people close to)ether under strict discipline and allo1in) their opponents to e3haust themsel5es in repeated char)es7 $hen the time 1as ripe he si)nalled the ad5ance 8y ta'in) up a hand%ul o% sand and castin) it to1ards the enemy7 As they char)ed %or1ard4 there 1ere some amon) the uslims 1ho heard4 a8o5e the din o% 8attle4 the rustlin) o% an)el 1in)s4 and therea%ter ne5er dou8ted that unseen hosts had come

closer to earth that day than e5er 8e%ore7 The )reat army o% ?uraysh 1as put to %li)ht4 lea5in) the uslims alone on the %ield4 ;uiet in their hour o% triumph4 perhaps o5era1ed 8y the ma)nitude o% their 5ictory7 In this4 one o% the %e1 really decisi5e 8attles in human history4 the total casualties 1ere 8et1een se5enty and ei)hty dead7 :Ho1 do you 'no14: the Prophet as'ed his companions some time later4 :that Allah has not loo'ed upon the men o% &adr and said to them@ 6o 1hat you 1ill4 %or I ha5e %or)i5en youI: ,o lon) as any o% them li5ed these 1ere the most respected amon) the uslims4 and o% their num8er none 1as more esteemed %or his coura)e than :Ali 1ho 1as no1 )i5en the hand o% Fatima4 the Prophet:s dau)hter4 in marria)e7 ecca reeled under the shoc'7 A8u Fahl had 8een slain at &adr4 and A8u 0aha8 = :the Father o% Flame: = died soon a%ter4 some say %rom an)er 1hen the ne1s reached him4 others say %rom shame4 a%ter a 1oman 8eat him around the head 8ecause he had %lo))ed a sla5e> in either case4 this %ul%illed a ?ur:anic prophecy@ :The po1er o% A8u 0aha8 1ill perish4 and he 1ill perish7 His 1ealth and )ains 1ill not e3empt him7 He 1ill 8e made to endure a %ire %iercely )lo1in) 777: A?7111B7 This le%t A8u ,u%yan as the dominant %i)ure in the city4 and he 'ne1 8etter than anyone that the matter could not 8e allo1ed to rest there7 ,uccess 8reeds success4 and the &edouin tri8es = ne5er slo1 to assess the 8alance o% po1er = 1ere increasin)ly inclined to1ards alliance 1ith the uslims7 He s1ore a mi)hty oath ne5er a)ain to per%ume his 8eard until &adr had 8een a5en)ed7 Al=:A88as4 still actin) as mediator4 sent 1ord to the Prophet that a eccan army num8erin) 342224 1ith +22 armoured men and a troop o% horse 222 stron)4 1as preparin) to march on edina under the command o% A8u ,u%yan> moreo5er4 they 1ere plannin) to 8rin) their 1omen%ol' 1ith them7 This 1as a )ra5e matter7 The Ara8 1arrior 1as 1ell a1are that there are many occasions 1hen discretion is the 8etter part o% 5alour or 1hen = to use a Famaican phrase = :a8sence o% 8ody is 8etter than presence o% mind:7 $hen 1omen 1ere present4 ho1e5er4 he 1as 8ound to li5e up to his 8oasts4 ho1e5er mista'en he mi)ht 8e in supposin) that 1omen 8elie5e men:s 8oastin)7 A8u ,u%yan 1as ta'in) 1ith him his 1i%e Hind4 one o% the most notorious 1omen in history4 1ho4 as the army prepared %or 8attle4 led the rest in a chant promisin) the 1arriors that i% they %ou)ht 8ra5ely4 their 1i5es 1ould em8race them4 8ut i% they %led %rom the %ield they must e3pect to 8e cast %rom the marria)e=8ed7 The eccans 1ere camped on a strip o% culti5ated land 8eneath ount .hud4 1hich o5erloo's edina %rom the north7 The Prophet held a council o% 1ar> his o1n inclination 1as to remain in the to1n and allo1 a sie)e4 8ut he su8mitted to the ma9ority opinion in %a5our o% )oin) out to 8attle7 : essen)er o% Allah4: said one o% his counsellors4 :1e ha5e 8e%ore us one o% t1o )ood thin)s7 Either Allah 1ill )rant us mastery o5er them4 1hich is 1hat 1e 1ould li'e> or else Allah 1ill )rant us martyrdom7 I care not 1hich it 8e4 %or truly there is )ood in 8oth7: The eccans had 8y no1 ta'en up their positions4 1ith A8u ,u%yan commandin) the centre and !halid i8n al=$alid commandin) the ca5alry on the ri)ht 1in)7 A

stran)e pattern is apparent to hindsi)ht4 %or this man and others amon) the pa)an leaders 1ould li5e to 8ecome4 in the course o% time4 the supreme champions o% Islam4 the 1orld=con;uerors7 This pattern appears less stran)e i% 1e 8ear in mind the sym8olism o% these 1ars o% reli)ion4 1hich is rooted in the no8ility o% ?uraysh hidden 8eneath the layers o% corruption7 In1ardly and in terms o% spiritual con%lict they represent the no8le impulses o% the soul4 positi5e in their essence 8ut )one astray4 a1aitin) recti%ication7 In sacred history = and these e5ents 1ould 8e mere tri5ialities 1ere they not a part o% sacred history = %act and 5ision mer)e4 and 1hat happens in the dust o% 8attle is 8ut an out1ard si)n4 and a reminder:4 o% the in1ard dramas throu)h 1hich the human creature passes on the 9ourney to "od7 In Islam there is a 1all set 8et1een the realm o% ercy and the realm o% $rath = thou)h e5en this 1all is pierced 8y an openin) = 8ut there are no hermetically sealed compartments such as the $estern mind %inds conceptually con5enient7 $hat happens on one le5el = earthly4 psychic or spiritual = may al1ays 8e transposed4 as it 1ere4 to another 'ey4 another dimension7 Nothin) occurs only at one le5el4 in isolation> 1hat happens here is also happenin) there4 and 5ice 5ersa7 &ehind the shado1=dance o% sacred history are real %i)ures loc'ed in uni5ersal com8at7 And no1 the uslims came out to 8attle4 se5en hundred stron) = the odds e5en less %a5oura8le than at &adr = and char)ed the enemy in the name o% Allah4 carin) little 1hether they li5ed or died7 The eccan line 8ro'e under the impact4 and in the ensuin) chaos o% one=to=one com8at4 the 1ay to their camp 1as laid open7 uhammad had placed %i%ty chosen archers on hi)h )round to his le%t4 1ith strict orders not to lea5e their position under any circumstances7 ,eein)4 as they thou)ht4 the 8attle ended and the enemy in %li)ht4 and %earin) that they mi)ht 8e le%t out in the distri8ution o% 8ooty4 they came do1n the hillside in thou)htless haste7 !halid4 1ho had held his ca5alry in reser5e 1aitin) %or 9ust such an opportunity4 at once sei<ed the hei)hts and attac'ed the uslims %rom their rear7 any that day 1ere cast %rom the %ield o% 8attle into Paradise = uhammad said o% one4 :Truly he passes throu)h the )ardens o% Paradise as %reely as a s1immer passes throu)h 1aterI: = %or 1e are told that martyrdom 1ipes out all sins and the soul comes %rom the 8ody as pure as 1hen it 1as created7 ,el%=transcendence is the uni5ersal 'ey to spiritual li%e and such a sacri%ice is the clearest possi8le assertion o% sel%=transcendence> 1hat may ha5e 8een done physically or 8y the psychic su8stance has perished on the 8attle%ield and 1hat li5es on is %reed o% all encum8rances7 :Paradise4: said uhammad4 :is under the shado1 o% the s1ords4: 8ut 8ecause Islam is al1ays care%ul to maintain a 8alance 8et1een ri)our and mercy4 he said also@ :Paradise is at the %eet o% the mothers7: A num8er o% close companions surrounded the Prophet at the %oot o% ount .hud7 The tide o% 8attle s1irled to1ards them and se5eral attac's 8y small )roups o% the enemy 1ere repulsed7 A s1ord 8lo14 only partially di5erted 8y one o% his companions4 stunned the Prophet4 dri5in) t1o o% his helmet=rin)s into his chee'7 ,hammas o% a'h<i9m placed himsel% in %ront o% the 8ody as a li5in) shield4 and 1hen he 1as cut do1n4 another too' his place4 and then another7 As soon as the %i)htin) shi%ted to a di%%erent ;uarter4 one o% the companions dre1 out the metal

rin)s 1ith his teeth4 losin) t1o o% them in the process so that his mouth 8led pro%usely7 :He 1hose 8lood has touched my 8lood4: said uhammad4 :him the Fire cannot reach7: The cry 1ent up amon)st the people that the Prophet had 8een 'illed7 ,ome lost heart4 8ut others %ou)ht e5en more %iercely4 seein) no %urther point in li5in)7 :$hat 1ill you do 1ith li%e a%ter thisG: one o% the men as'ed another7 :Rise and die e5en as he diedI: 1as the ans1er7 The eccans 8elie5ed that they had achie5ed their o89ect4 and in any case4 they had no stomach %or continuin) the %i)ht a)ainst men 1ho seemed prepared to 1elcome death4 e5en to see' it out7 The %ield 1as theirs4 and no1 the 1omen o% ?uraysh mo5ed amon) the corpses4 lamentin) the slain amon)st their o1n people and mutilatin) the uslim dead7 Ham<ah4 the Prophet:s 8oyhood %riend4 1as amon) the latter4 and the a8omina8le Hind = A8uM ,u%yan:s 1i%e = 1ho 8ore Ham<ah a particular )rud)e and had o%%ered a re1ard to the man 1ho 'illed him attempted to eat his li5er4 1hich had 8een pluc'ed %rom the still 1arm 8ody7 A8u ,u%yan4 althou)h 8y no1 he 'ne1 that the Prophet 1as still ali5e4 1ithdre1 his %orces4 and as he passed the %oot o% ount .hud4 shouted to the uslims )rouped hi)her up on the slope@ :$ar )oes 8y turns7 This is a day %or a day7: !no1in) that his 5ictory had 8een %ar %rom complete4 he challen)ed them to meet him a)ain the %ollo1in) year at the 1ells o% &adr7 &ut the day had not yet ended7 Thou)h 1ea'ened 8y his 1ound and 8y loss o% 8lood4 uhammad led his people in pursuit o% the 5ictors4 campin) %or se5eral days in a 5illa)e close to ecca> there the 1eary men 1ere ordered to )ather 'indlin)4 and each ni)ht more than (22 8eacons 1ere lit as a )esture o% de%iance Athe eccans %eared that the entire population o% edina must ha5e turned out to deal an immediate counter=8lo1B7 He understood the psycholo)y o% his people4 and in this 1ay he rid them o% the taste o% de%eat 1hile underminin) his enemies sense o% triumph7 In edina itsel% opponents o% Islam no1 raised their 5oices as they had not dared to do 8e%ore and the :hypocrites: re9oiced7 I% &adr had 8een proo% o% uhammad:s mission4 then .hud must surely dispro5e it7 The &edouin 8ecame trou8lesome4 and uhammad 1ent into Na9d 8y %orced marches in sti%lin) heat4 his men 8indin) their %eet 1ith ra)s to pre5ent them %rom 8ein) 8urned 8y the scorchin) sands7 No one turned 8ac'7 :They rendered homa)e to him4: says 6ermen)hem4 :1ith death threatenin) them4 so trans%i)ured 1ere they 8y the %aith o% their leader4 1ho 1as so ardent that e5en in this small deserted corner o% the 1orld4 8et1een t1o ridiculous s'irmishes4 8et1een t1o e3haustin) marches and t1o raids4 he 1as preparin) to chan)e the %ace o% the 1orld7:D1E It is almost impossi8le to )rasp the e3tent o% the Prophet:s acti5ity in this period7 6urin) the ten years in edina he or)ani<ed se5enty=%our campai)ns4 leadin) t1enty=%our o% them in person4 campai)ns 1hich %inally placed the 1hole o% Ara8ia in his hands7 Het this 1as only one aspect o% his li%e = a minor aspect4 one mi)ht thin'4 1hen readin) the hadith literature7 Far more important 1as his %unction as a teacher4 and 1hile counsellin) all 1ho came to him and actin) as 9ud)e in e5ery dispute = constantly interrupted 8y the o5er1helmin) e3perience o% repeated re5elations = he still %ound time %or his %amily and his %riends7D2E

1 0i%e o% ahomet4 6etmen)hem4 p723(7 2 Amon) the people o% edina there 1as a particularly u)ly little man called Kihir7 The Prophet 1as %ond o% him4 and seein) him one day in the mar'et4 came up 8ehind him and slipped his arms round his 1aist7 Turnin) in surprise4 Kahir shouted4 :$ho:s thisG: and then4 seein) 1ho it 1as4 leaned 8ac' a)ainst the Prophet:s chest7 The Prophet called out@ :$ho 1ill 8uy this sla5e %rom meG: :Alas4: said Kahir4 :you 1ill and me 1orthless )oods4 I s1ear 8y Allah7: :&ut in the si)ht o% Allah you are 8y no means 1orthless4: said the Prophet7 He tau)ht his people that the ideal at 1hich they must aim 1as to perpetuate their consciousness o% spiritual realities in the midst o% their daily li5es and ordinary 8usiness7 :&y Him in 1hose hand is my soul4: he said :i% you 1ere to remain perpetually as you are in my presence or in your times o% remem8rance Adhi'rB o% Allah4 then 1ould the an)els come to ta'e you 8y the hand as you lie in your 8eds or as you )o on your 1ays 777: For simple people he had simple ans1ers4 1hich 1ere none the less entirely ade;uate7 A man 1ho as'ed 1hat 1ere the essentials o% Islam 1as told@ :,ay4 I 8elie5e in Allah> then 'eep to the strai)ht path7: Another as'ed 1hat are the essentials o% the pious li%e7 :,pea' no e5il o% anyoneI: 1as the ans1er7 As'ed a8out the nature o% e5il the Prophet replied@ :6o not as' me a8out e5il4 8ut as' me a8out )ood>: and 1hen he 1as as'ed 1hat actions 1ere most pleasin) to "od he said@ :Prayer at its proper time 777 'indness to parents 777 and holy com8at in "od:s path7: A man as'ed ho1 he could honour his dead mother and 1as ad5ised@ :Throu)h 1ater7 6i) a 1ell in her name and )i5e 1ater to the thirsty7: To others he said@ :Hou 1ill not enter Paradise until you 8elie5e4 and you 1ill not 8elie5e until you lo5e one another7774: and he 1arned a man4 :6o not consider any act o% 'indness insi)ni%icant4: addin)4 :e5en meetin) your 8rother uslim 1ith a cheer%ul %aceI: In the same 5ein he said@ :I% anyone remo5es one o% the an3ieties o% this 1orld %rom a 8elie5er4 Allah 1ill remo5e one o% the an3ieties o% the 6ay o% Resurrection %rom him 777: For certain intimate companions his teachin) 1as o% a deeper and more %ar= reachin) nature4 8ut he did not li)htly disclose the mysteries to those unready to recei5e them7 :I ha5e 'ept in my memory4: said A8u Huraira4 :t1o )reat 5essels o% learnin) %rom the essen)er o% Allah4 one o% 1hich I ha5e disclosed to you> 8ut 1ere I to disclose the other4 my throat 1ould 8e cut7: In this the :Father o% the little cat: 1as %ollo1in) the e3ample o% spiritual discretion set 8y the Prophet7 The household = the sacred %amily upon 1hich uslims call do1n 8lessin)s today and e5ery day = had )ro1n )radually7 Follo1in) upon a 5isionary dream in 1hich he had seen A8u &a'r:s dau)hter4 :A:isha Astill4 at that time4 a childB4 8rou)ht to him 8y an an)el4 he 1as 8etrothed to her 1hile still in ecca4 and he married her in edina 1hen she came o% a)e7 He had already4 a%ter !hadi9a:s death4 married the 1ido1 ,a1da and4 soon a%ter1ards4 :.mar:s 8eauti%ul dau)hter Ha%sa Aalso 1ido1edB7 The 1ido1 o% one o% the emi)rants to Ethiopia4 .mm ,alma4 1ho had already re%used 8oth A8u &a'r and :.mar4 a)reed to 9oin the harem4 1hile 1arnin) him that she 1as o% a 9ealous disposition A:I 1ill pray to Allah to uproot it %rom your heart4: he saidB7 0i'e the others4 she recei5ed her marria)e=portion o% a small sum

o% money4 a sac' o% 8arley4 a hand=mill4 a coo'in)=pot and a mattress o% palm= %i8re7 0ater came Kayna8 hint Fash4 the %ormer 1i%e o% Kayd and the most 8eauti%ul )irl o% her tri8e4 and there 1ere still others in due course7 Occidentals usually %ind poly)amy4 not least in this particular case4 either shoc'in) 8r sli)htly comic7 That is their 8usiness and need not concern the uslim unless4 in a moment o% 1ea'ness or o% im8ecility4 he thin's himsel% under an o8li)ation to 9usti%y the Prophet in accordance 1ith the criteria o% a di%%erent reli)ious dispensation and a di%%erent culture7 There are stren)ths and 5irtues in a poly)amous marria)e as there are in a mono)amous one4 and it 1as uhammad:s destiny to demonstrate 8oth in their per%ection> 8ut there is one aspect o% the matter 1hich cannot 8e passed o5er7 The %act that di5ine re5elation = the ?ur:an itsel% = came4 as it 1ere4 to uhammad:s assistance in certain di%%iculties connected 1ith his marria)es has 8een ta'en 8y some orientalists to cast dou8t upon the authenticity o% the re5elation as such Aassumin) that they 1ere e5er prepared to consider the possi8ility o% its authenticityB7 Ho1 could "od ha5e inter5ened to satis%y his desire to marry Kayna8G Here one immediately detects a 8ias rooted in the Christian doctrine o% ori)inal sin and in the Christian tendency to see an a8solute opposition 8et1een the spiritual and the natural7 This may 8e appropriate in the conte3t o% Christianity4 8ut it has nothin) to do 1ith Islam4 the reli)ion o% ta1hid7 The uslim sees no necessary contradiction 8et1een the 1ishes o% hea5en and the needs o% earth> on the contrary4 he 8elie5es that they are 1ell matched7 The Prophet:s needs as a man 1ere 1illed 8y hea5en and their satis%action 1as there%ore in accordance 1ith a certain primordial harmony 1hich4 in spite o% appearances4 is ne5er irre5oca8ly 8reached7 It should hardly 8e necessary to add that 1hat applies to a 8ein) at the summit o% human'ind does not al1ays apply to lesser mortals7 Ha5in) said that there is nothin) :comic: a8out poly)amy4 it must 8e allo1ed that e5ery %amily has its comedies and that uhammad:s household 1as no e3ception7 In accordance 1ith the ?ur:anic in9unction4 he treated his 1i5es e;ually in all material matters and in matters o% 9ustice4 he di5ided his ni)hts %airly 8et1een them and he dre1 lots to determine 1ho should accompany him on his campai)ns> 8ut4 as he himsel% said a man:s a%%ections are outside his control4 and his particular %ondness %or :A:isha 1as common 'no1led)e7 Fealousy 1as ine5ita8le4 and he tended to ma'e li)ht o% it7 Once he came into a room 1here his 1i5es and other mem8ers o% the %amily 1ere assem8led 8earin) in his hand an ony3 nec'lace4 1hich had 9ust 8een presented to him7 Holdin) it up4 he said@ :I shall )i5e this to her 1hom I lo5e 8est o% allI: He allo1ed a pause 1hile they 1hispered to)ether4 sure that he 1ould )i5e it to :the dau)hter o% A8u &a'r:7 $hen he had le%t them lon) enou)h in suspense4 he called his little )randdau)hter to him and clasped it round her nec'7 :I% the re5elation comes to me 1hen I am under the co5erlet o% a 1oman4: he said once4 :it is only 1hen I am 1ith :A:isha7: ,he hersel%4 as 1as mentioned pre5iously4 1as not 1ithout a strea' o% 9ealousy7 He as'ed her once4 hal%=teasin)4 i% she 1ould not li'e to die 8e%ore him so that he could 8ury her and pray at her %uneral7 :I should li'e that 1ell enou)h4: she said4 :i% I did not thin' that on returnin) %rom my

%uneral you 1ould console yoursel% 1ith another 1oman7: His companions 1ere o%ten astonished 8y the %reedom o% speech in the household7 :.mar on a certain occasion reproached his 1i%e %or darin) to ans1er him 8ac'7 :Hou astonish meI: she said> :Hou do not 1ant me to say a 1ord to you4 yet your dau)hter does not hesitate to reply to the essen)er o% Allah7: :,he shall 8e 1ell punished4: said :.mar4 and he hastened to Ha%sa:s apartment7 :&y Allah4 yes4: she said4 :$e ans1er him 8ac'I: Nonplussed4 :.mar could only )ro1l4 :I 1arn you a)ainst the punishment o% Allah and the 1rath o% His Prophet7:D1E 1 E5en the closest amon) the companions seem to ha5e had di%%iculty in ad9ustin) to the %reedom and ease o% the Prophet:s household4 Comin) to the house one day A8u &a'r heard his dau)hter :A:isha:s 5oice raised in ar)ument7 .pon enterin) he cau)ht hold o% her sayin)@ :Ne5er a)ain let me catch you raisin) your 5oice to the essen)er o% AllahI: uhammad pre5ented him %rom slappin) her and he le%t the house4 sha'in) his head o5er such 8eha5iour7 Returnin) ne3t day he %ound hus8and and 1i%e to)ether in per%ect amity7 :$ill you 8rin) me into your peace as you 8rou)ht me into your 1arG: he as'ed7 :$e ha5e done so4: said uhammad> :indeed 1e ha5e done soI: The tense and delicate 8alance 8et1een the )lory o% uhammad:s prophethood4 his closeness to "od and his 5isionary )i%ts4 the Herculean tas's he undertoo' and accomplished in the 1orld4 and the 1armth and li5eliness o% his household is at the heart o% the uslim 5ie1 o% li%e> i% this is understood4 Islam is understood7 Pro8lems in ecca pre5ented A8u ,u%yan %rom 'eepin) his appointment at the 1ells o% &adr in the year %ollo1in) .hud4 8ut he 1as not idle7 &y no1 he must ha5e understood 5ery 1ell that the old )ame o% tit %or tat 1as no lon)er 5alid7 Either the uslims must 8e destroyed or the )ame 1as lost %or e5er7 $ith )reat diplomatic s'ill he set a8out %ormin) a con%ederacy o% &edouin tri8es4 some no dou8t opposed to the uslims and others merely ea)er %or plunder4 and at the same time he 8e)an ;uietly to sound out the Fe1s in edina re)ardin) a possi8le alliance7 In the %i%th year o% the Hi9ra Aearly in A6 *2+B he set out 1ith 124222 men4 the )reatest army e5er seen in the He9a<7 edina could raise at most 34222 to oppose4 him7 The Prophet presided o5er a council o% 1ar4 and this time no one su))ested )oin) out to meet the enemy7 The only ;uestion 1as ho1 the to1n could 8est 8e de%ended7 At this point ,alman the Persian4 a %ormer sla5e 1ho had 8ecome one o% the closest o% the companions4 su))ested the di))in) o% a deep ditch to 9oin the de%ensi5e stron)points %ormed 8y the la5a %ields and 8y %orti%ied 8uildin)s7 This 1as somethin) unheard=o% in Ara8 1ar%are4 8ut the Prophet immediately appreciated the merits o% the plan and 1or' 8e)an at once4 he himsel% carryin) ru88le %rom the di))in)s on his 8are 8ac'7 In spite o% approachin) dan)er4 the di))ers seem to ha5e 8een in %esti5e mood4 sin)in) and 9o'in) to)ether7 The 1or' 1as 8arely %inished 1hen the con%ederate army appeared on the hori<on7 The Prophet 8rou)ht e5ery a5aila8le man to the ditch4 lea5in) the to1n itsel% under the command o% a 8lind companion4 and the enemy 1as met 1ith a hail o% arro1s as they came up to the une3pected o8stacle7 They ne5er crossed it4

8ut remained in position %or three or %our 1ee's4 e3chan)in) arro1s and insults 1ith the de%enders7 The 1eather turned se5ere4 1ith icy 1inds and a tremendous do1npour4 and this pro5ed too much %or te &edouin con%ederates7 They had come in the e3pectation o% easy plunder and sa1 nothin) to 8e )ained %rom s;uattin) 8eside a muddy ditch in appallin) 1eather and 1atchin) their 8easts die %or lac' o% %odder7 They %aded a1ay 1ithout so much as a %are1ell to A8u ,u%yan7 He4 ho1e5er4 1as 8usy 1ith 1hat must ha5e seemed a more promisin) plan7 The Fe1ish tri8e o% &ani ?uray<ah sho1ed de%inite interest in 8etrayin) the city %rom 1ithin4 and this o%%ered him his only hope o% 5ictory7 Ne)otiations dra))ed on4 ho1e5er4 and the army 1as disinte)ratin) as he 1aited7 He 1ithdre17 The )ame 1as o5er4 and he had lost7 Nothin) is 1orse4 in Ara8 eyes4 than 8etrayal o% trust and the 8rea'in) o% a solemn pled)e7 It 1as time no1 to deal 1ith &ani ?uray<ah4 and they 1ere told to choose an ar8itrator 1ho 1ould decide their punishment7 They chose the head o% the clan 1ith 1hich they had lon) 8een in alliance4 ,a:d i8n u:adh o% A1s4 1ho 1as dyin) %rom 1ounds recei5ed at .hud and had to 8e propped up to )i5e 9ud)ement7 $ithout hesitation4 he condemned the men o% the tri8e to death4 and the sentence 1as carried out7 It is dou8t%ul 1hether any incident in the Prophet:s li%e shoc's the $esterner more deeply than this> he may succeed in acceptin) much else that is contrary to his o1n traditions4 8ut here he comes to the stic'in)=point7 Perhaps this tells us more a8out the contradictions inherent in contemporary $estern sensi8ility than it does a8out Islam7 Ours is a century in 1hich there has 8een )reater slau)hter than in all the precedin) centuries o% recorded history put to)ether4 and 1e %ind it accepta8le to 'ill any num8er o% people4 includin) 1omen and children4 pro5ided this is done at a distance and ne5er on a one=to=one 8asis7 Het these same slau)hterers o% the innocent shrin' %rom e3ecutin) a traitor 1ho is underminin) the 5ery structure o% their society4 or a criminal 1hose crimes are so hideous that his continued e3istence is an o%%ence to humanity7 One may 8e allo1ed to speculate as to ho1 our 8eha5iour and our :principles: 1ould appear to an Ara8 o% the se5enth century7 In any case4 the Prophet:s acts o% ri)our A8ut %or 1hich the reli)ion o% Islam could scarcely ha5e sur5i5edB 1ere no di%%erent in su8stance to the ri)our o% the He8re1 prophets or o% the leaders o% Christendom in its period o% )reatness7 As ,chuon has remar'ed4 1hen $esterners reproach uhammad %or this4 :they start either %rom the assumption that the 5ictims 1ere necessarily innocent or else %rom the error that there are none so )uilty as to merit such treatment7 The uslim:s re9oinder is that this treatment 1as proportionate to the de)ree o% moral or physical )uilt4 1hich is irre%uta8le once one admits that the )uilt 1as real777:D1E 1 Islam and the Perennial Philosophy4 Frith9o% ,chuon A$orld o% Islam Festi5al Pu8lishin) Co74 1/+*B4p72-7 ecca 1as no1 so 1ea'ened that4 %ollo1in) upon a 5isionary dream in 1hich he entered the !a:8a4 the Prophet decided to per%orm the 0esser Pil)rima)e7 He set o%% 1ith a8out a thousand o% his people4 mounted on his camel ?as1a4 the one

that had chosen the site o% the %irst mos;ue7 They halted at a place called Huday8iyyah7 A%ter they had rested ?as1a re%used to )o a step %urther4 so there they stayed 1hile en5oys ne)otiated 1ith the leaders o% ?uraysh7 $hile they 1ere 1aitin)4 the Prophet recei5ed a re5elation instructin) him to call %or an act o% alle)iance %rom his people7 They came to him one 8y one as he sat under an acacia tree 1ith its sprin) %olia)e 8rea'in) into lea%4 and one 8y one they pled)ed themsel5es to him7 O% this pled)e the ?ur:an says@ :They that s1ear alle)iance unto thee s1ear it unto none 8ut Allah7 The hand o% Allah is o5er their hands7 ,o 1hosoe5er 8rea'eth his oath 8rea'eth it only unto his soul:s hurt and 1hosoe5er 'eepeth his co5enant 1ith Allah4 truly unto the same He 1ill )i5e immense re1ard:A?7#-71OB7 As so o%ten in Islam4 the spiritual and the practical come to)ether in a sin)le act7 These same 1ords are used to this day 1hen an initiate into a ,u%i 8rotherhood ta'es the hand o% his ,piritual master and pled)es alle)iance to him7 It is no small thin) to %eel :the hand o% "od:4 so close and so compellin)4 o5er a human hand7 At the same time4 the pled)e o% Huday8iyyah ensured that the uslims 1ould stand up to their most se5ere test and accept 1hat is most unaccepta8le particularly to an Ara8 = a %ar=si)hted compromise in 1hich present ad5anta)e is sacri%iced %or %uture )ain7 An a)reement 1as dra1n up 1ith the representati5es o% ?uraysh4 and4 to the horror o% his companions4 the Prophet allo1ed them to stri'e out %rom the headin) the 1ords :In the name o% Allah4 the merci%ul4 the compassionate:7 He a)reed to 1ithdra1 on this occasion4 on the understandin) that in the %ollo1in) year ?uraysh 1ould e5acuate ecca and permit the uslims to per%orm the 0esser Pil)rima)e7 It 1as also a)reed that any %u)iti5es %rom ecca 1ho came to edina 1ould 8e returned7 At the time this must ha5e seemed a ma9or concession> in the e5ent4 the eccans themsel5es had to re;uest its cancellation soon a%ter1ards4 since all that happened 1as that men 1ho 1ould other1ise ha5e made their 1ay peace%ully to edina no1 %led 1est1ards to the coast and 8ecame %ree8ooters4 preyin) on the cara5ans o% ?uraysh7 Ne)otiatin) 1ith ?uraysh on terms o% e;uality4 uhammad 'ne1 that this 1as the turnin)=point4 and i% his people did not entirely understand the necessity %or the truce4 it 1as su%%icient that they trusted his 9ud)ement totally7 0on) a%ter1ards4 1hen a mi)hty empire had )ro1n %rom the seeds planted in these years o% stru))le4 those 1ho had ta'en the oath o% loyalty at Huday8iyyah 1ere sho1n a respect second only to that sho1n to the sur5i5ors o% &adr7 ,oon a%ter this uhammad married .mm Ha8i8a4 a dau)hter o% A8u ,u%yan Ashe had 8een a uslim %or some yearsB4 %or)in) an important 8lood=tie 1ith :the enemy:4 and at a8out this time he recei5ed a re5elation to the e%%ect that7 :It may 8e Allah 1ill esta8lish lo5e 8et1een you and those 1ith 1hom you are at enmity:7 The truce no1 ena8led him to deal 1ith the lon)=standin) pro8lem o% !hay8ar4 a %ortress occupied 8y Fe1s hostile to Islam7 They 1ere o%%ered their li5es i% they departed %rom the %ortress4 lea5in) their property 8ehind7 They at once pointed out that no one 1as 8etter e;uipped to loo' a%ter this property on 8ehal% o% the uslims than themsel5es> they stayed as they 1ere4 simply payin) rent to edina7

One o% their 1omen roasted a lam8 and poisoned the shoulder4 1hich 1as 'no1n to 8e uhammad:s %a5ourite 9oint> as soon as he tasted a mouth%ul he spat it out Aa small amount o% the poison may4 ho1e5er4 ha5e 8een in)estedB4 1hereupon the poisoner e3plained that she had only 8een testin) his claim to 8e a prophet7 A 8eauti%ul 1oman o% !hay8ar4 ,a%iyyah 8y name4 con5erted to Islam and married the Prophet at the %irst halt on the home1ard march7 In the %ollo1in) year ?uraysh 1ithdre1 to the hills4 in accordance 1ith their underta'in)4 and some t1o thousand uslims per%ormed the rites o% the 0esser Pil)rima)e7 &ilal4 the %ormer sla5e 1ho had 8een tortured %or his %aith4 made the Call to Prayer %rom the roo% o% the !a:8a4 so that his resonant 5oice %illed the 5alley7 Another ma9or step had 8een ta'en to1ards the )reat reconciliation4 the :6ay o% ercy:4 and e5en 1hile ?uraysh 1aited amon) the roc's to 8e allo1ed to return to their city4 more &edouin tri8es 1ere comin) o5er to the uslims> the process had no1 ta'en on its o1n momentum7 ,oon a%ter1ards an emissary sent 8y uhammad to the "o5ernor o% &asra 1as 'illed 8y a northern tri8e allied to the &y<antines4 and Kayd = the %ormer sla5e 1ho had entered uhammad:s household at the time o% his marria)e to !hadi9a = set o%% in command o% a lar)e %orce to deal 1ith the situation7 He 1as 'illed in a s'irmish and the day 1as sa5ed 8y !halid i8n al=$alid Arecently con5erted to IslamB4 1ho had nine sa8res snap o%% in his hand 8e%ore the enemy 1as dri5en 8ac'7 Kayd:s death 1as a pro%ound personal 8lo1 to uhammad and 8e 1ept unashamedly 1hen the dead man:s little dau)hter met him in the street and thre1 hersel% into his arms7 :$hat is this4 O essen)er o% AllahG: as'ed a passer=8y Arather unnecessarilyB7 :I shed the tears o% %riendship %or the loss o% a %riend4: he said7 An unintentional in%rin)ement o% the truce4 1hen a uslim 1as 'illed in a scu%%le4 thre1 ecca into a state close to panic7 A8u ,u%yan 1as at once dispatched to edina to see 1hat could 8e sal5a)ed %rom the disaster7 Ha5in) %ailed to persuade either A8u &a'r or :.mar to intercede %or him 1ith the Prophet4 he 1ent to his dau)hter .mm Ha8i8ah7 He 1as a8out to sit do1n on a ru) 1hen she snatched it %rom under him> the )reat chie%tain o% ?uraysh4 the proudest man in Ara8ia4 1as not )ood enou)h to sit 1here the Prophet had sat7 In despair he paid a 5isit to Fatima4 1ho had her little son Hasan 1ith her7 Attemptin) to com8ine diplomacy 1ith %lattery4 he told her@ :Hou may instruct this son o% yours to )i5e me protection = in this 1ay he 1ill achie5e reno1n amon) the Ara8s:7 Fatima4 al1ays sparin) o% 1ords4 ans1ered simply@ :He is too youn)7: Accounts 5ary as to 1hether he actually o8tained an audience 1ith the Prophet4 8ut it seems clear that he no1 had it in mind to see' terms %or the surrender o% ecca7 0ate in the ei)hth year o% the Hi9ra Aat the end o% A6 *2/B4 124222 uslims set out %or ecca under the personal command o% the Prophet and pitched camp on the hei)hts o5erloo'in) the city7 Here he recei5ed his uncle4 al=:A88as4 1ho had decided that the moment had %inally come to accept Islam7 :Hou are the last o% the Cemi)rantsC 9ust as I am the last o% the Prophets4: he said4 1ith an irony that 1as pro8a8ly lost on this su8tle man7 The %inal act o% the )reat drama 1as certainly not 1ithout humour7 Ha5in) persuaded A8u ,u%yan that he alone could sa5e him %rom

ha5in) his head chopped o%%4 al=:A88as 8rou)ht the eccan leader into camp ridin) 8ehind him on his mule7 The po1ers o% this 1orld4 1hen they %inally come to "od4 do not al1ays preser5e their di)nity7 :.mar dre1 his s1ord as they approached and 1as promptly ordered to sheathe it7 The Prophet said@ :Is it not time4 O A8u ,u%yan4 that you reali<ed there is no "od 8ut AllahG: :I already 'no1 it4: he replied4 :%or had there 8een another4 He 1ould ha5e helped me7: He 1as prepared to pronounce the %irst shahadah4 8ut = presuma8ly to preser5e some shred o% di)nity =hesitated o5er the second Areco)ni<in) uhammad as the essen)er o% AllahB and as'ed to 8e allo1ed to sleep on the matter7 Ne3t mornin) he made the %ull pro%ession o% %aith7 It is too easy in this conte3t to spea' o% insincerity4 and a )ood uslim is not permitted to do so4 since he cannot read the secrets o% hearts4 8ut A8u ,u%yan 1as a man o% po1er 1ho could only reco)ni<e truth 1hen it mani%ested itsel% as po1er7 He said ;uietly to a %riend@ :I ha5e ne5er 8e%ore seen such so5erei)nty as thisI: A natural sur5i5or4 he li5ed on to the a)e o% ninety=t1o4 ha5in) lost his si)ht %i)htin) under the 8anner o% Islam> an old man 1ho had seen the 1orld trans%ormed and earned his niche in the history o% )reat e5ents7 His 1i%e Hind also su8mitted4 8ut 1hen told she must not steal4 as'ed incredulously 1hether this meant that she could not steal %rom her hus8and4 1ho 1as notoriously stin)y7 :That4: said the Prophet 1ith a smile4 :is not stealin)7: Her 5indicti5e nature does not seem to ha5e 8een chan)ed 8y her con5ersion7 A8u ,u%yan di5orced her and 1hen4 many years later4 their son u:a1iyah 8ecame Caliph o% Islam4 she %or8ad him e5er to see his %ather or to help him in any 1ay7 The Prophet:s po1ers o% command 1ere no1 put to their )reatest test4 %or the uslims had much to a5en)e> %i)htin) almost 8ro'e out 1hen !halid:s ca5alry 1as attac'ed4 8ut he controlled the situation7 In the 1ords o% 6ermen)hem4 :6a1n 8rou)ht a ne1 day o% 1hich humanity mi)ht 1ell ha5e 8een proud7: ounted on ?as1a4 uhammad rode into his 8irthplace unopposed and immediately proclaimed a )eneral amnesty7 :This4: he said4 :is the 6ay o% ercy4 the day upon 1hich Allah hath e3alted ?uraysh7: He had come4 not to destroy4 8ut to recti%y4 and a no8le people had 8een re8orn7 The historical conse;uences o% this act o% clemency 1ere incalcula8le7 O5er the succeedin) centuries no con;uerin) uslim )eneral could enter a territory or city 1ithout 'no1in) himsel% su89ect = on pain o% damnation = to the o8li)ation o% mercy and the necessity to %ollo1 the e3ample set that day> and this in turn led to countless con5ersions amon) people 1ho learned %ore8earance %rom this e3ample7 To complete the reconciliation ?uraysh 1ere treated 1ith the utmost )enerosity o5er the %ollo1in) months> A8u ,u%yan4 instead o% losin) his head4 recei5ed a )i%t o% t1o hundred camels7 .nderstanda8ly4 the ansar 8e)an to %eel resent%ul7 :O HelpersI: the Prophet said to them> :Are you stirred in your souls concernin) the thin)s o% this 1orld 8y 1hich I ha5e reconciled men:s hearts4 that they may su8mit to Allah4 1hile you I ha5e entrusted to your islamG Are you not 1ell content4 O Helpers4 that these people ta'e 1ith them their sheep and their camels4 1hile you ta'e 1ith you the essen)er o% Allah in your homesG: They 1ere content> 8ut

already one senses a di5ision = 1hich 1ould )ro1 more pronounced as time 1ent 8y = 8et1een the people o% this 1orld and the people o% Paradise7 &ut the time %or rest had not yet come7 In spite o% in%irmity the Prophet led an army a)ainst the ,yrian %rontier in midsummer o% the %ollo1in) year7 The crossin) o% the desert 1as harsh and a tempest o% sand o5ertoo' them7 They camped that ni)ht 1ithout %ood or drin'4 shelterin) 8ehind their camels> and so they reached the oasis o% Ta8u'4 %inally returnin) to ecca a%ter con5ertin) se5eral tri8es7 It 1as a hard road to Ta8u' and the e3pedition pro8a8ly shortened the Prophet:s li%e4 8ut this 1as his 1ay4 and no earthly heat or tempest could no1 a%%lict one 1hose a1areness o% 1hat lies 8eyond this li%e 1as more acute and more concrete than any sensation e3perienced here7 The end4 ho1e5er4 1as dra1in) closer4 and in the tenth year o% the Hi9ra he set o%% %rom edina 1ith some /24222 uslims %rom e5ery part o% Ara8ia to per%orm the "reat Pil)rima)e4 accompanied 8y his nine 1i5es 8orne in litters upon )arlanded camels7 This triumphal 9ourney o% the a)in) man4 1orn 8y years o% persecution and then 8y unceasin) stru))le4 is surrounded 8y a 'ind o% t1ili)ht splendour4 as thou)h a )reat rin) o% li)ht had %inally closed4 encompassin) the mortal 1orld in its calm radiance7 A%ter the principal rites had 8een completed the Prophet clim8ed to the summit o% ount :Ara%a and preached %rom his camel to the multitude7 A%ter praisin) "od4 he said@ :Hear me4 O people4 %or I do not 'no1 i% I shall e5er meet 1ith you in this place a)ain7: He e3horted them to treat one another 1ell and reminded them o% 1hat 1as permitted and 1hat 1as %or8idden7 Finally he said@ :I ha5e le%t amon)st you that 1hich4 i% you hold %ast to it4 shall preser5e you %rom all error4 a clear indication4 the &oo' o% Allah and the 1ord o% His Prophet7 O people4 hear my 1ords and understandI: He then imparted to them a re5elation 1hich had 9ust come to him4 the %inal re5elation o% the ?ur:an@ :This day ha5e I per%ected %or you your reli)ion and %ul%illed y %a5our unto you and chosen %or you as your reli)ion al= Islam:A?7(73B7 He ended 8y as'in) t1ice@ :O people4 ha5e I %ul%illed my missionG: A )reat cry o% assent arose %rom the many thousands assem8led on the lo1er slopes and at the %oot o% the hill7 As he came do1n the hillside the last rays o% the settin) sun cau)ht his head and shoulders> then dar'ness %ell7 Islam had 8een esta8lished and 1ould )ro1 into a )reat tree shelterin) %ar )reater multitudes7 His 1or' 1as done and he 1as ready4 perhaps ea)er4 to lay do1n his 8urden and depart7 He returned to edina7 Had he not promised that he 1ould ne5er %orsa'e the ansarG There 1as still 1or' to 8e done> 8ut one day4 9ust as the army 1as settin) out %or ,yria under Kayd:s son .samah4 he 1as sei<ed 8y a pain%ul illness due4 some suppose4 to the delayed e%%ect o% the poison consumed at !hay8ar7 He came to the mos;ue 1rapped in a 8lan'et and there 1ere those 1ho sa1 the si)ns o% death in his %ace7 :I% there is anyone amon) you4: he said4 :1hom I ha5e caused to 8e %lo))ed un9ustly4 here is my 8ac'7 ,tri'e in your turn7 I% I ha5e dama)ed the reputation o% any amon) you4 may he do li'e1ise to mine7 To any I ha5e in9ured4 here is my purse 777 It is 8etter to 8lush in this 1orld than in the herea%ter7: A man claimed a de8t o% three dinars and 1as paid7

$hen he returned to the 1i%e 1hose day it 1as = %or he 1as meticulous in apportionin) his time = he as'ed her4 :$here am I tomorro1G: ,he told him 1hich 1i%e he 1as due to 5isit7 :And the day a%ter tomorro1G: ,truc' 8y his insistence4 she reali<ed that he 1as impatient to 8e 1ith :A:isha and 1ent at once to spea' to the others7 They came to him to)ether and said@ :O essen)er o% Allah4 1e ha5e )i5en our days 1ith you to our sister :A:isha4: and he accepted their )i%t7 &ut :A:isha 1as su%%erin) %rom a headache4 )roanin)@ :Oh my headI: :No4: he said4 1ith a last )lint o% humour4 :No4 :A:isha = my headI: He had said once@ :$hat ha5e I to do 1ith this 1orldG I and this 1orld are as a rider and a tree 8eneath 1hich he shelters7 Then he )oes on his 1ay and lea5es it 8ehind him7: And no1 he said@ :There is a sla5e amon) the sla5es o% Allah 1ho has 8een o%%ered the choice 8et1een this 1orld and that 1hich is 1ith Him4 and the sla5e has chosen that 1hich is 1ith Allah7: On 12 Ra8i:u:l=a11al in the ele5enth year o% the Hi9ra4 1hich in the Christian calendar is - Fune *324 he entered the mos;ue %or the last time7 A8u &a'r 1as leadin) the prayer4 and he motioned to him to continue7 He 1atched the people4 his %ace radiant7 :I ne5er sa1 the Prophet:s %ace more 8eauti%ul than it 1as at that hour4: said his %riend Anas7 Returnin) to :A:isha:s apartment he laid his head on her 8reast7 He had used the last o% his stren)th and soon a%ter1ards he lost consciousness7 ,he thou)ht this 1as the end4 8ut a%ter an hour or so he opened his eyes and she heard him murmur@ :$ith the supreme communion in Paradise or perhaps he had said@ :$ith the companions 77: These 1ere his last 1ords7 His head )re1 hea5y on the )irl:s 8reast4 and 1hen she 1as sure that he had )one4 she laid him )ently do1n and rose to e3press her sorro1 and the people:s sorro1 in the accustomed 1ays4 8rea'in) death:s silence 1ith the cries 1hich e3pose all human )rie% to the earth and the s'y and the %our corners o% the 1orld7 A 1oman4 1eepin) as she came %rom the cham8er4 said@ :Not %or him do I 1eep7 6o I not 'no1 that he is )one to that 1hich is 8etter %or him than this 1orldG &ut I 1eep %or the ne1s o% hea5en that has 8een cut o%% %rom us7 Chapter + THE ,.CCE,,OR, It is said that the Ara8s $ill %ollo1 a man they lo5e and admire to the ends o% the earth> they 1ill not stir %or a lesser man4 and their interest in a8stract ideas is limited7 The history o% the Ara8s is there%ore a story o% indi5iduals = one mi)ht perhaps descri8e it as a :,ha'espearean: history = 1ith hi)h pea's and deep trou)hs7 The same mi)ht 8e said o% the in1ard history o% Islam4 1ith its 5erti)inous ups and do1ns4 its )reat :rene1ers o% the reli)ion:4 )reat saints4 )reat scholars and )reat :1arriors in the path o% Allah:4 8ut also 1ith its 8i)ots and hypocrites7 uhammad had 8rou)ht the reli)ion o% Islam4 8ut %or at least some o% his people he 1as Islam7 No1 he 1as dead4 and they 1ere stunned7 :.mar4 losin) his head %or the %irst and only time in his li%e4 re%used to 8elie5e it and threatened anyone 1ho

dared spea' o% death7 ean1hile :A:isha summoned her %ather4 A8u &a'r4 1ho had )one to his home under the impression that the Prophet:s condition 1as impro5in)7 He hastened to the cham8er4 'issed his %riend:s still %ace4 and then came out to the people7 :I% it is uhammad that you 1orship4: he said4 :then 'no1 that uhammad is dead7 I% it is Allah that you 1orship4 then 'no1 that Allah li5es and cannot die7: He ;uoted to them a 5erse o% the ?uran@ :And uhammad is only a messen)er> PotherB messen)ers ha5e passed a1ay 8e%ore him7 I% then he dies or is slain4 1ill you turn a8out on your heelsG:A?7371##B7 $hile some o% the relati5es4 includin) :Ali4 'ept 5i)il 8y the 8ody4 a )roup o% the companions met in a roo%ed enclosure near8y and there 1as %ierce ar)ument as to 1hat should 8e done7 Ta'in) ad5anta)e o% a pause in the discussion4 :.mar pled)ed himsel% to A8u &a'r 8y )raspin) his hand4 as 1as the custom 1hen a pact 1as made7 The stron) man pled)ed himsel% to the )entle one4 and the pro%ound %riendship 1hich e3isted 8et1een these t1o utterly di%%erent men sa5ed the situation7 The other companions %ollo1ed suit4 understandin) that they must no1 )o %or1ard as 8est they could in this )rey 1orld 1ithout their )uide and anchor7 A8u &a'r4 1ho had 'no1n the Prophet %or lon)er than any o% them and had certainly lo5ed him no less4 seems to ha5e 8een alone in comprehendin) at once that it 1as not the man 1ho mattered 8ut the messa)e4 so that :Ali said to him@ :Hou do not seem )reatly trou8led 8y the death o% the essen)erI:

$hat trou8led him 1as the threat to Islam at that moment7 It 1as a moment %or darin)4 thou)h he 1as not 8y nature a man to ta'e ris's7 He ordered .samah to proceed a)ainst the ,yrian %rontier in accordance 1ith the instructions )i5en 8y the Prophet 8e%ore his death4 thus lea5in) the city de%enceless a)ainst li'ely re5olt 8y the tri8es7 :$ere the city s1armin) around 1ith pac's o% ra5enin) 1ol5es4: he told .samah4 :and I le%t solitary and alone4 the army should still )o7777I: He 1ent some 1ay 1ith them4 8are%oot4 and .sama8 8e))ed him to ride7 :No4: he said4 :I 1ill not mount7 I 1ill 1al' and soil my %eet a little moment in the $ay o% Allah7: His partin) instructions 1ere to a5oid any act o% treachery or deceit4 not to 'ill any 1oman4 child or old person4 or to in9ure date=palms or cut do1n any tree that pro5ided %ood %or man or 8east4 to slay no %loc's e3cept %or minimum sustenance and under no circumstances to molest mon's7 As ne1s o% the Prophet:s death spread throu)h the peninsula many o% the tri8es renounced Islam4 re%usin) any lon)er to pay the poor=due7 They 1ere 8rou)ht to order in 1hat are 'no1n as the $ars o% the Apostasy4 althou)h :1ars: seems a some1hat e3cessi5e term %or a num8er o% small s'irmishes 1hich soon tau)ht the desert Ara8s that authority still resided in edina7 $ithin a year order had 8een re=esta8lished7 &ut A8u &a'r:s principal concern 1as 1ith the people in his char)e7 :I 1ish4: he said once4 :that I 1ere that palm=tree4 to yield %ood and then4 1hen that 1as o5er4 to 8e %elled7: On the %irst mornin) o% his caliphate he 1as only pre5ented 8y :.mar %rom )oin) to the mar'et to trade7 :&ut ho1 1ill my household eatG: he as'ed7 Po1er 1as meanin)less to him e3cept as a means o% perpetuatin) the e3ample o% the Prophet7 He himsel% set an e3ample 1hich 1as to 8e %ollo1ed throu)hout the

history o% Islam 1hen any ;uestion o% le)al 9ud)ement arose7 First he 1ould see' )uidance %rom the ?ur:an7 I% he %ound no decisi5e te3t there4 he 1ould see' a prophetic tradition relatin) to such a case and4 i% necessary4 )o out into the to1n to as' other companions i% they 'ne1 o% any rele5ant tradition> i% he still had no sure ans1er to the pro8lem he 1ould summon a council and see' consensus7 $orldly duties 1ei)hed hea5ily upon him7 ,ome simple people %rom Hemen came to edina4 and 1hen they listened to the reader in the mos;ue chantin) the ?uran4 tears %ell %rom their eyes7 :$e 1ere li'e that once4: he said4 :8ut our hearts ha5e )ro1n harder since7: &ut not his heart7 At ni)ht he 1ould )o into the city to see' the destitute and the oppressed4 listenin) 1ith untirin) patience to their trou8les7 On one occasion4 in the hut o% a poor 8lind 1ido14 he met 1ith :.mar4 1ho had come independently on the same errand7 The t1o )reat men4 moulders o% a ne1 1orld o% openness to the 6i5ine and o% human order4 one o% them soon to 8e en)a)ed in 1orld=con;uest4 s;uatted side 8y side in the 1ido1:s hut7 They thou)ht that this 1as 1hat rulership meant in Islam7 $hat else could it possi8ly meanG 0i'e the palm=tree4 A8u &a'r 1as soon cut do1n7 A%ter 8athin) incautiously on a cold mornin)4 he de5eloped a %e5er and 8ecame )ra5ely ill7 The people 1anted to send %or a physician4 8ut he 'ne1 his time had come@ :He has already 5isited me4: he said4 meanin) the di5ine Physician7 On his death8ed he recei5ed a messa)e %rom !halid i8nu:l=$alid4 commander on the Persian %rontier4 as'in) %or rein%orcements7 :6o not delay4: he told :.mar> :I% I die as I thin' = this day4 do not 1ait till e5enin)> i% I lin)er till ni)ht4 do not 1ait till mornin)7 6o not let sorro1 %or me di5ert you %rom the ser5ice o% Islam and the 8usiness o% your 0ord7: He died soon a%ter4 in Au)ust A6 *3#4 a)ed si3ty=three4 and :.mar 1as chosen to succeed him7 The institution o% the caliphate 1as 8y no1 accepta8le to the ma9ority o% uslims4 since %e1 dou8ted that the community = indeed any community = must ha5e a leader4 9ust as a tri8e must ha5e a chie%tain4 althou)h it 1ould 8e many years 8e%ore the political philosophers o% Islam 1or'ed out an appropriate theory o% leadership7 The prophetic %unction had ended 1ith the death o% the Prophet> his successors inherited only the political %unction and the duty o% administerin) the la1s set out in the ?uran and in the Prophet:s recorded sayin)s7 The caliph4 then as later4 had three principal %unctions7 In the %irst place4 he 1as the 5icere)ent o% uhammad as temporal head o% the .mmah4 the community4 1ith the duty o% :9ud)in) ri)hteously 8et1een men:> secondly4 he 1as the Imam o% the community and the upholder o% the 0a1> and thirdly4 he 1as the Commander o% the Faith%ul AAmir al= u:mininB4 responsi8le %or their protection %rom e5ery dan)er4 moral as 1ell as physical7 ,ince there could 8e no le)islation to supersede the re5ealed 0a1> the instruments o% )o5ernment e3isted only to en%orce this 0a1 1ithin the community and to or)ani<e de%ence a)ainst e3ternal dan)ers7 In all that he did the caliph 1as 8ound 8y the o8li)ation o% ,hura4 :mutual consultation:4 laid do1n in the ?uran> 8ut4 ha5in) consulted 1ith the people and sou)ht consensus amon) them4 the %inal decision and the %inal responsi8ility 1ere his7 :.mar inherited %rom A8u &a'r a land at peace7 The Ara8s 1ere united as they had 8een in the closin) years o% the Prophet:s li%e7 $hether he immediately en5isa)ed

the e3pansion o% the :House o% Islam: 8eyond the peninsula is impossi8le to say4 8ut it seems li'ely that he 1ould ha5e 8een ama<ed to 'no1 that historians call him C.mar the Con;ueror:7 Fust as it had 8een impossi8le4 in practical terms4 %or the uslims in edina to co=e3ist 1ith the pa)an eccans4 so no1 it 1as impossi8le %or Islam in Ara8ia to co=e3ist 1ith the )reat empires o% Persia and &y<antium7 oreo5er4 the ne1 community4 still so close to the source o% re5elation4 %ound itsel% in the midst o% a decadent and disordered 1orld> Islam 1ent throu)h it li'e a 'ni%e throu)h 8utter4 not so much to ma'e con5erts Athis came laterB 8ut to esta8lish order4 e;uili8rium and 9ustice on earth> and in the 1ords o% 0aura Ja)lieri4 :I% an isolated episode in Ara8 history4 such as Islam 1as 8e%ore the death o% the Prophet4 1as trans%ormed into an e5ent o% 1orld=1ide importance and the %oundations 1ere laid o% a uslim Empire 1hich ci5il 1ars4 lac' o% unity and attac's %rom a8road mi)ht sha'e 8ut could not destroy4 the chie% credit %or these thin)s must 8e attri8uted to the political )i%ts o% :.mar7:D1E 1 Cam8rid)e History o% Islam4 Jol714 p7*#4 He sho1ed a particular )enius %or co=ordination and %or correctin) errors due to the rashness o% commanders4 to)ether 1ith remar'a8le diplomatic talents4 ta'in) the ed)e o%% disputes and controllin) the am8itions o% the less tracta8le amon) the companions7 Althou)h he is 'no1n as :the Con;ueror:4 he has some claim also to 8e 'no1n as :the Peacema'er:7 I% 1e thin' o% the 1ild youn) man 1ho had s1orn to murder the Prophet4 and 1hose con5ersion had 8een so sudden and so dramatic4 it 8ecomes possi8le to o8ser5e ho1 uhammad had moulded this rou)h su8stance into )reatness4 a %lo1erin) o% 1hat 1as already latent 1ithin it> :.mar:s essential characteristics had not 8een annihilated = "od and His messen)er do not :annihilate: = 8ut had 8een puri%ied4 channelled and then inte)rated into an e3cellence 8oth spiritual and human7 On a lesser scale4 the same mi)ht 8e said o% !halid i8nu:l $alid and :Amr i8n al=:As4 once the champions o% pa)an ecca4 then 1arriors o% the Prophet and no1 the commanders o% uslim armies7 The 8attle %or the 1orld 8e)an4 ho1e5er4 1ith 1hat 1ould no1 8e called )uerilla 1ar%are7 The Ara8s came out o% the desert to stri'e s1i%tly here or there on the %rontiers> 8y the time the cum8ersome armies o% the )reat po1ers had )ot to their %eet4 the Ara8s had disappeared a)ain into the 5ast spaces 1here no Persian or &y<antine %orces could pursue them7 Fust so does the uslim mystic come out into the 1orld 1ith the Joid = an in%inite space = at his 8ac'7 The %atal 1ea'ness o% the &y<antine Empire in ,yria4 Palestine and E)ypt lay in the reli)ious domain7 The "ree' Orthodo3 re)ime in &y<antium re)arded most o% the Christians in these territories as heretics and treated them accordin)ly> %ar %rom unitin) the Empire4 Christianity di5ided it7 $hen !halid appeared 1ith a small %orce outside 6amascus and laid sie)e to the city4 it 1as the 8ishop4 a onophysite Christian4 1ho supplied him secretly 1ith scalin) ladders7 A num8er o% uslims crossed the 1alls 8y ni)ht and opened the city )ates4 1hereupon the &y<antine "o5ernor surrendered 1ithout a %i)ht7 There 1as no 'illin) or lootin) 1hatsoe5er Auntil early in the last century cities in Europe 1ere automatically sac'ed 1hen ta'enB4 and the cathedral 1as di5ided into t1o 8y a partition4 so that

uslims could pray on one side and Christians on the other7 !halid mo5ed north1ards4 8ut su%%ered a temporary re5erse> 8e%ore ma'in) a strate)ic 1ithdra1al4 he returned to the people o% the to1ns the ta3es they had paid %or a protection he could no lon)er )uarantee4 then dro5e his troops a)ainst the enemy Acommanded 8y the Emperor Heraclius himsel%B throu)h a dust storm4 cryin)@ :Paradise is 8e%ore you = the de5il and hell 8ehindI: The Emperor 1as put to %li)ht7 The thousand=year=old "raeco=Roman domination o% ,yria had ended7 ean1hile4 !halid:s %ello1 )eneral4 :Amr4 1as 8usy in Palestine4 and here too )ates 1ere thro1n open7 Ferusalem surrendered in A6 *3+7 The Patriarch4 ho1e5er4 insisted that he 1ould hand the 'eys only to :.mar in person4 and4 on account o% the sacredness o% the city4 the Caliph came7 The Christian commanders and 8ishops in their ma)ni%icent ro8es a1aited him at the city )ates7 In his patched cloa'4 seated on a don'ey4 he recei5ed their surrender4 )i5in) them a solemn )uarantee o% security %or their li5es4 their homes4 their churches and their cruci%i3es7 He then 5isited the &asilica o% Constantine4 8ut out o% courtesy prayed on the steps leadin) to the entrance4 lest the Christians should thin' that he intended to ta'e the church o5er as a mos;ue7D1E 1 &y 1ay o% contrast4 Christian as 1ell as uslim 1riters al1ays remind us that 1hen the Crusaders captured Ferusalem in 12// they slau)htered e5ery man4 1oman and child they could catch4 ridin) in 8lood4 so it is said4 :up to their 8ridle reins:7 &ut this = or so they supposed = 1as re;uired 8y Christian doctrine concernin) heretics and :pa)ans:7 &y<antium 1as in retreat and the people o% ,yria and Palestine = num8erin) a8out %i5e million4 almost all o% them Christians = 1ere at peace7 The uslims sho1ed no interest either in imposin) Islam or in creatin) a uni%orm le)al and political system> Christians and Fe1s 1ere le%t to )o5ern themsel5es 8y their o1n la1s4 and the con;uerors 'ept to their military encampments4 )uardians o% the peace7 &ut the proud and ancient empire o% the Persians remained impre)na8le4 or so it seemed7 A )roup o% youn) uslims came to Court and called upon the "reat !in)4 Ha<da)ird4 to em8race Islam> amused 8y their e%%rontery he sent them home 1ith )i%ts o% Persian earth to carry on their heads = that 1as as much o% his territory as he 1as prepared to surrender to these upstarts7 Ara8 raids on the %tontiers 1ere4 ho1e5er4 8ecomin) a nuisance7 They 1ere unli'ely to 8ecome anythin) more than a nuisance since :.mar4 al1ays %ear%ul o% o5er=e3tension4 had %or8idden the army to cross the Ka)ros mountains into the Persian heartland> 8ut Ha<da)ird 1as youn) and rash4 thou)h not 1ithout some 9usti%ication %or his rashness7 It must ha5e seemed a8surd to suppose that a hand%ul o% Ara8s 1ould attempt to ta'e on the t1o superpo1ers simultaneously7 He ordered his commander4 Rustam4 to cross the Euphrates and dri5e these :desert rats: 8ac' into the 8arren 1astes 1here they 8elon)ed7 En5oys 1ent to and %ro 8et1een Rustam and the uslim commander4 ,a:d> an encounter o% t1o di%%erent 1orlds4 almost o% t1o di%%erent planets7 The Ara84 clothed as he mi)ht 8e clothed 1hen tendin) his %loc's4 1ould ride his horse as near as he could to 1here Rustam sat in state4 surrounded 8y the no8les in their

diadems and %inery4 then stride up to con%ront the Persian )eneral7 Pointin) to the slender spear o% one such en5oy4 Rustam as'ed@ :$hat toy is that in your handG: :A 8urnin) coal4: said the Ara84 :is no cooler %or 8ein) smallI: To another Rustam remar'ed upon the sha88iness o% his 1eapon7 :,ha88y sheath4 sharp ed)eI: 1as the reply7 &attle 1as 9oined in the summer o% A6 *3+ and lasted three days4 in the midst o% a 8lindin) sandstorm> and on the third day Rustam 1as slain7 The Persians %led in panic lea5in) most o% esopotamia = or 1hat is no1 Ira; =in the hands o% the uslims7 The spoils o% 1ar 1ere 8eyond anythin) the Ara8s could ha5e ima)ined e5en in their dreams7 One o% the soldiers 1as moc'ed 1hen he sold his share %or a thousand dinars4 thou)h it 1as 1orth %ar more7 :I ne5er 'ne14: he said4 :that there 1as a num8er a8o5e ten hundredI: &ut this 1as as nothin) compared 1ith the treasures o% Ctesiphon4 the capital o% the Empire4 1hich %ell soon a%ter1ards7 Ama<ed 8eyond ama<ement4 the con;uerors 1andered amon)st the )ardens and pa5ilions o% the most lu3urious Court on earth4 ta'in) in their hands 5essels o% )old and sil5er4 ma)ni%icent 5estments hea5y 1ith 9e1els4 to)ether 1ith the cro1n and ro8es o% the "reat !in) himsel%7 There 1as a li%e=si<e camel made o% sil5er4 1ith a rider all o% )old4 and a )olden horse 1ith emeralds %or teeth4 its nec' set 1ith ru8ies7 &ut the )reatest treasure o% all 1as the royal carpet4 representin) a )arden set a)ainst a 8ac')round o% 1rou)ht )old4 its 1al's o% sil5er and its la1ns o% clustered emeralds4 1ith ri5ulets o% pearls to 1ater them and trees4 %lo1ers and %ruit o% diamonds and other precious stones7 :.mar 1as in %a5our o% 'eepin) the carpet 1hole4 as a trophy4 8ut :Ali reminded him o% the insta8ility o% all earthly thin)s4 and so it 1as cut into pieces and the pieces distri8uted amon) the people7 ,ur5eyin) the spoils o% Persia :.mar 1ept7 :I see4: he said4 :that the riches 1hich Allah has 8esto1ed upon us 1ill 8ecome a sprin) o% 1orldliness and en5y and4 in the end4 a calamity %or the people7: His sensiti5e nostrils had4 as it 1ere4 cau)ht the stench o% corruption 8orne on a 1ind out o% the %uture7 0ate in *3/ :Amr i8n al=:As4 1ho had halted close to the 8order 8et1een Palestine arid ,inai4 recei5ed a letter %rom the Caliph7 A1are o% the dou8ts in :.mar:s mind a8out this %urther e3pedition into the un'no1n4 he immediately led his men across the %rontier4 and only 1hen this 1as done did he open the sealed orders@ :I%4 1hen you read this letter4 you are still in Palestine you must a8andon the underta'in)> i%4 ho1e5er4 you ha5e already crossed into E)ypt you may proceed7: :Amr then en;uired innocently o% those around him 1hether he 1as no1 in Palestine or E)ypt7 In the %ollo1in) year he de%eated the &y<antine army and4 in *#14 crossed the Nile> soon a%ter1ards he 1as a8le to report@ :I ha5e captured a city %rom the description o% 1hich I shall re%rain7 ,u%%ice it to say that I ha5e ta'en therein #4222 5illas4 #4222 8aths4 #24222 Fe1s lia8le to poll=ta34 and #22 pleasure palaces %it %or 'in)s7: This 1as Ale3andria4 the )reatest city o% the time4 1ith o5er a million inha8itants7 &ut the Caliph had a pro%ound disli'e %or 8oast%ul )enerals 1ho attri8uted 5ictories to their o1n s'ill or darin)@ in the si)ht o% "od no man:s s'ill amounted to anythin)4 nor any man:s darin)7 Instead o% con)ratulations :Amr

recei5ed an an)ry letter accusin) him o% ha5in) )ro1n rich4 and soon a%ter1ards a special en5oy arri5ed to con%iscate hal% his property7 He complained o% the :e5il a)e: in 1hich an honoura8le man could 8e so ill treated7 :$ere it not %or this a)e 1hich you hate4: replied the en5oy4 :you 1ould no1 8e 'neelin) in the courtyard o% your house at the %eet o% a )oat 1hose a8undance o% mil' 1ould please you or its scarcity dismay you7: There 1as really no ans1er to that> 8ut some time later4 1hen he 1as military "o5ernor o% E)ypt4 8ut 1ithout control o% the %inances o% the pro5ince4 :Amr )rum8led that he 1as li'e a man 1ho holds a co1:s horns 1hile someone else en9oys her mil'7 This same en5oy 5isited ,a:d4 the con;ueror o% Ira;4 at his 8ase in !u%a and handed him a letter %rom :.mar@ :I hear that you ha5e 8uilt yoursel% a mansion and erected a door 8et1een yoursel% and the people 777 Come out o% itI And ne5er erect a door to 'eep people out and 8anish them %rom their ri)hts4 so that they ha5e to 1ait until you are ready to recei5e them7: ,uch 1as the in%luence o% the early caliphs upon the su8se;uent history o% Islam that4 to this day4 a senior o%%icial in the Ara8 1orld may %ace )ra5e criticism i% he tries to 'eep people out o% his o%%ice and e3pects them to 1ait until he is :ready to recei5e them:7 !halid4 o% 1hom the nineteenth=century orientalist ,ir $illiam uir 1rote that :his conduct on the 8attle%ields7 777 must ran' him as one o% the )reatest )enerals o% the 1orld:4D1E 1as e5en more harshly treated7 He 1as honoura8ly = 8ut compulsorily = retired %rom his command and died in po5erty7 1 Annals o% the Early Caliphate4 ,ir $7 p7217 uir A0ondon@ ,mith4 Elder N Co74 1--3B4

$hat one senses in :.mar:s conduct o% a%%airs throu)hout his caliphate is a desperate stru))le to pre5ent the %orces o% this 1orld = pride4 po1er and 1ealth = %rom in%iltratin) the sacred community> yet still they seeped in7 He may 1ell ha5e 'no1n that this 1as one 8attle he could not hope to 1in4 8ut it had to 8e %ou)ht none the less> and i% the )reat men o% the time = such military )eniuses as !halid4 :Amr and ,a:d = had to 8e 8rou)ht lo14 this 1as o% little conse;uence and 1as4 in any case4 %or their souls: )ood7 In his o1n li%e :.mar o8ser5ed the most ri)id discipline and sel%=denial7 :Nothin) o% the 0ord:s )oods is allo1ed me4: he said4 :e3cept a )arment %or 1inter and one %or summer4 and enou)h %or the Pil)rima)e and the rites4 and %ood %or me and my household at the middle rate allo1ed one o% my people> 8eyond that I ha5e no more ri)ht than any other uslim7:D1E 1 ?uoted %rom an antholo)y o% ori)inal te3ts@ ohammad:s People 8y Eric ,chroeder APortland4 .,A@ &ond $heelri)ht Co7B4 p7 1*+7 In %act he did not e5en o8ser5e the middle 1ay4 8ut 1as so %ru)al in his ha8its that his dau)hter Ha%sah 8e))ed him to ta'e 8etter care o% himsel%4 i% only %or the uslims: sa'e7 :I ta'e your meanin)4: he replied4 :8ut it 1as in a certain path that I said %are1ell to t1o companions o% mine: = he meant the Prophet and A8u &a'r = :and i% I turned a1ay %rom the path in 1hich I 1al'ed 1ith them I should ne5er %ind them a)ain at 9ourney:s end7: ,o tall that he to1ered a8o5e the people :as thou)h on horse8ac':4 )rey and prematurely a)ed4 he 1ent a8out the to1n 8are%oot4 dra1in) his patched cloa' a8out him4 ne5er satis%ied that he 1as doin) his duty as

he should7 He planned to spend a year tra5ellin) amon) the uslims4 %or he 'ne1 not = he said = 1hat demands mi)ht ha5e 8een cut short 8e%ore they came to his attention7 :&y "od4: he said once4 :I do not 'no1 1hether I am a caliph or a 'in)> and i% I am a 'in)4 that is a %ear%ul thin):> this 1as said in connection 1ith the necessity %or ta3ation4 1hich su))ests that he 1as a1are = as are %e1 earthly rulers = o% the pro%ound moral pro8lems in5ol5ed in the sei<ure o% the people:s )oods or earnin)s %or the purposes o% the state7 6istin)uished prisoners o% 1ar4 1hen they 1ere 8rou)ht to edina4 e3pected to see palaces4 splendour and pomp such as they mi)ht ha5e seen in &y<antium or Ctesiphon7 In the dusty s;uare o% a little mud=8ric' to1n they met4 instead4 1ith a circle o% Ara8s seated on the )round4 one o% them = treated 8y the others as an e;ual = taller than the rest> it 1as little 1onder that they had some di%%iculty in )raspin) that this 1as the ruler o% an empire 1hich 1as e3pandin) 1ee' 8y 1ee'7 An ally4 a prince o% the "hassanids4 1ho had 8een allied pre5iously 1ith &y<antium 8ut had turned to Islam a%ter the Emperor %led %rom the %ield o% 8attle4 arri5ed in edina splendidly clad and 1ith an entoura)e o% )randees7 A &edouin chanced to step on his ro8e4 causin) him to stum8le4 and he struc' the man in the %ace7 He 1as hauled 8e%ore :.mar and the &edouin 1as )i5en the ri)ht to return the 8lo17 The prince re5erted to the Christian %aith4 in 1hich due respect 1as paid to his ran'7 Riches 1ere no1 pourin) into the treasury4 8ut :.mar had an intense distaste %or 'eepin) 1ealth loc'ed up and insisted upon immediate distri8ution7 A re)ister o% :pensioners: 1as instituted4 headed 8y :A:isha4 %ollo1ed 8y the other sur5i5in) : others o% the Faith%ul:4 then 8y relati5es o% the Prophet4 men 1ho deser5ed 1ell o% Islam Asuch as the sur5i5ors o% &adrB4 men 1ho had learned the ?uran 8y heart4 and soldiers 1ho had %ou)ht 8ra5ely in the 1ars7 An administration 1as 8ein) 8uilt up4 8ut since the Ara8s had little e3perience o% such matters4 it 1as a ;uestion o% de5isin) appropriate institutions as they 1ent alon)7 Het4 %or all his la8ours in edina4 the Caliph %ound time to tra5el4 and in doin) so lost no opportunity to set an e3ample %or %uture )enerations o% uslims7 On one o% his 9ourneys4 in a year o% %amine4 he came upon a poor 1oman seated at the roadside 1ith her children 8eside a %ire upon 1hich 1as an empty pot> he hastened to the nearest 5illa)e4 procured 8read and meat4 and returned to coo' her a meal7 He made a tour o% ,yria4 and 8e%ore he le%t the pro5ince4 an e5ent occurred 1hich stirred the hearts o% the %aith%ul7 &ilal4 the %irst mu:e<<in o% Islam4 had retired there4 ha5in) re%used a%ter the Prophet:s death e5er a)ain to ma'e the pu8lic Call to Prayer7 The leaders no1 came to him and 8e))ed him to ma'e the Call on this 5ery special occasion7 The old A%rican consented4 and as the %amiliar 5oice rose o5er the multitude4 still loud and clear4 the people remem8ered so 5i5idly the radiant time 1hen the Prophet used to lead the prayers a%ter &ilal:s Call that the 1hole assem8ly 1as mo5ed to tears and :.mar so88ed aloud7 :.mar had 8een caliph %or ten years 1hen4 in No5em8er *##4 a youn) man4 1ho thou)ht himsel% 8adly treated in the matter o% his salary4 sta88ed him three times as he came out o% the mos;ue in edina and then 'illed himsel%7 !no1in) that he 1as mortally 1ounded4 :.mar appointed a committee o% si3 ?urayshites to choose

one o% their num8er to succeed him7 :To him 1ho shall %ollo1 me4: he said4 :I )i5e it as my 1ish that he 8e 'ind to this city 1hich )a5e a home to us and to the Faith4 that he ma'e much o% their 5irtues and pass li)htly o5er their %aults7 And 8id him treat 1ell the Ara8 tri8es4 %or they are the stren)th o% Islam 777 O my 0ord4 I ha5e %inished my course7: They carried the 8ody to :A:isha:s cham8er4 1here the Prophet and A8u &a'r 1ere 8uried7 The dead man:s son saluted her and said@ C.mar re;uests permission to enter7: :&rin) him in4: she said7 Jiolent death seems inherently :1ron): to the contemporary $esterner4 1ho 1ould pre%er to drain the last drop %rom his cup = ho1e5er 8itter = and die rottin) on a 8ed4 the dulled mind imprisoned in a stric'en 8ody4 rather than %ace the da))er or the %lashin) s1ord4 and in a %inal )aspin) thou)ht o% "od4 to %all7 :.mar 1ould not ha5e seen the matter in this 1ay7 .p to the time o% the Prophet:s death = 1hich o8li)ed him to chan)e his 5ie1s = he had thou)ht it despica8le to die o% :natural causes:7 A no8le li%e4 he assumed4 should 8e cro1ned 8y a no8le death4 1hich in practice meant death in 8attle or in de%ence o% one:s honour4 As it 1as4 his end had come at the hands o% a deran)ed youn) man 1ith an ima)ined )rie5ance4 8ut this too mi)ht ha5e 8een accepta8le to him7 The insane are as much "od:s instruments as the sane and ha5e their part to play in the di5ine economy7 Nothin) is out o% place = so the uslim 8elie5es = 1hate5er appearances mi)ht su))est4 and each man:s destiny is hun) li'e a medallion around his nec'7 :.mar had %inished his course7 The committee met to choose a caliph4 and :Ali 1as not o% their num8er7 One can only )uess at the reasons %or his e3clusion7 ,hi:a uslims 1ould ascri8e it to malice and the su8tle 1or' o% ,atan4 and there are those amon) them 1ho4 to this day4 curse the memory o% :.mar7 The %act remains that a man may ha5e )reat ;ualities and no8le 5irtues and yet 8e un%itted 8y temperament and 5ocation %or rulership4 and it may 1ell ha5e 8een :.mar:s 8elie% that this 1as the case 1ith :Ali7 The choice %ell upon :.thman i8n :A%%an7 He 1as no1 a man o% se5enty4 still stri'in)ly handsome and4 in temperament4 )enial and easy=)oin)7 The Prophet:s dau)hter Ru;ayya4 %or lo5e o% 1hom he had %irst come to Islam4 had died lon) since = 8e%ore her %ather4 in %act = and it 1as a ;uarter o% a century since the Prophet had said4 to an en5oy 1ho returned later than anticipated %rom 5isitin) the uslim e3iles in Ethiopia@ :I 'no1 1hat delayed you7 Hou must ha5e stopped to mar5el at the 8eauty o% :.thman and Ru;ayyaI: He had 8een one o% the %e1 1ealthy men to em8race Islam in the early days and the only one to retain his 1ealth a%ter the emi)ration to edina> no8le and pious4 he had many o% the characteristics o% a traditional Ara8 aristocrat4 8ut there 1ere those amon) the companions 1ho soon 8e)an to dou8t 1hether he possessed the ;ualities re;uired 8y his )reat o%%ice7 The Empire continued to e3pand 8y its o1n momentum or throu)h the am8ition o% hi)h o%%icials7 A8u ,u%yan:s son4 u:a1iyah4 1ho 1as no1 "o5ernor o% ,yria4 had %or some time 8een an3ious to mount an e3pedition a)ainst Cyprus Ahe complained humorously that the 8ar'in) o% Cypriot do)s 'ept him a1a'e at ni)htB4 8ut :.mar had %or8idden this a%ter :Amr 1arned him o% the dan)ers o% the sea@ :Trust it little4 %ear it muchI an at sea is an insect %loatin) on a splinter7: No14 %or

the %irst time4 uslim ships sailed out a)ainst the &y<antine na5y7 Cyprus surrendered4 and soon a%ter1ards the island o% Rhodes7 In the east4 A%)hanistan4 Tur'estan and !hurasan 1ere con;uered4 and uslim soldiers 1al'ed 8eside the &lac' ,ea4 1hile in North A%rica the tide still mo5ed %or1ard and the &er8er tri8es 1ere 8rou)ht into the %old7 &ut in edina all 1as not 1ell7 As :.thman )re1 older he increasin)ly %a5oured 1orthless relati5es o5er men o% su8stance4 and these relati5es 1ere usually o% the .mayyad clan = A8u ,u%yan:s clan = includin) some 1ho had 8een amon) the Prophet:s most 8itter enemies7 At !u%a the son o% the man 1ho had shielded the Prophet on the day o% .hod 1as replaced as "o5ernor 8y a drun'en sot 1ho4 1hen he dis)raced himsel%4 1as in his turn replaced 8y an ine3perienced youth 1ho lost control o% the to1n7 :Amr4 the con;ueror o% E)ypt4 1as deposed and replaced 8y the Caliph:s %oster=8rother4 and it 1as not lon) 8e%ore the .mayyads 1ere in control o% all the main or)ans o% the state4 includin) the treasury7 A time came 1hen the old companions 1ould no lon)er set %oot in the Caliph:s house7 :Ali came to remonstrate 1ith him4 sayin)@ :The 1ay lies plain and 1ide 8e%ore you4 8ut your eyes are 8linded so that they cannot see it7 I% 8lood is once shed it 1ill not cease to %lo1 until the 6ay o% Fud)ement> ri)ht 1ill 8e 8lotted out and treason ra)e li'e the tur8ulent 1a5es o% the sea7: ,tu88orn and set in his 1ays4 :.thman replied@ :For my part4 I ha5e done my 8est7: The pro8lem 1as simple yet insolu8le7 Traditionally4 the Ara8 tri8es had al1ays %orced the resi)nation o% a chie%tain 1ho did not %ul%il his duties to their satis%action4 8ut the remo5al o% a caliph 1as a di%%erent matter and no one 'ne1 ho1 it could 8e done4 e3cept 1ith a sharp 8lade7 ,eein) the 1ay matters 1ere shapin)4 u:a1iyah 8e))ed :.thman to come to ,yria %or his o1n sa%ety> %indin) him immo5a8le4 he said to the companions@ :I lea5e this old man in your hands7 Ha5e a care o% himI: He 1aited %or some response 8ut recei5ed none7 &e%ore returnin) to his 8ase in 6amascus he su))ested to :.thman that he should send trust1orthy troops o% his o1n to protect him7 :NoI: said the Caliph> :I 1ill ne5er put %orce on those 1ho d1ell around the Prophet:s home7: The tri8es %eared tyranny7 Their traditions 1ere democratic = some 1ould say anarchistic = and the idea o% a centrali<ed state 1as hard enou)h to accept e5en 1hen headed 8y an A8u &a'r or an :.mar> it 1as no1 8ecomin) increasin)ly unaccepta8le7 The people o% edina 'ept to their houses and could only 1atch as the storm clouds )athered 1ith a 'ind o% dread%ul ine5ita8ility7 :.thman mi)ht ha5e %or%eited their loyalty4 8ut they could not 8rin) themsel5es to turn a)ainst him4 'no1in) him to 8e a )ood old man %or all his %aults7 any loo'ed to :Ali %or leadership4 8ut he maintained an unhappy4 indecisi5e neutrality7 A man more s'illed in the am8i)uous arts o% politics and in the mana)ement o% a%%airs mi)ht perhaps ha5e ta'en o5er po1er 1ithout actually remo5in) the Caliph4 8ut :Ali 1as not the man %or this7 :.thman himsel% 1aited calmly %or 1hat mi)ht come7 He 1as no1 ei)hty=t1o and incapa8le o% dealin) 1ith the situation e5en i% he had really 1ished to do so7 ,uch %e1 %riends as he had le%t ur)ed him to ta'e %irm action a)ainst his enemies4 8ut he 1ould not use 5iolence to sa5e himsel%7

$hile conspirators in Ira; planned re5olt4 uhammad i8n A8u &a'r Ason o% the %irst caltphB set out %rom E)ypt at the head o% %i5e hundred men4 pretendin) to 8e ta'in) part in the Pil)rima)e7 Arri5in) in edina they demanded :.thman:s resi)nation7 :Ho1 can I cast o%% the mantle 1hich Allah has placed on my shouldersG: he as'ed7 They stoned him in the mos;ue and he 1as carried unconscious to his home7 Here he 1as 8esie)ed until4 in Fune *(*4 some o% the re8els 8ro'e in and came to him in the room 1here he sat readin) the ?uran4 his 1i%e Naila 8eside him7 They 1ere so a1ed 8y his calm and ma9estic demeanour that they 1ithdre1 in con%usion7 He continued readin)7 Then the leaders o% the re8ellion 8urst in4 sei<ed him 8y the 8eard and 'illed him4 1hile his 1i%e = attemptin) to shield his 8ody 1ith her o1n = lost the %in)ers o% one hand7 &lood soa'ed the lea5es o% the ?ur:an7 $hile the 8ody 1as still 1arm a man slipped into the cham8er4 remo5ed :.thman:s 8loody shirt and set o%% 1ith it post=haste on the road to 6amascus7 The people o% edina 1ent to :Ali4 seein) in him the only hope %or Islam4 and tried to s1ear alle)iance to him4 8ut he said@ :This does not lie 1ith me7 It lies 1ith the men o% &adrI $homsoe5er they choose4 he shall 8e Caliph7: He 1as not a man to 1elcome po1er4 least o% all at that moment o% 8itter crisis4 and %or some 1hile he resisted all pressure> 8ut he 1as %inally persuaded that stri%e 1ould ne5er cease unless he consented7 ean1hile4 in 6amascus4 :.thman:s 8lood=soa'ed shirt 1as pu8licly displayed4 and it is said that no less than *24222 o% the people there 1ept at this si)ht4 cursin) the murderers and cryin) out %or 5en)eance7 The %i)ures o% A8u &a'r4 :.mar and :.thman are clearly de%ined in the mirror o% history4 8ut :Ali 1as a more comple3 man4 and it is all the more di%%icult to assess him 8ecause o% the passions 1hich still surround his name4 di5idin) ,hi:a Islam %rom ,unni Islam %or the past thirteen centuries7 In many 1ays he 1as the e3emplary uslim@ a 1arrior4 coura)eous and honoura8le4 yet at the same time a contemplati5e and = so %ar as the people o% this 1orld are concerned = an :outsider:7 One senses that e5en in his o1n day people 1ere not at ease 1ith him> there 1as somethin) a8out him that escaped them and there%ore made them uneasy7 ore important4 ho1e5er4 he lac'ed a ;uality 1hich is also :typically: uslim Asince it deri5es %rom the e3ample o% the ProphetB@ he 1as not a man o% sound 9ud)ement in the a%%airs o% the 1orld4 and his sense o% timin) = 1hen to ad5ance and 1hen to dra1 8ac' = 1as disastrously de%icient7 E5en in the Prophet:s household and amon) those closest to him there had 8een an incipient di5ision7 On the one hand A8u &a'r and :.mar4 to)ether 1ith their respecti5e dau)hters4 :A:isha and Ha%sah Aclose %riends as 1ell as sister=1i5esB4 1ithin the household@ this mi)ht perhaps 8e called the party o% common sense4 o% practicality = e5en o% e3pediency = and o% meticulous le)alism7 On the other hand there 1as the Prophet:s dau)hter4 Fatima4 a some1hat mysterious Aand undou8tedly saintlyB %i)ure4 1ith=dra1n4 undemonstrati5e and lon)=su%%erin)> a 1oman saddened 8y e3perience4 lo5in) "od and lo5in) her %ather4 "od:s essen)er4 possi8le more deeply than anyone else> and 1ith her 1as her hus8and :Ali4 1ho had 8een ta'en into uhammad and !hadi9a:s home 8ecause his %ather4 A8u Tali84 had too many mouths to %eed4 and 1ho had seen the trans%ormation o%

the household under the impact o% the re5elation7 He had 8een still a 8oy 1hen the 1orst persecutions too' place4 and they must ha5e le%t their mar' upon him7 There seems little dou8t that4 in her ;uiet 1ay4 Fatima had o%ten resented the po1er o% :A:isha = this youn) )irl 1ho had ta'en her dead mother:s place in the Prophet:s a%%ections = and this may 8e one reason 1hy :Ali had done nothin) to de%end :A:isha:s reputation a%ter the incident o% the lost nec'lace Athere8y ma'in) a dan)erous enemyB7 ,ince those distant days he had al1ays 8een a central %i)ure in the de5elopin) history o% Islam4 and he had held many hi)h o%%ices and many titles4 8ut he still pre%erred the nic'name )i5en him 8y the Prophet4 1hen he %ound him one day stretched out on the dusty %loor o% the mos;ue@ :A8u Tura8:4 meanin) :Father o% 6ust:7 It 1as stran)ely appropriate4 %or this 1orld appeared to him a dusty place4 and he said once Ain his later yearsB@ :The 1orld is a carcase> 1hosoe5er 1ishes %or a part o% it should accustom himsel% to the company o% do)s7: It 1as 8ecause he had little taste %or the company o% do)s that he shunned po1er4 thou)h it 1as thrust upon him7 He had accepted the caliphate as an un1elcome duty4 8ut in so doin) he had stepped into the shoes o% a murdered man7 :He 1as still a li5in) le)end4 8ut he 1as a le)end %i)htin) a)ainst a )host = the )host o% :.thman4 1hose 8loody shirt hun) in the mos;ue at 6amascus 1ith the three se5ered %in)ers o% his 1i%e pinned to it and the 8loody pa)e o% the ?uran 8elo1 it7 &ecause he re%used to punish the murderers4 or 1as una8le to punish them4 the )host o% :.thman haunted him to the end o% his li%e7:D1E 1 The ,1ord o% Islam4 Ro8ert Payne A0ondon@ Ro8ert Hale 0td4 1/(/B4 p712+7 This 1as a ;uestion 1hich could not 8e e5aded4 yet he too' no action7 u:a1iyah4 %rom his seat o% po1er in 6amascus4 re%used to ac'no1led)e him as Caliph until the murderers 1ere punished> 8ut he said only@ :0et us 1ait4 and the 0ord 1ill )uide usI: He 1as not prepared to 8ase his leadership o% the community upon the 'illin) e5en o% those 1ho mi)ht 8e considered to deser5e death4 considerin) that no true and %aith%ul Islamic leadership could rest upon such a 8asis7 He 8elie5ed in reconciliation and sou)ht reconciliation4 8ut to many this loo'ed li'e complicity in the crime7 No1 %i%ty=si3 years old4 a stout4 8ald man o% middle hei)ht4 1ith a 8eard 1hite as cotton 1hich spread %rom shoulder to shoulder4 he had put the years o% 8attle 8ehind him and lon)ed only %or peace7 ean1hile4 in ecca4 the lady :A:isha 1as plottin) re5olt7 ,he 1as 9oined there 8y t1o o% the most senior amon) the companions4 8oth o% 1hom 1ould ha5e 8een candidates %or the caliphate had :Ali not consented to assume it@ Tal8a and Ku8ayr7 $hether it 1as they 1ho persuaded her into rash action or 1hether = as has 8een su))ested = it 1as her spell that 1or'ed upon them is 'no1n to "od alone4 8ut the outcome o% their meetin) 1as that the three o% them set out 1ith a considera8le %orce to ma'e 1ar on the Caliph4 proclaimin) that they 1ould ha5e 5en)eance %or :.thman:s 8lood7 It 1as a stran)e 9ourney7 They came4 on their 1ay4 to a place called the Jalley o% Ha184 meanin) the Jalley o% the Crime4 1ith :A:isha:s camel in the %ore%ront7 A pac' o% do)s surrounded them and 8e)an to 8ar'4 and :A:isha screamed@ :Ta'e me 8ac'I No1 I remem8er 777 The essen)er o% Allah4 1hen once

he 1as sittin) 1ith his 1i5es4 said4 CI 1ish I 'ne1 1hich o% you is the one at 1hom the do)s o% Ha18 1ill 8ar'C7 eI I am the 1oman o% Ha187: The do)s had reason to 8ar'7 For the %irst time uslims 1ere settin) out to ma'e 1ar upon their %ello1 uslims4 led 8y the 1oman 1ho had 8een so dear to the Prophet7 A once luminous s'y had turned dar'4 8eauty 1as tainted and the 8onds o% 8rotherhood 8ro'en7 They met 1ith the Caliph:s %orces near &asra and en5oys 1ent to and %ro 1ith much tal' o% ri)ht and 1ron)7 There is little dou8t that con%lict could ha5e 8een a5oided4 8ut this 1ould not ha5e suited the 'illers o% :.thman4 1ho reali<ed that peace mi)ht in5ol5e :Ali:s a)reein) to punish them7 They manipulated the situation so that each side 8elie5ed itsel% treacherously attac'ed 8y the other and 8attle 1as 9oined7 It is said that se5enty men perished at the 8ridle o% :A:isha:s camel = this is there%ore 'no1n as the &attle o% the Camel = and her litter 8ristled 1ith arro1s li'e a porcupine 1ith its ;uills raised4 8ut she 1as unhurt7 Appalled 8y the slau)hter4 Ku8ayr rode o%% in the direction o% ecca4 8ut 1as cau)ht and 'illed7 Tal8a 1as 1ounded and died o% his 1ound soon a%ter4 and :A:isha surrendered7 :All 5isited her in her tent and con)ratulated her on 8ein) unharmed4 addin) reproach%ully@ :The 0ord pardon you %or 1hat has passed7: Not to 8e put do1n4 she ans1ered 1ith her old spirit@ :And youI: ,he 1as sent home in char)e o% his sons Hasan and Husayn4 8ut 8e%ore she departed :Ali and his company )athered around to pay their respects to one 1ho 1as still4 in spite o% e5erythin)4 the other o% the Faith%ul7 A curious little scene 1as enacted = one mi)ht almost suppose = %or the 8ene%it o% posterity7 :0et us not entertain hard thou)hts a8out each other4: she said4 :%or truly4 as re)ards :Ali and mysel%4 nothin) occurred 8et1een us: = she 1as re%errin) to the matter o% the nec'lace = :other than commonly happens 8et1een a 1i%e and her hus8and:s %amily4 and indeed he 1as one o% the 8est amon) those 1ho entertained suspicions a)ainst me7 ::Ali replied solemnly@ :,he spea's the truthI: and so they parted4 ne5er to meet a)ain7 This matter had 8een dealt 1ith4 thou)h at 8itter cost4 8ut the pro8lem presented 8y u:a1iyah 1as more serious7 In the sprin) o% *(+4 :All marched north1ards and con%ronted the ,yrian army on the plain o% ,i%%in4 close to the Euphrates ri5er7 The %orces 1ere almost e;ually matched and se5eral days 1ere passed in ne)otiation4 :Ali insistin) upon the unity o% the caliphate and u:a1iyah still demandin) the punishment o% :.thman:s 'illers7 Fi)htin) 8ro'e out4 and it 1as soon clear that the ad5anta)e lay 1ith :Ali:s people> u:a1iyah 1ould ha5e ac'no1led)ed de%eat4 8ut :Amr = 1ho 1as no1 in his ser5ice = su))ested that the soldiers should 8e ordered to tie pa)es o% the ?uran to their spears7 This 1as done4 and the cry 1as raised@ :The &oo' o% Allah 8et1een you and usI: :All 1ould ha5e i)nored 1hat 1as clearly no more than a tric' to e5ade the 9ud)ement o% 8attle4 8ut he 1as persuaded to accept ar8itration and le%t the %ield4 1eary o% the 1hole 8usiness that had 8een put upon him7 His only 9oy no1 in this sorry 1orld 1as a small dau)hter %rom 1hom he could scarcely 8ear to 8e parted7 Others4 ho1e5er4 1ere more passionately concerned 1ith the ideal 1hich they still hoped mi)ht 8e incorporated in 1orldly e5ents and in a 5ia8le social structure4 so there arose4 out o% the &attle o% ,i%%in and the proposed ar8itration4 a mo5ement o%

5ery particular si)ni%icance in Islam4 that o% the !hari9ites4 the :6issenters: or :,eceders: Athe name deri5es %rom a 5er8al root meanin) :to come out:B7 :Ar8itration is "od:s aloneI: they said4 and then@ :No )o5ernment 8ut "od:sI: Their 5erdict upon 8oth :Ali and u:i1iyah 1as to cry in e%%ect@ :A pla)ue on 8oth your houses:7 "o5ernment4 they said4 should 8e in the hands o% a council elected 8y the people4 and they 1ere a8le to dra1 on &edouin support4 since they e3pressed the nomad:s resentment o% the encroachin) state4 as 1ell as the despair o% many )ood uslims 1atchin) their leaders at one another:s throats7 At the same time they represented a po1er%ul current o% puritanism 1hich has4 since their time4 sur%aced a)ain and a)ain in the history o% Islam7 Indi5iduals or )roups o% 8elie5ers ha5e repeatedly :come out: %rom the uslim society o% their day4 anathemati<ed it and called %or a return to the :true 5alues: o% Islam4 as they 1ere practised in edina in the li%etime o% the Prophet> many t1entieth=century uslim re%ormers mi)ht reasona8ly 8e descri8ed as neo=!hari9ites4 and althou)h the mo5ement died out as a speci%ic sect Ae3cept %or a small )roup in North A%rica 1ho call themsel5es 8y this nameB4 its spirit marches on7 :All 1as no1 surrounded 8y conspiracies o% one 'ind or another7 He %ound li%e 8itter4 8ut there is no e5idence to su))est that he 8ecame suspicious4 as any other man mi)ht ha5e done> he e3pected nothin) %rom this 1orld and could not there%ore su%%er disillusionment7 As his enemies closed in on him he remained true to himsel%4 mild4 %ore8earin) and conciliatory@ some ha5e 8lamed him %or this4 others still lo5e him %or it7 E5en u:a1iyah4 1ho must 8y no1 ha5e 8een stron) enou)h to destroy him4 seems to ha5e had a )rud)in) respect %or a man he could ne5er hope to understand> he a)reed to an armistice4 1hich le%t :Ali %ree to deal 1ith the !hari9ites7 This he did4 e%%ecti5ely thou)h un1illin)ly7 Ha5in) esta8lished a 8ase outside !u%a4 they had marched on Ctesiphon and sac'ed the city 1ith )reat 8loodshed4 since their puritanism e3cluded the spirit o% mercy 1hich is the essence o% Islam7 :All cau)ht up 1ith them at an o8scure 5illa)e called &a)hdad and destroyed their %orces7 Frustrated in their hopes o% military 5ictory4 as also in their e3pectation that :Ali and u:a1iyah 1ould clash in a campai)n o% mutual destruction4 the !hari9ites no1 planned the assassination o% 8oth men7 A youth called4 8y a curious irony4 :A8du:l=Rahman A:,er5ant o% the erci%ul:B 1as in lo5e 1ith a !hari9ite )irl 1hose %ather and 8rother had 8een 'illed in the 8attle o% &a)hdad4 and he promised her the Caliph:s head as a 8ridal )i%t i% she 1ould marry him7 He tra5elled to !u%a in the month o% Ramadan4 the most sacred o% all months4 1hen man'ind and nature itsel% should 8e in5iolate4 and on 2# Fanuary A6 **1 seated himsel% in the mos;ue opposite the door throu)h 1hich the Caliph 1ould enter7 0ea5in) his home %or the da1n prayers4 :Ali 1as startled 8y the hon'in) o% )eese7 A ser5ant 1as a8out to dri5e them a1ay4 8ut he said@ :0et them cry = they are cryin) %or my %uneral7: As he entered the mos;ue :A8du:l=Rahman struc' him on the head 1ith a poisoned s1ord8lade7 He 1as carried home4 in )reat a)ony4 and lin)ered in this condition %or three days7 &e%ore he died he 8e))ed his people to treat the assassin merci%ully Ain this matter they did not respect his 1ishesB7

The tears shed %or him in the centuries that ha5e passed since his death 1ould %loat many proud ships4 and the lo5e his memory e5o'es must ha5e risen throu)h all the hea5ens4 e5en to the Throne o% "od7 ,o died the last o% the Rashidun4 the :ri)hly=)uided: caliphs o% Islam4 9ust t1enty= nine years a%ter the death o% the Prophet7 Their e3ample Aor4 %or the ,hi:a4 the e3ample o% :Ali aloneB has 8een a decisi5e element in the shapin) o% the reli)ion4 and their trou8les and mis%ortunes ha5e 8een echoed in the li5in) e3perience o% the .mmah4 uhammad:s people7 The %act that three o% them died at the hands o% their %ello1= uslims has introduced into the %a8ric o% Islam a sadness 1hich still casts its shado1 o5er the 9oy inherent in lucid reli)ious %aith7 ,ometimes this sadness has )i5en rise to an)er4 leadin) to %urther 'illin)4 and to acts o% 5iolence a)ainst a 1orld 1hich treated such men so cruelly7 .ltimate Truth = the truth o% the ,hahadah = cannot 8e neatly %itted into the terrestrial dimensions and there%ore %inds e3pression in pain%ul contradictions and throu)h the interplay o% opposites7 I% Truth is the principal 8usiness o% reli)ion = 8ut %or 1hich all Faiths 1ould 8e mere sentimentality and 1ish%ul thin'in) = then reli)ion is ine5ita8ly stretched out upon the rac' o% contradiction4 and only the un8elie5er4 in his little time and little place4 is at peace in this 1orld7 Chapter - THE $AH OF THE $OR06 u:a1iyah 1as 1ounded 8y the !hari9ite sent to assassinate him4 8ut he reco5ered %rom his 1ound7 No1 this .mayyad4 the son o% A8u ,u%yan and Hind4 1as Caliph and there 1as no one to ;uestion his ri)ht7 It has 8een ;uestioned o%ten enou)h since then4 and to this day there are uslims 1ho spea' o% him in the 1ay that Europeans spea' o% Adol% Hitler7 This does him less than 9ustice7 He 1as 8eyond dou8t a :)reat man: as the term is commonly understood4 and 8y no means a 8ad one4 indeed = compared 1ith some o% those 1ho came a%ter him = he 1as an admira8le ruler> one o% those rare men 1ho4 almost 8y instinct4 handle po1er 1ith consummate s'ill and4 %or that 5ery reason4 ha5e no need to play the tyrant7 &ut this is not the point7 The son o% the man 1ho had 8een Islam:s most dan)erous enemy had stepped into the sandals o% the Prophet4 so %ar as 1orldly dominion and the care o% the .mmah 1ere concerned7 The %irst %our caliphs are descri8ed as :ri)htly )uided:4 not 8ecause all their successors 1ere necessarily mis)uided4 8ut 8ecause they had 8een close companions o% the Prophet and 1ere4 in their di%%erent 1ays4 li'e e3tensions o% his 8ein)> they mi)ht stum8le4 8ut their %eet 1ere %irmly planted on the path to 1hich he had )uided them7 u:a1iyah 1as a man o% this 1orld7 He said o% himsel% once@ :A8u &a'r did not see' this 1orld nor did it see' him = the 1orld sou)ht :.mar e5en thou)h he sou)ht it not = 8ut4 as %or us4 1e are sun' in it up to our 1aist7: A tall man4 handsome and %air=s'inned4 he possessed to a hi)h de)ree the ;uality 1hich the Ara8s call hilm = leniency to1ards opponents4 a readiness to accept insolence 1ith a%%a8le indi%%erence = yet he 1as a %ormida8le man4 and people

seem to ha5e sensed that his conciliatory 8eha5iour and charm o% manner 1ere a matter o% calculation rather than tenderness o% heart7 It suited him to disarm his enemies 8y )enerosity4 and to someone 1ho critici<ed this )enerosity he remar'ed that it cost %ar less than 1ar7 :I ha5e not used my s1ord 1hen my 1hip 1ould do4: he said4 :nor my 1hip 1hen my ton)ue 1ould do7 0et a sin)le hair still 8ind me to my people and I 1ill not let it snap7 $hen they slac'4 then I pull> 1hen they pull4 then I slac'7: This seems a %air de%inition o% statesmanship7 Accessi8ility 1as = and to some e3tent still is = an o8li)ation %or an Ara8 ruler4 and he 1as nothin) i% not an Ara87 I% a petitioner came to him 1hen he 1as dinin)4 he 1ould in5ite the man to sit do1n and help himsel%4 1hile a secretary read out his petition> his dinner parties4 not surprisin)ly4 1ere 1ell attended7 &ut in one respect he 8ro'e 1ith Ara8 tradition7 In choosin) ser5ants o% the state he paid no attention to their 8ac')round or ancestry4 or e5en to their reli)ion Amany o% his senior o%%icials4 particularly in the 'ey inistry o% Finance4 1ere Christians4 1ho seem to ha5e had a nose %or moneyB7 Ne1 men 1ere chosen on merit4 and perhaps the most prominent and e%%ecti5e o% these 1as Kayyad son=o%= his=%ather7 An Ara8 is o%ten called i8n ,o=and=so4 8ut 1hat 1as one to call the son o% a eccan sla5e=)irl 1ho had distri8uted her %a5ours so 1idely that she hersel% could not )uess his paternityG The ans1er 1as simple4 since e5ery man = e3cept Fesus = has had a %ather7 The Empire 1as consolidated and %urther e3tended7 It 1as this same Kayyad 1ho4 as Jiceroy o% Ira; and Persia4 led an army across the O3us ri5er and captured &u'hara> here4 as in other cities o% Central Asia4 a ma)ni%icent culture 8lossomed and thri5ed4 until the usco5ite hordes came out o% the 1est and destroyed so much that 1as holy and 8eauti%ul7 In A6 *+2 a uslim )eneral4 settin) out %rom his 8ase at ?ayra1an in 1hat is no1 Tunisia4 8ro'e throu)h the mountains into orocco and reached the Atlantic> he rode triumphantly into the 1a5es4 callin) upon "od to 1itness that he had carried Islam to the e3treme limits o% the 1orld7 $ith military 5ictories4 internal peace and e%%icient )o5ernment4 u:a1iyah:s t1enty=year rei)n could 8e seen as a record o% almost un8lemished success7 This is not ho1 uslims4 1ith the ad5anta)e o% hindsi)ht4 ha5e seen it7 As the instrument o% re5elation uhammad had 8rou)ht man'ind not only a spiritual doctrine = a means o% approachin) "od = 8ut also a social ethic and4 in practice4 a social system 1hich neutrali<ed many o% the elements commonly considered :natural: to man as a :political animal:7 In edina he had moulded a sacred community4 a 8rotherhood o% the %aith%ul4 1hich 1as in the 1orld 8ut not o% it7 The %irst %our caliphs had tried to the 8est o% their a8ility to maintain this ideal7 $ith the comin) to po1er o% the .mayyads the rot set in = or so it seems to uslim historians = and there 8e)an a process o% seculari<ation 1hich 1ould ne5er 8e entirely re5ersed %rom that day to this7 u:a1iyah:s achie5ements counted %or nothin) in the 8alance4 8ecause they 1ere the achie5ements o% a :Caesar: = indeed4 he has sometimes 8een called :the uslim Caesar:7 E5en the chan)e o% capital %rom edina4 the City o% the Prophet4 to 6amascus4 the city o% 1orldly )randeur4 1as si)ni%icant7 Piety did not emi)rate %rom edina to 6amascus4 and the process o% seculari<ation dro5e the spiritual %orces out o% the

political arena7 The last sur5i5in) companions 1ithdre1 %rom the pu8lic domain and their spiritual heirs did not return to it> yet4 in compensation4 their in%luence penetrated the mass o% the people in the deserts4 on the %arms and in the teemin) cities4 and this in%luence4 1or'in) as it 1ere in the shado1s4 %ostered the )ro1th o% %aith and spirituality 1hich is the true )lory o% Islam7 There is4 ho1e5er4 a particular stain upon the .mayyad record 1hich could ne5er 8e erased and ne5er has 8een erased@ the 'illin) o% the Prophet:s )randson4 Husayn7 :Ali had t1o sons 8y Fatima4 Hasan and Husayn7 $hen his %ather died Hasan 8rie%ly laid claim to the caliphate4 8ut he 1as easily persuaded to a8andon it in return %or a pension %rom u:a1iyah and the assurance o% a peace%ul li%e7 :I 1ould not4: he said4 :ha5e 8utchered %or a mere 'in)dom:s sa'eI: In any case4 he had other interests7 E5en his closest %riends lost count o% ho1 many 1omen he married and di5orced> some said ninety4 others put the %i)ure much hi)her4 and :Ali is supposed to ha5e 1arned an associate@ :Ne5er marry any o% your dau)hters to my son Hasan> he 1ill taste them and then put them aside7: Het 1e are told that no 1oman he married could help lo5in) him4 such 1as the s1eetness o% his nature7 Here4 as so o%ten in the Islamic conte3t4 a natural inclination ser5ed a spiritual purpose4 shoc'in) as this may seem to those nurtured in a ;uite di%%erent perspecti5e7 &ecause Hasan:s seed 1as so muni%icently distri8uted4 the Prophet:s 8lood runs in the 5eins o% a )reat multitude o% uslims4 and in this physical herita)e there is 8oth no8ility and )race7 It is thou)ht that the a)reement dra1n up 1hen Hasan resi)ned his claim included a pro5ision that4 a%ter his death4 the caliphate should re5ert to the descendants o% :Ali7 $hen he did die Apoisoned4 some said4 8y an a)ent o% u:a1iyah> surely a case o% :)i5e a do) a 8ad name:B the Caliph appointed his o1n son Ha<id to succeed him4 thus esta8lishin) a hereditary system in place o% the electi5e one> on his death=8ed he 1arned Ha<id = a cheer%ul and lu3ury=lo5in) youn) man 1hose mother 1as a Christian = that the people o% Ira; 1ould encoura)e Husayn to claim the caliphate7 :6e%eat him4: he said4 :8ut then deal )ently 1ith him4 %or the 8lood o% the essen)er o% Allah runs in his 5eins7: u:a1iyah 1as ri)ht7 No sooner had they recei5ed ne1s o% his death than the citi<ens o% !u%a sent a messa)e to Husayn ur)in) him to accept the caliphate4 1hereupon he set out %or Ira; 1ith ei)hteen mem8ers o% his household and some si3ty others7 The "o5ernor o% Ira; dispatched a )reat army a)ainst him4 and the people o% !u%a4 co1ed and %ri)htened4 le%t Husayn to his %ate7 :The heart o% !u%a is 1ith thee4: reported a messen)er4 :8ut its s1ord is a)ainst thee7: On the plain o% !ar8ala 8y the Euphrates ri5er he dre1 up his little 8and in 8attle order4 %acin) #4222 troops7 The "o5ernor demanded unconditional surrender7 He and his people resol5ed to die7 He %ou)ht as his %ather had %ou)ht 1hen youn)4 a lion=hearted man4 da<<led 8y a 5ision in 1hich ordinary mortals 1ould 8e )lad to share4 8ra5e 8eyond any common notion o% coura)e7 Early in the 8attle his ten=year=old nephe1 1as struc' 8y an arro1 and died in his arms7 In a short time t1o o% his sons4 %our hal%=

8rothers4 %i5e nephe1s and %i5e cousins %ell> mortally 1ounded4 he char)ed the enemy 1ith such %ury that they scattered on either side o% him until he %ell7 Then they dro5e a spear into his 8ac' and cut o%% his head7 The martyrdom o% the Prophet:s 8elo5ed )randson at the hands o% these uslims had repercussions 1hich still roll throu)h the 1orld li'e the 1a5es 1hich %ollo1 an earth;ua'e on the sea=8ed4 and li'e Cain:s murder o% his 8rother A8el4 it has 8urnt itsel% into the conscience o% a )reat sector o% man'ind7 Europeans4 1ho are seldom emotionally in5ol5ed in their o1n past history4 and Americans 1ho ha5e little history in 1hich to 8e in5ol5ed4 %ind it di%%icult to comprehend the immediacy = the timelessness o% certain e5ents in Islamic history so %ar as uslims are concerned7 Tens o% thousands o% youn) people ha5e 8een ready to die = and ha5e died = 8ecause Husayn came to such an end> in doin) so they ha5e hoped4 1hether consciously or not4 in some 1ay to redeem a humanity soiled 8y his death7 A youn) Iranian soldier o% the 1/-2s4 ;uestioned 8y a $estern ne1spaper correspondent re)ardin) his attitude to death in 8attle4 immediately recalls the martyrdom o% Husayn7 :It is impossi8le4: he says4 :%or you in the $est to understand7 $e do not see' death 8ut 1e re)ard death as a 9ourney %rom one %orm o% li%e to another4 and to 8e martyred 1hile opposin) "od:s enemies 8rin)s us closer to "od7 There are t1o phases in martyrdom@ 1e approach "od4 and 1e also remo5e the o8stacles 1hich e3ist 8et1een "od and His people 777 &ecomin) a martyr is not a passi5e thin'4 li'e standin) some1here and 1aitin) to 8e 'illed7 It is an acti5e thin)7 Imam Husayn777 'illed as many o% his enemies as possi8le 8e%ore he 1as martyred 777 :D1E 1 The Times A0ondonB4 + April 1/-27 To this day Husayn:s death is commemorated annually 8y ,hi:a uslims in Iran and in parts o% Ira;4 India and Pa'istan = and no1here more than at !ar8ala = 8y an outpourin) o% )rie% 1hich lea5es the $estern o8ser5er appalled4 and 1hich pro%oundly shoc's the ,unni uslim A1ho sees in it somethin) contrary to the spirit o% so8er resi)nation 1hich4 %or him4 is characteristic o% IslamB7 &ut this )rie% has a uni5ersal si)ni%icance7 The ,hi:a 1eep and 1ail not only %or the death o% this )allant4 doomed man4 8ut also %or a 1orld in 1hich such thin)s can happen4 in 1hich the )ood are put do1n 1hile the 1ic'ed prosper7 They lament this cruel 1orld:s destruction o% so much that is 8eauti%ul4 no8le and precious7 They )rie5e o5er the triumph o% na'ed po1er and o5er the insult o%%ered to 8ri)ht hope7 Here the sense o% tra)edy4 so %amiliar to the Christian tradition 8ut4 on the 1hole4 alien to ,unni Islam in its decidedly matter=o%=%act realism4 asserts itsel% 1ithin the Islamic conte3t7 It may 1ell 8e that this and other similar phenonema are necessary in the di5ine :economy:> %or i% a reli)ion is to 8e truly uni5ersal and o%%er shelter to e5ery 5ariety o% human temperament4 then other %aiths = di%%erent perspecti5es = must in some 1ay 8e re%lected in it4 thou)h al1ays in ima)es 1hich do not con%lict 1ith the 8asic doctrine7 The 1ord :,hi:a: means :Party:4 in this case the :Party o% :Ali: and o% his descendants7 It is o%ten said 8y ,unni uslims = the strict adherents o% the ,unnah

or :tradition: o% the Prophet4 1ho ma'e up ninety per cent o% the uslim .mmah = that the ,hi:a ha5e introduced a Christian element into Islam Aa 5ie1 1hich pu<<les Christians4 1ho do not see Imam !homeini as a 'ind o% pseudo=ChristianB> they accuse the ,hi:a o% )i5in) :Ali precedence o5er the Prophet himsel% and o% treatin) him as a semi=di5ine 8ein)7 This is a comple3 ;uestion4 not to 8e o5er= simpli%ied7 All that need concern us here is the mar'ed di%%erence in spiritual and emotional :climate: 8et1een ,unnism and ,hi:ism4 and the political conse;uences 1hich %lo1 %rom this di%%erence7 $ith the comin) o% the .mayyads a political system and an imperial administration 5ery di%%erent %rom that inau)urated 8y the Prophet in edina had 8een introduced into Islam7 :The ,unnis4: says Frith9o% ,chuon4 :resi)n themsel5es to this %atality4 1hereas the ,hi:ites en1rap themsel5es in the 8itter memory o% lost purity4 1hich com8ines 1ith the recollection o% the drama o% !ar8ala and4 on the le5el o% mystical li%e4 1ith the no8le sadness aroused 8y the a1areness o% our earthly e3ile = an e3ile 1hich is then seen a8o5e all in its aspect o% in9ustice4 oppression and %rustration as re)ards primiti5e 5irtue and di5ine ri)hts7:D1E The :di5ine ri)hts: are those o% the %amily o% the Prophet4 and there%ore the descendants o% :Ali4 1hile the re%usal to accept that in9ustice and oppression are a part o% the 1orldly scenario has made the ,hi:a into political dissidents %rom the time o% Husayn:s death up to the present day7 1 Islam and the Perennial Philosophy4 Frith9o% ,choon A$orld o% Islam Festi5al Pll8lishin) Co7B4 p7/(7 The %atal step 1hich leads to the destruction o% a nation4 a dynasty or an indi5idual does not ha5e to 8e ta'en deli8erately7 There is no reason to suppose that Ha<id intended to disre)ard his %ather:s ad5ice and ha5e Husayn 'illed7 It is dou8t%ul 1hether he )a5e the matter much thou)ht4 since his only interest seems to ha5e 8een in huntin) Ahe introduced the cheetah into the hunt in Ara8ia %or the %irst timeB7 Ne5ertheless4 the .mayyads4 althou)h they held on to po1er %or another se5enty years4 1ere pro8a8ly doomed %rom the moment o% Husayn:s death7 The ,hi:a 1ere tireless4 and conspiracy %ollo1ed upon conspiracy7 They 1or'ed on %ertile )round7 The Persians had 8een con;uered and had em8raced Islam almost as thou)h this 1as 1hat they had 8een 1aitin) %or %rom the 8e)innin) o% time> 8ut they had no lo5e %or their Ara8 rulers and no inclination to a8andon their sense o% superiority to these :desert rats:7 The Ara8s4 on the other hand4 still %elt that Islam 8elon)ed to them7 They sho1ed little interest in propa)atin) the %aith in the con;uered territories4 yet there 1ere many con5ersions and this presented a pro8lem7 The .mayyads 1ondered ho1 a :%orei)ner: could 8e inte)rated into the pri5ile)ed community o% Islam and they hit upon a scheme 1hich must ha5e seemed 8oth lo)ical and practical7 The prospecti5e con5ert must %irst 8ecome an honorary Ara8 8y attachment to a speci%ic tri8e as their :client: Ama1la> plural ma1ali> this pro5ided him 1ith an identity4 a place in the scheme o% thin)s4 a%ter 1hich he ;uali%ied as a %it person to 8ecome uslim7 As their num8ers )re14 ho1e5er4 the ma1ali 8e)an to resent their situation as second=class citi<ens o% the reli)ious community and some at least must ha5e %elt that they 1ere 8etter

uslims than their masters7 Here4 too4 there 1as )round %or the ,hi:a and other malcontents to culti5ate7 The .mayyads4 8e%ore they 1ere destroyed root and 8ranch4 produced three outstandin) rulers4 no mean achie5ement in so short a period7 T1o 1ere almost Napoleonic %i)ures> the third 1as a saint7 A8du:l= ali'4 1ho rei)ned %rom A6 *-( to +2(4 1as called = thou)h ne5er to his %ace = :,tone:s ,1eat: on account o% his a5arice7 He 1as readin) the ?ur:an 1hen ne1s came to him o% his ele5ation to the caliphate7 He closed the 8oo' and = so 1e are told = 1hispered4 :This is our last time to)etherI: It is said also that %rom that day on he 1as ne5er seen to smile7 He had little enou)h reason to do so7 The uslim lands 1ere in re5olt and hal% the Empire no1 ac'no1led)ed an anti=caliph4 1hile the &y<antines had ta'en ad5anta)e o% the situation to mount an attac' in %orce7 He dro5e them 8ac'4 then destroyed the anti=caliph4 crushed a re5olt in ,yria and restored order in North A%rica7 In all that he did4 particularly in the com8ination o% coura)e and %erocity 1hich characteri<ed his rei)n4 he 1as a man o% his time rather than a man em8edded in the timeless tradition o% Islam4 a tradition preser5ed and nurtured amon) ;uiet men 1ho too' no part in such e5ents4 and 1hose names 1ere ne5er entered in the historical record7 &ut there is one name ne5er li'ely to 8e erased %rom that record@ that o% his principal lieutenant4 Ha99a97 This man 1as a %ormer schoolmaster %rom Ta:i%4 and he represented a phenomenon seen occasionally in Christianity as also in Islam@ one 1ho 8ursts upon the 1orld as a scour)e4 an :incarnation: o% 1rath4 perhaps to remind us that reli)ion4 thou)h lo5e and mercy %lo1 throu)h its structure4 has none the less a cuttin) ed)e7 $hen the Caliph called %or a 5olunteer to )o5ern Ira;4 1hich 1as as usual in re5olt4 Ha99a9 rose up and said@ :I am the man %or thatI: :Hou are the hornet %or it4: said the Caliph7 In !u%a4 the Ira;i capital4 the people murmured@ :I% they could ha5e %ound a 1orse they 1ould ha5e sent him>: 8ut there 1as no one :1orse: to 8e %ound4 and !u%a 1as soon ;uelled7 The speech = one could hardly call it a sermon = 1hich Ha99a9 deli5ered in the city:s chie% mos;ue has 8een ;uoted num8erless times4 %or no man e5er threatened 1ith more 8loodthirsty elo;uence than did Ha99a9> 8ut perhaps the 'ey to this stran)e character lies in the 1ords he uttered 1hen he sta))ered out %rom 1hat had 8een thou)ht to 8e his death=8ed a%ter a serious illness@ :Allah )a5e none o% His creatures immortality sa5e one4 and that the 5ilest o% them = ,atan7 I see e5ery li5in) thin) dyin)7 I see the 1itherin) o% all that has sap7 E5ery man must 8e hea5ed into his )ra5e7 Earth shall )na1 a1ay his %lesh4 earth s1allo1 his %luid and his 8lood7 And the t1o thin)s he lo5ed most 1ill soon di5ide@ his 8elo5ed children and his 8elo5ed money7 Islam is the reli)ion o% mercy> 8ut it is also4 and a8o5e all4 the reli)ion o% truth4 and truth is pitiless in that it cannot 8e other than it is7 There is no 1ay in 1hich 8lac' can 8ecome 1hite so as to appease the )rie% o% a human soul7 Not e5en "od4 %or all His omnipotence4 can choose to ma'e error into truth7 The relationship 8et1een truth and mercy is there%ore the most comple3 relationship in the 1hole theatre o% creation4 and e5en 8eyond this theatre4 in the principles 1hich )o5ern it7 I% a 8alance is possi8le it can 8eheld steady only 8y the prophets4 the sa)es and the

saints> the rest )o this 1ay or that4 to one e3treme or the other7 In the history o% Christianity as in that o% Islam there ha5e 8een men %or 1hom only truth mattered and 1ho could not see that truth itsel%4 1hen crystalli<ed in earthly %ormulations and do)mas4 may 8ecome relati5e and there%ore su8ordinate to a hi)her 1isdom or to the la1 o% lo5e and mercy7 The In;uisition 8urned its heretics and Ha99a9 slau)htered his re8els7 &ut there ha5e also 8een men = and they seem to predominate in contemporary Christian circles = 1ho thin' only o% lo5e and mercy and 1ould li'e to 8anish %rom reli)ion the s1ord o% discrimination4 1hich di5ides truth %rom error> until e5entually truth is compromised and4 %or this 5ery reason4 mercy 8ecomes hollo1 and impotent4 a sentimentality 1hich has no roots in the heart:s core4 1here truth eternally resides7 The 5oice o% Ha99a9 cannot 8e entirely silenced> 1e are not as'ed to li'e him and his 'ind4 only to ac'no1led)e that they ha5e their place in the scheme o% thin)s4 and that they remind us o% 1hat 1e 1ould pre%er to %or)et7 It is none the less reassurin) to %ind that so %ormida8le a man could still 8e put do1n 8y a )ood 1oman7 He continued to ser5e as "o5ernor o% !u%a under A8du:l= ali':s son4 $alid4 8ut the ne1 Caliph:s 1i%e detested him7 :I do not li'e to see you alone 1ith the &utcher o% CreationI: she told her hus8and4 and e5entually she summoned Ha99a9 to her presence7 There is no record o% 1hat 1as said4 8ut 1hen he emer)ed %rom the audience4 sha'en and reduced in stature4 he told the Caliph@ :,he 1ent on4 8y "od4 till I 1ould rather ha5e 8een 8eneath the )round than on itI: $alid 1as o% a so%ter disposition than his %ather4 1ho re8u'ed him %rom his death= 8ed %or sheddin) a tear@ :,top sni5ellin) li'e a sla5e=)irlI: An e%%icient administrator4 he concerned himsel% 1ith the education o% orphans4 assi)ned attendants to the disa8led and )uides to the 8lind4 and settled re)ular pensions on the scholars o% edina 1ho 1ere learned in the reli)ious la1> he %ounded schools and hospitals4 8uilt roads and canals and esta8lished the %irst lunatic asylums> 8ut his principal memorial is the )reat .mayyad os;ue in 6amascus4 one o% the architectural 1onders o% the 1orld7 Amidst all this he presided o5er the %inal tremendous 1a5e o% uslim e3pansion7 One Ara8 army captured Fer)hana and reached the Chinese %rontier> another4 commanded 8y the son=in=la1 o% Ha99a94 con;uered most o% 1hat is no1 Pa'istan7 In the 1est4 a certain Tari; i8n Kiyyad crossed the narro1 straits and too' possession o% the roc' that still 8ears his name4 Fa8al Tari; = "i8raltar = and then de%eated an army o% 2(4222 under Roderic'4 the Jisi)othic !in) o% ,pain7 :These are not ordinary con;uests4: the "o5ernor o% North A%rica reported to $alid> :They are li'e the meetin) o% nations on the 6ay o% Fud)ement>: and indeed the t1o )reat :nations: o% Islam and $estern Christendom 1ere no1 in %ull con%rontation7 $ithin three years the uslims had crossed the Pyrenees7 In A6 +2( they too' Nimes4 and in +32 &ordeau3> and in spite o% their de%eat at the hands o% Charles artel4 they still held Arles si3 years later7 $alid li5ed 9ust lon) enou)h to recei5e at Court the %irst ,panish capti5es7 He 1as succeeded 8y his 8rother ,ulayman4 1ho4 a%ter a 8rie% rei)n4 died o% the pla)ue and so made 1ay %or a third son o% A8du:l= ali'4 :.mar II7 No son could ha5e presented a )reater contrast to his %ather4 and his short rei)n o% t1o and a hal% years 1as li'e a %lash o% li)ht in the )atherin) dar'ness7

:.mar II had 8een schooled 8y pietists in edina and4 had the choice 8een his4 1ould ha5e chosen a li%e o% asceticism4 contemplation and )ood 1or's7 :Are you )lad or sorry to see me thusG: he as'ed a %riend upon his accession7: :"lad %or the uslims: sa'es4 sorry %or yours7: :I am a%raid o% 8ein) damned4: said the Caliph4 and his %riend replied@ :All 1ill 8e 1ell so lon) as you continue to %ear7 $hat I am a%raid o% on your account is that your %ear 1ill come to an end7: The ad5ice o% another %riend set out succinctly the o8li)ations o% a uslim ruler@ :Hou must see in e5ery a)ed uslim your o1n %ather4 in e5ery youn) uslim your 8rother4 in e5ery child your o1n child7 As %or your %ather = Rise up and 5isit him7 As %or your 8rother = Honour him7 As %or your child = "i5e lo5e7: He 1ore himsel% out tryin) to li5e up to this counsel7 :$hen I %irst sa1 him4: said a man4 :the 1aist8and o% his dra1ers could not 8e seen %or the %at o% his 8elly7 I sa1 him later as Caliph4 and I could ha5e counted his ri8s 8y eye7: He pro5ed an une3pectedly )ood administrator4 introduced sensi8le %iscal re%orms and remedied many a8uses> e5en more important4 in relation to the %uture shape o% Islam4 1as the %act that he treated reli)ious scholars and 9urists 1ith a respect they had not pre5iously en9oyed4 reco)ni<in) that ultimately it 1as into the hands o% these men that the Prophet had assi)ned the care o% the Faith and o% the %aith%ul7 .nli'e his predecessors he encoura)ed con5ersions amon) the con;uered peoples and4 also %or the %irst time4 he )a5e pensions to the ma1ali 1ho had %ou)ht in the Ara8 armies7 Had he li5ed lon)er it is 9ust concei5a8le that the history o% Islam mi)ht ha5e ta'en a di%%erent course4 %or he had sho1n that it is possi8le4 at least in 5ery rare cases4 to com8ine )reat po1er 1ith 5irtue and inte)rity7 The last years o% the .mayyad dynasty4 ho1e5er4 1ere o5ershado1ed 8y re8ellion and conspiracy as the ,hi:a %action 8ecame more desperate and the ma1ali more resent%ul o% their status7 The 'ey to success%ul re5olution lay4 so it seemed to the ,hi:a4 1ith the po1er%ul and am8itious A88asid clan4 the descendants o% uhammad:s uncle4 al=:A88as7 A con%ederacy 1as %ormed4 supported 8y the mass o% the people4 1ho 1ere tired o% 1hat they sa1 as Ara8 paternalism and tired o% payin) ta3es7 ean1hile the !hari9ites4 dreamin) o% a :theocratic democracy: o% per%ect men and 1omen %rom 1hich all sin 1ould 8e e3cluded4 continued to harass the caliphate7 The disparate )roups no1 united in opposition to the .mayyads 1ere %ired 1ith the spirit o% ri)hteousness4 or in%lamed 1ith the spirit o% sel%=ri)hteousness A1e are %ree to choose 1hich term seems the more appropriateB7 E5ery1here = e5en in ecca and edina = they detected si)ns o% a return to the licentiousness o% pre= Islamic times4 not least in 1hat 1as later to 8e seen as one o% the )reat cultural achie5ements o% the .mayyad period@ an intense and tra)ic lo5e=poetry4 1hich4 a%ter many )enerations and many trans%ormations4 too' root in Christian soil and 8ore %ruit in European romanticism7 All a)reed that their rulers had :8etrayed: Islam4 8ut that as soon as po1er 1as in the hands o% the Prophet:s 'in4 a ne1 era o% %reedom and 9ustice 1ould 8e esta8lished until the end o% time7 The ,hi:a had their candidate4 a certain uhammad4 'no1n su8se;uently as :the Pure ,oul:7 They disco5ered too late that the A88asids had other ideas7

In spite o% this uni%ication o% dissidents4 the re8ellion 1hich 8ro'e out in A6 +#/ mi)ht ha5e 8een no more success%ul than other such re5olts = %or the .mayyad Caliph ar1an II A'no1n as :the $ild Ass:B 1as a %ormida8le )eneral = had it not 8een %or a man o% )enius4 a %ormer sla5e o% Persian e3traction named A8u uslim4 1ho in that year raised the 8lac' standard o% the A88asids in the city o% er57 The "o5ernor o% the pro5ince sent repeated 1arnin)s to ar1an4 sometimes in 5erse@ I see coals )lo1in) amon) the em8ers4 they 1ant 8ut little to 8urst into 8la<e7 Fire sprin)s %rom the ru88in) o% stic's4 and 1ar%are sprin)s %rom the 1a))in) o% ton)ues7 I cry in dismay@ I 1ish I 'ne1 i% the .mayyads are a1a'e or asleepID1E 1 ?uoted %rom uhammad:s People4 Eric ,chroeder APortland4 .,A@ The &ond $heel1ri)ht Co7B4 p7 2(*7 &ut ar1an 1as other1ise occupied4 %i)htin) the !hari9ites in Ira; and re8els in ,yria7 ,oon the 1hole o% Persia 1as in A8u uslim:s hands and he ad5anced upon Ira;7 ar1an 1as encamped 8eside the "reat Ka84 an e%%luent o% the Ri5er Ti)ris7 $atchin) the approach o% the 8lac' 8anners 8orne 8y riders on &actrian camels4 he descri8ed them as :scraps o% 8lac' storm=cloud:> then the storm came do1n upon him4 his army 1as destroyed and he himsel% %led to E)ypt4 1here he 1as murdered soon a%ter1ards7 Three hundred men o% the .mayyad clan died that day7 One escaped7 He s1am the ri5er 1ith his youn)er 8rother4 1ho responded to a shouted o%%er o% amnesty 8y s1immin) 8ac' and 1as promptly 'illed7 &ut the sur5i5or 1ent on4 li'e a seed 8lo1n upon the 1ind7 This 1as A8du:l=Rahman4 one o% those sin)ular %i)ures 1ho almost reconcile us to the 8lood and turmoil o% human history7 Once across the ri5er4 1ith one %aith%ul ser5ant %or company4 he set o%% throu)h Palestine and then across North A%rica to see' re%u)e 1ith his mother:s &er8er relati5es in orocco7 The 9ourney too' him %i5e years4 trud)in) 8y %oot %rom one tri8al territory to the ne3t4 ne5er once lyin) do1n to sleep 1ith any certainty o% sur5i5in) the ni)ht4 or a1a'enin) 1ith any certainty that he 1ould li5e throu)h the day7 He reached his destination4 ho1e5er4 and soon a%ter1ards crossed into ,pain> there4 1ith the support o% a pro=.mayyad %action4 he 1as proclaimed Amir o% Andalusia in Cordo5a in +(*7 6urin) his lon) rei)n4 and under the rule o% his posterity o5er the ne3t three centuries4 a European Islamic ci5ili<ation %lo1ered and 8ore %ruit in the arts4 in philosophy and mysticism4 and in a style o% li%e 1hich united piety 1ith sophistication in a uni;ue com8ination7 Christian Europe in the so=called 6ar' A)es %ound li)ht there and lit its candles o% learnin) in the )reat uni5ersities o% Andalusia7 Ho1e5er alien the more distant 1orld o% Islam may seem to occidentals4 uslim ,pain is an inte)ral part o% the European herita)e7 A 9ust man and a %irm 8elie5er in the Ara8 tradition o% tri8al democracy4 A8du:l= Rahman )a5e the people o% ,pain 1ise administration and a ne14 e;uita8le code o% 9ustice> he 8uilt a;ueducts to 8rin) pure 1ater to the cities and introduced the plants and %ruits o% ,yria into the I8erian peninsular7 The A88asids4 thou)h they had triumped in the east4 1ere in no position to inter%ere at such a distance7 Al=

ansur4 the second A88asid caliph Athe %irst had died a%ter a 8loody rei)n o% %our yearsB4 e5en paid a compliment to the .mayyad sur5i5or4 descri8in) him as :the Falcon o% ?uraysh4 1ho 1andered alone throu)h the deserts o% Asia and A%rica and had the )reat heart to see' his destiny o5er the sea in an un'no1n land7: In any case al= ansur had more ur)ent pro8lems on his mind7 He had set himsel% to accomplish 1hat is al1ays the most ur)ent tas' %or the success%ul re5olutionary@ the destruction o% the architects o% re5olution7 A8u uslim = he 1ho had planned and e3ecuted the 1hole campai)n 1ith such consummate s'ill = 1as in5ited to a )reat %east and murdered 1hile he %easted7 ,uch men are dan)erous4 as ,talin in our o1n a)e 1ell 'ne17 ,ur5eyin) the dismem8ered 8ody4 al= ansur ;uoted a line %rom a poem@ :The tra5eller thre1 a1ay his sta%% at lastI: He then turned his attention to the ,hi:a %action4 1hose idealism had 8een the moti5e %orce o% the re5olution to 1hich he o1ed his caliphate7 I% they had thou)ht themsel5es ill=treated 8y the .mayyads4 they must no1 ha5e loo'ed 8ac' upon that time 1ith nostal)ia7 The .mayyads4 in their 1ay4 had 8een )entlemen> the A88asid Caliph 1as restrained 8y no )entlemanly scruples7 For those 1ith a taste %or 8loodshed it is a %ortunate thin) that re5olutionary idealists ne5er learn4 ho1e5er o%ten history may attempt to teach them the lesson> they still ad5ance 1ith stars in their eyes to lay their heads on the choppin)=8loc' or 8are their nec's %or a 8ullet4 in the t1entieth century as in the ei)hth7 They ne5er understand that re5olution4 1hich is 8y de%inition an act o% destruction4 must o% necessity destroy its ma'ers7 The :lessons o% history: may in many cases re;uire interpretation7 In this case they 1ere spelt out in simple 1ords and 1ritten in 8lood7 A child could read them7 The A88asid re5olution 1as supposed to restore primiti5e Islam4 :true: Islam> in )reat splendour and 1ith many achie5ements to its credit4 it did precisely the opposite7 The .mayyads4 1ith the e3ception o% :.mar II4 may not ha5e 8een )ood uslims4 8ut they 1ere traditional Ara8 rulers4 democratic in spirit7 The ne1 dynasty adopted the ha8its and practices o% ancient Persian despotism7 The Ara8 and Islamic principle o% ,hura :consultation:4 seemed to the A88asids a 1aste o% 5alua8le time> no1 the headsman 1ith his a3e and leather mat stood 8eside the Caliph to deal 1ith insolent or importunate petitioners7 The .mayyads had employed a num8er o% ,yrian ma1ali in their ser5ice4 and to1ards the end o% their time the di5ision 8et1een Ara8 and non=Ara8 uslims 1as 8ecomin) 8lurred> 8ut under the A88asids it 1as the Persians 1ho controlled the administration4 and their outloo' 1as ;uite di%%erent to that o% the ,yrians4 1ho 1ere %or the most part con5erts %rom Christianity7 The Persians4 li'e the Ara8s4 achie5ed their apotheosis throu)h Islam4 and it 1as the marria)e o% the Persian )enius 1ith the Ara8 )enius4 8oth in their 1ay incompara8le = and yet so di%%erent = that made Islam the intellectual and ima)inati5e mar5el it e5entually 8ecame7 It 1as as thou)h4 throu)h the precedin) centuries o% )lory and disaster4 this )reat people had 8een dreamin)4 al8eit mi)hty in their dreams4 and Islam 1as the ma)ic 1and that a1a'ened them> 8ut it 1as ne5er a happy or easy marria)e4 and

in the political sphere there 1as irreconcila8le incompati8ility7 The )ap 8et1een the Persians: lon) e3perience o% centrali<ed authority and the Ara8s: e;ually lon) e3perience o% %reedom 1as too 1ide to 8e 8rid)ed 8y compromise7 As thou)h to mar' the chan)e in :climate: al= ansur decided to 8uild himsel% a ne1 capital and chose the site o% the 5illa)e o% &a)hdad4 on account o% its strate)ic position7 The 1or' 1as completed in %our years4 1ith the help o% almost a hundred thousand cra%tsmen %rom e5ery corner o% the Empire7 They 8uilt a )reat circular city 1ith a dou8le ro1 o% 1alls and the ruler:s palace at the centre Aas thou)h the po1ers o% this 1orld had any claim to centralityB7 ,urrounded 8y his )uards4 the Caliph 1as no1 isolated %rom his people> the days 1hen it 1as a sin to construct a door 1ere lon) past7 The ruler had adopted an ima)e 1hich $esterners 1ould reco)ni<e as that o% an :oriental potentate:7 At the same time4 1ith the mo5e %rom 6amascus to &a)hdad4 Islam no1 loo'ed east rather than 1est4 and the editerranean re)ion = the old Roman 1orld = 8ecame peripheral7 The A88asids 1ere a di%%erent 8reed o% men in the e3act sense o% the term7 For the Ara8s4 no8ility deri5ed as much %rom the mother as %rom the %ather Asuch s'illed 8reeders o% animals could hardly 8e una1are o% this %actB> 8ut4 %or the ne1 re)ime4 1oman 1as no more than an incu8ator %or no8le seed4 and o% all the A88asid caliphs4 o5er a period spannin) some %i5e hundred years4 only three 1ere 8orn o% %ree=8orn mothers7 All the rest 1ere the sons o% sla5e=)irls@ Persian4 European4 &er8er4 A8yssinian4 ,la54 Tur'ish or Armenian4 as the case mi)ht 8e7 It is no 1onder that Ara8 traditions meant little to them7 They 1ere surrounded 8y a corps o% international ci5il ser5ants headed4 %or the %irst %i%ty=three years o% the A88asid period4 8y mem8ers o% the &arma' %amily = the so=called &armecides = descended %rom a &uddhist priest> 8rilliant4 am8itious men 1ho used po1er li'e s'illed chess= players4 until they threatened to 8ecome more po1er%ul than the Caliph himsel%4 1hereupon they 1ere cut do1n7 The A88asid dynasty produced some o% the )reatest rulers 'no1n to us and some o% the 1orst7 The history o% Islam is a history o% the clash o% opposites and o% the contrast 8et1een splendour and spiritual po5erty4 arro)ance and humility4 "rand "ui)nol 1ic'edness and heroic 5irtue7 It may 8e that these opposites 1ere in some stran)e 1ay com8ined in the only caliph 1hose name is %amiliar to the $est4 than's to the popularity o% the 8oo' o% the Thousand and One Ni)hts Aor Ara8ian Ni)hts EntertainmentsB> Harun al=Rashid4 1ho ruled %rom A6 +-* to -2/7 He came to the throne at the a)e o% t1enty=three throu)h the machinations o% the &armecides@ an ele)ant4 ci5ili<ed youn) man4 1ho 1as so handsome that some said he should ha5e 8een 8orn a 1oman4 and indeed he com8ined a certain %eminine )race 1ith the ruthless lo5e o% po1er inherited %rom his ancestors7 It is said = 8ut "od 'no1s 8est = that in the midst o% such lu3ury as mi)ht su))est the sets %or a Holly1ood e3tra5a)an<a4 he prayed a hundred units o% prayer each day4 and each day )a5e )enerous alms to the poor> certainly he %eared his Creator e5en as he de%ied Him4 and it is little 1onder that his nature 1as descri8ed as :%e5erish:4 stretched as it 1as across the a8yss 1hich di5ides hea5en %rom hell7 He lo5ed all that 1as rare and 8eauti%ul4 yet the story is told o% ho1 once4 dinin) 1ith his 8rother4 he 1as o%%ered a platter o% %ish ste14 and upon as'in) 1hy the pieces

1ere so small4 1as told that it 1as composed entirely o% %ishes: ton)ues7 He as'ed the cost4 1hich 1as more than a thousand dirhams> then4 re%usin) to eat such %ood4 he demanded an e;ui5alent sum %rom his 8rother4 1hich he at once )a5e out in alms to e3piate :this heathen %olly:7 Finally4 he sei<ed the priceless platter itsel% and ordered a ser5ant to )i5e it to the %irst 8e))ar he met in the street7D1E 1 uhammad:s People4 ,chroeder4 pp7 2/-=2//7

It is said that Harun lo5ed t1o people more than all others7 The %irst 1as Fa:%ar the &armecide4 the son o% his Ji<ir or Prime inister4 and he 1ould o%ten )o out 1ith him into the city dis)uised4 see'in) such ad5entures as mi)ht come their 1ay7 The other 1as his sister4 A88asa7 One day4 so the story )oes4 he said to Fa:%ar@ :I can no more do 1ithout you than I can do 1ithout my sister> 1hen I am 1ith her I miss you4 and 1hen I am 1ith you I miss her7 No1 I ha5e de5ised a 1ay to en9oy 8oth your lo5es to)ether7: He ordered them to marry4 8ut e3tracted %rom 8oth a solemn 5o1 that they 1ould not ha5e intercourse to)ether7 Prompted 8y Fa:%ar:s am8itious mother4 ho1e5er4 A88asa crept one ni)ht into his 8ed 1hen he 1as drun'4 pretendin) to 8e a sla5e=)irl7 The result 1as a pre)nancy 1hich she mana)ed to 'eep secret4 and the 8a8y4 1hen it 1as 8orn4 1as sent to %oster=parents in ecca7 E5entually the Caliph disco5ered 1hat had happened and4 in an uncontrolla8le ra)e4 had his sister stran)led and ordered Fa:%ar:s e3ecution7 Needless to say4 modern historians are inclined to dismiss this story as :le)end: and to attri8ute the %all o% the &armecides to political and economic %actors> certainly the %amily had 8ecome too po1er%ul %or the com%ort o% any ruler7 Het there is an element o% pro8a8ility in the tale7 Harun 1as in a position to li5e out his %antasies as are %e1 men on earth7 $ho has not lon)ed %or those he lo5es to lo5e each other4 yet %eared that this 5ery lo5e o% theirs mi)ht e3clude himG And 1ho has ne5er once in his li%e %elt murderous impulses to1ards those closest to himG For an A88asid caliph4 to desire the death o% a man or 1oman4 e5en momentarily4 1as to 8rin) a8out that death on the instant7 $hate5er the truth o% the matter4 Harun:s last years 1ere o5ershado1ed 8y melancholy and perhaps 8y a touch o% paranoia4 and the circumstances o% his death %rom stomach cancer must haunt the ima)ination o% anyone sensiti5e to such thin)s7 He sent one day %or his doctor and told him that he had dreamed the pre5ious ni)ht o% a man holdin) out in the palm o% his hand a little red earth and sayin) to him@ :This is the soil o% the place 1here you are 8uried7: He had as'ed in his dream 1here this place 1as4 and the 5oice ans1ered@ :Tus7: The physician4 o% course4 assured him that this dream 1as the product o% a disordered di)estion and prescri8ed a pur)ati5e7 Re5olt 8ro'e out in !hurasan4 and Harun le%t &a)hdad to deal 1ith the re8els7 He had reached the outs'irts o% the to1n o% Tus 1hen he %ell ill7 An unla8elled sample o% his urine 1as )i5en to a doctor in the to1n4 and the reply came@ :Tell the man 1hose 1ater this is that he should ma'e his 1ill = there is no cure %or him7: He then ordered an attendant to 8rin) him soil %rom the area4 and the man returned 1ith a little )arden soil in his open palm7 Harun cried out@ :That:s the handI That:s the armI That:s the red earthI: and %or a little 1hile he so88ed li'e a child> then he

chose his shroud and recited the 5erse@ : y 1ealth has not a5ailed me> my po1er is )one %rom meI: en ha5e hesitated to 9ud)e Harun4 %or only one 1ho has en9oyed Aor su%%eredB the possession o% a8solute po1er4 com8ined 1ith )reat talents and all that physical 8eauty and charm o% person can add to this4 endo1ed 8y "od 1ith titanic appetites4 8ut also 1ith that heart:s %e5er 1hich is passionate lo5e4 )i5en also piety and )enerosity and lon)in)s 1hich shatter the soul and stretch all human limits to 8rea'in) point = only such a one could 9ud)e such a man or understand the terrors and the temptations o% his destiny> and men o% this cali8re do not tell their 9ud)ement7 In this4 as in the %all o% the &armecides4 the uslim disco5ers many lessons re)ardin) the nature o% the 1orld and much to remind him o% human mortality@ :The 1orld:s so%t to the touch> so is the adder4 sudden in 5enom7: A man said@ :I had 8usiness one day at the Treasury O%%ice4 and as my eye ran o5er one o% the led)ers that lay open I noticed the entry@ One 6ress o% Honour and "o5ernor:s Insi)nia AFa:%ar i8n HahyaB@ dinars #2242227 It did not seem so 5ery lon) a%ter that I 1as in the o%%ice a)ain and sa1 this item entered on the current pa)e@ Naptha and 1ood=sha5in)s %or 8urnin) 8ody AFa:%ar i8n HahyaB@ 'irats 127D1E A %e1 pennies su%%iced Fa:%ar at the end7 1 uhammad:s People4 ,chroeder4 p733*7

There 1ere those in &a)hdad 1ho said that li%e 1as a perpetual %esti5al in Harun:s time7 The po1er and splendour o% the Empire had reached its <enith4 and &a)hdad 1as the ma)net 1hich dre1 8oth treasure and talent to itsel%7 In the port 1ere ships laden 1ith %urs and i5ory4 delicate porcelain and sil's %rom China4 9e1els and per%umes> 1hile o5erland came )old %rom !hurasan4 mar8le %rom ,yria4 lapis la<uli %rom 8eyond the O3us and tur;uoise %rom Nishapur7 The houses o% the 1ealthy4 1ith their ma)ni%icent %urnishin)s4 1ere cooled 8y imported ice in the hot summer months4 and it is said that the city had 2+4222 pu8lic 8aths 1ithin its perimeter> its %irst hospital 1as 8uilt 8y Harun4 soon to 8e %ollo1ed 8y many others4 1ith teachin) %acilities %or medical students and %ree treatment %or the poor7 ,chools and colle)es 1ere open to e5eryone4 and in the )reat academies 1or' had 8e)un on translatin) the 8oo's o% "ree' philosophy and science into Ara8ic7 The scholar and the poet could li5e at ease4 %or there 1as no shorta)e o% patrons4 and learnin) 1as 5alued more hi)hly than 1ealth or no8le 8lood7 $omen dictated %ashion and e3erted their in%luence o5er the a%%airs o% state4 and the 8eauty o% many o% them 1as le)endary7 There 1as no role in such a settin) %or the unculti5ated> they 8elon)ed in the pro5inces7 A sla5e=)irl or concu8ine 1ho e3pected to ta'e her place in this )litterin) society had to spend some time in a school o% manners4 masterin) the Ara8ic and Persian classics4 learnin) to recite and impro5ise poetry and to play on a musical instrument4 and sharpenin) her 1its at chess> attired in 8rocade and taste%ully 8e9e1elled she could then re)ard the )reat ladies o% any other city as do1dy pro5incials7

Het amidst all this splendour somethin) o% the Ara8 herita)e = inescapa8le in Islam = remained> one may mar5el4 1rites ,ir Fohn "lu884 :at the e3traordinary di%%usion throu)hout the 1hole Empire o% the spirit o% the old Ara8 con;uerors7 Their code o% chi5alry4 de5otion to poetry4 their romantic attitude to se3ual lo5e4 their princely hospitality and )enerosity4 1as spread o5er the 1hole Empire %rom ,pain to India and China7:D1E 1 A ,hort History o% the Ara8 Peoples4 ,ir Fohn "lu88 AHodder and ,tou)hton4 1/*/B4 p7112 &ehind the 1alls o% the )reat houses there may ha5e 8een licence4 8ut there 1as also piety and a sense o% o8li)ation to the poor7 The chroniclers tell o% a rich merchant 1ho4 each sprin)4 sold o%% his sto5es4 his 1oollen )arments and his 1inter %urniture and )a5e the money a1ay4 doin) li'e1ise in autumn 1ith his 8rocades4 his precious tissues4 summer mattin) and 1ater=coolers7 $arned 8y his ste1ard that he 1ould 8an'rupt himsel% and ad5ised to 'eep such thin)s %or the ne3t season4 he said@ :No4 I 1ill not ha5e thatI These are the thin)s Allah has permitted me to en9oy throu)h the summer = or throu)h the 1inter = and He has 8rou)ht me sa%ely to a time 1hen I can do 1ithout them7 It is possi8le that I ha5e o%%ended Allah either in )ettin) them or usin) them4 and I 1ould rather sell these thin)s and put the money to this purpose 777: &a)hdad:s decline %rom the splendour o% its <enith 1as )radual Athe decline o% the institution o% the caliphate occurred more s1i%tlyB4 althou)h a ci5il 1ar 8et1een t1o o% Harun:s sons immediately a%ter his death caused 1idespread dama)e and )reat su%%erin)7 The 5ictor4 the Caliph a:mun4 pro5ed to 8e one o% the most e%%ecti5e o% the A88asid rulers7 Far more important4 ho1e5er4 %or the %uture direction o% Islam than any internecine ;uarrels 1as a spiritual and intellectual con%lict 1hich too' place at this time7 a:mun continued and e3panded his %ather:s policy o% encoura)in) the translation o% %orei)n 8oo's into Ara8ic7 He esta8lished a Hall o% $isdom4 1hich included an astronomical o8ser5atory4 and he set up a Colle)e o% Translation4 employin) a team o% scholars to 1or' not only on "ree' te3ts 8ut also on ,ans'rit and ,yriac te3ts7 A Christian scholar 1ho translated Plato:s Repu8lic and Aristotle:s Cate)ories 1as paid in )old the 1ei)ht o% the 8oo's he compiled Aa practice 1hich modern )o5ernments 1ould do 1ell to emulateB7 Here4 amidst the intellectual %erment o% a:mun:s &a)hdad4 1ere so1n the seeds o% the European Renaissance7 The impact o% :"ree' 'no1led)e: = Islam:s am8i)uous )i%t to the $est = upon Christian Europe 1as shatterin) and trans%ormin)7 For a time4 se5en centuries earlier4 it had threatened to ha5e an e;ually decisi5e impact upon Islam7 A sect or mo5ement called the u:ta<ilah had already arisen in Harun:s time4 and under a:mun its doctrines 1ere adopted 8y the state7 The u:ta<ilites 1ere :rationalists: and their principal aim 1as to inte)rate ,emitic monotheism into the alien structure o% "ree' thou)ht> many o% their ar)uments run parallel to Christian de8ate re)ardin) the nature o% the lo)os7 It 1as one particular aspect o% their

teachin)4 ho1e5er4 1hich appealed to the Caliph7 In opposition to the orthodo34 1ho maintained that the ?ur:an is eternal and :uncreated:4 they said that the sacred &oo' is a created o89ect4 li'e anythin) else 1e see or handle in the uni5erse7 The modern mind is impatient o% theolo)y4 1hich is a8surd since this mind has 8een %ormed 8y the theolo)ies o% the past and their remote echoes in popular thou)ht7 In any case4 the doctrine o% the :createdness: o% the ?uran had immediate practical implications> it meant that the &oo' could 8e adapted to the circumstances o% the time and to political e3i)encies7 This 1ould ha5e the e%%ect o% an immense increase in the po1er o% the ruler and o% the state7 0i'e the French re5olutionaries almost a thousand years later4 a:mun reali<ed that rationalism is the 'ey to a8solute po1er and to the ruthless manipulation o% the people7 Once :reli)ious pre9udice: and :superstition: ha5e 8een s1ept aside4 there are no limits to 1hat can 8e done> and %or a caliph o% Islam4 hitherto shac'led 8y the reli)ious 0a14 this represented total li8eration %rom all constraints7 For the %irst and last time in the history o% Islam4 an :In;uisition: 1as esta8lished4 the mihnah4 demonstratin) = i% any demonstration 1ere necessary = that rationalism can 8e as 8i)oted as any mani%estation o% reli)ious %aith7 Those 1ho did not ac'no1led)e the :createdness: o% the ?ur:an 1ere persecuted4 and the )reatest reli)ious 9urist o% the time4 i8n Han8al4 1as imprisoned and sa5a)ely 8eaten7 Others 1ere put to death7 The :In;uisition: lasted only %or some t1enty years4 and the orthodo3 5ie1 o% the ?uran pre5ailed> 8ut u:ta<ilism 1as not annihilated7 It 1as a8sor8ed 8y a reli)ion 1hich has a uni;ue capacity %or a8sorption and it enriched the mainstream o% Islamic thou)ht7 The most in%luential o% all uslim theolo)ians4 al=:Ashari4 1hose school represents :orthodo3y:4 in so %ar as there can 8e said to e3ist an orthodo3 theolo)y in Islam4 started his li%e as a u:ta<ilite and = li'e an e3=communist puttin) do1n ar3ists = 1as a8le to use "ree' dialectic a)ainst the champions o% "ree' thou)ht7 $hat 1as usa8le in u:ta<ilite doctrine 1as used to rein%orce orthodo3y> the rest 1ithered a1ay7 This rein%orcement 1as4 to say the least4 timely4 %or central authority 1as no1 in the process o% dissolution and the once uni%ied Empire 1as 8rea'in) up into its separate parts7 The caliphate4 ha5in) %ailed in the attempt to stren)then its position throu)h an ideolo)y4 no1 sou)ht sa%ety in the armed protection o% a corps o% elite )uards7 a:mun:s 8rother u:tasim4 1ho succeeded him on the throne4 surrounded himsel% 1ith a Tur'ish 8ody)uard4 1hich he could trust not to in5ol5e itsel% in local intri)ues and to 8e loyal to him alone7 The Tur's soon 8ecame so unpopular4 ridin) 1ildly throu)h the 8a<aars and 'noc'in) people o5er as they passed4 that he determined to depri5e &a)hdad o% the pleasure o% his royal presence and4 at hu)e e3pense4 had a ne1 city 8uilt %or him at ,amarra some se5enty miles distant7 In this 1ay the A88asid dynasty 8rou)ht do1n upon itsel% a )rim and peculiarly ironic 9ud)ement7 &e%ore lon) the caliphs %ound themsel5es the prisoners o% their )uards4 1ho played 1ith them as they li'ed4 and 1hen they )re1 tired o% the )ame4 'illed them7 The A88asids had4 so it seemed = and still seems = to many

uslims4 ro88ed the descendants o% the Prophet o% their ri)ht%ul herita)e4 temporal po1er o5er the .mmah7 One mi)ht 8e tempted to say that this 1as 9ust as 1ell4 considerin) 1hat 1e ha5e seen o% the 1ay o% the 1orld7 A day came 1hen a certain shari% Aa descendant o% the ProphetB4 passin) 8y the principal mos;ue in &a)hdad4 reco)ni<ed a ra))ed 8e))ar s;uattin) in the dust7 This 1as the Caliph o% the time4 1ho had escaped %rom his Tur'ish )uards a%ter they had put out his eyes and imprisoned him7 The shari% too' him home4 %ed him and )a5e him shelter4 re%lectin) perhaps that rulership is not al1ays an unmi3ed 8lessin)7 It no lon)er mattered7 The %ate o% caliphs4 di5isions 1ithin the Empire and all the drama o% )reat e5ents4 thou)h these mi)ht pro5ide the material %or a thousand historical romances4 had 8ecome irrele5ant4 no more than %roth on the sur%ace o% a )reat ri5er7 $estern historians ha5e o%ten 8een 8lamed = and ri)htly so = %or placin) a %ull stop a%ter the destruction o% &a)hdad 8y the on)ol hordes in A6 12(-4 as thou)h all that mattered in the history o% Islam ended there7 This 1as indeed no more than the conclusion o% one episode in a continuin) story7 Islam is a li5in) reli)ion4 the uslim .mmah is a li5in) community and its history is open=ended4 today:s ne1s as much as yesterday:s7 &ut 1e are not concerned here 1ith history %or its o1n sa'e7 .p to Harun:s time4 and that o% his sons4 the story o% the caliphate 1as at least to some e3tent the story o% Islam and had its in%luence upon the shapin) o% the reli)ion7 The point had no1 come 1hen the di5orce 8et1een dynastic and political history on the one hand and the li%e o% the .mmah on the other 1as made a8solute7 ,unni Islam had crystalli<ed in a de%initi5e pattern4 and the le)al and social %rame1or' 1ithin 1hich the community li5ed4 )eneration a%ter )eneration4 chan)ed 5ery little in the ne3t thousand years7 The %ull implications o% the ?ur:an and o% the hadith had 8een 1or'ed out 8y men 1ho la8oured ;uietly4 indi%%erent to 1hat happened at Court7 The .mmah had ta'en on a li%e o% its o1n and had 8ecome spiritually and socially sel%=sustainin)7D1E I% the entire structure o% )o5ernment and administration 1ere to disappear o5erni)ht in any occidental country4 chaos 1ould ensue> i% this 1ere to happen = e5en today =in any reasona8ly typical uslim country4 1e mi)ht %ind that it made 5ery little di%%erence to the li%e o% the people4 and in earlier times the only contact most citi<ens are li'ely to ha5e had 1ith )o5ernment 1as in the person o% the local ta3=collector7 They 1ent one 1ay4 their :rulers: another7 1 :For a lon) time4 in %act since the ninth century4 mainly despotic rulers 1ere o8eyed 8ut 'ept at a sa%e distance4 partly 8ecause uslims had de5eloped a com%orta8le social order 8ased on an intricate net1or' o% personal and )roup loyalties and o8li)ations7: The rulers may ha5e 8een usurpers> :1hat counted4 ho1e5er4 is that the social order 1as le)itimate 8ecause it 1as )o5erned 8y the la1 o% "od7: P7 F7 Jati'iotis in Ara8 and Re)ional Politics in the iddle East ACroom Helm4 1/-#B7 It is only too easy4 1hen readin) o% the men 1ho played their part on the sta)e o% history4 to suppose that those 1ere dan)erous times in 1hich to li5e and4 thin'in) o% the e3ecutioner:s a3e4 to %in)er one:s throat7 &ut no one 1as o8li)ed to come on sta)e7 I% a man = or a 1oman = chose to do so4 then the opportunities 1ere

tremendous4 the possi8le re1ards immense4 and the perils incalcula8le7 "lory one day and4 the ne3t4 the a3e7 Those 1ere the rules o% the )ame4 and the ma3im 1as@ play i% you dare7 It is sometimes startlin)4 1hen one places some %amous uslim poet4 philosopher4 mystic or architect in his historical conte3t4 to reali<e ho1 little he seems to ha5e 8een a%%ected 8y e5ents 1hich4 in retrospect4 appear so 5iolent and so disastrous7 In %act such men 1ere pri<es %or any caliph or any sultan in the di5ided Empire and could name their o1n price@ there 1as no prouder 8oast %or a ruler than to 8e a8le to say4 : y philosopher can put do1n yours any day: or4 : y poet:s 5erses put your poet:s 9in)les in the shade:7 Contemporary uslims4 ho1e5er4 o%ten %eel ashamed o% their o1n history7 It is little com%ort to tell them that the story o% other peoples and other cultures = not least that o% Christendom = 1as e;ually 5iolent4 %or this 1as not 9ust any community4 not 9ust any culture@ this 1as the .mmah4 o% 1hich only the 8est could 8e e3pected7 And since4 %or the uslim4 nothin) e3ists 1ithout a purpose4 one has a ri)ht to as' %or 1hat purpose the A88asid caliphs and their li'e e3isted7 In the %irst place4 it is reasona8le to maintain that the spectacle o% human nature e3tended to its uttermost limits has much to teach us a8out oursel5es and is there%ore4 a%ter its %ashion4 a :si)n %or those 1ho understand:7 Accordin) to a %amous hadith o% the Prophet4 Adam 1as created :in the ima)e o% "od:> and 1e are Adam:s pro)eny4 :the tri8e o% Adam:4 as the ?ur:an has it7 There is somethin) in man4 precisely 8ecause the One=1ithout=associate4 the Independent4 the ,el%=su%%icient is in some mysterious 1ay re%lected in his nature4 1hich demands such %reedom %rom constraint as only an a8solute ruler has7 &ut 8ecause man is not "od this opportunity to e3tend himsel% limitlessly leads to destruction> in the desire %or )reat po1er and in its e3ercise there are certainly elements o% )reed and arro)ance4 8ut there may also 8e an element o% no8ility stri5in) %or a supreme mode o% sel%=e3pression7 These men 1e ha5e 8een considerin) re5ealed human nature4 stripped to the 8one4 in all its )randeur4 its insta8ility and its %erocity> and those 1ho %ind such men totally alien 'no1 5ery little a8out themsel5es7 ,econdly there are lessons to 8e learned concernin) the encounter 8et1een reli)ion and politics4 piety and 1orldly e%%icacy4 as also concernin) the encounter4 in the li%e o% E5eryman4 8et1een intention and act4 the pattern dreamed=o% and the pattern reali<ed in the recalcitrant materials o% this earth7 The pietists 1ere %or e5er callin) do1n curses upon the heads o% the Caliphs4 and their successors today can %ind no spar' o% pity in their hearts %or men o% po1er 1ho are less pure than they are> 8ut it is ne5er as simple as that7 The sayin) o% Fesus that :O%%ences must needs come4 8ut 1oe to him throu)h 1hom the o%%ence cometh: is amon)st the most dauntin) statements in the "ospels4 %or sometimes it is only throu)h :o%%ences: that reli)ion is preser5ed7 Had it not 8een %or %ormida8le rulers 1ho4 %rom impure moti5es and 1ith dirty hands4 e3ercised their trade in the only e%%ecti5e 1ay it could 8e e3ercised4 there mi)ht ha5e 8een no space le%t in this 1orld %or the pious4 nor any school in 1hich they could learn piety7 ,uch contradictions are 8y no means con%ined to Islam> they are uni5ersal and arise 1here5er the spiritual and the 1orldly con%ront each other7 Precisely 8ecause this

earth is not Paradise and cannot 8e Paradise4 it is condemned = at least %rom a certain point o% 5ie1 = to 8ein) a :Theatre o% the A8surd:7 "i5en the %ra)ility o% e5ery reli)ion at 8irth and in its early years4 it may 8e that there are really only t1o ;uestions to 8e as'ed7 6id Islam sur5i5eG 6id it spread across the 1orldG The ans1er to 8oth ;uestions is in the a%%irmati5e7 A%ter that the history 8oo's may 8e closed7 PART III The Fruits o% the Faith Chapter / THE R.0E OF 0A$ 6urin) the period o% decoloni<ation in the 1/(2s and early 1/*2s the ;uestion as to 1hich territories 1ere = or 1ere not = %it %or sel%=)o5ernment 1as seriously de8ated7 No one raised the more %undamental ;uestion as to 1hether any nation on earth is %it %or sel%=)o5ernment7 Then as no14 the ,1iss 1ere said to mana)e their a%%airs competently and Costa Rica 1as 1ell spo'en o%> 8ut else1here it 1as di%%icult then4 and remains di%%icult today4 to su))est any model 1hich a ne1ly created national entity mi)ht reasona8ly see' to imitate7 One is o8li)ed to as' 1hether there may not 8e somethin) 8asically un1or'a8le in the 5ery concept o% )o5ernment as the term is currently understood7 In the past the tri8al system4 %unctionin) li'e an e3tended %amily4 may ha5e come as close to per%ection as any human society can hope to come4 not only in ancient Ara8ia 8ut also in A%rica 8e%ore the sla5e=trade4 in North America 8e%ore the comin) o% the 1hite man4 in Central Asia and in the Paci%ic islands> 8ut 1here5er mass societies emer)ed4 re;uirin) systematic or)ani<ation4 :)o5ernment: 1as = until recently = accepted alon) 1ith pla)ue4 %amine and ta3ation as amon) the una5oida8le e5ils to 1hich %allen humanity is e3posed7 Acceptance o% a necessary e5il4 ho1e5er4 does not imply any 1illin)ness to see it )ro1 and e3pand> the aim must al1ays 8e to reduce it to a minimum4 8ut minimal )o5ernment re;uires4 as its complement4 the sel%=re)ulatin) community4 since men and 1omen cannot li5e reasona8ly under conditions o% anarchy7 ,uch a community can %unction and endure only 1ithin the %rame1or' o% a re5ealed or pre=determined 0a14 1hich in e%%ect ta'es the place occupied 8y instinct in the li%e o% animals7 The ?ur:an4 1hich is the :constitution: o% any truly Islamic community4 itsel% 5alidates this comparison4 %or it assures us that "od has laid do1n %or e5ery species and %or e5ery )roup o% created thin)s a 0a1 and a $ay> 8ut 1hereas the inanimate uni5erse4 to)ether 1ith all li5in) creatures unendo1ed 1ith Intellect4 is )o5erned 8y la1s inherent in its 5ery structure4 man4 precisely 8ecause he possesses Intellect and a relati5ely %ree 1ill4 is re;uired to %ollo1 the 0a1 o% his o1n 8ein) 5oluntarily and 1ith understandin)7 ,tones cannot 'no1 1hy they %all nor 8irds 1hy they mi)rate7 an is 8y de%inition a 'no1er and 8y destiny a chooser> 8ut4 in the Islamic 5ie14 he does not ha5e the capacity to ma'e la1s %or the conduct o% society7 The 8elie% that "od is the sole 0e)islator %lo1s directly %rom the uslim con%ession o% %aith4 la ilaha illa :0lah4 1hich4 in this conte3t4 can 8e interpreted as meanin)

that :there is no le)islator 8ut the 0e)islator:7 The messa)e em8odied in the ?ur:an = and the la1s deri5ed %rom it and %rom the ,unnah o% the Prophet = 8ind the community to)ether> no e3terior pressure is re;uired to ma'e this 8indin) e%%ecti5e7 True so5erei)nty resides neither in the ruler nor in )o5ernment nor in a statistical ma9ority> it 8elon)s to "od4 8ut is in a certain sense dele)ated to His :ri)htly=)uided: community> and the 0a14 precisely 8ecause it is a :reminder: o% the la1s inherent in our o1n created nature4 should not in principle re;uire the apparatus o% the state4 o%%icials and policemen4 to ma'e it e%%ecti5e7 $hate5er place the contemporary $esterner may )i5e to reli)ion in his personal and social li%e4 this is still only :a place:> it is seen as one element in the total structure o% human li%e4 8ut it is not itsel% that totality7 For Islam4 on the other hand4 the social order is a part o% the reli)ion and cannot 8e separated %rom it7 The %unction o% the ruler Aor :)o5ernment: as suchB 1ithin this system is strictly limited7 Islamic society is theocentric rather than theocratic7 $ere it the latter4 there 1ould 8e a need %or a semi=di5ine ruler4 the representati5e o% "od on earth and the interpreter o% His 1ill> 8ut in the conte3t o% a theocentric society the ruler occupies a peripheral rather than a central role7 6espite certain idealistic theories arisin) %rom nostal)ia %or the time o% the Rashidun4 the %irst %our caliphs4 the uslims ha5e on the 1hole ta'en a 5ery pra)matic 5ie1 o% the ruler:s %unction7 He is not e3pected to 8e a saint or a sa)e or e5en a )ood man in the usual sense o% the term4 and his pri5ate 5ices may 8e o5erloo'ed so lon) as they are 'ept pri5ate7 $hat is re;uired o% him is that he should ha5e a stron) ri)ht arm 1ith 1hich to de%end the community a)ainst its enemies and to maintain the 0a17 It is o%ten said that uslims pre%er a stron) and e5en ruthless ruler to a )entle and conciliatory one7 I% this is so4 it is 8ecause a ruthless man is li'ely to 8e more e%%ecti5e in %ul%illin) the %unction allotted to him in the Islamic system7 ost human communities throu)hout history ha5e li5ed precariously4 surrounded 8y enemies on e5ery side Aour situation today is no less precariousB4 and they cannot )i5e proper attention to the 1orship o% "od4 or )et on 1ith the 8usiness o% li5in)4 unless they are a8le to rely upon an e%%ecti5e protector7 One o% the )reat pro8lems o% the uslims in the t1entieth century is that their readiness to tolerate a ruthless ruler4 1hich could 8e 9usti%ied so lon) as )o5ernment had a short arm and inter%ered 5ery little in the li%e o% the people4 8ecomes a source o% dan)er as soon as political theories4 supported 8y modern techni;ues4 e3tend the role o% )o5ernment into e5ery street and e5ery household7 Pious uslims ha5e al1ays re)arded po1er as a %ear%ul thin)4 e5en as a one=1ay tic'et to hell> pro%itin) %rom the protection a%%orded them 8y the ruler and %rom the )ood order he esta8lishes in the city4 they than' "od that someone else 8ears this 8urden and 1al's this ti)htrope o5er the a8yss7 They suspect that there must 8e a pro%ound %la1 in the character o% anyone 1ho deli8erately see's to e3pose himsel% to the dan)ers and temptations o% po1er7 It is si)ni%icant that the Prophet4 1ho spo'e o% so many thin)s = do1n to the smallest details o% daily li%e = had little to say a8out )o5ernment as such and sho1ed no interest in political theori<in)7 There is4 ho1e5er4 a particular hadith

1hich has %ar=reachin) implications in this conte3t7 At a time o% rapid e3pansion in Ara8ia4 one o% the companions came to him and as'ed to 8e made )o5ernor o% a recently con;uered territory7 :No4: he said7 :I% you 1ish to rule4 then you are un%itI:D1E I% po1er is thrust upon a man4 he may8e %or)i5en much> 8ut i% he chooses to put a noose around his o1n nec'4 he is li'ely to han) 8y it7 I%4 today4 1e loo' around us at the 5arious systems o% )o5ernment e3istin) in the 1orld4 1e %ind that all 1ith one nota8le e3ception = ha5e this %eature in common> the rulers4 1hether they are democratic politicians4 party %unctionaries or military dictators4 hold po1er 8ecause they deli8erately sou)ht po1er and 8elie5ed themsel5es %it to 1ield it7 The one e3ception4 o% course4 is hereditary monarchy7 The implication4 ho1e5er unpalata8le it may 8e to uslim intellectuals and political theorists in our time4 is su))esti5e7 1 :6o not as' %or rulership4 he said Aaccordin) to another hadith recorded 8y &u'hari and uslimB :%or i% you are )i5en po1er as a result o% as'in) %or it you 1ill 8e le%t to deal 1ith it on your o1n> 8ut i% you are )i5en it 1ithout your as'in)4 then you 1ill 8e helped in e3ercisin) it7: ,unni Islam has al1ays set )reat store 8y political sta8ility4 e5en i% this in5ol5es toleratin) corrupt )o5ernment4 %or re5olt a)ainst constituted authority in5ol5es splittin) the community4 and the unity o% the community is the paramount consideration> moreo5er4 1hat the reli)ion re;uires %or its %ull practice is not ideal )o5ernment4 e%%icient administration or e5en :social 9ustice:4 8ut a sta8le en5ironment4 a house 1ith solid 1alls in 1hich the %urnishin)s stay in place7 I8n :A88as reported "od:s essen)er as sayin)@ :I% anyone sees in his ruler 1hat he disli'es he should sho1 patience4 %or no one separates a span:s distance %rom the community and DthenE dies 1ithout his dyin) li'e the people o% pre=Islamic times7: At least in earlier times4 it 1as only at the t1o opposite e3tremes o% the Islamic spectrum that re5olt a)ainst an un9ust ruler 1as %ully sanctioned7 The ,hi:ites dreamed o% a charismatic ruler appointed %rom amon) the descendants o% the Prophet = no other could 8e considered le)itimate = 1hile the !hari9ites Aand their political heirsB dreamed o% a charismatic community o% ri)hteous men and 1omen 1hich could ne5er su8mit to anythin) that sa5oured o% secular rule7 &oth 1ere a8le to 9usti%y re5olution in terms o% their particular doctrine7 It 1as partly in reaction a)ainst such recipes %or insta8ility that ,unni 9urists emphasi<ed the duty o% o8edience to authority7 Their 5ie1s had much in common 1ith those e3pressed 8y the &ritish historian and political philosopher o% the late ei)hteenth century4 Edmund &ur'e7 For the ,unni 9urists4 as %or &ur'e4 the social disruption caused 8y re5olt or re5olution out1ei)hs4 in its lon)=term e%%ects4 any ad5anta)es that mi)ht 8e )ained 8y replacin) a 8ad )o5ernment 1ith a sli)htly 8etter one7 Their opinion 1as 8ased upon a realistic assessment o% the human situation4 ta'in) account o% the %act that %e1 people4 1hen %aced 1ith a ma9or = or minor = decision in the course o% their li5es4 sit do1n and 1ei)h the moral %actors in5ol5ed in the li)ht o% ultimate principles7 For the most part4 people act in accordance 1ith in)rained ha8its4 in terms o% custom and 1ithin the limits esta8lished 8y their social %rame1or'7 They do 1hat comes naturally to them7

To destroy the %rame1or' = and to tear the delicate net o% social relationships = in ho1e5er )ood a cause is to cut at the roots o% custom4 o5erturn tradition and distur8 ha8its4 lea5in) the indi5idual under an o8li)ation to ma'e moral choices at e5ery t1ist and turn o% his li%e7 This he 1ill not do7 It is %ar more li'ely that4 as soon as all %amiliar restraints are remo5ed4 somethin) compara8le to the %orce o% )ra5ity 1ill lead him on a do1n1ard path7 ,ociety can then 8e 'ept in order only 8y %orce4 1hich is 1hy tyranny %ollo1s re5olution as the ni)ht %ollo1s the day7 A corrupt ruler may ha5e 8een replaced 8y a man o% hi)h principles4 or a 8ad and incompetent )o5ernment 8y a more pro%essional and responsi8le one4 8ut in the course o% this uphea5al society has 8een atomi<ed and people ha5e lost their 8earin)s> all must no1 8e re)imented i% order is to 8e maintained and )randiose plans %or social impro5ement implemented7 The sta8ility o% Islamic society o5er a period o% at least a thousand years4 una%%ected 8y almost unceasin) turmoil at the :political: le5el4 1as the sta8ility o% a society 1hich re%uses to ma'e chan)es in the %rame1or' o% communal and indi5idual li%e or4 i% compelled 8y circumstances to ma'e minor ad9ustments4 'eeps these to the a8solute minimum7 $ritin) o% medie5al Islam4 5on "rune8aum says@ :The uslim possesses a ;uality o% repose4 o% di)nity and poise4 1hich could de5elop only as a result o% a static conception o% the ideal 1orld and the ideal society7 The $est is ready to sacri%ice the present %or the %uture 777 $e reco)ni<e the supreme 5alue o% chan)e 8ecause 1e are a%raid o% sta)nation 777 The uslim:s 1orld is at rest4 and he is at rest 1ithin it7 His immediacy to "od and his acceptance o% the di5ine order 1ere ne5er4 durin) the iddle A)es4 seriously distur8ed4:D1E Jon "rune8aum 1as 1ritin) almost %orty years a)o and it is dou8t%ul 1hether the $est is any lon)er so ea)er to :reco)ni<e the supreme 5alue o% chan)e:4 8ut it remains true that the chan)elessness o% uslim society o5er so many centuries represents a 1ay o% li%e almost unima)ina8le to the $esterner4 %or 1hom the li5es o% people only a hundred years a)o seem as alien as those o% the ancient Etruscans7 For the uslims4 %rom the ninth century until the nineteenth4 time stood still and the 1orld 1as stayed on its centri%u)al course7 One thin) alone made this possi8le@ the adherence o% society as a 1hole = or o% a 1hole chain o% societies = to the ,hari:ah4 the reli)ious 0a1 o% Islam7 1 edie5al Islam4 "usta5e 5on "rune8aum A.ni5ersity o% Chica)o PressB4 p73#*7

The 1ord ,hari:ah means :road: or :hi)h1ay:4 8ut its deri5ation re%ers to the 8eaten trac' 8y 1hich 1ild animals come do1n to drin' at their 1aterin)=place7 It is the road 1hich leads to 1here the 1aters o% li%e %lo1 ine3hausti8ly7 Christians are pu<<led 1hen told that 9urisprudence4 not theolo)y4 is the principal reli)ious science in Islam and that the :alim4 the learned reli)ious scholar4 is primarily a 9urist 1ho tells people 1hat to do rather than 1hat to 8elie5e7 &ut %or the uslim there is no pro8lem in 'no1in) 1hat to 8elie5e> his concern is 1ith 1hat to do under all circumstances in order to con%orm to the $ord o% "od and to 1al' 1ithout stum8lin) on the road 1hich leads to Paradise7 The 1ord %i;h4 usually translated as :9urisprudence:4 comes %rom the 5er8 %a;iha4 1hich means neither more nor less than :he understood:7 Fi;h4 then4 has to do 1ith understandin) the

di5ine commands and their rami%ications in the %a8ric o% daily li%e7 For the occidental4 9urisprudence is a dull and sterile topic o% little interest Aunless one 8ecomes in5ol5ed 1ith the policeB4 1hich is hardly surprisin) since secular la1 is a 1e8 o% man=made comple3ities> a solicitor:s o%%ice is not a place 1here the Christian is li'ely to see' his soul:s sal5ation7 &ut %or the uslim4 the crystalli<ation o% the ?uranic messa)e and the Prophet:s e3ample into a 8ody o% li5a8le la1 has 8een the supreme ad5enture7 Islam is :su8mission: to the $ill o% "od4 and the study o% this miraculously re5ealed $ill is seen as the most important study open to man as a creature endo1ed 1ith intellect and reason7 0a14 moreo5er4 has to do 1ith the art o% li5in) to)ether7 In its 8roadest sense it is the science o% human relationships7 The Islamic re5elation came at a moment in the history o% Ara8ia 1hen men had lost their 8earin)s> 1ith the de5elopment o% city li%e = ci5ili<ation = in ecca and edina the tri8al structure 1as disinte)ratin) and the moral principles 1hich )uaranteed the tri8e:s sur5i5al as a social entity 1ere dissol5in)7 This situation posed a simple and ur)ent ;uestion@ ho1 are people to li5e to)ether in communityG As the uslim sees it4 "od pro5ided the ans1er to this ;uestion in the ?uran and in the e3ample o% the Prophet4 8ut He le%t the necessary 1or' o% ela8oration to the 8elie5ers7 O5er the ne3t t1o centuries they la8oured to construct4 %rom these 8asic materials4 a solid4 comprehensi5e and endurin) structure o% 0a17 It is not4 there%ore4 strictly accurate to descri8e the ,hari:ah as a 8ody o% re5ealed 0a17 Human e%%ort and rational 9ud)ement played their part in its de5elopment4 8ut the uslim considers that this e%%ort 1as inspired and this 9ud)ement enli)htened 8y di5ine aid7 Only a small proportion o% the ?uran deals 1ith le)al matters4 :commands and prohi8itions:4 and this 1ould not su%%ice 1ere it not amply supplemented 8y the recorded sayin)s and actions o% the Prophet4 the collections o% hadith7 In assessin) the authenticity or other1ise o% this record4 human 9ud)ement necessarily inter5enes4 so the earliest architects o% the 0a1 1ere the mutahadithun4 the :scholars o% hadith:7 The method 8y 1hich the authenticity o% a particular hadith 1as esta8lished has nothin) in common 1ith the methods o% occidental scholarship4 8ut is none the 1orse %or that7 It 1as4 in any case4 the only practical method o% assessment under the circumstances7 I% 1e are told 8y an in%ormant that a %riend told him that his uncle had said that his cousin had told him that his )rand%ather had 8een told 8y a %riend that his o1n )rand%ather had heard ,o=and=so ma'e a certain remar'4 then = assumin) that this is a matter o% )reat importance = our concern 1ill 8e 1ith the relia8ility o% the chain o% in%ormants4 the :transmitters: as they are called in Islam7 Nothin) could 8e o% )reater importance %or a uslim than 1hat the Prophet actually said in )uidin) the ne1 community7 For the scholars o% the second and third centuries o% the Islamic era4 the authenticity o% a hadith depended upon the human 5alue o% each named indi5idual in the chain o% transmission> one 1ea' lin' = immoral4 perhaps4 and there%ore pro8a8ly a liar = 8ro'e the chain7 In so ti)ht a society4 in 1hich e5eryone 'ne1 e5eryone else:s 8usiness4 it 1as 8y no means impossi8le to assess all the characters in5ol5ed> and on this 8asis4 as also throu)h the consensus o% the scholars4 a hadith could 8e classi%ied as sound4 )ood4 less certain or4 %inally4 unsound> or it could 8e re9ected alto)ether7

Those 1ho undertoo' this tas' 1ere li'e men 1ho search %or )ems in a mine or pan %or )old in a ri5er> 8ut they 1ere pro%essionals4 and their ea)erness to disco5er precious stones or precious metal 1as 8alanced 8y a pious conscience and an acute critical sense7 $estern academics4 schooled in the techni;ues o% :historical criticism: as it has 8een applied to the &i8le4 ha5e ta'en pleasure in castin) dou8t upon the hadith literature as a 1hole7 They may 8e le%t to their o1n de5ices7 It is a little late in the day to raise such ;uestions4 almost %ourteen centuries a%ter the Prophet:s death7 $e cannot 'no1 1ith :scienti%ic: certainty that a particular hadith is authentic 8eyond all possi8le dou8t> 8ut 1e ha5e no ri)ht to demand such certainties in this li%e7 oreo5er4 i% this hadith has 8een accepted 8y pious men o5er the centuries and has 8een a 8uildin)=8loc' in the di5inely 1illed structure o% Islam4 then it is 8eyond the reach o% human criticism7 "od can do as He chooses 1ith :%acts:4 and His choice is to use them %or our spiritual 8ene%it7 $hen the truth is spo'en4 the ;uestion as to 1ho it 1as 1ho spo'e it is o% secondary importance7 .ltimately truth is spo'en 8y One alone and 8y no other4 thou)h there are many mouthpieces7 The people o% our time are so unsure o% themsel5es that they as' %or each utterance to 8e la8elled and authenticated4 9ust as they must 'no1 the name o% the artist 8e%ore they can 9ud)e 1hether a paintin) is 8eauti%ul7 This atmosphere o% dou8t and this cra5in) %or proo% and assurance are %orei)n to the 1orld o% Islam and to the mentality o% the uslim7 The esta8lishment o% a canon o% hadith 1as4 ho1e5er4 only the %irst step in a lon) and comple3 process7 0e)al pro5isions dra1n directly %rom the ?ur:an and the ,unnah could not 8e e3pected to co5er e5ery contin)ency4 nor could rules o% conduct ade;uate to the simple li%e o% edina ser5e to re)ulate the li%e o% a )reat empire and its teemin) cities7 The means had to 8e %ound to de5elop a 8ody o% 0a1 1hich 1ould co5er e5ery ima)ina8le circumstance4 1ithout e5er losin) contact 1ith its sacred and unimpeacha8le sources7 To achie5e this4 three principal methods 1ere e5ol5ed@ :consensus: Ai9maB4 :analo)y: A;iyasB and :intellectual e%%ort: Ai9tihadB7 The Prophet had said@ : y community 1ill ne5er a)ree upon an error7: This )uaranteed the soundness o% any consensus reached amon) the people as a 1hole4 8ut it 1ould ha5e 8een unreasona8le to )i5e to the opinion o% a shepherd or an artisan4 unschooled in the ?uran and hadith4 the same 1ei)ht as that )i5en to the considered 9ud)ement o% the learned men4 the :ulama:7 On the other hand4 these learned men 1ere mem8ers o% the lar)er community4 and the opinions o% the latter could not 8e i)nored7 There 1ere cases = %or the most part minor ones = 1hen the community as such o5erruled the learned elite4 as 1hen co%%ee 1as %irst introduced into Ara8ia@ the :ulama: pronounced it a prohi8ited 8e5era)e4 8ut the mass o% the people disa)reed and4 in due course4 their 5ie1 1as le)itimi<ed7 The sta8ility o% the system depends upon maintainin) the delicate 8alance 8et1een ri)idity and %le3i8ility7 I9ma: could ne5er4 o% course4 supersede the documentary sources4 8ut it ser5ed to le)itimi<e the implications and conclusions dra1n 8y the learned men %rom these

sources4 either 8y the use o% analo)y or 8y indi5idual e%%ort7 This consensus4 ho1e5er4 1as not a matter o% ma9ority opinion statistically assessed> to 8e 5alid it had to 8e so close to unanimity that no countin) o% heads 1as necessary7 :A%ter "od and the Prophet4 the Community4: says !enneth Cra))7 :They may 8e reasona8ly accepted as a %rame o% re%erence4 a court o% appeal4 %or the 5alidation or other1ise o% 1hat is truly and authentically Islamic7 This4 it should 8e clear4 is not democracy as such 777 It is the attainment o% a common mind on a particular point4 the le)al reco)nition o% an e3istin) state o% a%%airs = or o% opinion = 1hich has come to 8e in the community in an area o% %ormer silence7:D1E 1 The Call o% the inaret4 !enneth Cra)) AO3%ord .ni5ersity Press4 1/(*B7

The points upon 1hich consensus is reached are li'ely to ha5e 8een the outcome o% i9tihad4 :e%%ort: or :initiati5e: on the part o% indi5idual scholars7 As Cra)) points out4 a mu9tahid = one 1ho is 9ud)ed capa8le o% such initiati5es = ;uali%ies only a%ter prolon)ed le)al4 theolo)ical and )rammatical trainin)4 and then stru))les throu)h lon) days and ni)hts to reach conclusions 1hich may commend themsel5es to consensus in the course o% time7 It )oes 1ithout sayin) that they should ne5er contradict anythin) that is clearly e3pressed in the sacred te3ts4 and the 1hole process is surrounded 8y sa%e)uards to a5oid the dan)er o% :inno5ation:7 Accordin) to the opinion accepted4 until recently4 in ,unni Islam A8ut not amon)st the ,hi:aB4 the :"ate o% i9tihad: 1as closed in the ele5enth or t1el%th century o% the Christian era7 There 1ere t1o reasons %or this7 In the %irst place4 it 1as considered that e5ery concei5a8le contin)ency had 8een co5ered and the ,hari :ah 1as there%ore complete4 1ith no areas o% am8i)uity remainin)7 ,econdly4 the learned men 1ere under constant pressure to )i5e le)al rulin)s in accordance 1ith the 1ishes o% the ruler = the caliph4 sultan or amir7 In many cases their 5ery li5es must ha5e depended on their 8ein) a8le to tell him4 1ith )reat respect4 that they no lon)er had the po1er to do so@ :"reat ,ultan4 I 'no1 you to 8e the 1isest o% rulers and most 5irtuous o% men and nothin) 1ould ma'e me happier than to )i5e a rulin) in your %a5our4 8ut alas = the "ate o% Personal Fud)ement has 8een closed7: O5er the past t1o centuries4 the :"ate: appears to ha5e 8een re=opened4 in practice i% not in principle7 It 1as closed at a time 1hen no one could ha5e anticipated any %undamental chan)e in the conditions o% human li%e or in the structure o% uslim society7 The impossi8le has no1 happened4 and this has 8rou)ht into ;uestion the %inality and immuta8ility o% the %our :,chools o% 0a1: AmadhahihB4 1hich determine the li%e=pattern o% the ,unni uslim7 All %our arose in the ei)hth to ninth centuries o% the Christian era and are named a%ter their %ounders@ A8u Hani%a Ad7+*+B4 ali' i8n Anas Ad7+/(B4 I8n Idris ash= ,ha%i:i Ad7-1/B4 and Ahmad i8n Han8al Ad7-((B4 1ho ha5e 8een descri8ed as the :)rammarians o% the di5ine $ord:7 &ut these )rammarians 1ere not con%ined to the study or the li8rary7 A8u Hani%a died in prison4 ha5in) 8een condemned %or re%usin) to accept a 9ud)eship> i8n Han8al 1as imprisoned %or denyin) the doctrine o% the :createdness: o% the ?ur:an> and ali' had his shoulder=8ones 8ro'en 1hen he 1as 8eaten 8y the Caliph:s )uards7 Far %rom representin) the po1er o% the state4 they 1ere shields 8et1een the community and the ruler = as

1ere the 8est amon) the :ulama: o5er many centuries = and asserted 1ith uncompromisin) %irmness the di)nity and independence o% the 0a14 its precedence o5er the edicts and interests o% the temporal po1er7 From them %lo1ed %our streams o% 0a14 8ut the 1ater is the same in each7 The di%%erences 8et1een these schools4 sometimes ;uite 1ron)ly descri8ed as :sects:4 are o% a minor nature4 as mi)ht 8e e3pected %rom the %act that ash=,ha%i:i had 8een a pupil o% ali'4 and i8n Han8al had 8een a student o% ash=,ha%i:i7 ,ome are stricter than others re)ardin) 1hat is or is not :o8li)atory: %or the uslim7 The Han8alites are :literalists:4 distrustin) :personal opinion: Ara:yB and anythin) that sa5ours o% alle)orical interpretation o% the ?ur:an7 There are di%%erences 8et1een them re)ardin) the omissions Ain 1ord or actB 1hich in5alidate the ritual prayer and concernin) a8lution> 8ut only 1hen these di%%erences are e3a))erated 8y narro1=minded people do they threaten the unity o% ,unni 0a1 as such7 There has4 ho1e5er4 8een a reaction in recent times4 not only a)ainst ma'in) any distinction 8et1een the %our :schools:4 8ut e5en a)ainst the ,hari:ah as it 1as %ormulated 8y the )reat medie5al 9urists7 Here4 as so o%ten4 e3tremes meet7 On the one hand4 the :modernists: dismiss all such %ormulations as :out o% date:> on the other4 those 1ho may %or con5enience 8e descri8ed as :%undamentalists: 1ould li'e to )o 8ac' to the ?ur:an and the ,unnah in their pristine purity4 i)norin) all su8se;uent interpretations7 They seem to %or)et that interpretation comes a8out in ans1er to a real need %or it4 and they are un1illin) to admit that the men 1hose 1or' they so li)htly dismiss 1ere pro8a8ly 8oth 8etter and 1iser than they are7 It must 8e admitted none the less that the le)al mind runs readily to e3cess4 dottin) e5ery :i: and crossin) e5ery :t: 1ith meticulous care4 creatin) complications 1hen the matter is simple4 and stri5in) la8oriously to %ind ans1ers to ;uestions that ha5e not 8een as'ed7 The ?uran tells us@ :O &elie5ers4 do not as' concernin) matters 1hich4 i% they 1ere made 'no1n to you4 1ould trou8le you 777:A?7(7121B> and the Prophet said4 :6o not as' me a8out matters 1hich I lea5e unspo'en4 %or truly there 1ere people 8e%ore you 1ho 1ent to their doom 8ecause they put too many ;uestions to their messen)ers and thereupon disa)reed7: It is indeed possi8le that too many ;uestions ha5e 8een as'ed 8y people 1ho mi)ht ha5e done 8etter to rely upon conscience and common sense4 8ut the uslim 1ho is certain o% his %aith and serene in this certainty is not easily trou8led> he )oes his 1ay and lea5es others to )o theirs4 'no1in) that the ans1ers to all ;uestions and the solution to all di%%erences o% opinion 1ill 8e made e5ident soon enou)h7 The occidental tends to see the ,hari:ah as a strait9ac'et rather than as a %rame1or'4 una1are that it has 1ithin it ade;uate space %or %ree mo5ement Aand %or indi5idual di%%erencesB4 and un1illin) to accept the psycholo)ical implications o% the %act that a physical 8ody disinte)rates 1hen placed in a 5acuum7 The 0a14 says ,eyyed Hossein Nasr4 :places 8e%ore man many paths accordin) to his nature and needs 1ithin a uni5ersal pattern 1hich pertains to e5eryone7 Human initiati5e comes in selectin) 1hat is in con%ormity 1ith one:s needs and li5in) accordin) to the 6i5ine norm as indicated 8y the ,hari:ah7 Initiati5e does not come only in

re8ellin) a)ainst the Truth4 1hich is an easy tas' since stones %all 8y nature> initiati5e and creati5ity come most o% all in see'in) to li5e in con%ormity 1ith the Truth and in applyin) its principles to the conditions 1hich destiny has placed 8e%ore man7 To inte)rate all o% one:s tendencies and acti5ities 1ithin a di5inely ordained pattern re;uires all the initiati5e and creati5e ener)y 1hich man is capa8le o% )i5in)7:D1E 1 ldeals and Realities o% Islam4 ,eyyed Hossein Nasr A0ondon@ Allen N .n1in 0td74 1/**B4 p7/-7 Immersed in our indi5idual su89ecti5ities = 1hich4 8y their 5ery nature4 distort e5ery perspecti5e = 1e need o89ecti5e standards i% 1e are not either to sin' into insanity or4 alternati5ely4 rampa)e throu)h the 1orld as thou)h no one else really e3isted7 In Islam it is the immuta8le 0a1 1hich pro5ides the o89ecti5e criteria that pull us up in mid=course4 and i% 1e try to i)nore it4 then there are penalties to remind us that the 0a1 is an o89ecti5e reality4 a roc' 1hich is not eroded 8y the stream o% time nor melted 8y the heat o% su89ecti5e desires7 The harsh punishments imposed under Islamic 0a1 Athou)h less harsh than those pre5ailin) in Europe until comparati5ely recentlyB are the e3pression o% principles 1hich cannot 8e chan)ed to suit our con5enience> 1hat matters4 ho1e5er4 is not that the punishment should 8e in%licted 1hene5er appropriate 8ut that the principle should remain intact7 The Prophet told his people to :a5ert penalties 8y dou8ts:4 and any strata)em 1hich a5erts the penalty 1ithout impu)nin) the 0a1 is le)itimate7 The tale is told o% a la1yer in Har%in:s time 1ho rose to 1ealth and eminence a%ter de5isin) a su8tle le)al ar)ument 1hich sa5ed the Caliph %rom ha5in) to char)e his o1n son 1ith adultery7 The $esterner mi)ht say that this cunnin) la1yer earned himsel% a %ortune 8y t1istin) the la1 to suit his master> the uslim4 on the other hand4 appro5es his conduct in that he %ound a 1ay %or the Caliph to sho1 mercy 1ithout o%%endin) a)ainst the ma9esty o% the 0a17 The se5erity o% the punishment %or adultery mar's the )ra5ity o% this o%%ence a)ainst a society 8ased upon the inte)rity o% the %amily and its delicate 1e8 o% relationships7 The e3istence o% the penalty ma'es the necessary point4 8ut its application is made almost impossi8le = e3cept in cases o% 5oluntary con%ession = 8y the pro5iso that %our unimpeacha8le 1itnesses must ha5e o8ser5ed the act in detail and must su8mit to 8ein) %lo))ed %or per9ury i% the case is still not pro5ed7 Flo))in) is speci%ied as the penalty %or a num8er o% o%%ences4 8ut the 0a1 does not speci%y 1hat instrument is to 8e used4 and in the early days o% Islam it 1as o%ten nothin) more dama)in) than a li)ht sandal or the hem o% a )arment> this 1as still technically a :%lo))in):4 the point 1as made and the 0a1 1as upheld7 A thie% may ha5e his hand cut o%%4 8ut not i% he stole %rom )enuine need or 8ecause his %amily 1as hun)ry4 or i% he stole the property o% the state7D2E 2 .nli'e contemporar5 ad5ocates o% :nationali<ation:4 the uslim 9urists o% ancient times maintained = 1ith per%ect lo)ic = that pu8lic property is indeed :pu8lic: and there%ore ;uite di%%erent to pri5ate property7 Each citi<en is part=o1ner o% 1hate5er 8elon)s to the state4 and a man cannot steal %rom himsel%7

Per9ury4 e5en in a ci5il case4 is an o%%ence o% the utmost )ra5ity since it is an o%%ence a)ainst the 0a1 itsel%4 and %orensic s'ill employed in an un9ust cause is condemned7 :Hou people 8rin) disputes to me4: said the Prophet> :8ut it may 8e that some o% you are 8etter a8le to put their case than others7 I ha5e to decide on the e5idence 8e%ore me7 I% I happen to e3propriate the ri)ht o% anyone in %a5our o% his 8rother4 let not the latter ta'e it4 %or in that case I ha5e )i5en him a piece o% hell=%ire7: The position o% a 9ud)e4 li'e that o% a ruler4 is unen5ia8le7 $e are told 8y the chroniclers a8out a certain pietist in A88asid times 1ho stormed into the Caliph:s audience=cham8er and denounced him to his %ace %or tyranny and in9ustice A:The 8est Fihad4: the Prophet said once4 :is a true 1ord in the presence o% a tyrant:B7 The man had )one 8y the time the Caliph could de5ise a punishment su%%iciently cruel to meet his case@ this 1as that he should 8e appointed a 9ud)e4 and an edict issued to the e%%ect that no 9ud)ement o% his should 8e o5erruled 8y any Court o% Appeal7 ,oldiers 1ere sent to 8rin) him 8ac' %or condemnation4 8ut he 1as ne5er %ound7 In Islam the ri)our o% ,hari:ah 0a1 is al1ays o5ershado1ed 8y the 0a1 o% ercy4 8ut ne5er to the e3tent o% underminin) the a8idin) principles 1hich are its 8asis7 A certain man in edina came to the Prophet to con%ess a sin and recei5e 1hate5er punishment 1as due to him A%or it is4 accordin) to a hadith4 :8etter to 8lush in this 1orld than in the herea%ter:B7 He 1as as'ed i% he could %ree a sla5e4 8ut he could not7 He 1as as'ed i% he could %ast %or t1o months4 8ut he replied that he could not7 Finally he 1as as'ed i% he could pro5ide %ood %or the poor7 $hen he replied that he could not4 he 1as told to 1ait 1hile the Prophet considered the matter7 At this point someone came in 1ith a lar)e 8as'et o% dates as a )i%t %or the Prophet4 1ho then presented them to the 1aitin) man and instructed him to )i5e them as sada;a Aa )i%t to the needyB7 :Am I to )i5e them to someone poorer than mysel%4 essen)er o% AllahG: as'ed the man> :I s1ear 8y Allah there is no poorer %amily than mine 8et1een the t1o la5a plains o% edinaI: The Prophet lau)hed until = it is said = :his eye=teeth 1ere 5isi8le: and told the sinner@ :Then )i5e them to your %amily to eat7: The community sheltered and ordered 8y the ,hari:ah is the :ri)htly=)uided: community and mem8ership o% it is4 %or the uslim4 :a part o% %aith:7 To lea5e the community is to come perilously close to lea5in) the Faith7 an'ind4 says ont)omery $att4 :needs a reli)ious community 1hich is charismatic4 and Islam more than any other )reat reli)ion has reali<ed in actual li%e the idea o% the charismatic community7:D1E 1 Islam and the Inte)ration o% ,ociety4 $7 ont)omery $att4 p7 23#7

Islam 8ein) theocentric4 the community o1es its cohesion primarily to the Faith4 not to )o5ernment and not to its reli)ious leaders7 Each indi5idual uslim is personally responsi8le %or the 1ell=8ein) o% his %ello1s4 his :8rothers: and his :sisters:4 to aid them in po5erty4 to com%ort them in distress and to put them ri)ht 1hen they )o astray Athou)h al1ays in a spirit o% 'indnessB> at least in principle4 each mem8er o% the community4 ho1e5er hum8le4 has a duty = 1hen he sees

somethin) 1ron) or out o% place = to correct it either 1ith his hand or 1ith his ton)ue4 or4 i% he does not ha5e the po1er to do this4 then to correct it 1ithin his o1n heart7 His duty does not4 ho1e5er4 e3tend to sendin) %or the police or reportin) the matter to the authorities4 %or = as a uslim = he em8odies the 0a1 in himsel%> there is no ;uestion o% handin) o5er his responsi8ility to the impersonal state7 As has 8een su))ested 8y a num8er o% 1riters4 includin) Frith9o% ,chuon4 the nearest e;ui5alent 1e can %ind in the $est to a society o% this type is a monastic community4 and the %act that in this case the :mon's: are married and ha5e children in no 1ay 5itiates the comparison7 .nited 8y a common 8elie% in a transcendent Reality and in a speci%ic re5elation o% the di5ine $ill4 in la1s and a code o% conduct 1hich are reli)ious = not social = in ori)in4 the hours o% each day mar'ed 8y the sacred o%%ices Athe canonical prayersB and the round o% the year mar'ed 8y reli)ious %esti5als4 the mem8ers o% the community are held to)ether 8y the ordinances o% the Faith rather than 8y ci5ic duty7 The atheist and the a)nostic ha5e no place here4 nor ha5e the adherents o% alien political ideolo)ies such as ar3ism> there must surely 8e4 some1here in the 1orld4 a desert in 1hich they can ma'e themsel5es a home 1hile they a1ait their entry into the %ire4 %or Islam cannot tolerate su85ersion 1ithin its house7 The Christians and the Fe1s4 on the other hand4 and all 1ho :8elie5e in "od and the 0ast 6ay:4 ha5e rooms set aside %or them 1here they may %ollo1 their o1n dispensations in peace7 In a ;uaintly phrased 8ut none the less tellin) comparison4 Francois &on9ean4 1ritin) o% the holy cities o% Islam and comparin) them to monastic communities4 remar's that the :ordinary artisans and administrators and merchants: recall :the mien and manners o% our ecclesiastics: D1E they seem4 in other 1ords4 more li'e priests than laymen7 :I% monasticism is de%ined as a C1ithdra1al %or "odC4: says ,chuon4 :and i% its uni5ersal and inter=reli)ious character is reco)ni<ed on the )rounds that the thirst %or the supernatural is in the nature o% normal man4 ho1 can this de%inition 8e applied in the case o% spiritual men 1ho are uslims and do not 1ithdra1 %rom societyG777 To that the ans1er must 8e that one o% the raisons d:etre o% Islam is precisely the possi8ility o% a Cmonastery=societyC4 i% the e3pression 8e allo1a8le@ that is to say that Islam aims to carry the contemplati5e li%e into the 5ery %rame1or' as a 1hole> it succeeds in reali<in) 1ithin that %rame1or' conditions o% structure and o% 8eha5iour that permit o% contemplati5e isolation in the 5ery midst o% the acti5ities o% the 1orld 777 The %amous Cno monasticism in IslamC really means4 not that contemplati5es must not 1ithdra1 %rom the 1orld4 8ut on the contrary that the 1orld must not 8e 1ithdra1n %rom contemplati5es 77777:D2E 1 ?uoted %rom an article 8y Francois &on9ean pu8lished in 0es Cahiers du ,ud4 1/#+7 2 0i)ht on the Ancient $orlds4 Frith9o% ,chuon A0ondon@ Perennial &oo's4 1/*(B7 This is the cru3 o% the matter7 One o% the thin)s that Christians and occidentals in )eneral seldom understand is this mi)hty e%%ort4 this 9ihad4 1a)ed to pre5ent any

element o% earthly li%e %rom escapin) and ta'in) on a separate e3istence o% its o1n4 or %lyin) o%%4 as thou)h )ripped 8y centri%u)al %orce4 into the empty space 1hich 1e call the secular or pro%ane realm7 The uslim 1ho sits ;uietly in the mos;ue %acin) the ;i8lah and in5o'in) his 0ord has not le%t the 1orld to )o its o1n 1ay> he is not only a contemplati5e4 he is also a 1arrior4 and the 1orld is his prisoner o% 1ar7 From the corner o% his eye he 1atches to see that it does not e5ade him7 In the same conte3t4 ,eyyed Hossein Nasr says@ :The unitary principle o% Islam4 ho1e5er4 could not permit this contemplati5e 1ay to 8ecome crystalli<ed as a separate social or)ani<ation outside the matri3 moulded 8y the in9unctions o% the di5ine 0a1 or ,hari:ah7 It had to remain as an inner dimension o% that 0a1 and4 institutionally4 as an or)ani<ation inte)rated into the Islamic social pattern and insepara8le %rom it7:D1E 1 Islam and the Pli)ht o% 1/+(B4 p7 +37 odern an4 ,eyyed Hossein Nasr A0ondon@ 0on)man4

E5en men and 1omen ;uite lac'in) in natural piety are4 throu)h inte)ration into this theocentric community4 carried alon) the road 1hich leads to sal5ation> their daily li5es penetrated 8y a transcendent perspecti5e 1hich4 as indi5iduals4 they may 8e incapa8le o% percei5in)4 let alone o% understandin)7 0i'e little %ish in the 5astness o% the ocean4 they 1ould soon perish i% they s1am alone4 8ut4 in the midst o% a )reat shoal4 they s1im sa%ely in the ri)ht direction7 At the same time4 the mem8ers o% this community ha5e not chosen the holy li%e as their 5ocation 8ut ha5e 8een 8orn into it4 and to e3pect too much o% them 1ould 8e contrary to the realism inherent in the Islamic perspecti5e7 The :consensus: decisi5ely re9ected the !hari9ite 5ie1 that the :sinner:4 since he imperils the community4 must either 8e put to death or e3pelled into the outer 1astes7 Their 5ie1 1as to some e3tent inherited %rom tri8al society4 since the 5ery sur5i5al o% the Ara8 tri8e in the desert depended upon ri)id con%ormity to the rules imposed 8y the harsh en5ironment7 This 1as not the Prophet:s 1ay4 and he said on a num8er o% occasions that he had not 8een sent :to ma'e your reli)ion di%%icult %or you:7 He demanded o% his people4 not superhuman 5irtue4 8ut an honest e%%ort to do their 8est e5en i% it did not amount to 5ery much7 He detested unnecessary :%uss: o5er small matters since he had an in%alli8le sense o% priorities7 A tri5ial e3ample 1ill ser5e to illustrate this point7 A8u Huraira reported that on a certain occasion a desert Ara8 1ho 1as in the mos;ue in edina )ot up and passed 1ater 1here he stood7 The people sei<ed him in %ury4 8ut the Prophet said to them@ :0ea5e him alone and pour a 8uc'et o% 1ater o5er 1hat he has passed4 %or you ha5e 8een sent only to ma'e thin)s easy and not to ma'e thin)s di%%icult7: The Faith and the 0a14 ho1e5er4 are not the only 8indin) %actors 1hich ha5e )i5en Islamic communities their tremendous po1er o% endurance7 It mi)ht ha5e 8een e3pected that loyalty to the .mmah 1ould replace all :natural: loyalties4 and it did indeed replace loyalty to the tri8e4 8ut the ties o% relationship 1hich lin' human 8ein)s one to another are the 8asis o% the 1hole structure7 Islam 1or's 1ith nature4 not a)ainst it7

The threads 1hich compose the )reat 1e8 o% relationships 1ithin 1hich each indi5idual is situated are 'nitted to)ether throu)h marria)e A1hich is no dou8t one reason 1hy the Prophet said that :marria)e is hal% the reli)ion:B and e3tend on the one hand throu)h the issue Aand their marria)esB4 and on the other throu)h the 8lood=ties o% the partners and the %urther ties contracted 8y those to 1hom they are related7 Poly)amy %urther increases these relationships4 and each :e3tended %amily: is lin'ed 1ith a num8er o% others so that there is no 8rea' in the 1e84 1hich is complementary to the close='nit communal li%e o% the city7 6espite the importance o% the nomads in the early history o% the reli)ion4 it is the traditional Islamic city 1hich 8est e3pressed its particular )enius7 $hat 1as 8est in the structure and in the customs o% the nomadic tri8e 1as trans%ormed 8ut not destroyed in accordance 1ith the needs o% the ne1 society7 Central to any uslim community is the communal prayer4 the .mmah assem8led in the act o% 1orship4 1hich is also the %ountain=head o% their social li%e7 The li%e o% the city 1as %ocused upon the "reat os;ue4 that o% each district upon its local mos;ue4 e5ery %amily close enou)h to hear the call o% the mu:e<<in summonin) them to prayer4 summonin) them to unity as a sacred community4 summonin) them to Paradise4 1hich is also a place o% meetin)7 I% the "reat os;ue 1as the heart o% the city4 its stomach 1as the mar'et Aalso4 in its 1ay4 sacred4 since the )ood thin)s 1e use and the %ood 1hich nourishes us are %rom "odB4 and its 8rain the schools and colle)es 1here 'no1led)e4 the most precious o% all commodities4 is e3chan)ed7 There 1as nothin) out1ardly splendid a8out such cities = here 1e are %ar remo5ed %rom Roman splendour = 1ith their narro1 alleys contrastin) 1ith the in1ard space de5oted to 1orship and to %amily li%e7 Islam has no taste %or :Promethean: )randeur or %or any 'ind o% pretentiousness7 A se5enteenth=century French tra5eller 5isitin) E)ypt remar'ed that there is :not a sin)le %ine street in Cairo4 8ut a mass o% little ones turnin) hither and thither4 1hich clearly demonstrates that all the houses are 8uilt 1ithout desi)n4 each choosin) that place 1hich it pleases him to 8uild on 1ithout considerin) 1hether he stop up a street or no 777:D1E This :1arren: preser5ed the or)anic cohesion and independence so essential to the li%e o% the uslim4 'eepin) the impersonal %orces o% the state at 8ay = there 1ere no 1ide a5enues to encoura)e military parades7 The order 1hich )o5erned the li%e o% the people 1as more in1ard than out1ard7D2E 1 ?uoted %rom The Cam8rid)e History o% Islam4 Jol724 p7#(*7 2 The %act that one is o8li)ed to use the past tense in 1ritin) o% the :Islamic city: may pro5ide a clue to the spiritual and psycholo)ical malaise a%%lictin) so many uslims today7 E3cept %or Fe< and ,ana:a4 there remain %e1 i% any cities 1hich could 8e said to e3teriori<e the spirit o% the Faith and4 in this 1ay4 pro5ide an en5ironment in 1hich the uslim can %eel truly at home7 Only too o%ten he %eels a stran)er in his o1n 8irthplace4 and nothin) in his surroundin)s reminds him o% "od4 nothin) is desi)ned to %acilitate the per%ormance o% his reli)ious duties4 and nothin) pro5ides him 1ith the sense o% continuity so essential to his spiritual li%e7

Trade 1as the economic li%e=8lood o% the city4 8ut it also ser5ed to %or)e %urther ties o% relationship7 The )ood thin)s )i5en 8y "od4 1orthy to 8e en9oyed4 8ecome the source o% %urther )ood 1hen they pro5ide su8sistence %or those 1ho trade in them and4 at the same time4 encoura)e intercourse in acts o% 8arter and e3chan)e7 The 5ery act o% meetin) 8et1een :8elie5ers: carries its o1n special 8lessin)7 :T1o uslims 1ill not meet and sha'e hands4: said the Prophet4 :1ithout ha5in) their sins %or)i5en them 8e%ore they separate:> and one o% his companions4 i8n :A88as4 remar'ed that4 :,atan 1eeps e5ery time he hears a uslim )i5e the )reetin) o% peace to his 8rother uslim4 and ,atan says4 C$oe is meI They 1ill not separate until Allah has %or)i5en them 8othC7: In a sense the 8usiness transaction is o% secondary importance compared 1ith the act o% meetin)7 The host o%%ers co%%ee or some other 8e5era)e to those 1ith 1hom he is ne)otiatin) and there8y rein%orces the tie 8et1een them7 He 'no1s that "od is present4 appro5es the esta8lishment o% such relationships and is pleased 1hen the steamin) 'ettle passes 8et1een those assem8led7 The pro%it or loss o% the interested parties 8elon)s to time4 8ut the act o% meetin) parta'es o% eternity7 :,atan has despaired o% 8ein) 1orshipped 8y those 1ho en)a)e in prayer4: said the Prophet4 :8ut he has hopes o% settin) them a)ainst one another4: and amon)st the )ra5est sins mentioned in the ?ur:an is that o% :se5erin) ties o% relationship:> ties o% %amily4 o% %riendship4 o% community or o% co=1or'ers in an enterprise4 all o% 1hich contri8ute to spinnin) a 1e8 o% unity in a %ra)mented 1orld4 and 8ut %or 1hich people 1ould 8e atoms incessantly collidin)7 The rein%orcement o% such ties may e3piate many sins7 A man came to the Prophet and said@ :I ha5e committed a serious sin7 Can I do any act o% penanceG: The Prophet as'ed him i% his mother 1as ali5e4 and 1hen he replied that she 1as dead4 as'ed i% he had a maternal aunt7 He said that he had4 so the Prophet told him@ :Then do her a 'indnessI: Accordin) to another hadith4 "od 1ill say on the 6ay o% Resurrection@ :$here are those 1ho ha5e mutual lo5e %or y sa'eG Today I shall shelter them in y shade4 1hen there is no shade 8ut ine7: And the Prophet said@ :Hou see the 8elie5ers in their mutual pity4 lo5e and a%%ection4 li'e one 8ody7 $hen one mem8er has a complaint4 the rest o% the 8ody is united 1ith it in 1a'e%ulness and %e5er7: It is in the conte3t o% such sayin)s as this = and there are many o% them = that 1e may measure the )ra5ity o% o%%ences 1hich undermine the community4 8rea' 8onds and se5er ties o% relationship> and these usually 8e)in 1ith the 1a))in) o% ton)ues7 :I% anyone )uarantees me 1hat is 8et1een his 9a1s and 1hat is 8et1een his le)s4 I 1ill )uarantee him Paradise4: the Prophet said7 He as'ed some people once i% they 'ne1 1hat de%amation 1as4 and 1hen they replied that "od and His essen)er 'ne1 8est4 told them that it 1as :sayin) somethin) a8out your 8rother that he 1ould disli'e:7 A man as'ed him ho1 the matter stood i% 1hat he said a8out his 8rother 1as true4 and he replied@ :I% 1hat you ha5e said is true you ha5e de%amed him4 and i% it is not true you ha5e slandered him7: The ?uran tells us@ :Truly4 those 1ho lo5e that scandal should 8e spread concernin) those 1ho 8elie5e = )rie5ous su%%erin) a1aits them in the 1orld and in the herea%ter> %or Allah 'no1s Dthe truthE and you 'no1 not:A?72#71/B7 And a)ain@

:O &elie5ersI 0et not people deride other people4 1ho may 8e 8etter than themsel5es 777 neither de%ame one another nor insult one another 1ith epithets> e5il is the imputation o% ini;uity a%ter Dattainment toE %aith 777 O &elie5ersI ,hun most suspicion4 %or indeed suspicion is in some cases a sin7 And spy not Dupon one anotherE4 neither 8ac'8ite Done anotherE7 $ould any o% you li'e to eat the %lesh o% his dead 8rotherG Hou 1ould a8hor itI ,o 8e conscious o% Allah7 Truly Allah is Relentin)4 erci%ul:A?7#/71 1O12B7 The past sins o% men and 1omen are indeed :dead %lesh:4 not to 8e pic'ed o5er or discussed 1ith prurient interest4 and there are %re;uent re%erences in the hadith literature to the %act that4 i% 1e 1ish "od to o5erloo' our sins4 it is %or us to conceal the sins o% our nei)h8our4 and i% 1e are in a position to repro5e him4 to do so pri5ately@ :Ne5er does a 8elie5er dra1 a 5eil o5er the na'edness o% another 8elie5er 1ithout Allah dra1in) a 5eil o5er his na'edness on the 6ay o% Resurrection:> and a)ain4 :6o not hurt those 1ho 8elie5e4 and do not impute e5il to them4 and do not try to unco5er their na'edness Di7e7 their %aultsB> %or4 truly4 i% anyone tries to unco5er his 8rother:s na'edness4 Allah 1ill unco5er his na'edness on the 6ay o% Fud)ement7: ,uch counsels o% concealment4 discretion and delicacy are ;uite contrary to the contemporary $estern pre%erence %or :8rin)in) thin)s into the open: or = to use a current phrase 1hich is e3pressi5e in this conte3t = %or :lettin) e5erythin) han) out:7 E5en less in tune 1ith contemporary principles is the idea that 1e ou)ht4 i% 1e can4 to hide our o1n sins and 1ea'nesses4 in accordance 1ith the sayin)@ :&etter a hundred sins in the si)ht o% "od than one in the si)ht o% men:7 In a 1ell= authenticated hadith reported 8y A8u Huraira the Prophet said@ :All my people 1ill 8e 'ept sa%e e3cept %or those 1ho pu8lish their o1n 1ron)doin)7 It is a 'ind o% impudence %or a man to commit an act o% diso8edience durin) the ni)ht and then4 1hen Allah has concealed it %or him4 to tell someone in the mornin) that he had done this or that durin) the ni)ht7 His 0ord had concealed it in the ni)ht4 yet he = in the mornin) = e3poses 1hat Allah had concealedI: Our contemporaries4 at least in the An)lo=,a3on sector o% the 1orld4 can only see this as an inducement to hypocrisy7 The cult o% :honesty: has no1 )one so %ar that many people 8elie5e that nothin) they do matters so lon) as they are honest and open a8out it and ne5er pretend to 8e 8etter than they are> moreo5er4 to conceal 1hat one has done su))ests that one is ashamed o% onesel%4 and ho1 could this 8e in an a)e in 1hich the :sel%: is a )od = possi8ly the only )od there isG The moti5e = at least on the sur%ace = is a reaction a)ainst Jictorian :hypocrisy:4 althou)h 1hat 1as really 8lame1orthy in the people o% the nineteenth century 1as not their secreti5eness 8ut their sel%=ri)hteousness> 8ut4 at a deeper le5el4 ho1e5er parado3ical this may seem4 the passion %or sel%=e3posure 8etrays a desire %or reassurance and %or social appro5al7 I% I con%ess my sin ;uite shamelessly = puttin) upon it 1hate5er )loss I choose = and my %riends do not thin' less o% me4 then all is 1ell and I need not %eel trou8led7 For the uslim4 e5ery in%rin)ement o% the 0a14 e5ery sin4 has t1o ;uite separate aspects7 In the %irst place4 it relates to the indi5idual:s situation 5is=a=5is his Creator4 1hom he 'no1s to 8e e5er ready to %or)i5e4 pro5ided the sinner repents

and resol5es to do 8etter4 i% he can4 in the %uture7 ,econdly4 i% this sin is made pu8lic4 it is an encoura)ement to others to do li'e1ise> and this4 %rom the point o% 5ie1 o% the community = the ri)htly=)uided community = is the more serious aspect o% the matter7 $e all 'no1 ho1 ready most people are to copy each other and to 9usti%y 1hat they do in terms o% 1hat others ha5e done7 A 8ad e3ample held up 8e%ore the pu8lic )a<e is there%ore a 1ound in%licted upon the community4 underminin) the 0a1 and loosenin) ties o% relationship7 For this o%%ence4 %or)i5eness is less li'ely7 There are4 ho1e5er4 more pro%ound reasons %or protectin) the :na'edness: o% others and %or concealin) our o1n7 As 1as su))ested earlier4 %e1 personalities are uni%ied and all o% a piece7 For a man to try to co5er and inhi8it those elements 1ithin himsel% 1hich he 1ould li'e to o5ercome and to 8rin) %or1ard those 1hich he 1ould li'e to see triumphant is not :hypocrisy:7 I% he 1ould li'e to 8e 8etter than he is4 then he deser5es to 8e encoura)ed in this aim4 and there is somethin) 5ery peculiar a8out the contemporary tendency to re)ard a person:s 1orst ;ualities as representin) his :true: sel%4 althou)h it )oes hand in hand 1ith the common 8elie% that u)liness is in some stran)e 1ay more :real: than 8eauty and that to disco5er a shame%ul secret is to disco5er the truth7 Perhaps a saner point o% 5ie1 is su))ested 8y a story 1hich uslims tell a8out Fesus7 It is said that he 1as 1al'in) one day 1ith his disciples 1hen they passed the carcass o% a do)7 :Ho1 it stin'sI: said the disciples> 8ut Fesus said@ :Ho1 1hite its teeth areI: No one 1as e5er damned %or thin'in) too 1ell o% people7 It is said that his %ello1 mon's once called ,t Thomas A;uinas to the re%ectory 1indo14 cryin)@ :&rother Thomas4 come ;uic'ly and see a %lyin) o3I: He hea5ed his considera8le 8ul' out o% the chair and 1ent to the 1indo17 ,eein) nothin)4 he returned amidst moc'in) lau)hter and sat do1n a)ain4 sayin)@ :&etter to 8elie5e in a %lyin) o3 than in a lyin) mon'I: $e are4 8y nature4 poor 9ud)es o% anyone and anythin)4 and most %actual e5idence is partial i% not con%lictin)7 .ltimately4 there is a simple moral choice@ to 8elie5e the 8est or to 8elie5e the 1orst4 to ha5e %aith or to shrin' 8ac' %rom this leap in the dar' and 1himper in a corner until death ta'es us7 To return4 ho1e5er4 to the ;uestion o% presentin) one:s 8est %ace to the 1orld4 1e mi)ht consider the case o% a man 1ho is 1ithout any innate di)nity o% character or o% natural 8earin)@ i% he attempts to appear di)ni%ied %or the sa'e o% impressin) the people around him or %or material )ain4 then he is indeed a hypocrite> 8ut i% he does so %rom lo5e o% the ;uality o% di)nity4 its 8eauty and its honour4 and %rom a desire to 8e more 1orthy o% his Creator despite his o1n inade;uacies4 then 1hat do 1e call himG I% 1e could %oresee the %ate o% souls 1hen they come to the %inal Fud)ement 1e mi)ht 8e surprised 8y the 5erdict upon him4 and in any case it is none o% our 8usiness to pull a1ay his mas' and e3pose the ra1 and dis%i)ured %eatures in the name o% some a8stract notion o% :honesty:7 The ;uality o% personal di)nity = not least di)nity o% deportment = 1as certainly hi)hly 5alued in Islam in the past and4 in spite o% certain appearances today Adue to the in%luence o% modern $estern mannersB4 is still hi)hly 5alued amon) more

traditionally minded uslims7 This4 to)ether 1ith 1hat is o%ten re%erred to as the :cult o% politeness:4 does indeed )i5e rise to accusations o% :hypocrisy:> 8ut in so ti)ht='nit a society )ood manners are essential to maintain a certain distance 8et1een people4 a certain pri5acy7 0i%e 1ould 8e intolera8le in such a society i% e5eryone spo'e his mind7 &on9ean4 1hose re%erence to the :ecclesiastical mien: o% ordinary uslims 1as ;uoted earlier4 remar's that the :politeness: or :impoliteness: o% a people is that people4 it demonstrates the 5ery essence o% their character and their conception o% human li%e> and he as's4 :$ho is the truly polite uslimG: and concludes that this is the uslim 1ho has the %irmest hold on his o1n tradition4 1ho under all circumstances succeeds in ma'in) it :li5in) and acti5e: 1ithin himsel% and amon) other people4 and :1ho is 9ud)ed the least un1orthy o% ser5in) as a model %or his children4 %or his relati5es4 %or his nei)h8ours4 %or the inha8itants o% his ;uarter4 %or his city4 or %or simple passers=8y and %or tra5ellers4 %or the 1hole o% humanity:7 Another 1ay o% puttin) this 1ould 8e to say that this is the uslim 1ho comes closest to %ollo1in) the e3ample o% the Prophet4 and &on9ean himsel% adds that :at the end o% all the a5enues o% uslim politeness: is the a%%irmation la ilaha illa :0lah7 He says also that an element in this :cult o% politeness: is the a1areness that this 1orld is o% little conse;uence4 and adds that the uslim does not permit his )lance to lin)er upon the :1retchedness and 5ul)arity: insepara8le %rom our littleness> :the 8elie5er:D1E must not lose hold on the thou)ht o% "od e5en %or a moment7 1 Francois &on9ean4 in 0es Cahiers du ,ud7 &on9ean %urther discusses the si)ni%icance o% the Ara8ic term hishmah4 5ariously translated as :modesty:4 :reser5e:4 :discretion: or :decorum:4 1hich has 8een an essential and typical ;uality o% traditional uslim li%e and 1hich %or8ids loud tal'4 unruly 8eha5iour4 displays o% an)er or e3citement and4 in short4 all those modes o% 8eha5iour 1hich 1e see practised %airly 1idely in uslim countries today7 No1here does he mention the %amous :e)alitarianism: 1hich is supposed to 8e amon) the essential %eatures o% Islam4 unless one ac'no1led)es that to treat others 1ith politeness4 re)ardless o% their social position4 is in e%%ect to treat them as e;uals7 In this case4 as in so many others4 a term in common use 8ecomes misleadin) 1hen applied across a cultural %rontier4 and the e)alitarianism preached 8y le%t= 1in) uslims today pro5ides yet another e3ample o% ho1 the 8ody o% Islam may8e poisoned 8y secular ideolo)ies 1hich seem4 super%icially4 to resem8le certain Islamic principles and there%ore slip undetected across the %rontier7 odern e)alitarianism4 as 1e 'no1 it in the occidental 1orld4 has its roots in re8ellion and in a 8elie% in man:s po1er to mould his o1n destiny and o5ercome :unre)enerate: nature7 It is also one o% the lo)ical conclusions o% atheism4 %or i% there is nothin) 8eyond this li%e = no possi8le ri)htin) o% 1ron)s or compensation %or loss = then he 1ho does not recei5e his %air share in this 1orld is a once=and= %or=all loser7 The poor man 1ho4 %or Islam as %or Christianity4 is amon)st "od:s %a5oured creatures = already :8lessed: = is4 %rom this point o% 5ie14 eternally poor7 The French Re5olution4 1hich 8rou)ht e)alitarian doctrine on to the sta)e o%

history4 1as not only a re5olt a)ainst an aristocracy that had 8ecome de)enerate> it 1as a re5olt a)ainst reli)ion and4 ultimately4 a)ainst the :nature o% thin)s:7 There are undou8tedly circumstances under 1hich all men are e;ual7 They are e;ual in a prison or a 8rothel4 and they are e;ual in a monastery7 Occidental e)alitarianism Aas a principle4 %or it has ne5er 8een achie5ed in practiceB is that o% the prison or the 8rothel7 uslim e)alitarianism is that o% the monastery4 o% a reli)ious elite 1hich is in itsel% a 'ind o% aristocracy7 $hat Islam does reco)ni<e as an article o% %aith is the relati5ity o% all earthly di%%erences and the impossi8ility o% assessin) the true 5alue o% any man or 1oman in terms o% their social or economic position here7 oreo5er4 the po1er and the splendour o% "od reduce all that appears to 8e other=than=Him to dust7 :Hou are all the children o% Adam4: the Prophet said4 :and Adam 1as dust7: In the %ull li)ht o% the sun4 a 8eacon is no 8ri)hter than a candle> they are e;ual7 &ut 1hen the sun is not shinin) = 1hen "od 5eils His %ace4 as He does in this li%e = their di%%erence 8ecomes apparent7 There is e;uality not only in an elite 8ut also amon) the poor4 and the ?ur:an tells us@ :Hou are the poor4 He is the Rich:A?73(71,B7 uslim :e)alitarianism: ta'es account o% 8oth points o% 5ie1> there is a certain e;uality 8et1een all uslims 8ecause they %orm an elite4 the :8est o% people:4 and 8ecause they are dust4 8ecause = 8e%ore "od = they are :the poor:4 1ith no po1er4 no ri)hts4 no possessions Asince :all is His:B7 They are not do)s4 to ;uarrel o5er 8ones> and the ad5anta)es o% this 1orld are = under the di5ine 0i)ht = no more than dry 8ones in the desert7 Het here and no1@ :He it is 1ho hath placed you as Jiceroys on earth and hath raised some o% you in ran' a8o5e others4 that He may test you 8y that 1hich He hath )i5en you7 Indeed4 thy 0ord is s1i%t in punishment4 and He is indeed the For)i5in)4 the erci%ul:A?7*71*(B7 One aspect o% this :testin): is that 1e should not en5y those :raised in ran': a8o5e us4 or those more %a5oured than oursel5es in the )ood thin)s o% this earth@ :And ne5er turn thine eyes Din lon)in)E to1ards such splendour o% the li%e o% the 1orld as $e may ha5e allotted to others 777:A?7227131B7 No 5ice is more implaca8ly condemned in the Islamic perspecti5e than the 5ice o% en5y> and en5y4 precisely4 is the motor 1hich dri5es = into %ury and 8loodshed = the e)alitarian doctrines o% the post=Christian 1orld7 En5y4 the Prophet said4 :de5ours )ood deeds 9ust as %ire de5ours %uel:7 The social idea o% Islam is a community in 1hich each indi5idual li5es 1ithin his or her allotted role under the rule o% la14 %illin) out the mould pro5ided 8y the circumstances o% this 1orld = 1hile e5er conscious o% li5in) each moment o% li%e in the si)ht o% "od = 1ithin a secure 1e8 o% human relationships4 1al'in) on a strai)ht and 1ell=trodden path to1ards a )oal 1hich lies 8eyond the )ate1ay o% 8odily death7 The %act that a human society = or a )reat net1or' o% human societies = li5ed out this ideal4 seein) no reason to chan)e it %or another4 %or a thousand years su))ests 8oth a lesson and a 1arnin) %or today:s 1orld7 Chapter 12 THE H. AN PARA6OL

It is time to spea' a)ain o% Adam4 primordial or archetypal an> and to spea' also o% E5e4 1ithout 1hom the %irst creation 1ould ha5e 8een imper%ect and incomplete7 Christians ha5e lon) de8ated as to 1hether the &i8lical account o% our human ori)in is to 8e ta'en literally or alle)orically7 This de8ate is not %orei)n to Islam4 in relation to the ?ur:an4 8ut on the 1hole uslims ha5e 8een less trou8led 8y the ;uestion4 'no1in) = i% they are 1ise = that 8oth points o% 5ie1 may lie sa%ely 1ithin the )reat circle o% truth7 The ?uran descri8es the :Adamic: creation and the %all o% the %irst couple and4 %or the uslim4 the ?ur:an is in%alli8ly true> 1hether this truth is %actual in the historical sense or alle)orical is a matter o% perspecti5e and does not a%%ect its su8stance7 The distinction is less sharp than it appears to the $estern mind4 since 8oth historical %act and alle)ory are amon) the tools o% "od7 He teaches us and in%orms us throu)h the ?ur:an Aas also throu)h :%acts:B4 and He does so in the manner 8est adapted to our needs4 our mode o% understandin) and our intellectual and ima)inati5e capacity> so the ?uranic account o% the creation o% Adam ser5es the di5ine purpose4 and there is no occasion here %or 8rea'in) heads in ar)ument7 $hat matters is the meanin) trans%erred %rom That 1hich in%initely transcends us to the human mind4 1ith all its limitations> surely a miraculous trans%erence7 This meanin) relates4 not only to an e5ent remote in time4 8ut also to oursel5es4 %or 1e are all :the children o% Adam:4 %or)ed :%rom one soul:@ that is our identity4 %it to 8e entered on our passports7 :And 1hen thy 0ord said unto the an)els@ Truly I shall place on earth a Jicere)ent7 They said@ $ilt Thou place upon it one 1ho 1ill ma'e mischie% therein and 1ill shed 8loodG $hile4 as %or us4 1e cele8rate Thy )lory and e3tol Thy holiness7 He said@ Indeed I 'no1 1hat ye 'no1 notI :And He tau)ht Adam the names o% all thin)s4 then placed them 8e%ore the an)els4 sayin)@ Tell e the names o% these4 i% ye are truth%ul7 They said@ "lori%ied art ThouI No 'no1led)e ha5e 1e sa5e that 1hich Thou has tau)ht us7 Thou indeed art the All=!no1in)4 the $ise He said@ O AdamI In%orm them o% the names o% these Dthin)sE> and 1hen DAdamE had in%ormed them o% the names4 He said@ 6id I not say to you that I 'no1 the secrets o% the hea5ens and the earth> and I 'no1 1hat you sho1 and 1hat you hideG :And 1hen $e said unto the an)els@ Prostrate yoursel5es 8e%ore Adam4 then all %ell prostrate4 e3cept %or I8lis7 He re%used throu)h pride4 and 1as thus amon) the un8elie5ers7 And $e said@ O AdamI 61ell thou and thy 1i%e in the "arden4 and eat %reely Do% the %ruitsE thereo% 1here ye 1ill4 8ut approach not this tree lest ye 8ecome 1ron)doers7 &ut the ,atan caused them to depart %rom this and e3pelled them %rom the state in 1hich they 1ere 777:A?72732=3*B7 In another ,urah 1e are told that "od as'ed I8lis 1hy he had not prostrated himsel% 1hen commanded to do so4 and he replied@ :I am 8etter than heI Thou didst create me %rom %ire and him %rom clay: A?7+712B7 And 1e are told also that in temptin) Adam he 1hispered to him@ :,hall I sho1 thee the tree o% immortality and a 'in)dom that 1asteth not a1ayG: A?7227122B7

The chroniclers and commentators4D1E relyin) sometimes upon 1hat the Prophet himsel% said o% these matters and sometimes upon inspired ima)ination4 ha5e %illed out this narrati5e %rame1or' and coloured it in rich colours7 $ith their lo5e o% precise detail they tell us that the colour o% E5e:s hair 1as au8urn Ashahia4 a shade in 1hich 8lue and red are mi3edB4 and her loc's 1ere so lon) that you could actually hear them rustlin)7 ,he 1as so plump that her thi)hs cha%ed 1hen she 1al'ed4 and "od spo'e to Adam sayin)@ :This is y handmaiden4 and thou art my ser5ant4 O AdamI Nothin) I ha5e created is dearer to me than ye t1ain4 so lon) as ye o8ey e7: ,o much did He lo5e them that He and none other per%ormed the marria)e ceremony4 the archan)el "a8riel actin) as the )room:s %riend and the assem8led an)els as 1itnesses4 1hich is 1hy the uslim is commanded to ma'e pu8lic his 1eddin) ceremony4 %ollo1in) in the %ootsteps o% our %ather Adam7 All o% 1hich reminds us that the %irst human creation 1as a dual creation = :"lory to Him 1ho created the pairs777: A?73*73*B = 8ut that duality as such is di5isi5e and that t1o must a)ain 8e oned in their act o% union or in a dynamic unity constantly rene1ed7 Is not marria)e :hal% the reli)ion:G 1 ,ee in particular the ?isas al=An8iya: 8y al=!isa:i4 e3tracts translated in A Reader on Islam4 ed7 Arthur Fe%%ery A outon N Co74 1/*2B7 The commentators tell us the order o% precedence in 1hich the archan)els came to do o8eisance to Adam> they tell us also that he 'ne1 not only the names o% all thin)s4 8ut e5ery lan)ua)e4 e5en the lan)ua)es o% %ish and %ro)s7 They descri8e ho1 the an)els 8ore him on their shoulders4 so that he to1ered a8o5e them4 and carried him thus throu)h the paths o% hea5en7 Others stood all a8out4 ran' upon ran'4 and as he passed them he )reeted them 1ith the )reetin) o% peace4 to 1hich they replied@ :And upon thee 8e peace and the mercy o% Allah and His 8lessin)4 O Chosen o% Allah4 His pre%erred one4 the masterpiece o% His creationI: Ho1 to impress the pre=eminence o% Adam upon dull human mindsG This is the traditional 1ay@ it is said that a pulpit 1as set up %or him and that all the inha8itants o% hea5en 1ere summoned4 ran' upon ran'4 8e%ore him and that he 1as endo1ed 1ith a 5oice 1hich reached them all7 That day he 1as clothed in a )arment o% 8rocade li)ht as air4 1ith t1o 9e1el=encrusted )irdles anointed 1ith mus' and am8er)ris7 On his head 1as a )olden cro1n 1hich had %our corner= points4 each set 1ith a )reat pearl so luminous = or so transparent to the di5ine radiance = that its 8ri)htness 1ould ha5e put out the li)ht o% the sun and the moon7 Around his 1aist4 encirclin) his 5ery 8ein)4 1as the 8elt o% "od:s :"ood Pleasure: Arid1anB4 and the li)ht 1hich came %rom it penetrated into e5ery one o% the cham8ers o% Paradise7 Adam stood upri)ht 8e%ore the celestial assem8ly and )reeted them7 Then "od said@ :O AdamI For this Dsayin)E did I create thee4 and this )reetin) o% Peace shall 8e your )reetin) and that o% your descendants until the end o% time7: $hen he came do1n %rom the pulpit his radiance 1as e5en )reater than it had 8een 8e%ore7 A 8unch o% )rapes 1as 8rou)ht to him and he ate o% it7 This 1as the %irst celestial %ood he had tasted4 and 1hen he had satis%ied himsel% he said@ :Praise 8e to AllahI: And his Creator said@ :O AdamI For this Dsayin)E did I create thee4 and it shall 8e customary %or thee and thy descendants until the end o%

time7: &ut 1hen I8lis4 the satanic personi%ication4 heard that Adam had ta'en %ood4 he murmured@ :No1 I shall 8e a8le to seduce himI: &ut this shado1 had not yet materiali<ed to mar the splendour o% the occasion4 nor had its conse;uences = conse;uences in the midst o% 1hich 1e li5e out our li5es = and a )reat procession tra5ersed the hea5ens in unshado1ed li)ht4 primordial an mounted on his mi)hty steed and4 8eside him4 primordial $oman ridin) her no8le she=camel7 E5en in our t1ili)ht 1orld 1e may )limpse that radiance4 %or it is timeless4 and shado1s = 1hen all is said and done = are no more than shado1s> 8ut only on condition that 1e are true to our contract4 %or a co5enant 1as then made 8et1een "od and man4 sanctioned and 1itnessed 8y the hosts o% hea5en4 so that it could ne5er 8e put aside and so that the descendants o% Adam and E5e could ne5er escape %rom its o8li)ations4 to 1hich4 as seeds 1ithin Adam:s loins4 they %reely assented7 &y this co5enant human'ind ac'no1led)ed their 0ord 1ith a resoundin) :HesI: and committed themsel5es to perpetual a%%irmation7 The %all into relati5ity = :the Fall: = could not chan)e this commitment4 o% 1hich man'ind has 8een reminded 8y means o% consecuti5e re5elations4 nor could all trace o% Paradise 8e remo5ed either %rom human memory or %rom the earth7 It is said that 1hen Adam %ell he 8rou)ht 1ith him a little o% the scented air o% Paradise4 1hich clun) therea%ter to the trees and 5alleys and %illed all the place 1ith per%ume Athe per%umes 'no1n to us are deri5ed %rom that scented airB7 $ith him too came the &lac' ,tone4 1hich 1as then 1hiter than sno14 and oses: rod o% celestial myrtle=1ood> and Adam spo'e to his 0ord4 sayin)@ :O my 0ordI I 1as a near nei)h8our to Thee in Thy d1ellin)=place7 I had no other 0ord 8ut Thee7 There did I %eed in lu3ury and there did I d1ell 1heresoe5er I pleased4 8ut Thou didst cast me do1n 777 E5en then I still heard the 5oices o% the an)els and sa1 ho1 they 1ent around Thy throne4 and I still percei5ed the 8ree<es and scent o% the "arden7 &ut Thou hast cast me to the earth and reduced me to a hei)ht o% si3ty cu8its4 cuttin) me o%% %rom that hearin) and that seein) 77 7:D1E And it 1as then4 so 1e are told4 that "od made to Adam and to his pro)eny the promise that they 1ould ne5er 8e le%t 1ithout )uidance throu)h the dar'ness o% the land and the sea7 1 ?uoted %rom the !ita8 at=Ta8a;at al=!u8ra o% I8n ,a:d Ad7 A6 -#(B7 ,uch 1as Adam:s ran' and stature and that o% E5e4 his 1i%e7 Het :Adam 1as dust:7 an4 as such4 is the :Jicere)ent o% Allah on earth:4 8ut 1hen he %or)ets that he is only dust he loses this %unction and 8ecomes the :lo1est o% the lo1:A?7/(7(B7 As creature he is all and nothin)> in practice he is o8li)ed to choose 8et1een 8ein) all or nothin)7 Created4 accordin) to a sayin) o% the Prophet4 in the ima)e o% "od = a theomorphic 8ein)4 his nature re%lectin) as in a mirror the :Names: or attri8utes o% his 0ord = he is none the less a creature o% %lesh and 8lood4 %ashioned out o% the earth upon 1hich4 %or a short 1hile4 he 1al's4 and condemned to %all 8ac' into it4 a 1ay1ard creature %illed 1ith unappeasa8le lon)in)s and constantly tempted to satis%y them at the lo1est le5el4 to li5e 8eneath himsel%7 This is the parado3 1hich underlies the human situation7

There are a num8er o% di%%erent 1ays in 1hich the ?uranic insistence upon Adam:s superiority to the an)els may 8e e3plained4 and none o% them e3hausts its %ull si)ni%icance7 ,o %undamental a truth could not 8e con%ined to one re5elation = one reli)ion only = and the Christians are %amiliar 1ith it> accordin) to ,t "re)ory Palamas4 :Thou)h in many thin)s the an)els are superior to us4 yet in a certain 1ay they are none the less in%erior 777 they are so4 %or e3ample4 in respect o% e3istence accordin) to the ima)e o% the Creator4 %or in this sense 1e are created more per%ectly con%orma8le to the ima)e o% "od 777: This e3planation4 %amiliar also to a num8er o% uslim philosophers4 turns upon the %act that the an)els4 %or all their splendour4 are :peripheral: 8ein)s4 in the sense that each represents a particular aspect o% the di5ine Plenitude> no sin)le one amon) them re%lects in his nature the totality o% "od:s attri8utes7 The Per%ect an4 on the other hand4 thou)h %ar distant %rom the 0i)ht o% hea5en4 stands4 as it 1ere4 directly 8eneath the di5ine a3is and mirrors Totality7 This is 1hy man4 1hen his nature is %ully de5eloped and per%ectly 8alanced4 is descri8ed as a :central: 8ein)4 and this is 1hy it is possi8le %or him to 8e the :!hali%ah o% Allah on earth:4 the Jicere)ent7 oreo5er4 the an)els are incapa8le o% diso8edience and there%ore o% sin in any sense o% the term> as passi5e tools o% the di5ine $ill they are 1ithout responsi8ility or the po1er o% choice7 $e ha5e then a %urther parado3@ the %act that only a 8ein) capa8le o% choice and4 %or that 5ery reason4 capa8le o% sin can :represent: "od in His earthly domain7 Neither the an)els nor the animals are a8le to diso8ey their Creator> man has that option4 %or it is a necessary aspect o% his dele)ated responsi8ility and his pri5ile)ed situation7 It is precisely this situation = man:s :centrality: = that o%%ers him the possi8ility o% committin) monstrous crimes Ait is a8surd to spea' o% a criminal as :8eha5in) li'e an animal:> animals do not commit crimesB7 The more e3alted the creature4 the deeper the a8yss into 1hich he is capa8le o% %allin)7 The teachin) o% certain uslim philosophers that all the di5ine Names Aor :attri8utes:B are re%lected in the human heart o%%ers a 'ey to this parado37 A )enerous man is so 8ecause he re%lects the ;ualities e3pressed in the di5ine Name al=!arim4 :the "enerous:7 The man 1ho has 8eauty o% character or the 1oman 1ho has physical 8eauty re%lects somethin) o% al=Famil4 and the stron) man 1ould ha5e no stren)th 1ere it not %or al=?a1i :the ,tron):4 and al=?ahhar4 :the All=Compellin):7 &ut Allah is also and4 indeed4 essentially al=Ahad4 :the One:> One alone4 One 1ho has no partner4 the uni;ue4 the incompara8le7 From this Name is deri5ed the relati5e uni;ueness o% each human 8ein) and the %act that each is = at least potentially = a microcosm4 a totality7 It is commonplace in En)land to remind a child 1ho is too demandin) that he is :not the only pe88le on the 8each:7 The pro8lem is that e5ery one o% us4 in his innermost identity4 is = thou)h in an entirely relati5e sense = the :only pe88le:7 Each is4 in 5irtuality4 not only a man or a 1oman4 8ut an4 $oman7 $hen this spiritual ;uality is appropriated 8y the mortal e)o4 man ma'es himsel% a )od 8eside "od> the Jicere)ent usurps the place o% the !in)7 He is then alone in creation and all other creatures are either toys to play 1ith or o8structions

8loc'in) his 1ay> at the same time4 he %eels that they ha5e no real e3istence apart %rom him> %or4 indeed4 creatures ha5e no e3istence apart %rom "od7 an is the only creature 1ho 'ills his o1n 'ind as a matter o% course4D1E 1ho punishes them 8ecause they do not %it the pattern o% ri)hteousness 1hich seems to him un;uestiona8le4 and 1ho lusts %or a po1er and a dominion 1hich 1ill pro5e that he is truly one alone4 1ithout e;ual4 totally himsel%7 The )reatest sin4 in other 1ords4 is simply the o85erse side o% the supreme pri5ile)e 1hich man en9oys> and lesser 5ices also are the shado1s o% the 5irtues 1hich re%lect the di5ine Per%ection4 8earin) 1itness4 in a per5erse 1ay4 to the )randeur o% our state7 Animals ha5e a sa%e passa)e throu)h this 1orld4 8ut man is al1ays 8alancin) on the ed)e o% an a8yss4 and it is little 1onder that the an)els should ha5e %oreseen that this ne1 creation 1ould :ma'e mischie% in the earth:7 1 One o% the :ninety=nine Names: o% "od is al= umit4 :He 1ho slays:7 &ut the ?uranic account o% the creation o% Adam and the command to the an)els to prostrate themsel5es 8e%ore him sin)les out one particular point %or emphasis7 He had 8een )i5en a 'no1led)e 1hich the an)els do not possess7 He had 8een tau)ht :the names o% all thin)s:7 This too is an aspect o% his theomorphic nature4 %or as al=!hali;4 :the Creator:4 "od de%ines or sin)les out = 8y :namin): them = the possi8ilities 1hich ha5e it in them to appear outside the di5ine treasury in the theatre Ama<harB o% this 1orld7 As al=&ari He produces them and as al= usa11ir He shapes their earthly %orm4 8ut the %irst step is the supreme creati5e act o% :namin):7 Islam is commonly re)arded as the reli)ion o% 0a14 8ut it is a8o5e all the reli)ion o% !no1led)e> not that there is any contradiction here7 As 1as mentioned earlier4 the Ara8ic 1ord %or :0a1: has the primary meanin) o% :understandin): and there%ore relates to 'no1led)e7 To 'no1 the :name: o% somethin) is to possess it in our understandin) and to percei5e it 1ith the eyes o% our intelli)ence7 The Prophet said that :Allah has created nothin) more no8le than intelli)ence:> and he said also that :the superiority o% the learned man o5er the ordinary 1orshipper is li'e the superiority o% the %ull moon o5er the stars:7 Accordin) to the ?ur:an4 He 1ho is the All=!no1in) :)rants 1isdom to 1hom He pleases4 and 1homsoe5er has 8een )ranted 1isdom has indeed 8een )i5en a8undant 1ealth: A?7272*/B7 :Are those 1ho 'no1 and those 1ho are i)norant to 8e deemed e;ualG:A?73/7/B7 For Islam4 'no1led)e4 intelli)ence and understandin) de%ine man as such7 $e cannot de%ine him as a creature 1ho is )ood or 1ho is stron)4 or e5en as one 1ho is lo5in)> 8ut 1e can de%ine him as one 1ho understands = or is capa8le o% understandin)7 0est 1e should suppose4 e5en %or one moment4 that 'no1led)e can 8e ours to possess and to hoard4 the ?ur:an reminds us that :He 'no1eth> ye 'no1 not:A?72#71/B7 Adam 1as tau)ht the names o% all thin)s 8y "od4 and Adam 1as = accordin) to the Islamic perspecti5e = a Prophet> uhammad recei5ed the ?uran %rom the same source4 the only source %rom 1hich true 'no1led)e may 8e deri5ed4 and he 1as the last o% the Prophets to %ollo1 in Adam:s %ootsteps7 I% the uslim is to tap that same source and 8ecome :one 1ho understands:4 he has no choice 8ut to model himsel% upon this :per%ect e3emplar:4 imitatin) uhammad so %ar as he is a8le4 8oth in his character and in his mode o% action7 ,ince the Prophet

is :closer to the 8elie5ers than their Do1nE sel5es:A?7337*B4 it can 8e said that he is the 8elie5er:s alter e)o or = to ta'e this a step %urther = more truly :onesel%: than the collection o% %ra)ments and contrary impulses 1hich 1e commonly identi%y as the :sel%:7 This is 1hy the hadith literature is o% such immense importance in the e5eryday li%e o% the uslim> and the record is so e3tensi5e that it is al1ays possi8le4 e5en amon) learned people4 %or someone to astonish and deli)ht his %riends 8y ;uotin) to them a :Prophet story:4 or a sayin) o% 1hich they had not pre5iously heard7 The intimate 'no1led)e 1e ha5e o% uhammad:s li%e Amuch o% 1hich 1e o1e to :A:ishaB is4 %rom a practical point o% 5ie14 9ust as important as his reli)ious teachin) and the e3ample he set in a%%airs o% )reater conse;uence7 The 8elie5er %eels close to him in li%e and hopes to 8e closer still a%ter death4 lo5in) him not only as master and as )uide 8ut also as 8rother=man7 It is in the li)ht o% this relationship that 1e may understand parts o% the record 1hich o%ten appear tri5ial to the occidental4 such as :A:isha:s meticulous account o% the manner in 1hich they 1ashed %rom a sin)le 8o1l a%ter ma'in) lo5e4 and her added comment4 :he 1ould )et ahead o% me and I used to say4 C"i5e me a chance4 )i5e me a chanceIC: It is o%ten %rom ;uite minor incidents that 1e )et the clearest impression o% his style4 particularly o% his un%ailin) common sense7 A 1oman 1ho had 8arely escaped 1ith her li%e %rom some raiders 8y ma'in) o%% on one o% the Prophet:s camels told him@ :I 5o1ed that I 1ould sacri%ice the camel to Allah i% he sa5ed me 8y means o% her7: :That is a poor re1ard4: he said7 :Allah sa5ed you 8y means o% her and no1 you 1ant to 'ill her7 0ea5e the animal aloneI: addin) = one supposes as an a%terthou)ht = :&esides4 she happens to 8e my property7: One is immediately 1arned a)ainst a certain 'ind o% :piety: 1hich readily sacri%ices other people:s interests to pro5e itsel%7 His disli'e %or inter%erin) in pri5ate matters 1as also an essential aspect o% his style as leader o% the community7 A 1oman 1ho had de5eloped a disli'e %or her hus8and dro5e him out o% the house4 althou)h he lo5ed her deeply A:I can still picture him4: said I8n :A88as4 1ho told the story4 :%ollo1in) 8ehind her in the streets o% edina 1ith the tears runnin) do1n his 8eardB:7 The Prophet as'ed her i% she 1ould not ta'e her hus8and 8ac'7 ,he in;uired 1hether he 1as )i5in) her a command4 and he said he 1as simply intercedin) %or the man7 :In that case4: she said4 :I ha5e no need o% himI: In the uslim perspecti5e such incidents are not necessarily di%%erent in essence4 or any less 1onder%ul4 than Adam:s preachin) to the multitude o% an)els> and this is somethin) that the occidental has particular di%%iculty in )raspin)7 Al="ha<<ali Ad7 A6 1111B4 1ho is one o% the most 1idely accepted authorities4 1rote o% the true uslim as one 1ho :imitates the essen)er o% Allah in his )oin)s out and his comin)s in4 his mo5ements and his times o% rest4 the manner o% his eatin)4 his deportment4 his sleep and his speech:7 ,o a man should sit 1hile puttin) on his trousers and stand 1hile puttin) on his tur8an4 start 1ith the ri)ht %oot 1hen puttin) on his shoes and4 1hen cuttin) his nails4 8e)in 1ith the %ore%in)er o% the ri)ht hand> and al="ha<<ali mentions the case o% a pious man 1ho ne5er dared eat a melon4 much as he 1ished to do so4 8ecause he could not disco5er the precise manner in 1hich "od:s essen)er ate melons7 6id he cut them into se)mentsG 6id he perhaps scoop the %lesh out 1ith a spoonG $e shall

ne5er 'no17 &ut this out1ard o8ser5ance is4 o% course4 meanin)less unless it 8oth re%lects and en)enders a pro%ound in1ard con%ormity to the per%ect e3emplar4 )i5en us 8y "od as :a mercy to man'ind:4 a con%ormity o% the 8elie5er:s soul to the soul o% uhammad7 There are certain plants and shru8s 1hich need to )ro1 on a trellis or support o% some 'ind i% they are to )ro1 to per%ection> other1ise they spra1l on the )round4 1ithout direction4 their lea5es consumed 8y snails and slu)s4 their purpose un%ul%illed7 an is a :clim8er: too4 and 1e do not need to see' %ar a%ield %or e3amples o% the human incapacity to )ro1 = or e5en to %unction in a truly human 1ay = 1ithout a support4 a %rame1or'4 a model7 The ,unnah o% the Prophet pro5ides not only a %rame1or' 8ut also4 as it 1ere4 a net1or' o% channels into 1hich the 8elie5er:s 1ill enters and throu)h 1hich it %lo1s smoothly4 8oth )uided and )uarded7 It is not his 1ay4 the uslim:s 1ay4 to cut ne1 channels %or his 5oliti5e li%e throu)h the recalcitrant materials o% this 1orld4 a)ainst the )rain o% thin)s7 At %irst si)ht one mi)ht e3pect this to produce a tedious uni%ormity7 All the e5idence indicates that it does nothin) o% the 'ind> and anyone 1ho has had close contact 1ith )ood and pious uslims 1ill 'no1 that4 althou)h they li5e 1ithin a shared pattern o% 8elie% and 8eha5iour4 they are o%ten more sharply di%%erentiated one %rom another than are pro%ane people4 their characters stron)er and their indi5idualities more clearly delineated7 They ha5e modelled themsel5es upon a transcendent norm o% ine3hausti8le richness4 1hereas pro%ane people ha5e ta'en as their model the %ashions o% the time7 To put it another 1ay@ the )reat 5irtues = and it is the Prophet:s 5irtues that the 8elie5er stri5es to imitate = can4 it seems4 8e e3pressed throu)h human nature in countless di%%erent 1ays4 1hereas 1orldly %ashion induces uni%ormity7 In media ad5ertisements one :%ashion model: loo's 5ery much li'e another7 None the less4 occidentals see in all this an a8sence o% :spontaneity: and a process o% :depersonali<ation:7 The 1ord :spontaneity:4 1hich4 8y its deri5ation4 re%ers to action sprin)in) %rom the deepest source o% our 8ein)4 has 8een much misused in recent times7 It has come to mean thou)htless and unconsidered reaction in response to out1ard stimuli4 althou)h the dictionary still de%ines it as action :occurrin) 1ithout e3ternal cause:4 1hich is the 5ery opposite to this7 The uslim 1ay o% li%e certainly discoura)es automatic reactions to the e5ents 1hich impin)e upon us = as does the uslim code o% manners = 8ut it is this4 precisely4 that ma'es possi8le the e3ercise o% true spontaneity7 This recalls a hadith ;uoted earlier concernin) the 5irtue o% :slo1ness: and the satanic nature o% :haste:7 ,pontaneous action comes4 not %rom the sur%ace personality 8ut %rom the deepest source o% our 8ein)4 and it is at that le5el that the Prophet is :closer to the 8elie5ers than their o1n sel5es:7 A num8er o% orientalists ha5e claimed that Islam4 as they see it4 :depersonali<e: man 8y its demand that he should model himsel% upon another rather than :8e himsel%:7 The same could 8e said o% any reli)ion4 not least Christianity> 8ut :8ein) onesel%: is an am8i)uous phrase 1hich means one thin) to the 8elie5er and ;uite another to the a)nostic7 The sacri%ice Aor transmutationB o% the empirical sel%hood is one o% the 8asic re;uirements o% spirituality4 1hether uslim4 Christian4 Hindu or

&uddhist4 8ut since this out1ard sel%hood or e)o is situated in a 1orld o% thin)s 1hich chan)e and die4 its sacri%ice merely hastens the ine5ita8le Athe Prophet is reported to ha5e said@ :6ie 8e%ore you dieI:B7 ean1hile4 the ;uestion is not 1hether 1e should :lose oursel5es: = since all do so in one 1ay or another = 8ut 1here 1e lose oursel5es@ in li)ht or in dar'ness4 in )ood dreams or in ni)htmares4 in truth or in %alsehood7 Curiously enou)h4 it is only since many people ha5e come to see the human person as a meanin)less accident in a meanin)less uni5erse Ain accordance 1ith 1hat they suppose to 8e the :scienti%ic: 5ie1B that they ha5e attached such importance to the empirical sel%hood4 and resented so 8itterly 1hate5er sa5ours o% the :impersonal: in traditional reli)ion7 They are o8li)ed there%ore to put their %aith in a %iction and to clin) to it in the coldness o% space and the de5ourin) %ire o% time7 For 1ho is this :person:G Is he mysel% as a 8a8y or as a child4 as a youth cau)ht in the net o% 9oy4 middle=a)ed4 senile or at the moment o% deathG $e cannot locate him 1ith any certainty7 All 1e 'no1 is that there e3ists4 8et1een the a)ed man and his childhood sel%4 a causal relationship4 to)ether 1ith a %ra)ile lin' o% memory> 1e are o8li)ed to admit that he is not4 in any practical sense4 the same person7 $hat 1as said earlier re)ardin) the human personality as a city o% many %actions = :my name is le)ion: = is rele5ant here7 On the one hand 1e are su89ect to constant chan)e in the course o% time> on the other 1e are not e5en :all o% one piece: in any )i5en moment o% time7 I% 1e are in search o% a :real sel%:4 then 1e must see' it else1here> in unity Ata1hidB4 in reli)ion A1hich4 accordin) to its 0atin deri5ation4 means :8indin):B7 .nity o% the out1ard and the in1ard4 8indin) o% the out1ard to the in1ard7 I% 1e en5isa)e the out1ard personality as the chan)in) e3pression or pro9ection o% an unchan)in) nucleus or centre4 then 1e may 8e)in to )limpse an ans1er to the perennial ;uestion@ :$ho am IG: &ut 1e cannot stop here> there is one more step to 8e ta'en 8e%ore the ;uestion is %inally resol5ed7 This centre4 called 8y uslims Athou)h not 8y uslims aloneB the :heart:4 is indeed the central point to 1hich our out1ard personality corresponds as periphery4 8ut althou)h it is :1ithin: us4 it is not :ours:7 It 8elon)s to "od4 and it is eternally present 1ith Him> and yet4 since it is also :1ithin: us4 it is the place 1here He is present4 immanent7 In other 1ords4 i% 1e penetrate su%%iciently deeply into oursel5es = throu)h all the layers o% dreams and o% dar'ness = 1e come out into the open and %ind e5erythin) there> hence the sayin) o% the Prophet@ man :ara%a na%sahu :ara%a ra88ahu4 :he 1ho 'no1s himsel% 'no1s his 0ord:7 uslim mystics re%er to the :heart: as the 8ar<a'h4 1hich means :isthmus:> on the one side is the sea o% this 1orld4 su89ect to 1ind and 1eather> on the other4 the ocean o% the &eyond4 the celestial ocean7 An isthmus di5ides t1o 8odies o% 1ater4 8ut it is also the lin' 8et1een them7 On this side you step into the sea o% chan)e4 8ut i% you cross that little strip o% land4 you may plun)e into the )reat ocean7 The isthmus 8elon)s to 8oth4 9ust as the :heart:4 the centre4 is ours and yet not ours7 $e are reminded o% the intimate lin' 8et1een a1areness o% "od on the one hand and sel%='no1led)e on the other in a ?uranic 5erse@ :&e not as those 1ho %or)ot Allah so that He caused them to %or)et their o1n sel5es Aan%usahumB:A?7(/71/B>

and accordin) to a hadith ;udsi :Neither in the earth nor in the hea5ens is there space %or e4 8ut in the heart o% my 8elie5in) ser5ant there is space %or e7: There are some 1ho ha5e ;uestioned the authenticity o% this hadith4 8ut it has 8een the inspiration o% a num8er o% pro%oundly important spiritual teachin)s 1ithin Islam and it is echoed in Christianity> not only 8y An)elus ,ilesius A1ho may ha5e 8een in%luenced 8y Islamic teachin)sB4 1hen he 1rote that :the ost Hi)h is a8solutely 1ithout measure4 and yet a human heart can enclose Him entirely:> 8ut also 8y eister Ec'hardt4 1hen he said@ :"od mi)ht ma'e num8erless hea5ens and earths4 yet these 777 1ould 8e o% less e3tent than a needle:s point compared 1ith the standpoint o% a soul atuned to "od7: I% there is space in the 8elie5er:s heart %or the Creator Himsel%4 then there is certainly space in his soul %or creation7 an contains the uni5erse 1ithin himsel% more surely than the uni5erse contains him7 Here 1e ha5e a %urther indication o% his %unction as the Jicere)ent o% "od on earth7 The human heart = the central point o% his 8ein) = is 1here the :t1o seas: meet4 the lin' 8et1een 1hat is a8o5e and 1hat is 8eneath4 and it is said to 8e 8y means o% the :Eye o% the Heart: that "od sees us and that 1e :see: Him7 In the 1ords o% a contemporary uslim 1riter@ :I% the earth 8e li'ened to a 1indo1less house4 then man is a 1atch=to1er in the house4 and the Eye o% the Heart is as a sin)le 1indo1 in that 1atch=to1er4 to 1hich all the d1ellers in the house loo' up %or their li)ht7D1E $ithout this Eye man ceases to %ul%il his essential %unction4 ha5in) %allen %rom his true nature> 8ut 1ith this Eye he is the sole earthly receptacle o% the spiritual li)ht4 o% 1hich he is the dispenser amon) his %ello1 creatures4 so that 777 thou)h he does not possess the Hea5ens4 yet the Hea5ens o% themsel5es lean do1n to touch the earth in him4 its hi)hest point7:D2E 1 The house 1ithout a 1indo1 is hell4: says Rumi4 addin)@ :The %unction o% reli)ion is to ma'e a 1indo1: A athna1i> 11172#2#B7 2 The &oo' o% Certainty4 A8u &a'r ,ira9 Ed=6in ANe1 Hor'@ ,amuel $eiser Inc7B4 pp732=317 It is clear that i% 1e are to %ul%il our true %unction4 1e must %irst identi%y and then 8ecome our true sel5es> the man alienated %rom his o1n centre is alienated %rom all thin)s4 not only a stran)er to himsel% 8ut also a stran)er in the uni5erse7 Het he cannot %ind the centre nor can 8e :8ecome himsel%: 1ithout help7 For the uslim4 the Prophet not only sho1s us the 1ay to the centre 8ut4 in a certain sense4 is himsel% the 1ay4 since it is 8y ta'in) him as our model4 or 8y enterin) into the mould o% his personality4 that 1e are 8est a8le to tra5el to our destination7 Action 1hich sprin)s %rom our o1n true centre = :1ithout e3ternal cause:4 as the dictionary has it = is the only truly :spontaneous: action4 and it is there%ore in imitatin) him that 1e achie5e spontaneity7 &ut 1hat o% those 1ho do not accept the )uidance o% a di5ine messen)er or %ollo1 in his %ootstepsG $hat o% those 1ho ne5er %ul%il their %unctionG $e are told that e5en their )ood actions are 1ithout su8stance and count %or nothin) in the scales o% 9ustice4 and this is a hard thin) %or the modern a)nostic = or e5en the :li8eral: Christian = to understand7 The ?uran4 ho1e5er4 is ;uite e3plicit on this point7 A%ter as'in)4 :$ho are the )reatest losers 8y their 1or'sG: it )i5es the ans1er@ :Those 1hose e%%ort )oes

astray in the present li%e althou)h they rec'on that they are doin) )ood deeds:A?71-7123=12#B> and as %or :the li'eness o% those 1ho dis8elie5e in their 0ord4 their 1or's are as ashes 1hich the 1ind 8lo1s a1ay on a stormy day: A?71#71-B7 Or a)ain4 :their deeds are as a mira)e in a desert 1hich the thirsty man supposes to 8e 1ater4 until he comes to it and %inds it is nau)ht4 and %inds4 in its place4 Allah777:A?72#73/B7 ,o %ar as the actions o% those 1ho :desire the li%e o% the 1orld and its )lamour: are concerned4 :1hat they contri5e here is 5ain4 and 5oid are their 1or's:A?71171(BD1E 1 Accotdin) to a hadith recorded 8y 8oth &u'hari and uslim4 A8u Huraira reported "od:s essen)er as sayin)4 :None o% you 1ill 8e rescued 8y his 1or's:4 and addin)4 :8ut i% you 'eep to the strai)ht path4 are moderate4 pray mornin) and e5enin) and part o% the ni)ht4 and earnestly practise moderation4 then you 1ill reach Dthe )oalE7: Here the issue is not one o% morality4 nor can it 8e reduced = as the a)nostic mi)ht suppose = to a ;uestion o% :punishment: %or un8elie%7 It is much 1ider than that and much more pro%ound4 %or it has to do 1ith the nature o% reality4 or perhaps one should say 1ith the nature o% unreality7 The out1ard personality4 1hen it loses all connection 1ith its Creator4 the source o% its 8ein)4 and is cut o%% %rom its o1n centre4 has a shado1y ;uality4 and the 1or's o% shado1s can ha5e no su8stance7 It is a 8asic principle o% Islam that all )ood = and all that is positi5e = ori)inates 1ith "od7 I% a man has no centre4 then he has no endurin) identity to 1hich )ood deeds mi)ht adhere so as to 8e counted in his %a5our 1hen he comes to 9ud)ement7 0i5in) amidst mira)es4 he is a stran)er to reality until the day 1hen4 his illusions stripped a1ay4 he %inally comes %ace to %ace 1ith the Real4 Allah4 his hands empty and his past li%e meanin)less7D2E 2 any contemporary Christians %ind this doctrine cruel and there%ore untena8le7 They li'e to 8elie5e that :nice: people = e5en nice ar3ists = )o to hea5en e%%ortlessly7 Het Christianity4 8oth Roman and Protestant4 holds 8asically the same 5ie1 althou)h %rom a di%%erent perspecti5e Athat o% :ori)inal sin:B7 For 0uther4 in particular4 1or's 1ithout %aith can do nothin) 1hatsoe5er to sa5e a soul %rom damnation> a li%etime spent in sel%less ser5ice to humanity counts %or nothin) i% %aith is lac'in)7 It should hardly 8e necessary to add that no one = no theolo)ian4 uslim or Christian = can presume to ,et limits to the torrential4 all=encompassin) mercy o% "od> 8ut4 e;ually4 no one can presume to ta'e this mercy %or )ranted either in his o1n case or in the case o% others 1ho ha5e %ailed in their primary human o8li)ation7 ,ins may 8e punished or they may 8e %or)i5en at the time o% rec'onin)4 8ut a %undamental error concernin) the nature o% reality is compara8le to 8lindness4 and 1e are told that4 :$hosoe5er is 8lind here 1ill 8e 8lind in the herea%ter and e5en %urther astray:A?71+7+2B7 To the ma9or errors o% 'u%r A:un8elie%: or the denial o% truthB and shir' Athe association o% other :)ods: 1ith "odB4 Islam adds a third4 in)ratitude> 8ut this is so closely 8ound up 1ith un8elie% that the same 1ord ser5es %or 8oth and it is the conte3t that indicates the precise meanin)7 In)ratitude4 ho1e5er4 also parta'es o% the error o% shir'4 since it in5ol5es

attri8utin) to oursel5es 1hat should ri)htly 8e attri8uted solely to "od and4 in this 1ay4 supposin) oursel5es to 8e :)ods:7 :This DpunishmentE $e a1arded them 8ecause o% their in)ratitude4: says the ?ur:an> :6o $e punish any sa5e the un)rate%ulG:A?73#71+B7 The reason is plain@ :And it is Allah 1ho 8rou)ht you %orth %rom your mothers: 1om8s 'no1in) nothin)4 and He )a5e you hearin) and si)ht and hearts that you mi)ht )i5e than's:A?71*7+-B> and a)ain@ :It is Allah 1ho made %or you the ni)ht that you may rest therein4 and the day %or seein)4 indeed Allah is 8ounti%ul to man'ind 8ut most men )i5e not than's 777 It is Allah 1ho made %or you the earth as a d1ellin) and the hea5ens as a canopy4 and %ashioned you and shaped you 1ell4 and hath pro5ided you 1ith )ood thin)s7 ,uch is Allah4 your 0ord4 the Creator o% all thin)s4 so )lori%ied 8e Allah4 the 0ord o% the 1orlds7 He is the 0i5in)4 there is no )od sa5e Him7 Call4 then4 unto Him4 ma'in) reli)ion sincere %or Him7 Praise he to Allah the 0ord o% the 1orldsI:A?7#27*1O*#=*(B7 "od )a5e to Adam and to his descendants the )i%t o% intelli)ence4 as'in) in return4 not %or 8lind praise4 8ut %or a lucid and 9oy%ul understandin) o% the nature o% all thin)s and their source7 It is there%ore incum8ent upon us to reco)ni<e the %acts o% our situation4 1hich is one o% total dependence4 total inde8tedness7 ,uch a state o% dependence seems to the modern occidental intolera8le4 thou)h it cannot 8e so to the )enuine Christian7 ,ince the Renaissance $estern man has prided himsel% upon his independence4 i% upon nothin) else4 and this independence is closely 8ound up 1ith a spirit o% re8ellion a)ainst "od4 a)ainst destiny and a)ainst the 5ery nature o% thin)s7 Prometheus stole %ire %rom hea5en> he did not 1ait to 8e )i5en it4 and Prometheus is the model7 The uslim4 8ein) pro%oundly practical4 sees this not as heroism 8ut as %oolishness7 Facts4 he says4 are %acts7 $e are totally dependent upon "od4 and that is that7 The e5idence is all around us7 There are a thousand 1ays in 1hich our e3istence may 8e terminated 8et1een one moment and the ne3t> a simple dru) 1ill trans%orm the most intelli)ent amon) us into an idiot4 or the 8ra5est amon) us into a co1ard> and 1e 'no1 %rom our readin) i% not %rom e3perience that techni;ues o% torture4 more 1idely practised today than at any time in the past4 can destroy e5ery 5esti)e o% human di)nity in a 5ery short time7 ,uch human di)nity as 1e may ha5e and the Jicere)ent o% "od is indeed a %i)ure o% )reat di)nity = is a ro8e loaned to us4 9ust as a 1oman:s 8eauty is loaned to her4 9ust as our s'ills4 1hether hereditary or ac;uired4 are on loan4 as are our stren)ths and our 5irtues7 $e can claim nothin) as 8ein) truly ours e3cept %or our 1ea'nesses and our 5ices4 to)ether 1ith the ill 1e do in the 1orld> %or the ?ur:an assures us that all )ood comes %rom "od4 all ill %rom man7 $e do not e5en control the 8reath o% li%e 1ithin us4 and@ :No soul 'no1eth 1hat it 1ill earn tomorro1 nor doth any soul 'no1 in 1hat land it 1ill die7 Truly Allah is the !no1er4 the A1areI:A?73173#B7 E3istence is pure )i%t7 Consciousness is pure )i%t7 Our eyes and ears4 our hands and our %eet are )i%ts4 as are our se3ual or)ans7 ountains and ri5ers and the 8lue sea are )i%ts4 as is the air 1e 8reathe> so too is li)ht4 and the dar'ness )i5en us %or rest7 The nourishment 1hich comes %rom the earth4 or 1hich = 8y a 5ery special

concession to our 1ea'ness = 1e are permitted to ta'e %rom the 8odies o% the animal creation and %rom the %ish o% the sea4 is a )i%t7 &ut a8o5e all4 the a1areness 1hich 8rin)s these to)ether in consciousness and in en9oyment4 and the po1er 1e are )i5en to ac'no1led)e their source and to )i5e praise4 are di5ine )i%ts7 To 8e un)rate%ul is to close oursel5es o%% %rom the supreme )i%t4 )reater than all these> the )i%t o% the di5ine ercy and4 ultimately4 o% Paradise4 1here all such )i%ts are incalcula8ly ma)ni%ied7 In a mortal 8ody and in a dyin) 1orld4 1e praise and )i5e than's7 It is %or this4 says the uslim4 that 1e 1ere created7 Occidental man does not deny this dependence in principle7 I% he is a Christian4 he 'no1s himsel% to 8e a 1retched sinner4 %it only %or damnation unless redeemed 8y Christ:s 8lood7 I% he is an a)nostic and 8elie5es that :scienti%ic: theories are a comprehensi5e %orm o% 'no1led)e4 he sees himsel% as a chance a))lomeration o% particles and ener)ies = mon'ey4 son o% mon'ey = and certainly o% no account7 Het still4 e5en in ra)in) dar'ness4 he has his stu88orn pride> he thin's himsel% the con;ueror o% nature and there%ore4 ultimately4 o% the "od in 1hom he does not necessarily 8elie5e7 This indeed is the Promethean herita)e4 a sic'ness that has come do1n throu)h the centuries %rom a "raeco=Roman 1orld 1hich had lost its soul7 There are some 5ery stran)e s'eletons in the cup8oard o% the occidental mind7 &ut )ratitude on a %ine day in a happy %amily is one thin)4 )ratitude in the %ace o% loss and su%%erin) is ;uite another7 ,u%%erin) has 8een 1ith us %or a lon) time4 to say the least4 8ut the :pro8lem o% su%%erin): as the dominant theme o% reli)ious and philosophical de8ate is o% %airly recent ori)in7 It 8ecomes a pro8lem on this scale only 1hen a )reat num8er o% people 8e)in to %eel that it should not e3ist and that human 8ein)s ha5e some 'ind o% ri)ht to perpetual happiness7 There are still )ood Christians 1ho4 in the %ace o% 8itter loss4 are a8le to say4 :The 0ord )i5eth and the 0ord ta'eth a1ay4 8lessed 8e the name o% the 0ordI:4 re9oicin) in the )i%t and acceptin) the loss4 8ut they are in a minority> %or most people in the $est today4 a "od 1ho allo1s us to su%%er is not a "od in 1hom it is easy to 8elie5e7 The uslim 5ie1 is 8ased upon an a1areness that all 1e ha5e or en9oy is a )i%t or a loan4 and upon an acceptance o% the destiny 1illed 8y "od %or each indi5idual soul7 On the one hand@ :Allah as'eth nau)ht o% any soul sa5e that 1hich He hath )i5en it:A?7*(7+B4 :He it is 1ho causeth you to lau)h and causeth you to 1eep4 and He it is 1ho )i5eth death and )i5eth li%e: A?7(37#3M#B4 and :To Allah 1e 8elon) and unto Him 1e return:A?7271(*B> and4 on the other4 :No a%%liction 8e%alleth in the earth or 1ithin yoursel5es 8ut it is in a Record 8e%ore $e 8rin) it into 8ein) = indeed that is easy %or AllahI = that you may not )rie5e o5er 1hat escapes you nor re9oice o5er 1hat comes to you:A?7(+722=23B7 The 'no1led)e that "od is the sole O1ner o% oursel5es and o% all that e3ists does not preclude human emotions4 1hich are themsel5es "od=)i5en7 Once4 1hen the Prophet 1as occupied 1ith some people4 one o% his dau)hters sent him a messa)e that her little son 1as dyin)> he told the messen)er to return and remind her that4 :$hat Allah ta'es 8elon)s to Him4 1hat He )i5es 8elon)s to Him4 and He has an appointed time %or e5eryone 777: His dau)hter then sent the messen)er 8ac'

as'in) him to come to her4 and he 1ent to her house 1ith some o% his companions7 The child 1as no1 on the point o% death4 and tears %lo1ed %rom the Prophet:s eyes7 :$hat is thisG: one o% the people as'ed him7 :This4: he said4 :is compassion4 1hich Allah has placed in the hearts o% His ser5ants7 Allah sho1s compassion only to those o% His ser5ants 1ho are compassionate7: Ho1 is this to 8e reconciled 1ith the ?uranic command not to )rie5eG The point4 clearly4 is that our natural %eelin)s must ne5er 8e ta'en out o% their proper sphere and ele5ated to the ran' o% philosophical principles7 The %act that I am sad does not mean that the 1orld is out o% 'ilter4 the %act that I ha5e 8een hurt does not mean that "od is un9ust4 and the %act that my personal li%e may ha5e 8een dar'ened 8y tra)edy does not mean that no sun shines upon creation7 It is 1hen emotion is transposed to a di%%erent dimension that 1e ha5e a :pro8lem o% su%%erin): and this4 precisely4 is 1hat has happened in our time7 $hen mis%ortune stri'es pro%ane people they su%%er on t1o le5els and their pain is dou8led7 On the one hand4 there is the mis%ortune as such and the pain they %eel> on the other4 there is the 8elie% that it should ne5er ha5e happened and that its happenin) pro5es somethin) 5ery 8itter and 5ery u)ly a8out the nature o% the 1orld Aand i% they 8rin) "od into it4 then a8out the nature o% "odB7 They su%%er 8ecause :somethin) is 1ron):> and then they su%%er a)ain 8ecause :e5erythin) is 1ron):7 At the end o% this particular road is the a8yss 1hich 1e call despair4 a )ra5e :sin: %or the uslim4 as it is %or the Catholic Christian4 %or no1 a 1ound 1hich may initially ha5e 8een clean and simple has suppurated and poisoned the 8loodstream7 ,ince no one can li5e or %unction in constant pain 1hich %eeds upon itsel%4 and in an empty uni5erse 1ithout mercy and 1ithout meanin)4 a third e5il = the )reatest o% all = 9oins itsel% to the other t1o4 and this is hardenin) o% the heart7 The pious uslim endures4 as does the pious Christian4 8ecause he is assured that a stream o% li)ht %lo1s deep 8eneath the dar' land he no1 inha8its4 e5en i% he can neither see it nor sense it7 &ut there is little 5irtue = indeed4 there is much 5ice = in an endurance 8ased upon the desensiti<in) o% all those %aculties throu)h 1hich 1e respond to "od4 to nature and to our %ello1s7 Anythin) is pre%era8le to this4 e5en the most a89ect 8rea'do1n4 since there can 8e no hope %or those 1ho are spiritually dead4 slain 8y their o1n hand7 An endurance unaccompanied 8y hardenin) o% the heart can e3ist only on a reli)ious 8asis4 8ecause it can e3ist only 1here there is a sense o% proportion4 1hich amounts to sayin) that su%%erin) is 8eara8le only 1hen it is understood4 e5en i% this understandin) is o8scure and un%ormulated7 The uslim says :Hes: to e5erythin) that comes to him = or tries to say :Hes:4 1hich is enou)h4 since4 accordin) to a hadith4 :acts are 9ud)ed 8y their intentions: = 8ecause he 'no1s 1hence it comes7 At the same time4 he 'no1s that it is 8etter to 8e puri%ied here than herea%ter7 The Ara8ic 1ord ta<'iyah has a dou8le meanin) 1hich is o% )reat si)ni%icance@ it can 8e translated either as :puri%ication: or as :)ro1th:7 To ta'e only one o% se5eral possi8le e3amples4 the 1ords ?ad a:%laha man ta<a''a in ,uMrah -+ are rendered 8y some translators o% the ?ur:an as :he is success%ul 1ho puri%ieth himsel%:4 and 8y others as :he is success%ul 1ho

)ro1eth:7 The En)lish lan)ua)e cannot accommodate 8oth meanin)s to)ether4 and yet a 1hole philosophy is comprised in the apparent am8i)uity o% the 1orld ta<'iyah7 Accordin) to the ancient Chinese philosopher encius@ :"rie% and trou8le 8rin) li%e4 1hereas prosperity and pleasure 8rin) death7: This has 8een restated o%ten enou)h since his time4 and the ?ur:an tells us that :1ith hardship cometh ease:4 1hile the Prophet said that :Paradise is surrounded 8y thin)s that you disli'e:7 I% 1e 1ish to )ro1 and to mature = and this must 8e the uslim:s am8ition4 since he 8elie5es that his li%e is only a preparation %or 1hat comes a%ter = then4 ho1e5er much mis%ortune is disli'ed4 it cannot 8e seen as merely ne)ati5e4 1hich is precisely the 1ay the pro%ane person sees it7 The uslim4 8ecause he 8elie5es in Paradise4 does not e3pect this 1orld to 8e a paradise4 and he is there8y sa5ed %rom much 8itterness and %rom the dou8lin) or tre8lin) o% )rie%7 Philippe "ui8erteau4 one o% a num8er o% Frenchmen 1ho in some measure compensated %or their country:s colonial record 8y their appreciation o% Islam4 an appreciation 1hich rein%orced rather than undermined their o1n %aith4 o8ser5ed@ :I ha5e seen sic' people4 1hether men4 1omen or children4 on Islamic soil 8oth in the He9a< and in orocco> indeed they complain 1hen they su%%er too much4 8ut ne5er is there a 1ord o% recrimination a)ainst Pro5idence4 ne5er do they 8lame "od %or ha5in) made them su%%er@ they are e5en disen)a)ed %rom their Ce)oC to such an e3tent that they ne5er as' 1hether they 1ill ta'e lon) to )et 1ell or e5en i% they 1ill e5er )et 1ell7 On the other hand 777 sic' people in the $est4 e5en amon) those 1ho pass %or Catholic4 are indi)nant o5er 8ein) touched 8y sic'ness> CHo1 could such a thin) ha5e happened to meIC 777:D1E 1 Islam Occident et Chretienete> Philippe "ui8erteau ACahiers du ,udB7 It is hardly surprisin) that "ui8erteau should ha5e added@ :It is on North A%rican soil that many Europeans ha5e redisco5ered the sense o% the supernatural:4 soil upon 1hich they ha5e come %ace to %ace 1ith :a people 1ho ha5e such %aith in the incommensura8le transcendence o% "od that they are dyin) o% it4 so much do they despise that 1hich = precisely = is not "od:7 :6yin): or :li5in):> in this case the 1ords are interchan)ea8le accordin) to one:s perspecti5e4 not least 8ecause eternal li%e is4 in terms o% our 1orldly e3perience4 a death7 Totality is the death o% the partial and the %ra)mentary> the candle:s %lame is lost in the sun7 For those 1ho see themsel5es only as isolated %ra)ments4 the e3perience o% su%%erin) is an e3perience o% alienation and there%ore an intolera8le in5asion7 For the uslim his personal identity and his destiny are one> nothin) that enters his e3perience can 8e considered a :%orei)n 8ody:7 :$hy4 1hen an a%%liction came upon you 777 did you as'4 CHo1 is thisGC ,ay Dunto themE@ It is %rom yoursel5es:A?7371*(B7 The 1ord ma'tu84 :it is 1ritten : or :%ated:4 means that 1hate5er happens to us 1as inscri8ed upon our indi5idual essence %rom the 8e)innin) o% time7 To 1ish that somethin) else had happened to us is to 1ish oursel5es other than oursel5es4 1hich is a per5erse sel%=denial and4 indirectly4 a denial o% our Creator 1ho )a5e us 1hat He )a5e us7 A8u Huraira reported the Prophet as sayin)@ :,o %ar as )ood thin)s are concerned4 8e ea)er %or 1hat

8ene%its you4 see' help %rom Allah and do not 8e too 1ea' to do so7 D&utE i% some a%%liction comes to you do not say4 CHad I done such=and=such this 1ould ne5er ha5e happenedC4 8ut say4 CAllah decrees4 and He does 1hat He 1ishesC> %or CHad I done 77C pro5ides an openin) %or the de5il:s action7: The ad5ocates o% :determinisim: and the ad5ocates o% :%ree 1ill: ha5e ar)ued as %iercely in the Islamic 1orld as else1here4 and 8oth ha5e %ound appropriate te3ts in the ?uran and in the hadith literature to support super%icially opposite points o% 5ie17 They ha5e done so despite another report ori)inatin) 1ith A8u Huraira4 1ho said@ :The essen)er o% Allah came to us 1hen 1e 1ere ar)uin) a8out Dthe nature o%E Allah:s decree7 He 1as an)ry4 and his %ace 8ecame so red that it 1as as thou)h a pome)ranate seed had 8urst open on his chee's7 He said@ CIs this 1hat you 1ere commanded to do4 or 1as it %or this that I 1as sent to youG Hour predecessors perished only 1hen they as'ed a8out this matter7 I 1arn you4 I 1arn you4 not to ar)ue a8out itIC: T1o thin)s are certain4 and 1e must reconcile them as 8est 1e can or lea5e their reconciliation to a )reater 1isdom7 In the %irst place4 the concept o% the di5ine omniscience 1ould 8e empty i% 1e did not ac'no1led)e that "od 'no1s not only all that has e5er happened 8ut also all that 1ill e5er happen4 and that the :%uture: is there%ore4 in a certain sense4 already :past:7 In the 1ords o% the &i8le@ :That 1hich hath 8een is no1> and that 1hich is to 8e hath already 8een7:1 One could not loo' %or a clearer statement o% somethin) uni5ersally 'no1n i% not uni5ersally understood7 ,econdly4 since as human 8ein)s 1e are su89ect to time and cannot see the %uture4 1e ha5e an e3perience o% %ree choice 1hich is per%ectly 5alid on its o1n le5el and re%lects = on this le5el = the total %reedom 1hich is "od:s alone7 $e ma'e our choice and act accordin)ly> only 1hen the act is past and the day is done can 1e say ma'tu84 :it 1as 1ritten: = :it 1as decreed %or us %rom the 8e)innin) o% time:7 &ut 8y then another day has da1ned and other choices are to 8e made4 and 1e do not4 i% 1e are uslim4 1aste time considerin) 1hat :mi)ht ha5e 8een: 8ut could4 in %act4 ne5er ha5e 8een7 Here4 as so o%ten4 1e ha5e to %ace the %act that the distinction 8et1een 8elie5er and un8elie5er is a distinction 8et1een di%%erent uni5erses o% thou)ht and o% %eelin)7 Told that the :di5ine decree: is unaltera8le4 the a)nostic = i% he is really such = sees himsel% as a trapped animal ca)ed 8y an alien and impersonal %orce7 The 8elie5er4 on the other hand4 thou)h e3iled %rom the earthly Paradise4 is ne5er e3iled %rom the di5ine Presence and is no stran)er to the One 8y 1hose decree he li5es and dies7 It is said that the Ara8ic 1ord %or :man:4 uns4 is directly related to the 1ord %or :intimacy:4 uns4 and this is one 1ay o% indicatin) his uni;ue pri5ile)e o% intimacy 1ith the 6i5ine4 and at least o% hintin) at the reciprocity 1hich is at the heart o% man:s intercourse 1ith "od4 "od:s intercourse 1ith man7 It is in terms o% this reciprocity that 1e may 8est understand the nature o% prayer and the place 1hich prayer occupies in the li%e o% the uslim7 Christians 1ho are a1are o% the masterOsla5e ima)ery 1hich is central to the Islamic perspecti5e and 1ho see the reli)ion as :impersonal: compared 1ith their o1n %aith4 %re;uently as' 1hether the uslim en5isa)es any 'ind o% personal4 reciprocal relationship 1ith his Creator7 The uslim4 on the other hand4

emphasi<es the total sel%=su%%iciency o% "od and is shoc'ed 8y the Christian:s 8elie% that "od in some mysterious 1ay :needs: man7 The di%%erence is real enou)h 8ut it is also4 to some e3tent4 a matter o% presentation7 For Islam4 reciprocity 8et1een Creator and creature4 1ith its implication o% mutual need4 comes a8out4 not on account o% some apparent insu%%iciency in the "odhead4 8ut 8ecause the Creator chooses to act in this 1ay7 In other 1ords this reciprocity arises %rom need on our side and %rom o5er%lo1in) )enerosity on His7 The ?uranic condemnation o% :%or)et%ulness: = :They %or)ot Allah4 so He 8ath %or)otten them:A?7/7*+B = and o% :indi%%erence: A)ha%lahB is 8alanced 8y constant emphasis upon a1areness4 e3pressed sometimes in terms o% ta;1a4 translated either as :%ear o% "od: or as :consciousness o% "od:4 and sometimes in terms o% dhi'r4 a 'ey 1ord in Islam4 1hich may 8e rendered either as :remem8rance: or as :mention:@ :Remem8er e4 I shall remem8er you:A?7271(2B7 It is in this a1areness4 this remem8rance4 this 8rin)in) to mind4 that :hearts %ind rest:A?713 72-B7 Prayer itsel% is de%ined as :remem8rance:4 and indeed all a1areness o% "od is a %orm o% prayer4 %or to thin' o% Him and 'eep Him in mind is already to pray to Him> and it is in this 1ay that the outer man and the inner man4 hardened 8y their e3perience o% li%e in this 1orld4 are melted and made recepti5e = :Their s'ins and their hearts so%ten at the remem8rance o% Allah:A?73/723B7 Those 1hose lo5e o% the 1orld has carried them out o% earshot are lost@ :Then 1oe to those 1hose hearts are hardened a)ainst the remem8rance o% Allah:A?73/722B> and as %or him :1ho turneth a1ay %rom the remem8rance o% e4 his 1ill 8e a constricted li%e4 and I shall 8rin) him 8lind to the )atherin) on the 6ay o% Resurrection:A?722712#B7 The ?uran tells us that man'ind 1as created %or one purpose4 and that purpose is :1orship:4 8ut it tells us also that this 1orship e5o'es an immediate response@ :Call upon e4 and I 1ill ans1erI:A?7#27*2B7 There is4 there%ore4 a dialo)ue in prayer4 8ut man alone is capa8le o% a dialo)ue 1ith "od> the rest o% creation :prays: and :praises: 8ut does so4 as it 1ere4 unconsciously4 simply 8y 8ein) 1hat it is7 :The se5en hea5ens and the earth and all that is therein )lori%y Him4 and there is not a Dsin)leE thin) that does not cele8rate His praise> 8ut ye understand not their praise:A?71+7##B7 Accordin) to a te3t attri8uted to Falaluddin Rumi@ :The dar'ness o% the ni)ht and the 8ri)htness o% the day4 the 8eams o% the sun and the li)ht o% the moon4 the murmurin) o% the 1aters and the 1hisperin) o% the lea5es4 the stars o% the s'y and the dust o% the earth4 the stones o% the mountain4 the sands o% the desert and the 1a5es o% the oceans4 the animals o% 1ater and land praise Thee7: Het their praise is inarticulate4 1hereas man has 8een )i5en the supreme )i%t o% speech4 to)ether 1ith the intelli)ence 1hich ma'es speech coherent and there%ore opens up the possi8ility o% dialo)ue7 : an prays and prayer %ashions man7 The saint has himsel% 8ecome prayer4 the meetin)=place o% earth and hea5en> and thus he contains the uni5erse and the uni5erse prays 1ith him7 He is e5ery1here 1here nature prays4 and he prays 1ith and in her> in the pea's 1hich touch the 5oid and eternity4 in a %lo1er 1hich scatters itsel% or in the a8andoned son) o% a 8ird7:D1E This is the %unction o% the !hali%ah4 the Jicere)ent> this is 1hat he 1as made %or4 and in %ul%illin) his %unction he is shaped 8y it7 It is said that the Prophet:s )randson Hasan 1as as'ed once ho1 it 1as that people 1ho spent much o% the ni)ht in prayer loo'ed :so 8eauti%ul:>

he e3plained that it 1as 8ecause :they ha5e 8een alone 1ith the All= erci%ul4 1ho co5ers them 1ith li)ht %rom His 0i)ht7: For the human 8ein)4 at once pri5ile)ed and yet e3posed to the most %ear%ul dan)er4 li5in) is a mo5ement o% the perisha8le and the unsta8le to1ards the permanent and the a8solute> or else it is a mo5ement to1ards disinte)ration7 Accordin) to al="ha<<ah there are4 in the :in5isi8le: 1orld4 :1onders in relation to 1hich this 5isi8le 1orld is seen to 8e o% no account7 He 1ho does not ascend to that 1orld 777 is 8ut a 8rute 8east4 since the 8easts are not )i5en the 1in)s 1ith 1hich to ta'e %li)ht thither7 !no1 that the 5isi8le is4 to the in5isi8le4 as the hus' to the 'ernel4 as the %orm and 8ody are to the spirit4 as dar'ness to li)ht777 He 1ho is in that 1orld a8o5e is 1ith Allah and has the 'eys o% the .nseen7:D2E 1 ,piritnal Perspecti5es and Human Facts4 Frith9o% ,chuon AFa8er N Fa8erB p7 2137 2 ?uoted %rom al= ish'at al=an1ar o% al="ha<<ali7 Here a)ain 1e meet 1ith a parado3@ man as a creature o% t1o 1orlds or = to put the same thin) another 1ay = as a creature 1ith t1o identities in a sin)le 8ody4 the one perisha8le4 the other immortal7 It is di%%icult to concei5e o% a dialo)ue 8et1een "od and His sla5e> it is %ar less di%%icult to concei5e o% one 8et1een "od and His chosen Jicere)ent7 It is in the hadith ;udsi4 those recorded sayin)s o% the Prophet in 1hich "od spo'e directly throu)h him4 that 1e %ind the most stri'in) re%erences to the reciprocity 1hich is the 8asis o% dialo)ue7 :I am 1ith D y ser5antE 1hen he ma'es mention o% me: = or :1hen he remem8ers e: = :I% he ma'es mention o% e to himsel%4 I ma'e mention o% him to ysel%777 And i% he dra1s near to e a hand:s span4 I dra1 near to him an arm:s len)th> and i% he dra1s near to e an arm:s len)th4 I dra1 near to him a %athom:s len)th7 And i% he comes to e 1al'in)4 I )o to him speedily7: Here the response to prayer or4 indeed4 to the simple act o% 8rin)in) "od to mind4 is o% incompara8le ma)nitude4 %or the di5ine presence is o85iously )reater than any other ima)ina8le )i%t7 As %or human supplication4 this is not only heard4 it is a1aited@ :Our 0ord 1ho is 8lessed and e3alted descends each ni)ht to the lo1est hea5en4 1hen t1o=thirds o% the ni)ht ha5e passed4 and as's4 C$ho supplicates e that I may ans1er himG $ho as's o% e that I may )i5e to himG $ho 8e)s %or y %or)i5eness so that I may %or)i5e himGC: E5en in this poor 1orld4 accordin) to another hadith4 :Allah has an)els 1ho tra5el on the roads see'in) those 1ho remem8er Allah4 and 1hen they %ind people doin) this they call to one another4 CCome to 1hat you are see'in)IC and surround them 1ith their 1in)s up to the lo1est hea5en7: Their 0ord as's them A:althou)h He is 8est in%ormed:B 1hat these 1orshippers are sayin)4 and the an)els ans1er that they are )lori%yin) Him4 thou)h they ha5e ne5er seen Him> they are as'in) %or Paradise4 thou)h they ha5e ne5er seen it> and they are see'in) re%u)e %rom hell4 thou)h they ha5e ne5er seen it7 Their 0ord then says to His an)els@ :I call you to 1itness that I ha5e %or)i5en themI: Not e5eryone = to say the least = see's communion4 dialo)ue 1ith "od> most o% those 1ho turn to1ards the hea5ens in prayer do so %rom desire or %rom %ear4 and

those 1ho do so %rom %ear are in search o% %or)i5eness7 $e are told that "od does not )reatly care a8out the moti5e so lon) as people do turn to Him and there8y esta8lish the essential lin'7 This is 8rou)ht out in an astonishin) hadith 1hich mi)ht ha5e 8een considered dou8t%ul had it not 8een recorded 8y one o% the most hi)hly respected o% mutahadithun@ :&y Him in 1hose hand is my soul4 had you not sinned Allah 1ould ha5e remo5ed you and 8rou)ht a people 1ho sin4 then as' %or Allah:s %or)i5eness and are %or)i5en7: Accordin) to a hadith ;udsi4 :Allah has said@ O son o% Adam4 so lon) as you call upon e and as' o% e4 I shall %or)i5e you 1hat you ha5e done and I shall not care7 O son o% Adam4 thou)h your sins reached the clouds in the s'y4 i% you 1ere then to as' %or y %or)i5eness I 1ould %or)i5e you7 O son o% Adam4 1ere you to come to e 1ith sins almost as )reat as the earth Ditsel%E and then %ace e4 ascri8in) to e no CpartnerC4 I 1ould 8rin) you %or)i5eness in li'e measure7: These te3ts and sayin)s relate in prayer in )eneral and4 perhaps a8o5e all4 to the dhi'r4 the :remem8rance:4 1hich is the essence o% all prayer7 &ut uslims ma'e a sharp distinction 8et1een pri5ate or e3tempore prayer4 called du:a4 and the ritual prayer 1hich is o8li)atory %i5e times each day4 salah7 The e%%ecti5eness o% the latter does not depend upon indi5idual circumstances4 %eelin)s or inclinations7 It is a rite4 a "od=)i5en %rame1or'4 and so all the human creature has to do is4 so to spea'4 to step into it7 It is preceded 8y the a8lution 1hich 1ashes a1ay accumulated )rime4 8y orientation Athat is to say4 8y the 1orshipper turnin) to %ace eccaB4 and 8y the intention to per%orm such=and=such a prayer or to participate in it7 As 1e ha5e seen4 Islam and Christianity interpret the conse;uences o% Adam:s :%all: di%%erently4 and Islam does not accept that any :sin: = any :%all: = could determine the inmost essence o% the human creature7 an cannot4 accordin) to this perspecti5e4 lose his theomorphism4 his li'eness to the di5ine ima)e4 ho1e5er deeply this li'eness may 8e co5ered in %ilth7 Not e5en the most corrosi5e acid could e5er destroy the di5ine imprint7 &y means o% the ritual a8lution this primordial purity4 the purity o% the creature as he %irst issued %rom the hand o% "od4 is temporarily restored and he is made %it to stand upri)ht 8e%ore his Creator7 The past clin)s to us> past sins4 past errors7 "od:s %or)i5eness 1ashes these a1ay or4 under His name al=:A%u4 He e%%aces them as thou)h they had ne5er happened Aor4 to 8e more precise4 as thou)h they had ne5er attached themsel5es to our su8stanceB4 %or He alone can 8rea' the chain o% cause and e%%ect7 The ritual 1ashin) in a8lution is an ima)e o% this %or)i5eness or this e%%acement7 Hesterday:s )rime is remo5ed %rom the s'in and the )rime o% the past is remo5ed %rom the soul4 and the su8stance used %or this purpose is that same su8stance %rom 1hich 1e 1ere %irst created@ :And He it is 1ho %rom 1ater hath created man:A?72(7(#B7 :.thman Athe third CaliphB reported that the Prophet said@ :I% anyone per%orms the a8lution 1ell4 his sins 1ill come out %rom his 8ody4 comin) out e5en %rom under his nails:> and A8u Huraira reported his sayin)@ :$hen a 8elie5er 1ashes his %ace in the course o% a8lution4 e5ery sin he contemplated 1ith his eyes 1ill %all a1ay %rom his %ace to)ether 1ith the 1ater4 or 1ith the last drop o% 1ater> 1hen he 1ashes

his hands4 e5ery sin they did 1ill %all a1ay %rom his hands 1ith the 1ater4 or 1ith the last drop o% 1ater> and 1hen he 1ashes his %eet4 e5ery sin to1ards 1hich his %eet 1al'ed 1ill %all a1ay 1ith the 1ater4 or 1ith the last drop o% 1ater4 1ith the result that he comes %orth puri%ied %rom sin7: In Islam :purity: mi)ht almost 8e de%ined as a synonym %or o89ecti5ity4 since it means4 a8o5e all4 to 8e %ree o% the su89ecti5e distortions and sel%=interest 1hich most closely 8ind us7 To say that somethin) is :pure: means that it is unmi3ed 1ith e3traneous elements and is 1holly itsel%4 li'e pure )old7 Restored to himsel%4 the 1orshipper stands up to pray7 He stands %acin) the !a:8a in ecca4 ho1e5er distant he may 8e %rom it7 :$hencesoe5er thou comest %orth4 turn thy %ace to1ards the sacred os;ue4 and 1heresoe5er ye may 8e turn your %aces to1ard it777:A?7271(2B7 &oo's o% Islamic 0a1 compiled 8e%ore the compass 1as in )eneral use )o into immense detail re)ardin) the means 8y 1hich a tra5eller may disco5er the correct orientation4 8ut they ne5er o5erloo' the %act that :acts are 9ud)ed 8y their intentions:7 I% the 1orshipper %aces in the 1ron) direction throu)h an una5oida8le error4 and does not disco5er his mista'e until the time %or the prayer in ;uestion is past4 then his prayer is accepted 8y "od7 He intended to %ace the !a:8a4 and that is 1hat matters7 Orientation4 8oth in the simple physical sense and sym8olically4 is o% immense importance in Islam7D1E The !a:8a is4 %or the uslim4 the centre o% the 1orld> it is also the sym8ol o% his o1n in1ard centre4 the :heart:4 1here all thin)s come to)ether7 To %ace in the ri)ht direction is to 8e 1ell on the 1ay to achie5in) personal inte)ration7 It is to 8e already on the :strai)ht path: upon 1hich4 in his prayer4 the uslim 1ill as' "od to lead him4 e3cept that in the %irst case the path is4 so to spea'4 on the hori<ontal = leadin) to ecca = 1hereas in the second it is 5ertical and leads to :the 0ord o% this House:4 the 0ord o% the !a:8a4 "od Himsel%7 The hori<ontal 9ourney is li'e a pro9ection o% the 5ertical one on to a %lat sur%ace> in other 1ords4 the %ormer is a sym8ol o% the latter and4 at the same time4 its precursor7 1 Not only in Islam7 Accordin) to an American psychiatrist4 $illiam ,heldon4 1ho had = 5ery pro8a8ly = 8arely heard o% the reli)ion o% Islam@ :Continued o8ser5ations in clinical psycholo)ical practice lead almost ine5ita8ly to the conclusion that deeper and more %undamental than se3uality4 deeper than the cra5in) %or social po1er4 deeper e5en than the desire %or possessions4 there is a still more )enerali<ed and uni5ersal cra5in) in the human ma'e=up7 It is the cra5in) %or 'no1led)e o% the ri)ht direction = %or orientation7: ,o salah4 the ritual prayer4 is :esta8lished:7 :$hen enterin) on prayer you should come into the Presence o% Allah as you 1ould on the 6ay o% Resurrection4 1hen you 1ill stand 8e%ore Him 1ith no mediator 8et1een you4 %or He 1elcomes you and you are in con%idential tal' 1ith Him4 and you 'no1 in 1hose Presence you are standin)4 %or He is the !in) o% !in)s7 $hen you ha5e li%ted your hands and said@ C"od is most "reatC4 then let nothin) remain in your heart sa5e )lori%ication4 and let nothin) 8e in your mind at the time o% )lori%ication 8ut the )lory o% "od most Hi)h4 so that you %or)et this 1orld and the ne3t 1hile )lori%yin) Him7 $hen a man 8o1s in prayer4 it is %ittin) that he should a%ter1ards raise himsel%4 then 8o1 a)ain

to ma'e intercession until e5ery 9oint o% his 8ody is directed to1ards the throne o% "od777 and he thin's so little o% himsel% that he %eels himsel% to 8e less than a mote o% dust7:D1E 1 !harra<4 ;uoted %rom Readin)s %rom the ystics o% Islam4 ar)aret ,mith4 no72*7

This ritual prayer is4 accordin) to the Prophet4 :the 'ey to Paradise:4 and he said to his companions@ :Tell me4 i% there 1ere a ri5er at someone:s door in 1hich he 1ashed %i5e times daily4 1ould any dirt remain upon himG: $hen they replied that none 1ould remain4 he said@ :That is li'e the %i5e times o% prayer 8y 1hich Allah o8literates sins7: I% only people 'ne1 1hat 8lessin) lies in the 6a1n prayer4 he told them4 :they 1ould come Dto the prayerE e5en i% they had to cra1l to do so:7 It is little 1onder that 1hen the Call to Prayer is made4 :the de5il turns his 8ac' and 8rea's 1ind4 so as not to hear the Call 8ein) made 77 7: That is the de5il:s 1ay o% e5adin) reality> 8ut men and 1omen4 i% they are 1hole and sane4 respond7 A man came to the Prophet sayin)@ : essen)er o% Allah4 I ha5e done somethin) 1hich merits punishment4 so appoint Da punishmentE %or meI: The Prophet said nothin)4 and 1hen the time %or prayer came4 the man prayed 1ith him4 then repeated his re;uest %or punishment7 :6id you not pray 1ith usG: the Prophet as'ed him7 He a)reed that he had done so7 :$ell then4 Allah has %or)i5en your o%%ence7: The ritual prayer has t1o %ocal points@ one has to do 1ith understandin) and relates to the mind4 the other is e3istential and has to do 1ith the 8ody7 The %irst is the recitation o% the Fatihah4 the short ,urah placed at the 8e)innin) o% the ?uran4 in e5ery sin)le unit o% prayer Ato)ether 1ith the recitation o% other passa)es %rom the ?uran in the %irst t1o unitsB4 and this is done 1hile the 1orshipper is standin)4 as is his ri)ht 1hen he prays as "od:s Jicere)ent on earth> the second is the prostration o% the 8ody4 1ith the %orehead touchin) the )round4 %olded up in the %oetal position and o8literated 8eneath the splendour o% the di5ine a9esty7 These t1o %ocal points are the t1o poles o% human e3perience4 human reality7 The Fatihah 8e)ins4 not 1ith the 1ords :I praise Allah:4 8ut 1ith :The praise is to Allah:4 8ecause the Jicere)ent is prayin) on 8ehal% o% all creation7 Fust as 1ater comes do1n %rom a8o5e as 8lessin) and rises a)ain to the hea5ens as steam or 5apour4 so the di5ine )i%ts are4 as it 1ere4 transmuted into praise4 1hich returns to the :0ord o% the 1orlds:4 1ho is then ;uali%ied as :the erci%ul4 the Compassionate:4 and a%ter that4 as :!in) o% the 6ay o% Fud)ement:4 since He stands at the end o% e5ery road and e5erythin) comes %inally to Him to 8e :9ud)ed: and allotted its proper place accordin) to its nature7 A%ter de%inin) the relationship o% creation to the Creator4 "od:s Jicere)ent4 spea'in) in the plural on 8ehal% o% his pro5ince4 says@ :Thee do 1e 1orship and in Thee do 1e see' re%u)e: Aor :%rom Thee do 1e see' help:B4 and he )oes on to 5oice the uni5ersal hope@ :0ead4us on the strai)ht 1ay4D1E the 1ay o% those upon 1hom is Thy )race4 not o% those upon 1hom is Thine an)er4 nor o% those 1ho stray7: 1 This could also 8e translated as :the ascendin) Path:7 This is the Fatihah4 :the Openin):4 1hich the uslim = assumin) that he prays = recites a minimum o% se5enteen times each day4 and %ar more o%ten i% he also

prays 1hat are called the ,unnah prayers4 in accordance 1ith the practice o% the Prophet7 He 8o1s a%ter his recitation so that the upper part o% his 8ody is hori<ontal4 and in this position he )lori%ies "od as :the Immense:4 :the Jast: or the :the In%inite:4 the "od 1hose po1er e3tends 8eyond all ima)ina8le e3tension on the hori<ontal7 Then he prostrates himsel% and )lori%ies "od :the ost Hi)h:4 :the Transcendent:4 1ho is unima)ina8ly a8o5e and 8eyond all thin)s> he has made himsel% so small that he can do this4 %or any merely human e3tension4 such as the e3tension o% his 8ody in hei)ht or in 8readth = 5ertical or hori<ontal = 1ould 8e li'e a denial o% that transcendence7 The Jiceroy 1ho recites the re5ealed 1ords o% the ?uran does not li5e in the same land as the !in)4 thou)h he spea's to him> it is in the prostration that he is most certainly in the royal presence4 and i% he spea's no1 it is the speech o% total intimacy7 The lady :A:isha said@ :One ni)ht I missed the essen)er o% Allah %rom our 8ed4 and 1hen I sou)ht him my hand came to the soles o% his %eet 1hile he 1as in the act o% prostration 1ith them raised4 and he 1as sayin)@ CO Allah4 I see' re%u)e in Thy "ood Pleasure %rom Thy an)er4 and in Thy %or)i5eness %rom Thy punishment4 and I see' re%u)e in Thee %rom Thysel%7 I cannot rec'on They praiseC777: The ritual prayer4 in all its dimensions o% hei)ht4 8readth and pro%undity4 is an act o% concentrated :remem8rance: Adhi'rB4 and e5en the 8usiest man is recalled %i5e times a day %rom his strayin) to ac'no1led)e his dependence and to 8rin) into a1areness the Reality 1hich in%initely transcends him4 yet 1hich 8ends do1n to him in mercy7 &ut 1ise men ha5e said that all the Fi5e Pillars o% Islam 1ere instituted only %or the sa'e o% the :remem8rance: o% Allah7 This is o85ious in the case o% the %irst4 the 1itnessin) to the di5ine .nity4 and o% the second4 prayer7 The third pillar is <a'ah4 the )i5in) o% alms4 the sharin) o% 1ealth4 1hich = ;uite apart %rom its social %unction = compels us to reco)ni<e that other human 8ein)s are as 1e are4 e;ually uni;ue4 and that their e3istence is as much a miracle as our o1n> only in the conte3t o% :remem8rance:4 1hich puts e5erythin) in its place4 can this reco)nition 8ecome a reality that is e3perienced4 rather than a simple duty7 The 1hole point o% the Fast o% Ramadan4 1hich is the %ourth pillar4 is the achie5ement o% a state o% detachment %rom the 1orld4 as also %rom the e)o and its desires4 1hich creates a space %or the :remem8rance: o% Allah and e5en %or His presence> and the %i%th4 the Pil)rima)e4 8rin)s us 8ac' physically as 1ell as spiritually to the centre4 the place 1here :remem8rance: 8ecomes meetin) and actuality7 This :remem8rance:4 this constant a1areness4 is com8ined 1ith ta;1a4 the a1e= struc' consciousness o% "od as the supreme Reality4 in5o'ed4 as the ?uran puts it4 :in %ear and in hope:7 ,ince the creation o% Adam4 1ho 1as shaped %rom dust and made )lorious4 parado3 has 8een piled on parado34 not least 1hen this creature o% dust stands upri)ht and 8rin)s to earth somethin) o% hea5en7 The scented 8ree<es o% Paradise may no1 8e preser5ed only in 8ottles = they no lon)er circulate 1ith the 1inds = 8ut their per%ume clin)s to 1or's o% art and o% cra%tsmanship4 1here8y thin)s o%

8eauty are %ashioned %or use4 as it does to the li5es o% certain men and 1omen 1ho ha5e %ollo1ed 8eauty to its source and made o% their o1n human su8stance an open door 8et1een 1hat is a8o5e and 1hat is 8eneath> %or these are the supreme artists7 Chapter 11 ART4 ENJIRON ENT AN6 H,TICI, It is sometimes said that there is no such thin) as :Islamic Culture:4 and i% 1e limit the term :culture: to its modern connotation this is true enou)h7 There are no secular4 pro%ane arts in Islam Anor do 1e %ind them in any traditional ci5ili<ationB4 and this %ollo1s directly %rom the principle o% ta1hid4 the principle o% unity4 enunciated in the Con%ession o% Faith@ 0a ilaha illa :0lah7 Traditional Islamic ci5ili<ation and all its 5aried mani%estations are dominated 8y this principle4 disco5era8le 1hiche5er 1ay you turn4 9ust as the di5ine .nity e3pressed in the Name al=$ahid A%rom 1hich the term ta1hid is deri5edB may 8e unco5ered 1here5er any contin)ent sur%ace is scratched or penetrated to re5eal 1hat lies 8eneath7 "od is e5ery1here present and He can 8e %ound e5ery1here4 1hich is 1hy the 1hole 1orld is the uslims: :mos;ue: or place o% prayer7 Oneness is the su8stratum o% e3istence7 There is an approach to reli)ion Aand to the metaphysical doctrines 8ut %or 1hich reli)ion 1ould 8e in5erte8rateB throu)h sacred art = particularly throu)h sacred architecture and the cra%ts 1hich ser5e men:s daily needs = 1hich4 %or many people4 leads more directly to the core than does any 5er8al and discursi5e e3pression o% the essential messa)e7 Throu)h this art and throu)h these cra%ts %aith is made tan)i8le on the le5el o% the senses4 and sense=impressions ha5e an immediacy 1hich is lac'in) in mental concepts and moral prescriptions7 $hoe5er has seen the "reat os;ue o% !airouan has seen Islam4D1E and 1hoe5er has handled authentic products o% uslim cra%tsmanship has touched Islam> those 1ho ha5e seen and touched the !a:8a ha5e penetrated e5en more deeply into the su8stratum o% the Faith and made contact 1ith a reality that is uni5ersal7 1 A teacher in an En)lish comprehensi5e school in a poor area o% the idlands recently too' a party o% her pupils to Tunisia7 Emer)in) %rom the os;ue o% !airnuan4 the tou)hest 8oy in the class said to her@ : iss4 I ne5er 'ne1 reli)ion could 8e 8eauti%ul:7: Islamic art4 says ,eyyed Hossein Nasr4 :is the earthly crystalli<ation o% the spirit o% the Islamic re5elation4 as 1ell as a re%lection o% the hea5enly realities on earth4 a re%lection 1ith the help o% 1hich the uslim ma'es his 9ourney throu)h the terrestrial en5ironment and 8eyond to the 6i5ine Presence itsel%4 to the Reality 1hich is the ori)in and the end o% his art7:D2E At the same time it reminds us constantly o% :the open:4 the space in 1hich creatures 8reathe %reely> %resh air4 s1eet 1ater and 5ir)in nature7 Re5elation 8y its 5ery nature re5er8erates lon) a%ter its li)htnin) %lash has penetrated this 1orld and :crystalli<ed:4 re5er8erates not only in human hearts throu)h successi5e )enerations 8ut also in earthly %orms4 century a%ter century> or one mi)ht say that the li)htnin) remains latent in these %orms4 ready to 8urst %orth under the ri)ht conditions e5en 1hen certain other aspects o% the reli)ion ha5e 8een eroded 8y time7

2 ?uoted %rom the Introduction to The Art o% Islam 8y Titus &orc'hardt7 This4 o% course4 applies to all sacred art4 and i% the uslim does not speci%ically descri8e his art as :sacred:4 it is 8ecause an art completely di5orced %rom reli)ion is inconcei5a8le to him4 and he has there%ore no need to ma'e the distinction 1hich the $est ma'es 8et1een sacred and pro%ane7 His determination to e3clude %rom his li%e e5erythin) that sa5ours o% the pro%ane and the secular %re;uently shoc's the $esterner4 1hose concern is almost e3clusi5ely 1ith the latter and 1ho4 1ithin the secular realm4 ma'es a sharp distinction 8et1een4 say4 a no5el 8y !a%'a and a :Fames &ond: no5el4 8et1een &eetho5en and :pop: music4 and 8et1een a 6utch master and an ad5ertisin) poster7 ,o %ar as the uslim is concerned these distinctions ha5e little meanin) once a particular acti5ity or aspect o% li%e has 8een di5orced %rom the Faith> they amount to little more than the di%%erences 8et1een one 'ind o% mud and another7 It is hardly surprisin) under the circumstances i% he sho1s 1hat the $esterner sees as a lamenta8le lac' o% taste and discrimination 1hen dealin) 1ith the products o% $estern culture and technolo)y7 At the same time Islamic :culture: = )i5in) this term its 1idest possi8le sense = is concerned e3clusi5ely 1ith 1hat is use%ul4 either %or our li%e in the 1orld or %or our %inal ends7 There is nothin) particularly unusual in this7 The same could 8e said o% medie5al Christian ci5ili<ation4 and4 %rom the historical point o% 5ie14 it is only durin) 5ery 8rie% and e3ceptional periods that people ha5e had either the opportunity or the inclination to de5ote their 8est ener)ies to the super%luous4 or en9oyed :art %or art:s sa'e:7 Necessity has usually dictated an o5erridin) concern %or our li5elihood4 1hile %aith has re;uired4 at the 5ery least4 an e;ual concern %or 1hate5er ser5es our %inal ends4 our :sal5ation:7 Het e5en this implies a di5ision 1hich is alien to Islam4 and the success%ul uslim is he 1ho is 8lessed 1ith )ood 8oth in this 1orld and in the herea%ter7 The t1o supreme arts o% Islam are calli)raphy Acom8ined 1ith illuminationB and architecture4 the one ha5in) to do 1ith the re5ealed $ord4 the other 1ith the human en5ironment7 It could perhaps 8e said that calli)raphy relates to the %irst part o% the ,hahadah4 the attestation to the di5ine .nity4 upon 1hich the ?ur:an is a 5ast commentary4 1hile architecture is )o5erned 8y the second part o% the ,hahadah4 the attestation to the prophethood o% uhammad4 in that the Islamic en5ironment is desi)ned to ena8le men and 1omen to li5e in accordance 1ith his sunnah7 It could almost 8e said that the Ara8ic script 1as created %or the sa'e o% the ?ur:an and to ser5e it7 The Ara8s o% pre=Islamic times possessed a primiti5e script4 8ut they tended to distrust 1ritin) as a medium 1hich imprisoned the %ree spirit o% their poetry7 The spo'en 1ord 1as all=po1er%ul> in comparison 1ith this li5in) splendour4 the 1ritten 1ord seemed to them desiccated4 li'e a pressed %lo1er7 It 1as essential4 ho1e5er4 that the ?uran should 8e recorded in 1ritin)4 lest any 1ord o% the Re5elation 8e lost or chan)ed as the 1ords o% other scriptures had 8een chan)ed> it 1as no less essential that a script should 8e de5eloped 1hich matched in no8ility the no8ility o% its content7

The massi5e letterin) o% the !u%ic style satis%ied this need7 :This )ra5e procession o% hiero)lyphs4: says artin 0in)s4 :some simple and others compounded o% more than one element4 777 AisB su))esti5e o% ine5ita8le necessity4 as i% its letters 1ere intended to e3press the decisi5eness o% the 6i5ine decree %rom 1hich the Re5elation spran)4 or as i% to proclaim that the messa)e they 8ear is irre5oca8le and immuta8le7 At the same time there is somethin) solemnly cryptic and reser5ed a8out this style 1hich seems to 1ithhold more than it )i5es4 as i% %ear%ul o% di5ul)in) secrets 77777:D1E 1 The ?uranic Art o% Calli)raphy and Illumination4 Festi5al TrustB4 p7 1*7 artin 0in)s A$orld o% Islam

$ords are )radually spelt out4 as thou)h the calli)rapher su%%ered the pain o% )i5in) 8irth4 and the indi5idual letters are o%ten %ar remo5ed %rom each other4 :as i% to 1arn us: = as artin 0in)s says = :that the contents are too tremendous to 8e li)htly and easily un%olded:7 One is sometimes reminded o% a particularly lon)= dra1n=out style o% ?uranic recitation4D2E in 1hich the reciter pauses a%ter a 5erse or e5en a%ter a %e1 1ords4 li'e a clim8er pausin) to catch his 8reath on a mountain ascent4 or as thou)h o5er1helmed 8y the ma9esty o% sound4 1hile at the same time allo1in) his listeners to a8sor8 this sound so that it re5er8erates 1ithin them7 2 There are se5en di%%erent styles o% ?uranic recitation4 )o5erned 8y the strict rules o% the art or science o% ta91id7 The ?ur:an4 ho1e5er4 e3ists to 8e understood7 The decipherin) o% !u%ic is a la8orious tas'4 and in due course scripts de5eloped 1hich are %ar easier to read and 1hich %lo14 some li'e molten la5a and others as delicate tracery7 They are 8eauti%ul and e3pressi5e in themsel5es4 and at the same time lend themsel5es to ornamentation4 usually in connection 1ith 5e)eta8le moti%s 1hich remind us o% the correspondence 8et1een the ayat A5ersesB o% the &oo' and the ayat A:si)ns:B in nature7 There is another correspondence4 no less important@ "od is :the 0i)ht o% the hea5ens and the earth:4 and His ,el%=re5elation is a mani%estation o% 0i)ht7 It is throu)h ?uranic illumination4 1ith its use o% the solar colour4 )old4 and the celestial colour4 8lue4 that 1e are reminded o% this aspect o% the &oo'7 Here the uslim %aces a pro8lem7 Illumination is an :art=%orm:4 and %orms 8y their 5ery nature imprison their content in the 5ery act o% ma'in) it accessi8le to our senses and our intelli)ence7 Islam re%uses to con%ine deity in any %ormulation4 %or to do so 1ould 8e to limit Reality and there8y %alsi%y it7 :It is a %unction o% sacred art4: says artin 0in)s4 :to 8e a 5ehicle o% the 6i5ine Presence:> 8ut the uslim artist :1ill concei5e this %unction not as a Ccapturin)C o% the Presence 8ut rather as a li8eration o% its mysterious Totality %rom the decepti5e prison o% appearance7 Islam is particularly a5erse to any idea o% circumscri8in) or locali<in) the 6i5ine 77 7:D3E Ho1 can :the open: 8e con%ined 1ithin the mar)ins o% a pa)eG The uslim artist sol5ed this pro8lem on the one hand 8y the use o% desi)ns such as the palmette Athe styli<ed :little Tree:B4 1hich point out1ards to 1hat lies 8eyond the pa)e4 and on the other 8y repetiti5e patterns 1hich are4 as it 1ere4 cut short 8y the mar)in 8ut 1hich4 in the mind:s eye4 may 8e e3tended inde%initely in e5ery

direction4 :%or e5er and e5er:7 In this 1ay the human ima)ination is in5ited to supply 1hat the )raphic ima)e can only su))est7 3 The ?uranic Art o% Calli)raphy and Illumination4 artin 0in)s4 p7+27

The decoration o% mos;ues A1hich4 o% course4 includes ?uranic inscriptionsB is dominated 8y the same principle4 the art o% the uncon%ined or o% limitlessness4 e3empli%ied in the ara8es;ue 1ith its rhythmic interlacements7 For the uslim artist4 says Titus &urc'hardt4 )eometrical interlacement :is an e3tremely direct e3pression o% the idea o% the 6i5ine .nity underlyin) the ine3hausti8le 5ariety o% the 1orld7 True4 6i5ine .nity as such is 8eyond all representation 8ecause its nature4 1hich is total4 lets nothin) remain outside itsel% 777 Ne5ertheless4 it is throu)h harmony that it is re%lected in the 1orld4 harmony 8ein) nothin) other than Cunity in multiplicityC Aal=1ahdah %i:l='athrahB and Cmultiplicity in unityC Aal= 'athrah %i:l=1ahdahB7 Interlacement e3presses the one aspect and the other7:D1E 1 Art o% Islam@ 0an)ua)e and TrustB4 p7*37 eanin)4 Titus &urc'hardt A$orld o% Islam Festi5al

The Christian4 1hen he enters a church4 is steppin) out o% the pro%ane 1orld into a sacred enclosure> 8ut %or the uslim the 1hole earth is his :place o% prayer:7 A mos;ue4 there%ore4 is not a consecrated 8uildin)> it is a small area o% the earth that has 8een 1alled %or con5enience so that the %aith%ul can pray there 1ithout distraction7 The Christian church is centred upon the altar4 the locus o% the di5ine Presence and o% the priest:s attention4 and its orientation is to1ards the point on the hori<on at 1hich the sun rises at Easter4 so that the a3es o% all churches4 1here5er they may 8e4 run parallel to one another7 The mos;ue4 on the other hand4 is a space %or prayer4 and as such4 does not ha5e its centre 1ithin the enclosin) 1alls> its orientation is to1ards the !a:8a4 so that all the mos;ues in the 1orld %orm a )reat circle around ecca Aassumin) that 1e en5isa)e the earth as it is represented on a %lat sur%aceB7 The church is4 in a certain sense4 a place o% aspiration and o% dynamic tension4 loo'in) to1ards the risen Christ in 8reathless hope4 see'in) union and implyin) the incompleteness o% the human soul until that union is achie5ed7 The mos;ue is at peace4 8ecause %or the uslim the di5ine .nity is here and no14 present e5ery1here and needin) only to 8e reco)ni<ed %or 1hat it is7 Islamic architecture possesses its %ullness in e5ery place4 recallin) the hadith4 :All is 1ell 1ith the 8elie5ers under all circumstances:> it reminds us that4 in the di5ine !no1led)e4 all is 1ell4 all is complete@ consumatum est7 Aspiration is4 8y its nature4 uneasy4 see'in) easement4 8ut that 1hich is complete in itsel% is already at ease4 li'e a still pool re%lectin) the sun7 The %irst mos;ue o% Islam 1as simply the courtyard into 1hich the Prophet:s apartment and the apartments o% his %amily opened out7 In the course o% time mos;ue architecture de5eloped in terms o% ethnic )enius = the mos;ues o% $est A%rica are 5ery di%%erent in appearance to those o% Ara8ia4 as they are to the mos;ues o% south=east Asia = and indi5idual inspiration4 8ut the 8asic principles are the same4 the :atmosphere: is the same and the purpose is the same7 The

dome replaced the open s'y4 8ut the dome is an ima)e o% the s'y a8o5e> minarets 9utted up1ards4 an attestation to the di5ine .nity4 li'e the %irst Ara8ic letter o% the name Allah4 or li'e the pointin) inde3 %in)er o% the uslim 1hen he 8ears 1itness to this .nity in the course o% prayer7 At the same time the :place o% prostration: A1hich is the literal meanin) o% the 1ord :mos;ue:B 1as em8ellished 8ecause :Allah is 8eauti%ul and He lo5es 8eauty:4 and it 1as su%%used 1ith li)ht 8ecause :Allah is the 0i)ht o% the hea5ens and the earth:7 Titus &urc'hardt spea's o% the uslim architect trans%ormin) stone into a 5i8ration o% li)ht4 and anyone 1ho has seen the Court o% 0ions in the Alham8ra Palace in "ranada 1ill 'no1 e3actly 1hat he means and 9ust ho1 miraculous this trans%ormation is7 The di5ine 0i)ht 8rin)s thin)s out o% nothin)ness into 8ein)> to 8e 5isi8le is to 8e7 For Islam4 li)ht is the most ade;uate = or least inade;uate = sym8ol o% the 6i5inity4 8ut li)ht as such is da<<lin) and human 1ea'ness re;uires that it should 8e 8ro'en do1n into the colours o% the spectrum 1hich4 as it 1ere4 8oth analyse and e3press its nature7 In the decorati5e tilin) o% mos;ues4 as in ?uranic illumination4 the lan)ua)e o% colour is employed to re5eal the secrets hidden 1ithin the splendour o% li)ht4 in the same 1ay that the :8eauti%ul Names: are employed in the ?ur:an to re5eal somethin) o% the nature o% "od4 1ho is in Himsel% too da<<lin) to 8e concei5ed7 No1here in the mos;ue4 or in other mani%estations o% normal ,unni uslim art4 do 1e %ind any representation o% human %i)ures4 1hich mi)ht dra1 us into earthly drama> nor do 1e %ind representations o% animals4 %or :there is no animal on earth4 nor a %lyin) creature 8orne on t1o 1in)s4 8ut they are communities li'e yoursel5es:A?7*73-B> or4 as an alternati5e and more literal translation4 1e mi)ht say :made in your ima)e:4 openin) up a line o% thou)ht 1hich cannot 8e pursued here7 The immediate reason %or the :aniconism: o% Islam is the prohi8ition o% idolatry in any %orm and a precaution a)ainst the possi8ility o% idolatry4 8ut it is also a precautionary measure a)ainst human pretension> 1e cannot create li%e = :Hou cannot create e5en a %ly:A?7227+3B = and to ma'e an ima)e o% a li5in) creature su))ests to the uslim that the artist is attemptin) this 8lasphemous tas'7 He must 8e stopped 8e%ore he 8e)ins to see himsel% as a little )od7 &eyond this there is the ;uestion o% respect %or the :secret: contained in e5ery li5in) creature4 a :secret: 1hich cannot 8e represented in earthly %orms7 The hi)her the creature the %urther 1e are %rom any possi8ility o% representin) his essence4 his meanin)7 From this point o% 5ie14 a representation o% the Prophet could only 8e an empty shell and4 as such4 not merely displeasin) 8ut actually dan)erous> %or 1ho 'no1s 1hat in%luences may creep into an empty shell or 1hat phantasma)oria may 8e pro9ected into the 5acuum presented 8y an :idol:G As %or the ordinary man4 his potentiality as the Jicere)ent o% "od is somethin) un)raspa8le and certainly 8eyond any possi8ility o% representation4 unless 8y means o% a sym8olism 1hich is necessarily a8stract in %orm7 The human person cannot 8e reduced to his or her terrestrial modalities7 Prohi8itions4 ho1e5er4 can ne5er 8e a8solute4 since they relate to a 1orld4 a state o% e3istence4 1hich is not in itsel% a8solute4 and e5ery rule re;uires e3ceptions7 &oth people and animals are lo5in)ly delineated in Persian miniatures> 8ut they

are not the people o% this earth nor the animals o% this earth7 They e3ist in a di%%erent dimension7 They are shado1s cast on to a %lat sur%ace %rom else1here and then coloured in the colours o% our locality7 As &urc'hardt says4 the miniature does not see' :to portray the out1ard 1orld as it commonly presents itsel% to the senses4 1ith all its disharmonies and accidentalities> 1hat it is indirectly descri8in) is the Cimmuta8le essencesC Aal=a:yan ath=tha8itahB o% thin)s:> it is li'e a :clear and translucent dream4 as i% illumined %rom 1ithin:7D1E The a8sence o% perspecti5e adds to the ;uality o% o89ecti5ity 1hich )oes 1ith this :translucence:4 since perspecti5e al1ays implies the presence = e5en the inter5ention = o% an indi5idual su89ect o8ser5in) the scene %rom his particular 5ie1point7 These pictures e3ist in their o1n 1orld and their 1orld is %ree %rom the distoruons 1hich a%%ect our earthly 5ision7 1 Art o% Islam4 Titus &urc'hardt4 p7 317 oreo5er4 the human %i)ures 1ithin the landscape do not dominate it7 Arnold Hottin)er dra1s a parallel 8et1een this treatment o% the human %i)ure and other aspects o% Islamic art4 includin) the manner in 1hich human characters are treated in Ara8ic and Persian literature@ :This character o% pure openin)4 o% the a8stract and the crystalline4 1hich is possessed 8y the )reat 1or's o% Islamic architecture )oes alon) 1ith the coordination o% di%%erent o89ects in the miniatures4 as in a )arden4 1ith the spontaneous se;uences o% indi5idual illuminations in the poems and 1ith Firdausi:s nim8le and luminous %i)ures re%usin) to 8e con%ined 1ithin one system7 $e %ind it a)ain in the in%inite4 %ree %lo1 o% the tales in the Thousand=and=one Ni)hts4 a mi3ture o% humans4 animals4 demons4 commonness and 8eauty 777:D2E This is a lon) 1ay %rom any humanistic theory or practice o% art in terms o% 1hich one little centre o% misery4 one su%%erin) creature in a picture or a story4 can cancel out a 1hole landscape o% 9oy and peace> and Hottin)er dra1s attention to the ;uality o% :detachment: 1hich characteri<es this art7 The 1orld is 1hat it is4 and in the miniature the artist re%uses to let his human %i)ures say more a8out 1hat he is tryin) to con5ey than the rest o% the picture4 1hich is li'e a mirror re%lectin) the inner harmony that is = or should 8e = the normal state o% 8ein)7 2 The Ara8s4 Arnold Hottin)er4 p7++7 Hottin)er ;uotes a curious 8ut re5ealin) passa)e 1ritten 8y the nineteenth= century :romantic: Ho%mannsthal on the su89ect o% the Thousand=and=One Ni)hts Aor Ara8ian Ni)hts Entertainments4 as this collection o% stories is sometimes calledB@ :Here 1e ha5e in%inite ad5entures4 dreams4 1ise speeches4 pran's4 indecencies4 mysteries> here 1e ha5e the 8oldest spirituality and the most complete sensuality 1o5en into one7 There is no sense o% ours 1hich is not mo5ed4 %rom the hi)hest to the lo1est777 $e see that this 1hole is inter1o5en 1ith poetic spirituality in 1hich 1e pro)ress 1ith li5ely ecstasy %rom %irst perception to complete understandin)7 All these sensual thin)s are co5ered 8y a presentiment4 a presence o% "od 1hich is indescri8a8le7 O5er this ma<e o% 1hat is human4 animal and demonic4 there is al1ays stretched the shinin) canopy o% the s'y or the sacred starry hea5ens7 And li'e a )entle4 pure and stron) 1ind4 eternal4 simple4 holy sentiments 8lo1 throu)h the 1hole777: $hat 1e ha5e here4 as

else1here in the Islamic cosmos4 is the presence o% :the open:> desert and steppe4 un8ounded hori<ons7 $here4 then4 are 1e to %ind a speci%ically :human: artG No art is closer to us 8oth physically and psycholo)ically than that o% dress4 and i% the human %i)ure is e3cluded = or enters only as an element in the desi)n = else1here4 it is none the less clothed in splendour at the centre o% the Islamic en5ironment7 :No art:4 says Titus &urc'hardt4 :has a more tellin) e%%ect upon a man:s soul than that o% clothin)4 %or a man instincti5ely identi%ies himsel% 1ith the clothes he 1ears7: He also dresses in accordance 1ith his idea o% himsel% and o% his role in the scheme o% thin)s7 &urc'hardt identi%ies modern occidental dress as representin) :a turnin) a1ay %rom a li%e entirely dominated 8y contemplati5e 5alues4 1ith its 8earin)s %i3ed on the herea%ter:> the lesson implicit in the traditional dress o% Islam4 ho1e5er much it has 5aried %rom one re)ion to another4 is that the human 8ody is amon) the :si)ns o% Allah:4 and to 5eil it4 as &urc'hardt says4 :is not to deny it4 8ut to 1ithdra1 it4 li'e )old4 into the domain o% thin)s concealed %rom the eyes o% the cro1d:7D1E 1 Art o% Islam4 Titus &urc'hardt4 pp7 //=1227 It is common enou)h in the $est to dress chimpan<ees in human clothin)4 either %or the amusement o% children 5isitin) a <oo or to ad5ertise products on tele5ision4 and contemporary $estern tailorin) loo's 5ery 1ell on mon'eys> it loo's less 1ell on human 8ein)s and a8surdly inappropriate on uslims at prayer> 8ut it is the 8ad)e o% :ci5ili<ation: and 1orn as such7 A soldier 'no1s that he is truly in the army 1hen he puts on his uni%orm and a mon' is assured o% his 5ocation 1hen he dons the ro8es o% his order> 8oth !amal Atatur' and ao T<etun)4 1hen they 1ished to ma'e a complete 8rea' 1ith the past and create a ne1 'ind o% Tur' and a ne1 'ind o% Chinese4 started 8y chan)in) their people:s mode o% dress4 and it is interestin) to note ho1 ;uic' Catholic priests are to adopt secular clothin) 1hen they lose con%idence in their priestly %unction7 Those 1ho thin' o% themsel5es as cle5er mon'eys 1ill dress as cle5er mon'eys4 1hile those 1ho 8elie5e themsel5es to 8e the :Jicere)ents o% Allah on earth: 1ill also dress accordin)ly7 ,ometimes 1e are more concerned 1ith peripheral threats than 1ith the threat closest to us> many uslims are deeply concerned a8out the threat to their 1ay o% li%e represented 8y such $estern customs as dancin) and :datin):4 8ut only a %e1 are a1are that not merely their 1ay o% li%e4 8ut their 5ery identity as uslims mi)ht 8e undermined 8y a mode o% dress totally alien to the Islamic concept o% man:s role in creation7D2E 2 Accordin) to a hadith4 classi%ied under the headin) :Clothin):@ :He 1ho copies any people is one o% them7: The ar)ument one hears only too %re;uently is that :out1ard thin)s: do not matter> all that matters is :1hat you ha5e in your heart:7 This ar)ument is4 to say the least4 nai5e7 $hat 1e ha5e in our hearts is constantly in%luenced = and e5entually chan)ed = 8y our immediate en5ironment4 and the en5ironment closest to us is

the ro8e4 suit or dress 1e 1ear> a%ter that comes the home4 and a%ter the home4 the city7 Fust as the 1ay in 1hich people dress indicates their idea o% themsel5es4 so the 1ay in 1hich they 8uild indicates their idea o% society and o% the purpose o% li%e7 Occidental architecture in this century is an open 8oo' in 1hich the ideolo)ies o% our time may 8e studied7 Traditional Islamic architecture4 despite a tremendous 5ariety o% styles4 8ears the unmista'a8le stamp o% Islam> the traditional home and the traditional city 1ere precisely matched to the li5es o% people 1ho4 in all their acti5ities4 %ollo1ed the sunnah o% the Prophet4 and %or this 5ery reason they %acilitated the %ollo1in) o% the sunnah4 9ust as Ara8 dress %acilitates the per%ormance o% the a8lution and the mo5ements o% the ritual prayer7 The 8ulldo<ers ha5e 8een at 1or'4 ho1e5er4 in the name o% :moderni<ation:4 and the ne1 to1ns 8uilt on the ra5a)ed land4 1ith their third=rate imitation o% all that is 1orst in occidental architecture and their shoddy 1or'manship4 o%%er suita8le accommodation only %or shayatin4 :satans:7 The $esterner 1ho o8ser5es this and deplores it in5ites the accusation that he 1ants to 'eep the uslim 1orld :8ac'1ard: and :pictures;ue: the 8etter to dominate it4 thou)h his accusers are: li'ely to 8e the 5ery people 1ho condemn the $est %or its :decadence:4 1hile rushin) to adopt the complete in%rastructure o% this same decadence Ait is temptin) to add that at least the $est 'no1s ho1 to 8e decadent stylishlyB7 &ut 1hat is at issue here is not a matter o% taste or o% pre%errin) the decorati5e to the utilitarian> it is a matter o% spiritual la1s as ine3ora8le as any la1 o% nature and4 at the same time4 a matter o% human psycholo)y7 ,pea'in) o% the distrust o% anythin) that mi)ht 8e descri8ed as :romantic: or :pictures;ue: 1hich is so common in our time4 Frith9o% ,chuon remar's that :the CromanticC 1orlds are precisely those in 1hich "od is still pro8a8le> 1hen people 1ant to )et rid o% Hea5en it is lo)ical to start 8y creatin) an atmosphere in 1hich spiritual thin)s appear out o% place> in order to declare success%ully that "od is unreal they ha5e to construct around man a %alse reality4 a reality that is ine5ita8ly inhuman 8ecause only the inhuman can e3clude "od7 $hat is in5ol5ed is a %alsi%ication o% the ima)ination and so its destruction 77 7:D1E The uslims today are constructin) around themsel5es an en5ironment in 1hich %aith can only seem out o% place4 prayer super%luous and the shari:ah an incon5enience7 1 .nderstandin) Islam4 Frith9o% ,chuon A0ondon@ Allen N .n1in4 1/*3B4 p73+7 The human soul and 8ody are capa8le o% adaptin) themsel5es to inhospita8le conditions4 pro5ided the 1orsenin) o% the en5ironment ta'es place )radually7 Europeans and Americans ha5e a certain immunity to the mali)n in%luences o% the modern en5ironment4 and %amiliarity 1ith it ena8les them to ma'e: 5alue= 9ud)ements re)ardin) the products o% technolo)y7 People else1here ha5e no such immunity and their past e3perience o% li%e = in hand=made rather than machine= made en5ironments = )a5e them no opportunity to de5elop standards o% taste applica8le to these products7 The outcome o% this situation is e3actly 1hat one 1ould e3pect> people 1ho4 only a )eneration a)o4 li5ed amon)st thin)s that 1ere 8eauti%ul and entirely %ittin) to the Islamic 1ay o% li%e no1 li5e amidst trash 1hich

they cannot e5en reco)ni<e %or 1hat it is7 In most cases it is only the European 1ho4 1hen he contrasts4 say4 a contemporary E)yptian home 1ith a traditional Ara8 house A%urnished 1ith the products o% Islamic cra%tsmenB4 sees 1hat they ha5e lost and %ears %or their sanity7 The in%luence upon them o% an en5ironment totally alien to Islam is all the more dan)erous %or 8ein) unpercei5ed7 It is sometimes maintained that the di%%erence 8et1een a tool and a machine is only one o% de)ree4 8ut no8ody could seriously deny that the di%%erence 8et1een a traditional cra%tsman and a 1or'er 1ho presses 8uttons in an automated %actory is %undamental7 The essentially sacred character o% the cra%ts 1as almost uni5ersally reco)ni<ed in the past 8y the most di5erse peoples in e5ery part o% the 1orld7 The cra%ts 1ere tau)ht to man'ind4 accordin) to some4 8y the :)ods: or4 accordin) to others4 8y :spirits:4 and the cra%tsman prepared himsel% ritually %or 1or' that 1as4 in its 1ay4 priestly7 For uslims4 the cra%ts 1ere di5inely re5ealed throu)h successi5e messen)ers o% "od4 and the act o% ma'in)4 %rom ra1 materials4 an o89ect 8oth use%ul and comely 1as4 until recently4 reco)ni<ed as a %orm o% prayer7 The products o% a sacred acti5ity carry 1ith them a 8lessin)4 a 8ara'ah4 1hich encoura)es the user to :remem8er: "od and 8rin)s him closer to "od7 No traditional ci5ili<ation could ha5e accepted the notion that there are thin)s 1hich ser5e only our physical 1ell=8ein)> e5ery acti5ity and e5ery o89ect must relate to the 1hole man4 1ho is spirit4 soul and 8ody4 and Islam the reli)ion o% unity = is the reli)ion o% :1holeness:7 In his 8oo' on the oroccan city o% Fe<4 Fas@ ,tadt des Islam4D1E Titus &urc'hardt descri8es a meetin) 1ith an old cra%tsman 1ho still %ollo1ed the traditional 1ays7 :I 'ne1 a com8=ma'er 1ho 1or'ed in the street o% his )uild7 He 1as called :A8d al= A<i<777 He o8tained the horn %or his com8s %rom o3 s'ulls4 1hich he 8ou)ht %rom 8utchers7 He dried the horned s'ulls at a rented place4 remo5ed the horns4 opened them len)th1ise and strai)htened them o5er a %ire4 a procedure that had to 8e done 1ith the )reatest care lest they should 8rea'7 From this ra1 material he cut com8s and turned 8o3es %or antimony Aused as an eye decorationB on a simple lathe 777 As he 1or'ed he chanted ?uranic surahs in a hummin) tone7 :I learned that4 as a result o% an eye disease 1hich is common in A%rica4 he 1as already hal%=8lind and that4 in 5ie1 o% lon) practice4 he 1as a8le to C%eelC his 1or' rather than see it7 One day he complained to me that the importation o% plastic com8s 1as diminishin) his 8usiness7 CIt is only a pity that today4 solely on account o% price4 poor ;uality com8s %rom a %actory are pre%erred to much more dura8le horn com8s4C he said4 Cit is also senseless that people should stand 8y a machine and mindlessly repeat the same mo5ement4 1hile an old cra%t li'e mine %alls into o8li5ion7 C: y 1or' may seem crude to you4 8ut it har8ours a su8tle meanin) 1hich cannot 8e con5eyed in 1ords7 I mysel% ac;uired it only a%ter many lon) years and4 e5en i% I 1anted to4 I could not automatically pass it on to my son i% he himsel% did not 1ish to ac;uire it = and I thin' he 1ould rather ta'e up another occupation7 This cra%t can 8e traced 8ac' %rom apprentice to master until one reaches our 0ord

,eth4 the son o% Adam7 It 1as he 1ho %irst tau)ht it to men4 and 1hat a Prophet 8rin)s = and ,eth 1as a Prophet = must clearly ha5e a special purpose4 8oth out1ardly and in1ardly7 I )radually came to understand that there is nothin) %ortuitous a8out this cra%t4 that each mo5ement and each procedure is the 8earer o% an element o% 1isdom7 Not e5eryone can understand this7 &ut e5en i% one does not 'no1 this4 it is still stupid and reprehensi8le to ro8 men o% the inheritance o% Prophets and to put them in %ront o% a machine 1here4 day in and day out4 they must per%orm a meanin)less tas'C7: 1 This 8oo'4 1hich succeeds in con5eyin) the :%eel: o% traditional Islam its spirit and its su8stance = more e%%ecti5ely and more po1er%ully than the 5ast ma9ority o% 8oo's 1hich ha5e attempted this di%%icult ras'4 has no1 8een translated into En)lish 8y $illiam ,toddart7 The old com8=ma'er has said all that needs to 8e said4 and those 1ho do not understand him 1ill ne5er understand anythin) a8out the human situation or a8out the demand "od ma'es upon us to sancti%y our acti5ities4 somethin) that 1e cannot do unless these acti5ities are inherently capa8le o% sancti%ication7 To re)ret the passin) o% this old man and o% others li'e him has nothin) to do 1ith sentimentality7 It has to do 1ith %ear4 the %ear that price 1e ha5e 8ecome ;uite useless = totally unsancti%ied and unsancti%ia8le = 1e shall 8e %it only %or the 8on%ire 1hich a1aits the de8ris o% a ruined 1orld7 The discipline o% the cra%tsman 1hose tools are so simple that he must rely upon 1isdom4 competence and manual s'ill to produce o89ects 1hich are4 in their 1ay4 per%ect is 5ery similar to the discipline o% the mystic4 1hose ra1 material is not clay4 1ood or 8one4 8ut his o1n soul7 Islamic mysticism4 called tasa11u% in Ara8ic and commonly re%erred to as ,u%ism4 is a 5ast and comple3 su89ect4 and one 1hich contains many traps %or the un1ary4 8ut it cannot 8e i)nored in any )eneral study o% the reli)ion in the 1ay that Christian mysticism mi)ht 8e i)nored 8y a 1riter on Christianity7 $e cannot4 as ,eyyed Hossein Nasr remar's4 :do 9ustice to the 1holeness o% the Islamic tradition and its immensely rich spiritual possi8ilities 8y puttin) aside its inner dimension7 In spea'in) a8out ,u%ism4 there%ore4 in reality 1e shall 8e spea'in) a8out the Islamic tradition in its most in1ard and uni5ersal aspect7:D1E Amon) the orientalists there ha5e 8een some 1ho readily ac'no1led)e the tremendous deepenin) and intensi%ication o% reli)ious e3perience 8rou)ht a8out 8y ,u%ism7 :$hat 1as to remain in other ci5ili<ations an acti5ity con%ined to outsiders4 ascetics4 mon's4 nuns and di5ines4: says Arnold Hottin)er4 :struc' deep roots into the masses o% ordinary uslims and indeed 8ecame the most important social lin'4 holdin) uslim society to)ether %or centuries7:D2E Others4 it has 8een su))ested4 ha5e deli8erately minimi<ed the importance o% the mystical dimension in order to stren)then the Christian position4 on the assumption that an Islam cut o%% %rom this dimension cannot compete 1ith Christianity or claim ade;uately to ans1er the spiritual needs o% man'ind7 &e this as it may4 there are certainly a num8er o% 8oo's purportin) to )i5e a comprehensi5e 5ie1 o% Islam 1hich present a misleadin)ly super%icial picture o% the reli)ion and lea5e the $estern reader 1onderin) ho1 anyone 1ho as's o% his %aith somethin) more than a rule o%

conduct %or daily li%e could 8e a deli8erate choice7

uslim4 let alone 8ecome a

uslim %rom

1 Islam and the Pli)ht o% odern an4 ,eyyed Hossein Nasr A0ou)man 0rd4 1/+(B4 p7#/7 2 Arnold Horrin)er4 The Ara8s4 p7 /*7 The %act is that many $esterners4 particularly those 1ho ha5e li5ed %or a time in uslim countries4 %ind it almost inconcei5a8le that there could 8e any common )round 8et1een e3oteric4 le)alistic Islam and the 8road s1eep o% ,u%ism4 1ith its darin) leaps into the spiritual hei)hts and its darin) plun)es into the depths o% the ocean o% &ein)4 its emphasis upon the presence o% "od 1ithin the heart o% man and its claim to dra1 'no1led)e o% thin)s di5ine %rom the 5ery source o% !no1led)e itsel%7 They may 1ell ha5e 8een con%irmed in their opinion 8y uslims 1ho ha5e told them that ,u%ism is :unorthodo3:4 or e5en that it is an inno5ation:4 and their o1n e3perience in the Christian 1orld may ha5e led them to re)ard mysticism as a some1hat peripheral aspect o% reli)ion7 They %eel 9usti%ied in their opinion that Islam is little more than a :&oy ,cout reli)ion:4 1ith rather unpleasant undertones o% 5iolence and 8i)otry7 &e%ore considerin) the o89ections 1hich certain uslims raise a)ainst the mystical dimension o% their reli)ion4 it is important to stress that ,u%ism ta'es di%%erent %orms in accordance 1ith the 5ery di%%erent temperaments o% those 1ho are dra1n to it7 The turu; Aplural o% tari;ah4 1hich means :path: or4 in this case4 :spiritual path:B do not di%%er in essentials = all ha5e )ro1n %rom the same root = 8ut they do di%%er mar'edly in their methods and disciplines4 as do Christian monastic orders7 No neat classi%ication is possi8le4 8ut there is an o85ious distinction 8et1een those ,u%is 1ho are :drun'en: and those 1ho are :so8er:@ the %ormer4 drun' on the :1ine: o% )nosis or on the :1ine: o% di5ine 0o5e = or on 8oth to)ether = do not 8eha5e as other men do4 8ut are sei<ed 8y ecstasy and care nothin) %or the con5entions o% ordinary li%e> the latter contain their ecstasy 1ithin themsel5es4 'eepin) it under strict control4 a5oidin) scandal e5en 1hen they reel in1ardly under the di5ine touch4 and maintainin) discretion as to their spiritual state7 The ideal4 as it 1as e3pressed 8y a )reat ,u%i aster o% the present century4 Ahmad al=:Ala1i4 is to 8e :in1ardly drun'en: and :out1ardly so8er:7D1E 1 ,ee A ,u%i ,aint o% the T1entieth Century4 1/*1B7 arrin 0in)s AAllen N .n1in 0td74

A %urther distinction mi)ht 8e made 8et1een those turu; 1hich are :de5otional: and those 1hich are :intellectual: or :)nostic:4 %ollo1in) a 1ay o% !no1led)e Ama:ri%ah4 that is to say :di5ine !no1led)e:B rather than a 1ay o% 0o5e4 althou)h the t1o o%ten mer)e into each other and 0o5e is a 'ind o% !no1led)e4 al8eit indirect4 9ust as !no1led)e is con9oined 1ith 0o5e in mystical e3perience> 1hat 1e lo5e is 'no1n to us4D2E and 1hat is 'no1n to us cannot 8ut 8e lo5ed7 It is a ;uestion there%ore o% emphasis rather than o% any %undamental di%%erence7 Alternati5ely4 1e may distin)uish 8et1een4 on the one hand4 a ,u%i 1ay 8ased upon a deepened sense o% the meanin) o% the common rites o% the reli)ion Aritual prayer4 the Fast and so onB and upon meticulous o8ser5ance o% the ,hari:ah> and4

on the other4 a 1ay 1hich )i5es priority to the practice o% dhi'r Athe :remem8rance o% "od:B in its technical sense7 For o85ious reasons4 those uslims 1ho re)ard ,u%ism 1ith suspicion 1ill al1ays pre%er the :so8er: ,u%i to the :drun'en:4 the :de5otional: to the :)nostic:4 and the meticulous adherent o% the ,hari:ah to the ,u%i 1hose adherence to out1ard o8ser5ances is con%ined to 1hat may 8e necessary to a5oid scandal7 2 Cp7 the &i8lical term %or se3ual intercourse@ :He 'ne1 her:7 ysticism4 particularly in its metaphysical dimension4 8rea's throu)h the 8oundaries 1hich protect the simple %aith o% the ordinary 8elie5er and carries us into an uncon%ined re)ion in 1hich there are 5ery real dan)ers o% )oin) astray4 especially i% the human e)o has not %irst 8een 8rou)ht to order7 At the same time it tends to :relati5i<e: the %ormal reli)ion 1hich is its sprin)8oard 8ut 1hich it has4 in a certain sense4 outdistanced7 6o)mas and prescriptions 1hich the ordinary 8elie5er sees as a8solute are interpreted alle)orically4 or used as points o% re%erence 1hich may e5entually 8e transcended7 Particularly shoc'in) to the e3oteric :Esta8lishment: is the %act that the mystic o%ten claims = i% only 8y implication = an authority deri5ed directly %rom "od and a 'no1led)e )i5en %rom a8o5e rather than learned in the schools7 The mystic has his ri)hts = 1hich are the ri)hts o% Truth itsel% = 8ut so has the ordinary 8elie5er4 1hose %aith in a %e1 simple principles A1hich are none the less ade;uate %or his sal5ationB may 8e undermined 8y teachin)s 1hich seem to him to call these principles into ;uestion7 This is 1hy many spiritual asters ha5e o8ser5ed )reat discretion in their out1ard teachin)4 reser5in) the essence o% their doctrine %or those %e1 1ho are ;uali%ied to recei5e it> and this is also 1hy the e3oteric authorities ha5e re)arded mysticism 1ith a certain suspicion7 At the 5ery least they ha5e seen a need to control it lest it threaten the 1hole structure o% authoritarian %aith7 ,o %ar as the Catholic Church 1as concerned Ain the Christian conte3tB4 this presented no real pro8lem4 since the ma9ority o% Christian mystics4 1ith a %e1 nota8le e3ceptions4 ha5e 8een mon's or nuns li5in) under a strict rule and su89ect to the authority o% their ,uperiors7 The position in Islam is 5ery di%%erent7 It is true that e5ery ,u%i is under the authority o% his ,hei'h Aa term 1hich4 in this particular conte3t4 may 8e translated as :spiritual aster: or :6irector:B4 8ut there is no hi)her authority in Islam 1hich could appoint or depose the ,hei'hs4 or pre5ent them %rom )oin) their o1n 1ay7 This has led4 on occasion4 to e3cesses and heterodo3 practices 1hich ha5e done more than anythin) else to )i5e ,u%ism a 8ad name in certain circles7 Control has4 ho1e5er4 8een e3ercised4 and it has 8een e3ercised partly 8y pu8lic opinion = the :consensus: o% the .mmah = and partly 8y means o% a 'ind o% dynamic tension4 maintained throu)h the centuries 8et1een the e3oteric reli)ious authorities on the one hand and the ,u%i ,hei'hs on the other7 An undercurrent o% opposition to ,u%ism 1ithin sections o% the Islamic community has ser5ed as a necessary cur8 on the mystics4 1ithout this undercurrent ha5in) e5er 8een stron) enou)h to pre5ent those 1ho ha5e had a )enuine 5ocation %or a ,u%i path %rom

%ollo1in) their destiny7 In this 1ay a healthy 8alance has 8een maintained 8et1een the esoteric and the e3oteric dimensions o% the reli)ion7 It is important none the less to emphasi<e that the di5ision or 8oundary line 8et1een the t1o has ne5er 8een as clear=cut as this mi)ht su))est7 any o% the :ulama: Areli)ious scholarsB and %u;aha: A9uristsB 1ho ma'e up the o%%icial Esta8lishment in Islam ha5e themsel5es 8een = and are today = mem8ers o% ,u%i 8rotherhoods4 1hile ,u%is o% )reat spiritual eminence ha5e held important positions in the Esta8lishment4 a recent e3ample 8ein) the late ,hei'h A8dul= Halim ahmud4 Rector o% al=A<har Athe most ancient and the most important uni5ersity in the ,unni uslim 1orldB until his death in 1/+-4 and one o% the most 1idely respected %i)ures in contemporary Islam7 Three particular 1atersheds in the history o% the comple3 relationship 8et1een the in1ard and the out1ard dimensions o% the reli)ion deser5e mention here7 The %irst concerns the li%e and teachin)s o% I8n ansur al=Halla9 Ad7 A6 /22B4 one o% the three or %our outstandin) ,u%is 1hose names are %amiliar to $esterners interested in mysticism7D1E 1 ,ee 0a Passion d:al=Husayn al=Halla94 artyr mysti;ue de l:Islam4 0ouis assi)non AParis4 1/22B4 and other 1or's 8y rhe same author7 Al=Halla9 1as e3ecuted in &a)hdad %or e3pressin) himsel% too %reely = in the manner o% the :drun'en: mystics = althou)h there may also ha5e 8een political %actors in5ol5ed in his condemnation7 His statement Ana:l Ha;;4 un5eiled as a na'ed assertion = 1ithout ;uali%ication and 1ithout e3planation = 1as clear heresy so %ar as the reli)ious authorities 1ere concerned7 This statement4 :I am the Truth:4 means in e%%ect :I am "od:7 $hate5er the :I: in ;uestion mi)ht 8e %or al=Halla9 = and so %ar as he 1as concerned it 1as "od Himsel%4 not the mortal man4 1ho spo'e these 1ords throu)h himD2E = the :I: is4 %or most o% humanity4 includin) the ma9ority o% 8elie5ers4 the human e)o4 and %or the e)o to say :I am "od: is the ultimate sin or the root o% all sin7 His contemporary4 Funayd4 a pillar o% :so8er: mysticism4 ne5er contested his spiritual stature 8ut said none the less4 1hen al=Halla9 1ished to 9oin his circle4 :I do not ta'e madmen as companions> companionship demands sanity7 ,o8riety is the mar' o% a sound spiritual state> drun'enness is the mar' o% too much lon)in)7: 2 In this conte3t Falaluddin Rumi remar'ed to his disciples@ :Ta'e the %amous utterance4 CI am "odC7 ,ome men rec'on it as a )reat pretension> 8ut CI am "odC is in %act a )reat humility7 The man 1ho says CI am the ser5ant o% "odC asserts that t1o e3ist4 one himsel% and the other "od7 &ut he 1ho says CI am "odC has nau)hted himsel% and cast himsel% to the 1inds7 He says4 :I am "odC@ that is4 :I am not4 He is all4 nothin) has e3istence 8ut "od4 I am pure non=entity4 I am nothin)C7 In this the humility is )reater7: A6iscourses o% Rumi4 translated 8y A7 F7 Ar8erry4 Fohn urray4 p7((B7 He could not 8e other than he 1as or do other1ise than he did4 8ut he himsel% 1as %ully a1are o% the am8i)uity o% his statements and o% the dan)er that they 1ould lead people astray7 In spite o% this4 he could not restrain himsel%@ :The man 1ho

1ould re5eal the secret o% Allah to His creatures4: he said4 :%eels a su%%erin) 8eyond human po1er to endure:> 8ut to a )roup o% learned men 1ho had come to ;uestion him he said@ :$hat ;uestions could you as' o% meG For I see only too 1ell ho1 ri)ht you are and ho1 1ron) I amI: $hen he 1as condemned to die4 he said4 : y death 1ill preser5e the sanctions o% the 0a14: 1ell 'no1in) that %or the ordinary 8elie5er to lose all %ear o% "od = as he had done = is to em8ar' upon the road to disaster7 $hen he 1as %inally 8rou)ht to the )allo1s4 a%ter lon) delay A%or there 1ere many 1ho tried to sa5e himB4 he prayed@ :These Thy ser5ants 1ho are )athered to slay me out o% <eal %or Thy reli)ion = %or)i5e them4 0ord4 ha5e mercy upon them7 ,urely4 hadst Thou sho1n them 1hat Thou hast sho1n me4 they 1ould ne5er ha5e done 1hat they ha5e done> and hadst Thou 'ept %rom me 1hat Thou has 'ept %rom them4 I should not ha5e su%%ered this tri8ulation7 $hatsoe5er Thou doest4 I praise Thee7: He died praisin)4 ha5in) 1ritten earlier in a poem@ :I am my 0o5e4 my 0o5e is I> t1o spirits this 8ody occupy7 I% you see me4 He it is 1hom you see> 1hen you see Him you 1ill see me7: In the union o% lo5er and &elo5ed all ;uestions are ans1ered and all am8i)uities resol5ed7 ,o %ar as am8i)uities are concered4 they 1ere = at least to a )reat e3tent=resol5ed in the ele5enth century A6 8y A8u Hamid al="ha<<ali4 re)arded 8y many as the most si)ni%icant and in%luential %i)ure in medie5al Islam7 Appointed at an early a)e as a pro%essor o% reli)ious 0a1 in the )reat Ni<amiyya Colle)e in &a)hdad4 he came )radually to ;uestion the 8ases o% his o1n %aith4 resi)ned his post and sou)ht amon) di%%erent schools o% thou)ht %or a solution to his dou8ts7 He %ound it in ,u%i teachin) and 8ecame4 a%ter many years o% tra5el and solitary meditation4 an incompara8ly e%%ecti5e 8rid)e=8uilder 8et1een the t1o contrastin) dimensions o% Islam7 No one could ri5al him either in his 'no1led)e or his practice o% the ,hari:ah4 nor = in his o1n time = had he any e;ual as an e3ponent o% ,u%i doctrine7 It could 8e said that he :le)itimi<ed: ,u%ism4 and his )reatest 1or'4 the Ihya :ulum ad=din Athe :Re5i5i%ication o% the Reli)ious ,ciences:B4 1as a synthesis 1hich co5ered e5ery aspect o% the 8elie5er:s li%e4 %rom the correct manner o% eatin) and drin'in) and the conduct o% marital relations to the disciplines and re1ards o% the mystical path7 No less important than al=Halla9 and al="ha<<ali in the de5elopment o% ,u%i doctrine 1as the Andalusian mystic4 uhyiddin i8n :Ara8i Ad7 A6 12#2B4 called 8y those 1ho appro5e o% him ash=,hei'h al=a'8ar A:the supreme spiritual aster:B4 and re)arded 8y those 1ho disappro5e o% him as a heretic7 He remains a centre o% contro5ersy to this day> his 1ritin)s are 8anned in ,audi Ara8ia4 and in 1/-2 the E)yptian Parliament stopped pu8lication o% his collected 1or's in Cairo Aa decision that 1as rescinded soon a%ter1ardsB7 And yet his in%luence has 8een inescapa8le o5er the past se5en centuries4 and a )reat num8er o% uslims ha5e %ound in his comple3 and sometimes o8scure doctrines an in5alua8le 'ey to the inner mysteries o% their %aith7 The le)itimate opponents o% ,u%ism4 that is to say4 those amon) the :ulama: 1ho consider that mysticism 1ea'ens the hold o% the 0a1 on ordinary 8elie5ers4 or that it 5entures into %or8idden re)ions o% thou)ht and e3perience4 ha5e 8een 9oined

more recently 8y t1o other )roups 1ith %ar less claim to le)itimacy7 The %irst o% these mi)ht 8e descri8ed = althou)h 1ithout any malicious intent = as the :sno8s:7 It is a curious %eature o% ,u%ism that it has cau)ht in its net the t1o e3tremes o% the social spectrum4 the intellectual elite and the masses7 The middle classes ha5e 8een rather less in5ol5ed4 and the prosperous la1yer or 8usinessmen 1ho )i5es his ser5ants an e5enin) o%% to attend the hadrah o% their order 1ill re%er to ,u%ism 1ith sli)htly contempuous indul)ence as :popular superstition:7 His attitude has much in common 1ith that o% the ei)hteenth=century Church o% En)land parson to :reli)ious enthusiasm:7 The second )roup includes modernists4 re5olutionaries and all those 1hose interest in their reli)ion is limited to its use%ulness as a political 1eapon7 They e;uate ,u%ism 1ith :;uietism: and :%atalism: and 8lame it %or all the ills su%%ered 8y Islam since European po1er 8ecame dominant in the 1orld7 ,u%ism4 they say4 castrated a dynamic reli)ion 1hich 1ould other1ise ha5e con;uered the 1orld7 They are lamenta8ly i)norant a8out their o1n history4 or else 1il%ully o8tuse7 Ho1e5er praise1orthy the record o% many o% the :ulama = particularly the outstandin) reli)ious scholars o% the early period = in standin) up a)ainst tyranny4 there e3ists a natural a%%inity 8et1een the reli)ious authorities and the authority o% the state7 It 1as the ,u%is 1ho 1ere most o%ten prepared to spea' their minds and ris' their nec's7 ,u8se;uently4 the uslim 1orld 1as too 8e1ildered 8y the onslau)ht o% the $est and too di5ided = to put up any 5ery e%%ecti5e resistance to it4 and the Amir A8du:l=?adir4 1ho %ou)ht the French in Al)eria in the 1-32s4 1as possi8ly the only uslim since the iddle A)es 1ho mi)ht 8e compared in coura)e4 ma)nanimity and )reatness o% heart to ,alaMhud=6in A:,aladin:4 as he is called in the $estB7 A8du:l=?adir 1as a ,u%i and4 in his en%orced e3ile in 6amascus4 he de5oted the rest o% his li%e to studyin) and commentin) upon the 1or's o% I8n :Ara8i7 ,hamyl4 1ho held the armies o% the Tsar at 8ay %rom 1-3# to 1-(/4 %i)htin) one o% the most e3traordinary campai)ns in military history4 1as a ,hei'h o% the Na;sh8andi order7 :The 0ion o% 6a)hestan:4 as the &ritish press o% that time called him4 is remem8ered today 8y the uslims o% the Caucasus4 1hose ;uiet 8ut implaca8le resistance to the ,o5iet re)ime is inspired and led 8y ,hei'hs o% the same order7 Political acti5ists in the iddle East must sho1 1hat4 i% anythin)4 they are capa8le o% in the 1ay o% %idelity4 coura)e and e%%ecti5eness 8e%ore they critici<e the ,u%is7 There is4 in any case4 a certain irrele5ance in such criticism4 1hate5er its moti5es or its reli)ious 8asis4 %or ,u%ism is in the 8loodstream o% the .mmah and lends its %la5our4 not only to e5ery aspect o% uslim art4 8ut also to the e5eryday li%e o% the 8elie5er7 E5en those 1ho thin' themsel5es totally opposed to it and entirely %ree %rom its in%luence cannot a5oid spea'in) in terms deri5ed %rom ,u%ism 1hen they spea' o% their Faith4 and it is impossi8le to ima)ine a )lo8al reli)ion o% Islam depri5ed o% this dimension7 The Tur's 1ere con5erted 8y ,u%i preachers4 traders and tra5ellers4 as 1ere the people o% the Indonesian archipela)o and many o% the peoples o% the Indian su8continent7 History is inescapa8le4 and the history o% Islam

is 8ound up 1ith that o% the ,u%i orders4 9ust as the out1ard reli)ion is penetrated 8y the in1ard and 5i5i%ied 8y it7 The ,u%i ,hei'hs ha5e sho1n a certain impatience 1hen as'ed to )i5e a precise and de%initi5e de%inition o% tasa11u%7 Tal'in) 1ith 6r Carret4 the ,hei'h al=:Ala1i mentioned that :a8o5e the reli)ion there is the doctrine:7 6r Carret as'ed 1hat this doctrine 1as4 and he ans1ered4 :The means o% attainin) to "od Himsel%:7 6r Carret then in;uired 1hat these means 1ere4 and the ,hei'h ans1ered 1ith a smile@ :$hy should I tell you4 since you are not disposed to ma'e use o% themG I% you came to me as my disciple I could )i5e you an ans1er7 &ut 1hat 1ould 8e the )ood o% satis%yin) an idle curiosityG:D1E Those 1ho 1ish to see the landscape must ma'e their 1ay to the loo'=out point> i% they are not prepared to do this4 it may 8e assumed that their interest is merely that o% a dilettante or4 as the O3%ord 6ictionary rather aptly puts it4 a :smatterer4 one 1ho toys 1ith the su89ect:7 One does not toy 1ith the :means o% attainin) to "od:7 1 A ,u%i ,aint o% the T1entieth Centnry7 pp7 2*=2+7 artin 0in)s AAllen N .n1in 0td74 1/*1B4

6e%initions do4 ho1e5er4 e3ist7 ,u%ism4 it has 8een said4 is :to lo5e nothin) that your &elo5ed does not lo5e:7 Accordin) to Funayd4 it is simply that :Allah ma'es thee die to thysel% and 8e resurrected in Him:4 and one o% his disciples e3plained that the ,u%is are those 1ho ha5e :%led %rom all that is other=than=He4 possessin) nothin) and possessed 8y nothin):> accordin) to &aya<id o% &istham4 they are :)enerous li'e the ocean4 )ood li'e the sun4 hum8le li'e the earth:7 ,u%ism4 1e are told4 is :sincerity:4 and this e;uates it 1ith ihsan7 The Prophet spo'e o% three de)rees in reli)ion@ islam4 su8mission> Iman4 %aith> and ihsan4 1hich is the per%ection o% su8mission and %aith and is usually translated as :e3cellence:7 ,u%ism4 accordin) to this de%inition4 is the means o% 8rin)in) 8oth su8mission to "od and %aith in "od to their lo)ical conclusion4 or simply o% dra1in) %rom the Con%ession o% Faith = la ilaha illa :0lah = its ultimate si)ni%icance7 It is a matter o% )oin) to the end o% the road7 :Is it not %ace to %ace 1ith the Truth that our riders dismountG: as'ed the ,hei'h al=:Ala1i in one o% his poems7 The ordinary 8elie5er is said to 8e stationary4 thou)h the 5ehicle in 1hich he sits = the reli)ion as such = carries him %or1ard> the ,u%i is descri8ed as a :tra5eller: or one 1ho :races %or1ard:@ :Race Done anotherE to1ards %or)i5eness %rom your 0ord and a "arden 1hereo% the 8readth is as the 8readth o% the hea5ens and the earth4 1hich is esta8lished %or those 1ho 8elie5e in Allah and His messen)ers7 ,uch is the 8ounty o% Allah4 1hich He 8esto1eth upon 1hom He 1ill4 and the 8ounty o% Allah is ine3hausti8le:A?7(+721B7 artin 0in)s spea's o% the particular :a%%inity: 1hich the ,u%is ha5e 1ith the ?uran as that 1hich distin)uishes them %rom other uslims4 :namely that the choice they ha5e deli8erately and irre5oca8ly made o% the Eternal in pre%erence to the ephemeral is not merely theoretic or mental 8ut so totally sincere that it has sha'en them to the depth o% their 8ein) and set them in motion upon the path7 The ?ur:an itsel% is a crystalli<ation o% this choice4 %or it insists 1ithout respite on the immense disparity 8et1een this lo1er 1orld and the transcendent 1orld o% the

,pirit7: $ho else4 he as's4 e3cept %or their counterparts in other reli)ions4 :can possi8ly compare 1ith ,u%is %or puttin) %irst thin)s %irst and second thin)s secondG:D1E 1 $hat is ,u%ismG4 artin 0in)s AAllen N .n1in 0td74 1/+(B4 p7327

,u%ism4 accordin) to some authorities4 may 8e de%ined ;uite simply as dha1; A:taste:B4 and this is o% particular interest i% one remem8ers that the En)lish 1ord :sapience: = a little=used synonym %or :1isdom: = comes %rom a 0atin root meanin) :to taste:> to 8e 1ise4 there%ore4 is not so much to 'eep the truth in mind as to e3perience it e3istentially4 in other 1ords to taste it7 The immediacy o% the 'no1led)e o% celestial realities = or o% Reality as such = 1hich the mystic en9oys4 or hopes to en9oy4 corresponds more closely to the immediacy o% sense=perception than it does to the indirect 'no1led)e 1hich the mind has o% ideas or phenomena and is e;ually e3empt %rom dou8t and uncertainty7 In other 1ords4 that aspect o% ,u%ism 1hich has to do 1ith 'no1led)e = it has other aspects as 1ell = mi)ht 8e de%ined as :ma'in) concrete: 1hat4 %or most people4 is :a8stract:4 until spiritual perceptions possess the same ;uality o% sel%=e5idence 1hich 1e normally associate 1ith the seen4 heard4 %elt and tasted 1orld o% physical o89ects surroundin) us7 No one 1ould deny that there e3ist many opportunities %or sel%=deception in this %ield7 E5ery human acti5ity comprises certain ris's4 and the hi)her the acti5ity the )reater the ris's4 1hile those 1ho cra1l on their 8ellies need not %ear %allin)7 &ut this is precisely 1hy no man or 1oman may le)itimately em8ar' on the ,u%i path 1ithout %irst 8ein) initiated into an authentic tari;ah A1hich4 so to spea'4 inte)rates them into the company o% :tra5ellers:B and then placin) themsel5es under the 1atch%ul )uidance o% a spiritual 6irector 1ho has already tra5ersed the path upon 1hich they no1 set %oot7 It is not then their 8usiness to see' or e3pect 5isions4 e3periences4 or perceptions 8eyond the common limits o% human e3istence4 8ut simply to de5ote themsel5es to the practices o% their order in o8edience and humility7 $hat is to come to them 1ill come4 "od 1illin)4 in its o1n 1ay and in its o1n )ood time4 and no man can set limits to it7 :It is o85iously a8surd4: says Frith9o% ,chuon4 :to 1ant to impose limits upon 'no1led)e> the retina o% the eye catches the rays o% in%initely distant stars4 it does so 1ithout passion or pretension4 and no one has the ri)ht or the po1er to hinder it7:D1E 1 0o)ic and Transcendence4 Frith9u% ,chuon ANe1 Hor'@ Harper N Ro14 1/+(B4 p721*7 The idea o% dha1; = the idea that one can actually 'no1 the ultimate truths in personal e3perience = has considera8le appeal %or ;uestionin) modern minds4 and there is no dou8t that many people in the contemporary 1orld can only approach reli)ion throu)h mysticism7 They are not prepared4 as their %ore%athers 1ere4 to accept these truths on :hearsay: or on the authority o% those 8etter and 1iser than themsel5es> they must :taste: them7 Perhaps this is no more than a polite 1ay o%

sayin) that they are :men o% little %aith:4 and it could also 8e said that those 1ho re%use to 8elie5e 1ithout actually seein) the o89ect o% their 8elie% do not really deser5e to see7 &ut this is the nature o% our time4 and one can only operate in terms o% the )i5en situation> and it is not only in the $est that this situation e3ists7 An increasin) num8er o% 8orn uslims = :passport uslims: = 1hose %aith has 8een undermined 8y a modern education are %indin) their 1ay 8ac' to Islam throu)h its ,u%i dimension7 This is not4 ho1e5er4 an easy solution to any8ody:s di%%iculties7 Those 1ho see' tan)i8le proo% o% reli)ious truth see' it4 at least in the %irst instance4 %or their o1n satis%action> they see' 'no1led)e as a personal ac;uisition and spiritual de5elopment as a personal achie5ement7 They are li'ely to 8e disappointed7 ,u%ism4 in common 1ith e5ery authentic mysticism4 says 1ith implaca8le %irmness4 :Not II:@ :Not I4 0ord4 8ut Thou and Thou aloneI: The %irst phase o% the path is not to1ards sel%=a))randisement 8ut to1ards sel%=e3tinction4 called in Islam %ana in accordance 1ith the ?uranic 5erse@ :E5eryone therein Din the created 1orldsE is e3tin)uished4 and there remaineth the Face o% thy 0ord4 the possessor o% a9esty and &ounty:A?7((72*=2+B7 6eath precedes resurrection> the plant:s lea5es 1ither4 it dies and its seed is 8uried in the earth4 until there comes a8out a ne1 )ro1th in the li)ht o% the sun7 The ,u%i is o8li)ed to let )o o% e5erythin) and lose himsel% 8e%ore he can hope to %ind himsel% in "od and so achie5e the condition 'no1n as 8a;a4 :su8sistence: or4 in artin 0in)s: phrase4 :eternality:7 That 1hich su8sists and endures is not the person 1e 1ere = the person 1e 5alued a8o5e all else on earth = 8e%ore 1e came this 1ay7 $esterners 1hen they loo' %or the %irst time into the 1ritin)s o% the )reat e3ponents o% ,u%ism e3pect to %ind mar5ellous accounts o% spiritual e3periences and ecstasies7 They 1ill %ind this 8ut4 o%ten to their surprise4 they 1ill %ind a )reat deal more a8out the 5irtues4 the :slayin) o% the na%s Athe sel%hoodBD1E4 o8edience to the di5ine Commands and the trainin) o% character7D1E These 8oo's deal in considera8le detail 1ith the duties o% the human condition@ %ear o% the 0ord4 trust in "od4 detachment and4 a8o5e all4 spiritual po5ery A%a;rB> indeed4 the %ollo1er o% this path is usually called a %a;ir a :poor man:4 rather than a :,u%i:7 $hat comes to us = or may come to us = is a )i%t %rom "od 1hich is ad9usted to our recepti5ity4 8ut is none the less out o% all proportion to our deserts7 Our principal tas' is to ma'e oursel5es ready7 $hat is o%%ered is clear and simple 8ut4 %aced e5en 1ith the possi8ility o% this )i%t4 1e %ind oursel5es to 8e a mass o% contradictions4 not merely un%it to recei5e it 8ut incapa8le o% ta'in) it in7 1 Titus &urc'hardt reported that ulay :Ali A)randson o% the %ounder o% the 6ar;a1i orderB4 1hom 8ecame to 'no1 1ell 1hile li5in) in Fe< in the early 1/32s4 al1ays declined to spea' o% the :in1ard states: o% the ,u%is4 sayin)@ These are %ruits that )ro1 o% themsel5es on the tree o% di5ine ser5ice> let us rather spea' o% ho1 to care %or the tree and ho1 to 1ater it4 and not o% its %ruits 8e%ore they are ripe7: The pro%ane man:s sel%hood is a de8ris o% memories and dreams4 %alse hopes and lin)erin) )uilts4 or hard little pe88les o% sel%=concern4 desire and %ear7 This is the :hardened heart: o% 1hich the ?uran spea's so o%ten7 A 5essel must 8e emptied

8e%ore it can 8e re%illed4 and only someone 1ho has e3pelled this de8ris %rom the centre o% his 8ein) can hope that somethin) o% the di5ine plenitude may %lo1 into him7 There is not room in the human heart %or t1o4 as the mystics ha5e said on a num8er o% occasions7 Other ima)es may help to illustrate this point7 In our unre)enerate state 1e are4 as it 1ere4 enclosed 8ehind a 1all o% ice 1hich shuts us o%% %rom :the open:7 Ice has a certain transparency4 1hich is 1hy anyone 1ho uses his eyes may sometimes )limpse 1hat lies 8eyond7 The mystic sets himsel% to melt this 1all o% ice or4 5ery occasionally Aas in the practices o% Ken &uddhismB4 to shatter it7 Or a)ain4 1e can spea' o% the :mirror o% the heart:4 a mirror desi)ned to re%lect celestial realities4 8ut in most cases too )rimy or = since ancient mirrors 1ere made o% metal = too rusty to do so7 :Ho1 can the heart 8e illuminated 1hile the %orms o% creatures are re%lected in its mirrorG 777 Or ho1 can it desire to enter the Presence o% "od until it has 1iped %rom itsel% the stain o% %or)et%ulnessG:D2E 2 ?uoted %rom the !ita8 al=Hi'am o% Ihn :Ata:illih7 The Prophet said@ :There is a polish %or e5erythin) to remo5e rust4 and the polish o% the heart is the remem8rance o% AllahI: The 5ery 8asis o% ,u%i practice is in5ocation4 :remem8rance:4 or :mention: Adhi'rB o% "od:s holy Name4 or o% a %ormula dominated 8y the Name4 such as Allahu a'8arI And 1e are assured that "od is present in His Name4 or ma'es Himsel% present4 1hen our lips mo5e in pronouncin) it Aor 1hen 1e mention it silently in our heartsB7 For the ,u%is4 constant in5ocation4 constant :remem8rance:4 is the 'ey to e5ery loc' = is there any loc' that is proo% a)ainst the po1er o% the All=Po1er%ulG = and it is also the 5ery essence o% prayer4 %or a%ter mentionin) prayer as such4 the ?uran tells us@ 1a la dhi'ru :0lahi a'8ar A:and indeed the remem8rance o% "od is )reater:B7 The 1hole art or science o% ,u%ism consists in per%ectin) the dhi'r and in ma'in) it perpetual Aso that e5en in the midst o% acti5ity it continues to sin) in the heartB7 This is e;ui5alent to an uninterrupted a1areness o% the di5ine Presence> 8ut it must not4 o% course4 8e supposed that "od can 8e :summoned: 8y some human act7 He is al1ays present = :I% you dissect the heart o% any atom you 1ill 8ehold a sun 1ithin it4: said a Persian poet = 8ut 1e are inclined to 1ander4 and 1e ha5e a)ain and a)ain to return to the point 1here 1e 8e)an4 here and no14 in the present and in the Presence7 .ltimately4 as the ,u%is understand the matter4 the heart that has 8een emptied o% de8ris throu)h puri%ication and 8y means o% the dhi'r is %it to 8ecome the seat o% Him 1hose Throne encompasses all thin)s4 and they ;uote in this conte3t a hadith ;udsi@ : y sla5e ceases not to dra1 near unto e throu)h 5oluntary de5otions until I lo5e him> and 1hen I lo5e him4 then I am the hearin) 1here1ith he hears and the si)ht 1here1ith he sees and the 8and 1here1ith he %i)hts and the %oot 8y 1hich he 1al's7: One 1ho has come to this emptiness and there8y to this plenitude4 1hen as'ed ho1 he %ares4 may reply@

I %are as one 8y 1hose ma9estic 1ill The 1orld re5ol5es4 %loods rise and ri5ers %lo14 ,tars in their courses mo5e> yea4 death and li%e Han) on his nod and %ly to the ends o% the earth4 His ministers o% mournin) or o% 9oy7D1E 1 ?uoted %rom The PaulB7 ystics o% Islam4 Reynold A7 Nicholson ARoutled)e N !e)an

$e are no1 in a re)ion 8eyond con%essional di5er)encies4 a re)ion in 1hich the distinctions 1e o8ser5e in our daily li%e no lon)er ma'e sense or contri8ute to understandin)4 a re)ion in 1hich seein) mer)es into 8ein)7 The :Eye o% the Heart: 1ith 1hich the accomplished ,u%i sees his 0ord Aand 1ith 1hich his 0ord sees himB = that same :Eye: o% 1hich ,t Paul 1rote in his Epistle to the Ephesians4 and in re%erence to 1hich a North=American Indian sa)e is recorded as sayin)@ :I am 8lind and see not the thin)s o% this 1orld> 8ut 1hen 0i)ht comes %rom On Hi)h it illuminates my heart and I can see4 %or the Eye o% my heart sees all thin)s:D2E = this Eye 8ecomes a )ate throu)h 1hich the 8ein) passes to 8ecome 1hat in essence he al1ays 1as4 unitin) 1ith the eternal identity 1hich is his in the Presence o% "od7 2 ,ee 0:Oe%l du Coeur4 Frith9o% ,choon AParis@ "allimard4 1/(2B4 p7 227 He can ne5er attain to this )oal throu)h his o1n e%%orts4 8ut he can ne5er attain to it 1ithout e%%ort7 :$hat separates man %rom di5ine Reality is the sli)htest o% 8arriers@ "od is in%initely close to man4 8ut man is in%initely %ar %rom "od7 This 8arrier is4 %or man4 a mountain> he stands 8e%ore a mountain 1hich he must remo5e 1ith his o1n hands7 He di)s a1ay the earth4 8ut in 5ain> the mountain remains7 an4 ho1e5er4 )oes on di))in)4 in the name o% "od7 And the mountain 5anishes7 It 1as ne5er there7D1E 1 ,tations o% $isdom4 Frith9o% ,chuon A0ondon@ Fohn Chapter 12 OTHER 6I EN,ION, It is not only the mystics 1ho are concerned 1ith the pro8lem o% ma'in) the :a8stract: concrete4 that is to say4 1ith e3tendin) the sense o% reality 1hich e5ery sane man and 1oman possesses to include realities 1hich are not 1ithin the )rasp o% our physical senses7 They may press %urther into the :un'no1n: than their less ad5enturous companions = the :true 9ourney:4 accordin) to I8n Ata:illah4 is to1ards a state o% a1areness in 1hich :you see the herea%ter closer to you than your o1n sel%: = 8ut the pro8lem e3ists %or e5ery 8elie5er7 For Islam as %or Christianity this li%e is a preparation %or 1hat is to come4 8ut no one 1ill seriously prepare himsel% %or somethin) that appears to him unreal4 a %antasy4 a dream7 It is di%%icult enou)h %or the youn) to )rasp in an entirety concrete manner the %act that = assumin) they sur5i5e = they 1ill e5entually 8e old people7 Ho1 much more di%%icult4 then4 %or the human creature4 youn) or old4 to understand that di5ine Fud)ement4 hea5en and hell 1ill come as surely as tomorro1:s da1n4 or yet more surely4 since that da1n cannot come unless "od so urray4 1/*1B4 p71(+7

1ills4 $hereas the ad5ent o% physical death and all that %ollo1s upon it represents the only in%alli8le prediction 1e can ma'e concernin) our o1n %uture7 It is 8y no means easy %or those 1hose 1hole attention is %ocused upon the massi5e apparent reality o% this 1orld to accept the %act that it can at any moment4 and 1ill at some moment4 disappear li'e a pu%% o% smo'e7 Het the ?ur:an assures us that the a'hira4 the herea%ter4 is :8etter and more lastin):4 and this su))ests that it is more real than any :reality: 1e e3perience here7 Terminolo)y presents a pro8lem in this conte3t@ terms such as :the herea%ter: and4 to an e5en )reater e3tent4 :the a%terli%e: can 8e misleadin) i% they are ta'en to su))est somethin) that is little more than a shado1y re%lection o% 1hat came 8e%ore4 or a disem8odied continuation o% the li%e 1e e3perience here4 and this is 1hat they do su))est to many people in our time7 .n%ortunately no alternati5e terminolo)y is a5aila8le> none4 at least4 that 1ould 8rin) out the essential point4 1hich is that our e3perience in the dunya4 the 1orld4 is ;ualitati5ely less real than our :e3perience: in the a'hira7 Nor is there any 1ord to su))est the limitless possi8ilities 1hich are open to the spirit 1hen it has passed throu)h the )ate1ay o% physical death7 Ima)ination4 ho1e5er4 can )o some 1ay to %illin) the )ap7 0et us compare our situation here and no1 to that o% a )roup o% people con%ined to a sin)le room in a )reat house and una8le to remem8er anythin) outside this room7 The house has many other rooms4 and 8eyond it stretches a 5ast par'4 8eyond 1hich are the hills4 5alleys and ri5ers o% the land in 1hich it is situated7 This land is 8ut one sector o% the planet4 and the planet itsel% is hardly more than a spec' o% dust in the total cosmos7 Ho1 do 1e descri8e to the people con%ined in one room all that lies outside its %our 1allsG 6o 1e spea' o% other rooms in the house4 some incompara8ly more splendid4 others no more than s;ualid attics or %etid dun)eonsG 6o 1e descri8e the par'4 1ith its ornamental la'e4 or perhaps in5ite our capti5e audience to e3tend their ima)inations e5en %urther and 5isuali<e the lands 8eyond the par'G 6o 1e dare spea' o% the planet:s %iery interiorG Finally4 is it ad5isa8le to dra1 these people still %urther into the un'no1n and tell them o% stars and )ala3iesG The di%%erent :rooms:4 the :par':4 the :lands: and the :)ala3ies are in other dimensions o% 8ein) to those 1ith 1hich most o% us are ac;uainted4 some so intensely real that our human li%e 1ould seem4 in comparison4 li'e a dream4 others no more than 1hat 1e oursel5es 1ould call :dreamin): in comparison 1ith 1a'in) li%e7 This story has no end4 such is the e3tent o% the :herea%ter: in relation to the theatre in 1hich our human e3perience un%olds4 and to attempt to descri8e it to 1orldlin)s is to in5ite them to use a %aculty that has 8ecome atrophied %rom lac' o% use7 Re5elation allo1s %or this incapacity7 &oth Islam and Christianity o%%er a hi)hly synthetic4 condensed 5ie1 o% the :herea%ter:7 The simple alternati5e4 Hea5enOhell4 pro5ides the ordinary 8elie5er 1ith as much in%ormation as he needs %or his sal5ation7 It is o85ious that any )i5en state o% e3perience else1here must 8e either :8etter: or :1orse: than the li%e 1e e3perience here4 and it is su%%icient that men and 1omen should see' the :8etter: and stri5e to a5oid the :1orse:7 &ut these

doctrines also employ a sym8olism 1hich4 i% it is understood 8y those 1ho ha5e a need to understand4 e3tends the hori<on 8eyond the ima)es o% hea5enly 9oy and in%ernal %ires4 particularly 1hen it is co=ordinated 1ith the sym8olism o% other reli)ious and mytholo)ical traditions7 The lan)ua)e o% myth and sym8ol is the only uni5ersal lan)ua)e7 Only in the modern a)e has it 8ecome necessary4 at least in one sector o% humanity4 to spea' o% the comple3ities = the e3tended hori<ons = 8eyond the simple ima)es7 In earlier times the hope o% Hea5en and the %ear o% hell 1ere o5er1helmin)ly real to Christians4 e5en i% they %re;uently acted as thou)h these dimensions did not e3ist A9ust as the youn) %re;uently act as thou)h they 1ould ne5er )ro1 oldB7 The loss o% this hope and this %ear has heen a decisi5e %actor in shapin) the culture and the climate o% opinion in the midst o% 1hich 1e no1 li5e7 The uslim4 on the 1hole4 remains intensely a1are o% 1hat is to come7 The ?ur:an4 althou)h it de%ines the 'a%irun primarily as those 1ho acti5ely deny "od and His ,el%=re5elation4 de%ines them also as those 1ho dis8elie5e in the :Herea%ter: and in the Fud)ement 1hich precedes its un%oldin)7 Faith in "od cannot 8e separated %rom the con5iction that 1e shall one day :stand: 8e%ore Him4 and this con5iction 5irtually )uarantees sal5ation7 The tale is told o% a man 1hose li%e had 8een so 1ic'ed that4 1hen he 1as dyin)4 he ordered his son to ha5e his 8ody 8urned and the ashes scattered so %ar a%ield that not e5en "od 1ould 8e a8le to reassem8le him7 $hen4 none the less4 he 1as 8rou)ht 8e%ore the supreme Fud)e he 1as = so 1e are told = %or)i5en his sins4 8ecause the )reatness o% his %ear testi%ied to )reat %aith7 On one occasion 1hen the Prophet 1as addressin) the people %rom the pulpit4 he ;uoted the ?uranic 5erse4 :And %or him 1ho %ears the standin) 8e%ore his 0ord there are t1o "ardens:A?7((7#*B4 and a certain A8u 6arda called out4 :E5en i% he commits %ornication and steals4 essen)er o% AllahG: The Prophet repeated the 5erse and A8u 6arda repeated his ;uestion7 A%ter this had happened a third time and the Prophet a)ain said4 :And %or him 1ho %ears the standin) 8e%ore his 0ord there are t1o "ardens4: he added4 :in spite o% A8u 6ardaI: The three monotheistic reli)ions Aunli'e Hinduism4 %or e3ampleB are not alto)ether happy 1ith the ima)ery o% :dreamin): as applied to our present state o% e3istence4 althou)h this ima)ery is 8y no means %orei)n either to Islam or to Christianity7 It is o%ten misundersood4 since people readily ta'e it to mean that li%e is :less real: than 1e ta'e it to 8e4 1hereas the intention is to indicate that there are other possi8le states o% e3perience so intense that4 in relation to our e5eryday e3perience o% this 1orld4 they may 8e compared to 1a'e%ulness in relation to dreamin)7 There is a hadith recorded 8y uslim 1hich can scarcely 8e interpreted in any other terms7 The man 1ho had the pleasantest li%e in the 1orld4 so 1e are told4 1ill 8e dipped momentarily into hell on the 6ay o% Resurrection7 He 1ill then 8e as'ed4 :,on o% Adam4 did you e5er e3perience any )oodG 6id anythin) pleasant e5er come your 1ayG: and he 1ill reply4 :No4 my 0ord4 I s1ear itI: Then the man 1ho4 o% all men4 had the most misera8le li%e on earth 1ill 8e dipped momentarily into Paradise7 He 1ill then 8e 8rou)ht 8e%ore his 0ord and as'ed4 :,on o% Adam4 did you e5er ha5e any mis%ortuneG 6id any distress e5er come your 1ayG: and he 1ill reply4 :No4 my

0ord4 I s1ear itI No mis%ortune has e5er come to me and I ha5e ne5er 'no1n distress7: It 1ould 8e di%%icult to %ind a simpler or more stri'in) illustration o% the di%%erence 8et1een de)rees o% reality as e3perienced 8y a consciousness transposed %rom a lo1er one to a hi)her one7 At the same time it o%%ers4 at least to those 1ho are prepared to accept the possi8ility that there may 8e states o% e3perience :more real: than anythin) 1e li5e throu)h here4 one ans1er to the ;uestion as to ho1 "od can allo1 the innocent to su%%er in this 1orld7 I% anyone 1ere to a1a'en %rom a 8ad dream4 %ull o% %ear and torment4 to %ind himsel% at home 8eside his 8elo5ed4 sunli)ht streamin) throu)h the 1indo14 a prospect o% )olden days 8e%ore him and all his deepest lon)in)s satis%ied4 %or ho1 lon) 1ould he remem8er the pain o% his dreamG On the other hand4 i% he 1ere to a1a'en %rom a dream o% deli)ht to %ind himsel% in an all too %amiliar prison cell4 a1aitin) the ne3t session o% torture at the hands o% merciless in;uisitors and ;uite 1ithout hope4 dream=pleasure 1ould melt a1ay in moments7 $hether it 8e s1eet or sour4 reality ta'es precedence o5er dreamin)4 and the )reater reality ta'es precedence o5er the lesser7 A delicate 8alance has to 8e maintained 8et1een t1o e3tremes@ on the one hand a 5ie1 o% human li%e 1hich attri8utes a8solute reality to the 1orld o% the senses4 on the other a 5ie1 1hich dismisses this 1orld as :unreal:7 Islam4 as the reli)ion o% the :middle 1ay:4 has maintained this 8alance 1ith )reat care4 ho1e5er o%ten indi5idual uslims may ha5e 5eered to one e3treme or the other7 To treat the 8arriers = or :5eils: = 1hich separate di%%erent de)rees o% reality as solid and opa;ue is to condemn our 1orld to 8arren isolation> to pretend that they do not e3ist is to a8olish the 1orld4 or since 1e cannot in %act do this4 to lost contact 1ith the lesser reality as it impin)es on us in our earthly li%e7 $hat Islam teaches4 in e%%ect4 is that the 5eils e3ist 8y the 1ill o% "od4 and that they are an aspect o% His mercy4 since 1e could not play the )ames 1e play here and no1 1ere 1e not 5eiled %rom a 0i)ht 1hich = 1ere it %ully re5ealed = 1ould 8urn up all e3istence in a moment>D1E e5en the irruption into our 1orld o% the an)elic dimension in its %ull splendour 1ould 8rin) e5erythin) to an end7 :They say@ $hy hath not an an)el 8een sent do1n unto himG I% $e sent do1n an an)el4 then the matter 1ould 8e 9ud)ed4 no %urther time 1ould 8e allo1ed them:A?7*7-B7 1 Accordin) to a hadith recorded 8y 8oth uslim and I8n Han8al4 :0i)ht is his 5eil> 1ere He to remo5e it4 the )lory o% His %ace 1ould 8urn all 1ho attained unto it7: It is related that on one occasion the Prophet as'ed the archan)el "a8riel to sho1 himsel% in the :mi)hty %orm: in 1hich "od created him7 :O &elo5ed o% "od4: said "a8riel4 :I ha5e a terri%yin) %orm such as no one could loo' upon 1ithout 8ein) rapt %rom himsel%7: The Prophet insisted none the less4 and "a8riel %inally a)reed to allo1 his an)elic dimension to encompass earthly 5ision7 There 1as a )reat rush o% sound4 as o% a hurricane in %ull spate4 and "a8riel appeared in his earth=crushin) splendour so that his %orm 8lotted out the hori<on7 The Prophet %ainted under the impact o% this 5ision4 1hereupon the archan)el resumed his earthly dis)uise4 em8raced the %allen man and 'issed him4 sayin)@ :&e not a%raid4 O &elo5ed o% "od4 %or I am thy 8rother "a8rielI: 8ut he added@ :$hat 1ould it ha5e 8een li'e i% you

had seen Isra%il Ahe 1ho summons to the 0ast Fud)ementB4 %or then my o1n %orm 1ould ha5e seemed to you a small and puny thin)7: The 5eils e3ist4 8ut they are at least semi=transparent> the )reater realities still shine throu)h = thou)h 5eiled = upon the lesser ones4 9ust as an)els may appear to men 8ut only in dis)uise7 :Paradise is closer to you than the thon) o% your sandal4: said the Prophet4 :and the same applies to the Fire7: On a certain occasion the people sa1 him apparently reach out %or somethin) and then dra1 suddenly 8ac'7 They as'ed him the reason %or this4 and he replied@ :I sa1 Paradise4 and I reached out %or a 8unch o% its )rapes7 Had I ta'en it4 you 1ould ha5e eaten %rom it %or as lon) as the 1orld endures7 I also sa1 hell7 No more terri8le si)ht ha5e I e5er seen 777: The thread o% &ein) runs throu)h all possi8le states o% e3istence4 all the dimensions4 as does the thread o% ercy> this is already implicit in the 8asic doctrine o% ta1hid4 %or the One cannot 8e cut up into separate pieces4 nor can the di%%erent de)rees o% Reality 8e shut o%% %rom each other 8y impenetra8le partitions7 For the terms &ein) and ercy 1e mi)ht su8stitute 8eauty and )oodness4 1hich o5er%lo1 %rom their sin)le ,ource to reach the %urthest limits o% e3istence7 Accordin) to a hadith ;uoted pre5iously4 "od is 8eauti%ul and He lo5es 8eauty4 the same 8eauty throu)h 1hich 1e in our distant place percei5e somethin) o% the 6i5ine and scent the %ra)rance o% Paradise> and4 accordin) to another hadith4 He re1ards any )ood that 1e do a hundred%old4 8ecause :He has reser5ed %or Himsel% ninety=nine=hundredths o% all )oodness4 and = 8y 5irtue o% the hundredth part le%t on earth = all His creatures are animated 8y lo5e and the horse li%ts up its hoo% %or %ear o% hurtin) the child7: oreo5er4 i% hea5en and hell are so close to us = as the Prophet said they are = then4 at least in a certain sense4 1e already li5e in these dimensions4 thou)h %or the most part una1are o% them4 and no more than a thin mem8rane separates us %rom the Foy and %rom the Fire7 It is said o%ten enou)h that :1e are all human:4 and so 1e are> 8ut it mi)ht 8e added that our out1ard :humanity: is no more than a 5eneer co5erin) a deeper identity7 Here and no14 in our daily li5es4 1e already ru8 shoulders 1ith :the people o% Paradise: and :the people o% the Fire7: E5en in the physical en5ironment 1hich surrounds us4 these e3traterrestrial dimensions are percepti8le to those )i%ted 1ith sharp si)ht4 and Islam is certainly not alone in ma'in) this point> accordin) to the Christian 1riter4 $illiam 0a14 :There cannot 8e the smallest thin) or the smallest ;uality o% anythin) in this 1orld4 8ut it is a ;uality o% Hea5en or o% hell4 disco5ered under a temporal %orm7: It is in terms o% this perspecti5e4 1ith its clear implication that 8eauty = %ar %rom 8ein) a lu3ury = is a means o% sal5ation4 and u)liness a 1ay to damnation4 that 1e may 9ud)e the importance o% the en5ironment 1hich people ma'e %or themsel5es and in the midst o% 1hich they pre%er to li5e> and it is in the same terms that 1e may 9ud)e the si)ni%icance o% the cult o% u)liness Ausually called :realism:B 1hich o5ershado1s a )ood deal o% contemporary thou)ht and contemporary art7 There is a common assumption today that the u)ly is in some curious 1ay :more real: than the 8eauti%ul4 and this amounts to sayin) that hell is closer to us than hea5en Aas

1ell it may 8e in this a)eB7 odern art pro5ides the most terri%yin) e5idence %or this7 An art critic4 %or e3ample4 descri8es a paintiri) 8y 0ucien Freud in these 1ords@ :A youn) man 1ith lon) %airish hair lies completely na'ed on a chaise= lon)ue4 his le)s dra1n up and splayed apart7 In his le%t hand he holds a small 8lac' rat 1ith 8eady eyes> its lon)4 sna'e=li'e tail lies across his ri)ht thi)h near his penis7 The youn) man stares up at the ceilin)7 His e3pression is o% one 1ho has seen horror or some pro%ound emptiness 77 7:D1E It mi)ht not 8e easy to %ind4 at least on pu8lic 5ie14 a contemporary paintin) 1hich 8ears 1itness to the closeness o% Paradise as po1er%ully as does this to the closeness o% hell7 1 The Times A0ondonB4 2 arch 1/+-7

,ince "od is 8oth our ori)in and our end and is present 1ith us in each moment o% time4 these re%lections o% His &eauty and o% His $rath are al1ays at hand4 8ut it is His Presence as such 1hich dominates e5ery possi8le dimension7 Those 1ho do not in some measure %ind Him in this li%e or4 at the 5ery least4 turn to1ards Him :thou)h they see Him not:4 are those 1ho4 accordin) to the ?ur:an4 1ill 8e raised up 8lind 1hen the only alternati5es4 star' and simple4 are li)ht or dar'ness4 presence or a8sence7 People %or)et the relati5ity o% time and the %act that it is a purely local condition7 Here and no1 1e are 1hat 1e 1ill 8e7 E5en i% 1e 'no1 this in theory4 1e %all 5ery easily into the ha8it o% loo'in) no %urther than our 8odily senses can reach and treatin) this 1orld o% e3perience as thou)h it 1ere a closed and sel%=su%%icient system7 The theolo)y o% Islam ta'es measures to correct this ha8it and does so 8y means o% 1hat mi)ht 8e descri8ed as radical sur)ery7 It se5ers the lin' 8et1een cause and e%%ect 1hich is the 8asis %or our rational understandin) o% the 1orld7 Theolo)y ne5er assumed in Islam the importance it has had in Christianity7 Practice4 not theory4 1as 1hat mattered4 and there 1as no o8li)ation to pro5ide ans1ers to ;uestions 1hich should not ha5e 8een as'ed in the %irst place7 The tra5eller need 'no1 little o% the country throu)h 1hich he is passin)4 pro5ided he has 8een told the direct route to the ri)ht point o% e3it4 and the Prophet had said4 :&e in this 1orld as thou)h you 1ere a stran)er or a tra5eller 777: Het the ?ur:an commands the 8elie5er to :thin':4 to :consider:4 to use his intelli)ence> and people do as' ;uestions4 to 1hich they e3pect ans1ers7 It occurred to certain pious men that it mi)ht 8e 8etter to deal 1ith these ;uestions in a manner that 1ould rein%orce piety4 rather than lea5e the ;uestioner to %ind ans1ers 1hich mi)ht undermine %aith7 In the later part o% the ele5enth century o% the Christian era4 ,unni Islam %inally accepted as an :o%%icial: and a)reed %ormulation o% the articles o% %aith the theolo)y o% al=Ash:ari Ad7A6 /3(B and his school o% thou)ht7 He himsel% had started his career as a u:ta<ilite4 a :rationalist:4 and 1as a8le to use the tools o% "ree' dialectic a)ainst rationalism and a)ainst all similar attempts to e3plain the 1orld solely in terms o% its o1n limited cate)ories7 Ash:arite theolo)y is particularly identi%ied 1ith t1o theories4 8oth o% 1hich 8ear stri'in) 1itness to the un%linchin) unitarianism o% the Islamic perspecti5e and its

intense a1areness o% di5ine omnipotence7 The %irst is that o% :ac;uisition: accordin) to 1hich all our actions are created 8y "od 8ut are su8se;uently :ac;uired: 8y the human 8ein)4 1ho is therea%ter responsi8le %or them7 The second is the doctrine commonly 'no1n as :occasionalism: accordin) to 1hich e5ery e5ent that occurs in this 1orld is ne1=minted4 unconnected 1ith its predecessor4 in other 1orlds 1ith its cause7 "od alone is the cause o% each e5ent and He creates the 1orld ane1 at e5ery moment7 This theory 1as ta'en up 8y the ,u%is in terms o% the :rene1al o% creation at each 8reath: Ata9did al='hal; 8i:l=an%asB7 "od is the Creator: not only at the 8e)innin) o% time 8ut no14 in this instant4 and %ore5er> He creates a ne1 1orld in each in%initesimal moment o% time7 Phenomena cannot 8e the cause o% other phenomena4 e5ents cannot 8e)et e5ents4 %or then they 1ould 8e :)ods: 8eside "od7 ,hado1s do not cast shado1s7 ?uic'er than the eye can percei5e or the mind )rasp4 the 1orld 1ith all that it contains disappears into nothin)ness as thou)h it had ne5er 8een> no less s1i%tly4 a ne1 1orld is created in its place = i% "od so 1ills7 .ntil the present century this must ha5e 8een a di%%icult theory to )rasp7 Today any child could understand it7 $e ha5e4 in cinemato)raphy4 an e3act illustration o% 1hat the Ash:arites 1ere sayin)7 The audience 1atchin) a mo5ie sees a smooth se;uence o% cause=and=e%%ect operatin) in time4 8ut in %act the successi5e %rames on the %ilm passin) throu)h the pro9ector do not ha5e any such relationship7 A sin)le %rame is %lashed on the screen> there is then a moment o% dar'ness4 impercepti8le to the human eye4 a%ter 1hich another %rame appears7 The %ilm editor controls the order in 1hich these %rames are sho1n7 The audience sees a stone stri'e a 1indo1 1hereupon the )lass shatters4 8ut the %rames 1hich sho1 the stone 8ein) thro1n did not :cause: those 1hich sho1 the 8rea'a)e7 The editor could ha5e remo5ed the latter or inserted others in their place4 or he could ha5e re5ersed the order in 1hich they 1ere pro9ected7 The editor can do as he pleases in the cuttin)=room4 9ust as "od :does as He pleases:4 and since = %or the uslim = it is unthin'a8le that "od could 8e under any compulsion 1hatsoe5er4 it %ollo1s that He is not o8li)ed to allo1 a particular e%%ect to %ollo1 a particular cause7 Accordin) to the Ash:arite theolo)ian Fudali4 it is not %ire that causes 8urnin) in a piece o% 1ood = ho1 could somethin) as hum8le as %ire 8e the cause o% anythin)G = 8ut it is "od alone 1ho causes 8urnin) in the o89ect sei<ed 8y the %lame7 $e ha5e here4 says Frith9o% ,chuon4 :a stri'in) e3ample o% the spirit o% ri)orous alternati5es characteristic o% the ,emitic and $estern mentalities> in order to 8e a8le to a%%irm one essential aspect o% the truth4 other aspects must 8e denied4 althou)h they 1ould in no 1ay dero)ate %rom the principle to 8e demonstrated7:D1E To admit that %ire 8urns4 addin) that it does so 8ecause "od created it %or this purpose4 1ould do nothin) to undermine the di5ine omnipotence> 8ut Fudali 8elie5es that it mi)ht do so and4 in terms o% the psycholo)y o% the ,emite and o% $estern man4 he may not ha5e 8een entirely 1ron)7 1 ,tations o% $isdom4 Frith9o% ,chuon A0ondon@ Fohn urray4 1/*1B4 p7+27

The re;uirements o% piety and the ri)hts o% o89ecti5e truth do not al1ays coincide on the le5el o% theolo)y4 as ,chuon has pointed out in a detailed criti;ue o% the Ash:arite position7D2E At this le5el4 piety ta'es precedence o5er o89ecti5ity4 and Al=

Ash:ari:s principal concern is to remind us constantly that "od is present and acti5e in all thin)s and to su))est that = 8ut %or this Presence = the 1orld 1ould 8e no more than a discontinuous chaos7 He succeeds4 8ut at a price7 :From the metaphysical point o% 5ie14: says ,chuon4 :this is an unnecessary lu3ury4 since the intellect has other resources than pious a8surdity777: &ut4 %rom the psycholo)ical point o% 5ie14 the Ash:arite theory o% creation achie5es its o89ect4 and it does so in a 1ay that is characteristic o% Islam7 "od is ne5er a8sent and ne5er inacti5e> e5erythin) must 8e attri8uted to Him as its source4 e5en i% this in5ol5es denyin) that He acts throu)h the instrumentality o% secondary causes and in accordance 1ith discerni8le :la1s o% nature:4 and a re%usal to admit that4 in ,chuon:s 1ords4 :i% "od creates an apple tree it is to produce apples and not %i)s:7 Fust as the uslim is %or8idden to ma'e ima)es o% li5in) thin)s4 lest he 1orship them as idols4 so he is pre5ented %rom attri8utin) e%%ects to earthly causes4 lest he ima)ine that these causes are independent o% the di5ine omnipotence7 odern science is 8ased upon this attri8ution and does indeed e3clude "od %rom the chain o% causality> it is only in the discipline o% physics that certain contemporary scientists detect the presence o% somethin) outside their terms o% re%erence4 8ut physics has 8ecome so a8struse a science that it has little in%luence on current :mytholo)y:7 In so %ar as atheistic scientism denies transcendent causes and isolates the 1orld o% appearances %rom reality4 al=Ash:ari has = as ,chuon says = replied to it in ad5ance 8y his denial o% physical causality7 This is a matter4 not o% introducin) modi%ications into the scienti%ic 5ie1 o% the 1orld4 8ut o% ta'in) a sled)e=hammer to the %oundations upon 1hich this 5ie1 has 8een constructed> the 1hole house comes do1n7 2 ,ee :6ilemmas 1ithin Ash:arite Theolo)y: in Islam and the Perennial Philosophy4 Frith9o% ,chuon A$orld o% Islam Festi5al Co74 1/+*B7 Contemporary uslim intellectuals = those4 at least4 1hose 5oices are most o%ten heard = see' scape)oats %or the %act that Islam ne5er de5eloped the means o% destroyin) the 1orld and dehumani<in) man7 They ha5e 8een maimed 8y their sense o% in%eriority 5is=a=5is $estern technolo)ical achie5ements7 ,ome 8lame the ri)idity o% the :ulama:> some 8lame ,u%ism and others Ash:arism7 Islam4 they point out4 )a5e science to Europe and then %ell asleep4 1hile Europe pic'ed the 8all up and raced 1ith it to1ards the )oal o% po1er and imperial domination7 It is true enou)h that Islam passed on to $estern Europe the :"ree' 5irus: Ato use Arnold Hottin)er:s phraseB4 an or)anism to 1hich it had pro5ed immune 8ut to 1hich Christendom succum8ed> 8ut the uslims o% our o1n time must 8e the only people on earth 1ho ha5e e5er complained o% their ancestors: immunity to disease7 They re%use to admit that neither the science they admire nor the technolo)y they co5et could e5er ha5e arisen in a truly Islamic climate> the %ormer depends upon an attitude to1ards "od and the latter upon an attitude to1ards nature Aand to1ards human 5ocationsB neither o% 1hich are compati8le 1ith the uslim:s unitarian %aith4 and 8oth depend upon the isolation o% this 1orld %rom other dimensions7

Islamic science = in the )reat a)e o% spiritual and intellectual ad5enturin) = 1as concerned on the one hand 1ith discernin) the :si)ns o% Allah: in natural phenomena4 and on the other 1ith o8ser5in) the %orces and la1s o% nature the 8etter to co=operate 1ith them4 so that the human %amily mi)ht 8e the more com%orta8ly %itted into its "od=)i5en en5ironment7 .ntil the 1hole pattern o% his e3istence 1as thro1n out o% 8alance in recent times4 it 1as ne5er the uslim:s 1ay to 1or' = as it 1ere = a)ainst the )rain o% the 1ood4 to %orce the natural 1orld out o% shape or to a8use its riches7 His 1orld 1as re)ulated in accordance 1ith human proportions> he 8uilt nothin) that mi)ht o5er1helm him in terms o% its si<e or )randeur4 he ne5er 8ecame the ser5ant o% his o1n tools4 and so lon) as he o8eyed the command to :1al' )ently upon the earth: = he and his horses4 his camels and his cattle = it seems unli'ely that he could e5er ha5e desi)ned 8ulldo<ers to rip it up7 His :pure: science 1as the 'no1led)e o% essences rather than o% phenomena as such7 ,tars and stones4 mountains and the earth:s 5e)etation4 the 1a5es o% the ocean and the clouds in the s'y 1ere not a random collection o% o89ects 8ut a se;uence o% pictures contained in a sin)le 5olume7 These pictures4 these :si)ns:4 1ere all the more comprehensi8le %or 8ein) simple4 %ree %rom the comple3ities and distortions 1hich human in5enti5eness introduces into the phenomena o% the natural 1orld7 I% modern science has destroyed the normal human capacity to thin' in terms o% sym8ols4 it is also true that modern technolo)y has o8scured the sym8olism inherent in the natural en5ironment and there%ore made comprehension more di%%icult7 :Allah is the 0i)ht o% the hea5ens and the earth> the li'eness o% His 0i)ht is as a niche 1herein is a lamp4 the lamp is in a )lass4 the )lass as it 1ere a shinin) star7 DThe lamp isE 'indled %rom a 8lessed tree4 an oli5e neither o% the East nor o% the $est4 1hose oil 1ould 1ell=ni)h shine thou)h no %ire touched it7 0i)ht upon li)htI:A?72#73(B7 An arc lamp or a neon strip are sources o% li)ht4 8ut 1ho can dou8t that they lend themsel5es less 1ell to such sym8olism than does a simple oil lampG Our technolo)ical in5entions ha5e had a certain stunnin) and stupe%yin) e%%ect upon us4 and it has 8ecome increasin)ly di%%icult to percei5e = or e5en to 8elie5e in = the :transparency: o% natural phenomena7 Not only is the 1orld around us drained o% meanin)4 8ut the pro8lems inherent in any attempt to descri8e other dimensions o% e3perience in the ima)ery o% thin)s %ound here 8ecome almost insurmounta8le7 The ;uestion as to ho1 celestial realities may 8e communicated to the human mind has 8een touched on se5eral times in this 8oo'7 $e are o8li)ed to return to it a)ain and a)ain 8ecause this is the %ield upon 1hich the most important 8attles are %ou)ht4 particularly in the present a)e7 &lind and un;uestionin) %aith is 8ecomin) increasin)ly rare7 The a)nostic %inds scriptural and traditional accounts o% di5ine Fud)ement4 Hea5en and hell either impro8a8le or a8surd7 The 8elie5ers ;uarrel amon) themsel5es as to 1hether such descriptions are to 8e ta'en literally or alle)orically7 The %act is that 1e are un)rate%ul people7 $e 1ant = naturally enou)h = to 'no1 1hat Ai% anythin)B happens to us a%ter death7 "od is not dea% to this demand7 $e are o%%ered a 5ast selection o% ima)es4 hints and indications 1hich4 i% 1e are prepared to use our po1ers o% intelli)ence and ima)ination4 pro5ide an ade;uate

ans1er7 $e then complain o% contradictions in this ima)ery4 o8scurity in these hints and lac' o% precision in these indications7 Any description o% the posthumous states o% 8ein) 1ould 8e suspect i% it contained no contradictions in terms o% our e3perience here7 It is impossi8le that states so di%%erent to our o1n should %it neatly into the cate)ories o% this 1orld or con%orm to our local conditions7 The la1s 1hich )o5ern time are unli'ely to apply to other %orms o% duration4 and the la1s 1hich )o5ern space are unli'ely to apply to other %orms o% e3tension> 8ut4 8ecause time is one o% the possi8le %orms o% duration4 and space is one o% the possi8le %orms o% e3tension4 ima)es ta'en %rom time and space may 8e transposed to other dimensions7 $e ha5e %i5e senses in this 1orld7 $e mi)ht ha5e %i5e hundred else1here4 each one as di%%erent %rom the other as are si)ht and hearin) in our present e3perience4 8ut 1e are still o8li)ed to spea' o% these thin)s in terms o% :seein):4 :hearin):4 :touchin):4 :smellin): and :tastin):7 On the other hand4 i% the herea%ter 1ere totally unima)ina8le4 this 1ould mean that di%%erent le5els o% reality are sealed o%% %rom each other4 1ithout connection4 1hich 1ould 8e contrary to the doctrine o% ta1hid and4 indeed4 contrary to common sense7 $ere this so4 1e 1ould ha5e no reason to ta'e an interest in 1hat happens to us else1here since4 1hate5er it mi)ht 8e4 it 1ould 8ear no relation to our 'no1led)e4 our hopes4 our needs and our desires as creatures o% the earth7 The necessary connection 8et1een e3perience here and e3perience else1here is emphasi<ed 8y the ?uran@ :"i5e )lad tidin)s to those 1ho 8elie5e and do )ood> %or them are "ardens 8eneath 1hich ri5ers %lo17 $hene5er they are )i5en sustenance %rom the %ruit thereo%4 they say@ This is 1hat 1e 1ere )i5en a%oretime7 And they are )i5en it in the li'eness o% that:A?7272(B7 The treasures o% Paradise and the 8ounties o% earth must ha5e somethin) in common since they %lo1 %rom a sin)le source7 And yet@ :No soul can 'no1 1hat 9oy o% the eyes is hidden %rom them> a re1ard %or 1hat they ha5e done:A?73271 +B7 It is a3iomatic in reli)ious terms that "od ne5er )i5es less than He promises7 He ne5er disappoints e3pectations 1hich He has Himsel% aroused7 &ut he does = 1e are assured = )i5e more than He promises4 and it is this :more: that is indeciphera8le or that e3ceeds the reach o% the human ima)ination> and this it is that4 in the last resort4 o5er1helms the simple ima)es people ha5e o% a :happy a%terli%e:4 9ust as a )reat li)ht o5er1helms a lesser one7 :Therein they ha5e all that they desire4 yet 1ith .s there is more:A?7(?73(B7 All human en9oyment is limited7 Paradise is 8y de%inition 8oundless4 %or it opens out on to the In%inite7 On the human le5el this can 8e su))ested only in numerical terms = 1e shall ha5e a thousand 9oys4 ten thousand4 a million and so on = or in terms o% increase 1ithout end4 8ut 1ithout repetition7 Erotic lo5e4 %or e3ample4 1ill ha5e all the 1onder and all the %reshness o% :%irst lo5e: Athe :perpetually rene1ed 5ir)inity: o% the :Houris:4 1hich causes so much amusement to $estern students o% Islam4 is an o85ious re%erence to thisB7 E5ery drin' is li'e the %irst drin' o% a thirsty man4 thou)h none thirst in Paradise4 and e5ery taste o% %ood is li'e the %irst taste ta'en 8y a star5in) man4 thou)h none star5e there4 and e5ery meetin) is true %riendship disco5ered %or the %irst time4 and there is nothin) in Paradise that is not ne1ly minted and to 8e en9oyed 1ith the appetite o% youth7

All this is lo)ical4 ho1e5er di%%icult it may 8e to ima)ine4 %or it is impossi8le that a state o% e3perience de%ined in terms o% :more and yet more: could 8e static7 &oundlessness indicates no disco5era8le end to a mo5ement to1ards 1hat is 8etter and then 8etter still4 and a%ter that4 e5en 8etter4 1ith no limits set to increase in 9oy4 in 8eauty and in disco5ery7 The )reatest mar5el is al1ays o5erta'en 8y a )reater mar5el4 the s1eetest companionship is %or e5er )ro1in) s1eeter4 and lo5e = thou)h %rom the 5ery start it seems per%ectly consummated = still )ro1s limitlessly7 The people o% Paradise are constantly surprised4 %or e5ery time they thin' that they hold per%ection in their hands4 and that there can 8e nothin) 8etter than this4 they %ind 8e%ore them somethin) 8etter still7 :The lo1est place o% any o% you in Paradise4: said the Prophet4 :is that in 1hich Allah 1ill tell him to ma'e a 1ish4 and he 1ill 1ish and 1ish a)ain7 Allah 1ill then as' him i% he has e3pressed his 1ish and4 1hen he replies that he has4 He 1ill tell him that he is to ha5e 1hat he 1ished %or to)ether 1ith as much a)ain7: Het the pro8lem remains7 In re%errin) to erotic lo5e4 %ood and drin'4 should 1e ha5e placed them cautiously 8et1een in5erted commas or can they 8e le%t to stand as they areG This is really a matter o% e3pediency4 since either course o% action could 8e 9usti%ied7 The thin)s o% Paradise Aand o% hellB are :li'e: the thin)s o% earth 8ecause o% the interconnection 8et1een all possi8le states o% e3perience> they are :unli'e: them 8ecause o% the incommensura8ility 8et1een di%%erent dimensions or le5els o% reality7 On account o% :li'eness: 1e are %ree to say that there are indeed %ood and drin' in the herea%ter Adelicious in Paradise and a8omina8le in hellB> on account o% :unli'eness 1e ha5e e5ery ri)ht to adopt the opposite point o% 5ie14 8ut those 1ho do so must then su))est other means o% e3pressin) 1hat is to 8e e3pressed7 It is easy enou)h to say that all such ima)es should 8e understood alle)orically4 8ut the a5era)e man 1ill then as' o% 1hat use :alle)orical: %ood and drin' are to him7 Not only Islam 8ut also the other 1orld reli)ions ha5e al1ays pre%erred the concrete ima)ery lea5in) the %aith%ul to ma'e 1hat they 1ill o% it in accordance 1ith their intelli)ence and their ima)inati5e po1ers7 $e ha5e to accept the %act that some )ood 8ut simple people 1ill )o throu)h li%e 1ith 5ery crude notions o% the herea%ter4 1hile others4 less )ood and much less simple4 1ill dismiss hea5en and = e5en more readily = hell 8ecause o% the apparent crudity o% the ima)es employed7 It is 1ith these considerations in mind4 and 1ithout any irre5oca8le commitment either to the :literal: or the :alle)orical: interpretation o% sacred ima)ery4 that 1e must consider 1hat the uslim 8elie5es = in the li)ht o% ?ur:an and hadith = a8out the 0ast Fud)ement4 the 9oys o% Paradise and the pains o% hell7 None escape 9ud)ement7 E5ery human creature has li5ed in a condition o% 5eilin) = su89ect to e5ery 'ind o% sel%=deception = and is o8li)ed4 1hen the 5eils are remo5ed4 to %ace the na'ed truth7 :Thou 1ast heedless o% this7 No1 ha5e $e remo5ed %rom thee thy co5erin)4 and piercin) is thy si)ht this day:A?7(2722B4 and :1hosoe5er has done an atom:s 1ei)ht o% )ood shall see it4 and 1hosoe5er has done an atom:s 1ei)ht o% e5il shall see it:A?7//7+=-B> %or :There 1ill e5ery soul

8ecome a1are Do% the si)ni%icanceE o% 1hat they did4 8rou)ht 8ac' to Allah4 their true aster> and all that they de5ised 1ill ha5e %orsa'en them:A?712732B7 $hile the conse;uences o% e5erythin) he e5er did no1 seem to ta'e on a li%e o% their o1n4 each soul is ;uite alone@ :No1 indeed ha5e you come unto .s solitary as $e created you in the %irst instance and you ha5e le%t 8ehind you e5erythin) $e )a5e you4 and $e see not 8eside you those = your intercessors = 1ho you thou)ht 1ere partners 1ith you777:A?7*7/#B7 Each 8ears his 8urden4 %or no created thin) can share it 1ith him or 8ear e5en a small part o% it@ :No 8urdened soul can 8ear another:s 8urden4 and thou)h one 1ei)hed do1n 1ith his load calls D%or helpE 1ith it4 nau)ht 1ill 8e li%ted e5en i% he Dto 1hom he callsE 8e near o% 'in:A?73(71-B7D1E In Frith9o% ,chuon:s 1ords@ :At death all assurance and all competence %all a1ay li'e a )arment and the 8ein) 1ho remains is impotent and li'e a lost child> nothin) is le%t 8ut a su8stance 1e ha5e oursel5es 1o5en 1hich may either %all hea5ily or4 on the contrary4 let itsel% 8e dra1n up 8y Hea5en li'e a risin) star7:D2E All %amiliar landmar's ha5e disappeared e3cept %or those o% %aith and prayer4 and he 1ho 1as 1ithout %aith and ne5er entered upon prayer %inds himsel% in dar'ness upon :a 5ast a8ysmal sea:@ :There co5ereth him a 1a5e4 a8o5e 1hich is a 1a5e4 a8o5e 1hich is a cloud> layer upon layer o% dar'ness7 $hen he holdeth out his hand he can scarcely see it7 And %or him %or 1hom Allah hath not appointed li)ht4 there is no li)ht:A?72#7#2B7 No li)ht o% his o1n4 that is to say> %or he emer)es out o% this roarin)4 chaotic dar'ness into a li)ht that is = %or him = terri8le 8eyond ima)inin)7 1 There is4 ho1e5er4 an important e3ception to this rule7 Anyone 1ho 'ills a man or 1oman 1ithout ade;uate 9usti%ication Aas4 %or e3ample4 in sel%=de%ence or %ollo1in) due le)al processB 8ears the added 8urden o% all the sins his 5ictim may ha5e committed and 1ill ha5e to ans1er %or them Ac%7 ?7(72/ and other passa)esB7 The 5ictim has4 as it 1ere4 shi%ted all responsi8ility %or the sins o% a li%etime to his murderer7 &y e3tension4 one may assume that the same applies to case:s o% :e3ecution: 8y the state i% the e3treme penalty is not in accordance 1ith the reli)ious 0a14 or i% )rounds %or clemency ha5e not 8een e3hausti5ely e3plored7 2 .nderstandin) Islam4 Frith9o% ,chuon4 p7-#7 The Islamic 5ision o% Fud)ement is dominated 8y the idea o% :e3posure:7 Nothin) 1hatsoe5er is hidden %rom Him 1ho4 accordin) to the poet ,ana:i4 :%eels the touch o% an ant:s %oot as it mo5es in dar'ness o5er a roc':7 On that 6ay there is no shade 8ut His4 no re%u)e %rom Him unless it 8e 1ith Him@ :And 1hen the trumpet sounds a sin)le 8last and the earth4 1ith the mountains4 is li%ted up and crushed 1ith one 8lo1 777 On that 6ay 1ill ye 8e e3posed4 not a secret o% yours hidden:A?7*/713=1#4 1-B7 ,ince there is no co5erin) to 8e %ound4 man'ind 1ill 8e assem8led on that 6ay na'ed and 8are%oot7 $hen the Prophet said this4 the lady :A:isha4 1ho ne5er %ailed to as' 1hat others mi)ht ha5e thou)ht 8ut hesitated to as'4 in;uired 1hether men and 1omen 1ould 8e to)ether4 loo'in) at one another7 :The matter 1ill 8e too serious4 :A:isha4 %or them to loo' at one another4: he said7 As thou)h this e3posure 1ere not enou)h4 there 1ill 8e a host o% 1itnesses present7 The animals 1ill 8e there to testi%y7 Accordin) to a hadith4 a prostitute 1as Aor 1ill 8eB %or)i5en 8ecause4 comin) upon a do) that 1as dyin) o% thirst4 she too' o%% her shoe4 tied it 1ith her head=co5erin)4 lo1ered it into a 1ell and 8rou)ht out

1ater %or the animal to drin'7 And the Prophet said also that :a 1oman 1as punished on account o% a cat 1hich she 'ept shut up till it died o% hun)er:7 The am8i)uity o% tense may 8e noted@ an e5ent ta'in) place 8eyond time as 1e 'no1 it may 8e re%erred to as past althou)h4 %or us4 it lies in the %uture7 The relati5ity o% time in this conte3t is emphasi<ed 8y the %act that4 accordin) to the ?uran4 the :6ay o% ?ua'in):4 the :6ay o% Arousin):4 the :6ay 1hich 1ill turn the hair o% children )rey:A?7+371+B4 the 6ay upon 1hich :each nursin) mother 1ill %or)et her nurslin) and each pre)nant 1oman 1ill 8e deli5ered o% her 8urden4 and thou 1ilt see man'ind as drun'en4 thou)h they 1ill not 8e drun':A?72272B4 1ill last %or %i%ty thousand years4 yet = accordin) to a hadith = it 1ill pass %or the sincere 8elie5er :li'e the passin) o% a sin)le hour:7 The )entle earth itsel% 1ill4 as it 1ere4 %ind a 5oice and 8ear 1itness@ :on that 6ay 1ill she relate her tidin)s4 %or her 0ord 1ill ha5e inspired her:A?7//7#=(B> and 1hate5er has 8een done on land or sea = or :in the hea5ens: = :thou)h it 8e 8ut the 1ei)ht o% a mustard=seed and thou)h it 8e in a roc': 1ill 8e 8rou)ht %orthA?73171*B7 The encounter 1ith a8solute Truth lea5es nothin) hidden7 ore si)ni%icant still4 man 8ears 1itness a)ainst himsel% and cannot do other1ise7 He comes to Fud)ement 1ith a :dri5er: and a :1itness: 1ho ha5e 8een 1ith him throu)hout his li%e4 and the po1ers 1ithin the di5ided city 1hich 1as his earthly personality ha5e much to say4 yet he himsel% = the sel% 1hich mi)ht de5ise e3cuses and 9usti%ications = is silenced@ :This 6ay $e seal up their mouths4 and their hands spea' to .s and their %eet 8ear 1itness as to 1hat they earned:A?73*7*(B7 It could there%ore 8e said that the soul 9ud)es itsel%4 %or no1 = at last = it 'no1s itsel% %ully4 'no1s itsel% in relation to the Norm to 1hich it may ha5e con%ormed or %rom 1hich it may ha5e departed7 Each %inds his 1ay in%alli8ly to the only niche into 1hich he 1ill %it4 1hether this 8e a8o5e or 8elo14 and the ?uran reminds us constantly that "od is ne5er un9ust> He allo1s us to )o 1here 8y nature 1e 8elon)7 The soul:s su8stance4 1hich had4 in this li%e4 a certain %luidity4 is as it 1ere %i3ed or crystalli<ed 1hen li%e is o5er> it cannot chan)e4 ho1e5er much it mi)ht 1ish to do so7 :I% each soul that hath done ill possessed all that is in the earth4 it 1ould see' to ransom itsel% there1ith4 and they %eel remorse%ul 1hen they see the penalty> 8ut it has 8een 9ud)ed 8et1een them in 9ustice and they are not 1ron)ed:A?7127(#B7 This 1orld is the place o% mercy4 1here 1e need only as' in order to recei5e> on the 6ay4 pure o89ecti5ity rules4 and 1e are 1hat 1e are or 1hat 1e ha5e made o% oursel5es7 :,ay@ O y ser5ants 1ho ha5e 1ron)ed their o1n souls4 despair not o% the mercy o% Allah4 1ho %or)i5eth all sins7 Indeed He is the For)i5in)4 the erci%ul7 And turn unto your 0ord in repentance and su8mit to Him 8e%ore there cometh unto you the penalty7 Then ye 1ill not 8e helped:A?73/7(3=(#B7 $e read in a hadith o% a 8rid)e that is to 8e crossed4 the same 8rid)e mentioned in many traditions and mytholo)ies throu)hout the 1orld4 thin as a hair and ra<or= sharp4 stretched o5er the a8ysmal depths7 Each soul must cross 8y this perilous 1ay i% it is to come to Paradise4 and some = it is said = cross li'e li)htnin) and others li'e the 1ind4 some as a 8ird mi)ht %ly4 some at the speed o% a %ine horse and others li'e a man runnin)4 until one comes :1al'in) on the 8i) toes o% his t1o

%eet: and the 8rid)e sha'es him o%%4 as it does so many others4 to %all headlon) into the Fire7 This too is an aspect o% the Fud)ement4 e3posin) the soul:s %itness or lac' o% %itness %or the celestial "arden7 The a8yss into 1hich those tum8le 1ho are un%it %or anythin) 8etter is a place o% ra)in) %ire 1hich4 accordin) to the traditional accounts4 1as sto'ed %or a thousand years till it 8ecame red4 %or another thousand till it 8ecame 1hite4 and then %or another thousand till it 8ecame 8lac' as a starless ni)ht> and the ?ur:an tells us that as they approach it4 :they 1ill hear its crac'lin) and its ra)in) si)h as it spies them %rom a%ar> and 1hen they are %lun)4 chained to)ether4 into a narro1 place therein4 they plead %or immediate destruction7 Plead not on that day %or a sin)le destruction4 D8utE plead %or o%t=repeated destructionI:A?72(712=1#B7 There4 :in the shado1 o% 8lac' smo'e:4 they must eat the deadly %ruit o% the tree called Ka;;um4 said 8y some to 8e the %ruit o% the e5il they did durin) their li5es on earth4 and their drin' is :pus:4 1hich :they can scarcely s1allo1:A?71#71*=1+B7 Accordin) to the hadith literature4 they meet there 1ith scorpions as 8i) as mules and hu)e sna'es 1hich %lay them %rom scalp to toe=nails> 1hen they put on their sandals o% %ire their 8rains 8oil as thou)h in a copper cauldron4 their molar teeth )lo1 li'e li5e coals and their entrails melt and %lo17 Their 5oices4 1hen they cry out4 are li'e the 5oice o% the ass4 1hich 8e)ins 1ith a sound o% pantin) and ends 1ith a 8rayin)7 It is said that 1ere the smallest %raction o% the %ire:s heat to come our 1ay4 it 1ould 8urn up all the inha8itants o% earth4 and i% one o% the )arments o% the people o% hell 1ere hun) a8o5e us4 the stench and the heat com8ined 1ould 'ill e5ery last one o% us7 6eath comes upon the damned %rom e5ery ;uarter4 yet = accordin) to the ?ur:an = :they cannot die: and su%%erin) there%ore stretches ahead o% them inde%initely7 :As o%ten as their s'ins are consumed D8y the %ireE4 $e replace them 1ith ne1 s'ins that they may taste the torment:A?7#7(*B> %or here there can 8e no relie% throu)h num8in) o% the senses4 and the damned ne5er )ro1 accustomed to their condition7 :That 1hich is 1ithin them4 and their s'ins too4 are melted: A?722722B4 and this is particularly si)ni%icant i% 1e remem8er all that is said in the ?uran a8out harduess o% heart4 as also a8out impermea8ility to the di5ine mercy and the di5ine messa)e7 There is little in the uslim ima)ery o% the in%ernal re)ions that could seem alien to the $estern ima)ination7 $hether 6ante :8orro1ed: the ima)ery o% his In%erno %rom Islamic sources or 1hether it occurred to him more or less spontaneously is unimportant> the %act remains that it accords 5ery closely 1ith the uslim 5ision o% the realm o% the damned4 and 8oth lend themsel5es readily enou)h to alle)orical interpretation4 o% 1hich the )reat ?uranic commentary o% Fa'hr ad=6in ar=Ra<i Ad7 A6 122/B pro5ides an interestin) e3ample7 Accordin) to Ra<i4 the :chains: or :%etters: mentioned in a num8er o% 5erses :are a sym8ol o% the soul:s remainin) shac'led to its Aerst1hileB physical attachments and 8odily pleasures 777 and no1 that their reali<ation has 8ecome impossi8le those %etters and shac'les pre5ent the resurrected personality Aan na%sB %rom attainin) to the realm o% the spirit777: ,u8se;uently these :shac'les: )enerate

spiritual :%ires:4 since %rustrated desire )i5es rise to an intense sensation o% 8urnin)4 1hich accordin) to Ra<i is the meanin) o% the :8la<in) %ire: Aal=9ahimB7 The sinner tries to s1allo1 the cho'in) a)ony o% depri5ation and the pain o% separation %rom all that he lon)s %or4 hence the re%erences to :the %ood that cho'es:7D1E It must 8e admitted that interpretations o% this 'ind ha5e rather less impact than does the star' and terri8le ima)ery o% ?uran and hadith4 and they are there%ore less e%%ecti5e in shoc'in) the human soul into a sense o% reality7 The most important and contro5ersial ;uestion4 ho1e5er4 is 1hether the uslim hell is :eternal:4 and here = as so o%ten = 1e encounter pro8lems o% terminolo)y7 Coomaras1amy and others ha5e stressed the essential di%%erence 8et1een :eternity: A8eyond any %orm o% time or durationB and :perpetuity: Ainde%inite durationB7 I% 1e accept these de%initions4 it can 8e said that "od alone is eternal 8ecause He alone is A8solute Reality4 and the ?uran certainly supports this 5ie17 Perpetuity mi)ht seem to )o on :%or e5er and e5er:4 8ut there is an escape %rom it up1ards4 to1ards the eternal4 9ust as there is an escape %rom dreamin) in 1a'in)7 The damned may see no end to their su%%erin)4 8ut "od sees an end to it7 oreo5er4 His mercy :ta'es precedence o5er His 1rath:4 and to su))est that it could 8e entirely a8sent %rom hell 1ould 8e to su))est that hell has an independent and sel%=su%%icient e3istence4 8eyond the reach o% His all=per5adin) mercy4 and this is unaccepta8le to the uslim7 1 ,ee uhammad Asad:s The essa)e o% the ?uran4 in particular p7/2#7

It is hardly surprisin)4 there%ore4 that 1e read in the traditional sources that a :)reen tree: Aor4 in other 5ersions4 :1ater=cress:B 1ill )ro1 in the %ields o% hell as time dra1s to its close> and indeed the ima)ery o% :scourin): and :meltin): employed in the ?ur:an implies a process o% puri%ication4 rather than punishment %or punishment:s sa'e7 All this su))ests4 in Christian terms4 Pur)atory rather than a hell in 1hich all hope is to 8e a8andoned4 althou)h no lesser an authority than ,t Thomas A;uinas said that there is no true eternity in hell4 8ut only time> and time must ha5e a stop7 E;ually si)ni%icant is the %act that intercession still operates7 Accordin) to a hadith recorded 8y 8oth &u'hari and uslim4 the t1o most respected authorities4 the 8elie5ers 1ho ha5e come sa%ely to Paradise 1ill plead %or their 8rethren in hell and 1ill 8e allo1ed to 8rin) out those they reco)ni<e7 Their %aces 1ill 8e protected %rom the Fire4 and they 1ill 8rin) out a )reat num8er o% people7 They 1ill then 8e told 8y their 0ord to )o 8ac' and 8rin) out any :in 1hose hearts you %ind so much as a dinar o% )ood:7 They 1ill do so4 8ut 1ill 8e commanded to return a third time and 8rin) out any in 1hose hearts you %ind so much as an atom o% )ood:4 and this they 1ill do4 thou)h the an)els and the prophets 1ill already ha5e rescued an incalcula8le num8er %rom the Fire7 Then "od 1ill say@ :The an)els ha5e interceded4 the prophets ha5e interceded4 the 8elie5ers ha5e interceded4 and only the ost erci%ul o% the merci%ul no1 remains:> and He Himsel% 1ill 8rin) out a :hand%ul: = and there is nothin) that could e5er %ill His :hand: = o% people 1ho ne5er did any )ood and 1ho ha5e 8een turned into charcoal7 He 1ill cast them into a ri5er called the Ri5er o% 0i%e4 and they 1ill emer)e li'e seeds %rom ru88ish that is carried a1ay

in a %lood4 and they 1ill emer)e :li'e pearls:7 A%ter this 1e may 8e allo1ed to 1onder ho1 many remain in hell till the 8itter end7 In another hadith %rom the same sources 1e are told that the 5ery last man to 8e 8rou)ht out o% hell4 1hen "od has )i5en him all that he 1ished %or and more = althou)h not 1ithout some ar)ument 8et1een them = %inds his 1ay to his d1ellin) in Paradise :more easily than he did to the d1ellin) he o1ned in the 1orld:7 A%ter a li%etime on earth4 a%ter the trauma o% death and a%ter the seemin)ly endless torments o% the Fire A1hich turned him to charcoalB4 he has come home and reco)ni<es his home 1ithout a moment:s hesitation7 It is almost as thou)h he had ne5er 8een a1ay7 $e can dra1 8ut one conclusion7 $here5er it may %ind itsel% and ho1e5er %ar it may 1ander4 the human soul is at home only in Paradise7 Else1here it is in e3ile7 And yet it must not 8e %or)otten that 1hat 1as 8rou)ht out %rom the :ru88ish:4 or %rom the charred remains4 1as a :seed: A1hich then :sprouted: in the 1ater o% 0i%eB7 The nucleus 1ithin us 1hich see's Paradise and is at home there is not the out1ard personality 8usy 1ith the a%%airs o% this 1orld and separated %rom its essence4 althou)h that too4 in its 1ay and un1ittin)ly4 is in search o% a consummation it can ne5er %ind here> it is the innermost essence o% each 8ein) = the :spirit: = that lon)s %or home=comin) and can ne5er 8e satis%ied until it reaches home7 $hate5er there may 8e in our nature that does not accord 1ith our essence is dross to 8e 8urned a1ay> and 1hosoe5er 8elie5es that this dross is himsel% = his :true sel%: = 1ill 8e 8urned 1ith it7 $ith the entry into Paradise time is redeemed and e5erythin) %alls into place7 $ere it possi8le %or the 8lessed to retain a sin)le unhappy memory this 1ould not 8e the per%ection promised them4 yet it cannot 8e said that they %or)et anythin)4 since Paradise is the place 1here e5erythin) is clearly seen> 1hat they see4 then4 is the total per%ection o% creation4 in 1hich all disharmonies are resol5ed7 Nothin) there is lost4 %or the smallest loss 1ould 8e an impermissi8le imper%ection4 a stain on the )lass> and the 5ery %act that 1e lo5e somethin) on this earth is su%%icient proo% that it is a re%lection o% 1hat e3ists there in an incompara8ly more 8eauti%ul %orm7 There can 8e no return to the shado1s and am8i)uities o% this 1orld4 or o% any other 1orld4 once the command has 8een )i5en@ :Enter4 ye and your 1i5es4 into the "arden to 8e made happy 777 therein is all that souls desire and all that eyes deli)ht in4 and there shall ye remain: A?7#37+2=+1B> %or these it is :1hom $e re1ard in accordance 1ith the 8est they e5er did4 o5erloo'in) their e5il deeds> Dthese areE amon) the companions o% the "arden:A?7#*71*B7 These4 the people o% Paradise4 :this day ha5e 9oy in all that they do4 they and their companions4 in )entle shade4 on couches reclinin)> theirs the %ruit Do% deli)htE and theirs 1hatsoe5er they desire7 The 1ord %rom the 0ord o% ercy is D%or themE@ PeaceI:A?7237(,=(-B7 From a sli)htly di%%erent an)le4 1e see a distinction made 8et1een :the %oremost: and the :people o% the ri)ht hand:4 %or althou)h none here %ind less than they desire = all4 indeed4 %ind more = the 8lessed di%%er in su8stance

or in capacity %or 9oy and there are )radations e5en in Paradise7 The :%oremost: are the mu;arra8un4 the :close ones: Aclose4 that is4 to "od Himsel%B4 and in the ,urah :$a;i:ah:4 the ?ur:an descri8es their condition in a rich yet concise sym8olism 1hich has lent itsel% to 5oluminous interpretation7 They recline upon :inlaid thrones: and are 1aited upon 8y :immortal youths:4 1ho 8rin) them a drin' %rom a :pure sprin): Acould this 8e the $ater o% 0i%e itsel%GB> they recline :%ace to %ace: in per%ect communion and %eed on the :%lesh o% 8irds:4 an an)elic %ood %ree o% the 1ei)ht and coarseness o% earthly thin)s> and 1ith them are the %air ones4 1ide and dar' o% eye4 the hur4 1ho are li'e :hidden pearls:4 so secret4 so delicate4 so 8eauti%ul> and the 1ord that resounds in their ears is :Peace4 peaceI:7 Those :on the ri)ht hand: are no less happy4 since they ha5e all the happiness they can 8ear4 :amon) %ruit=8earin) lote=trees and %lo1erin) acacias and spreadin) shade and )ushin) 1ater and %ruit in plenty4 ne5er=%ailin) and ne5er out o% reach:7 "od4 1ho need only say to anythin) :&eI: and it is4 has made %or them :a ne1 creation:4 maidens :per%ectly matched: to them4 lo5in)4 companiona8le7 In our 1orld4 desire and its o89ect4 need and its satis%action4 are separated4 sometimes 8y )reat distances or 8y an impassa8le )ul%> 8ut Paradise participates more closely in the di5ine .nity than does our present state o% e3perience7 In Paradise the )ap is closed7 Eschatolo)y is al1ays at the mercy o% pedants 1ho ta'e the sym8olism 1hich is its necessary lan)ua)e e5en more literally than does the most unima)inati5e 8elie5er7 &ut perhaps part o% the pro8lem is that they study eschatolo)ical ima)ery %rom the 1ron) an)le7 $hat matters is not the means 1here8y 9oy is said to 8e created 8ut the %act that 9oy e3ists4 not the o89ects 1hich are said to satis%y desire = :%ruit: and :pure drin': and :the %lesh o% 8irds: = 8ut desire as such and its per%ect satis%action7 A man 1ho o85iously considered that a hea5en 1ithout camels 1ould 8e no hea5en at all as'ed the Prophet 1hether he 1ould %ind camels in Paradise7 :I% Allah 8rin)s you into Paradise4: said the Prophet4 :you 1ill ha5e 1hat your soul desires and 1hat your eye deli)hts in7: $hether the man:s pro%ound need4 1hich in this 1orld %ound its satis%action in the o1nership o% %ine 8easts4 1ould still re;uire camels %or its satis%action in Paradise may 8e le%t as an open ;uestion7 The ;uestion o% the hur A:Houris:B4 the 1ide=eyed maidens 1ho are the companions o% the 8lessed4 has = to say the least = attracted the attention o% Christians o5er many centuries4 and althou)h the notion o% celestial eroticism no lon)er shoc's as it once did4 contemporary $esterners remain %ascinated 8y it and seldom %ail to as' 1hy similar pro5ision is not made %or 1omen amon) the 8lessed 1hen4 a%ter sur5i5in) 9ud)ement4 they reach their true home7 It 1ill 8e o85ious %rom 1hat 1as said earlier on the su89ect o% se3uality and4 indeed4 %rom all that has 8een said a8out the Islamic perspecti5e4 that nothin) so central to our li%e on earth could 8e e3cluded %rom Paradise> this 1ould represent an unaccounta8le )ap in the 5ery %a8ric o% %elicity7 I% lesser 9oys and other 8eauties 1e taste here are ta'en to re%lect 1hat e3ists more per%ectly else1here4 then se3ual deli)ht must ha5e its place in the matri3 o% Reality4 and the 8eauty o%

1omen must 8e a particularly direct reminder o% the eternal &eauty4 mani%ested e5en more directly in Paradise7 This &eauty shines throu)h the hur 1ho4 as personi%ications o% the richness o% the di5ine )i%ts4 represent 8ounty4 lo5in)= 'indness and all the )entle 5irtues> and union 1ith them4 in such close pro3imity to "od Himsel%4 must ha5e an e5en more intense si)ni%icance than does se3ual intercourse in the earthly conte3t7 There is4 in %act4 a dou8le sym8olism here@ in the %irst place4 that o% 9oy4 union Athe se3es e3ist %or the sa'e o% unionB and completion> secondly4 that o% &eauty4 partially 5isi8le on earth4 e5ery1here 5isi8le in Paradise4 8rou)ht to li%e = tactile4 1arm and intimate = in the hur7 &eyond this is a still deeper sym8olism 1ith 1hich the mystics concern themsel5es7 The di5ine Essence4 the :reality o% Reality:4 1hich is 8eyond all possi8le conceptuali<ation A:The eye4: it is said4 :cannot see the eye:B4 is descri8ed in Ara8ic 8y the %eminine 1ord dhat4 and 8ecause it is :dar': to our understandin)4 it is sometimes represented as :Ni)ht:4 0ayla4 1hich is also the name o% the heroine o% many uslim tales and poems7 Throu)h the 8eauty4 innocence and mystery o% a youn) )irl the deepest secret o% all thin)s4 mani%est and unmani%est4 is sensed and lo5ed7 Fust as hell is a place o% separation = %or althou)h the damned are chained to)ether4 they hate one another = so Paradise is the place o% %ull and per%ect communion4 and Islam sees nothin) amiss in representin) this in erotic terms7 Accordin) to a hadith4 each man 1ill see his o1n %ace re%lected in that o% his companion and also in her 8ody4 and she 1ill see her %ace in his and in his 8ody4 as thou)h4 in such per%ect union4 they mer)ed4 althou)h 1ithout losin) their respecti5e identities> it is also said that the marro1 is 5isi8le4 runnin) li'e :luminous honey:4 in each maiden:s 8ones Aso transparent are theyB4 and this is the 5ery essence o% &eauty made 5isi8le7 Forms4 1hich in this 1orld seem so solid and so opa;ue4 do not in Paradise = conceal the di5ine 0i)ht 1hich has pro9ected them7 And these %orms are in%initely chan)ea8le7 No one 1ill understand this unless he can rid himsel% o% purely earthly ha8its o% thou)ht4 accordin) to 1hich each thin) is isolated in its opa;ue solidity and each spirit irre5oca8ly attached to a particular psycho=physical %orm> yet i% he remem8ers that the 1ord :personality: deri5es %rom the 0atin persona4 meanin) an actor:s mas'4 he 1ill reali<e that mas's are not usually )lued to %aces and 1ill dra1 %rom this %act certain lo)ical conclusions7 In Paradise4 1e are told4 the 8lessed = 8oth men and 1omen = 1ill 8e pro5ided 1ith se5enty )arments4 e5ery one o% 1hich 1ill chan)e its colour se5enty times each hour7 I% 1e 8ear in mind that4 in this 1orld4 the 8ody and the personality are :)arments: o% the spirit4 the si)ni%icance o% this hadith is clear enou)h7 It is said also that there is in Paradise a mar'et :in 1hich there is no 8uyin) or sellin)4 8ut only the %orms o% men and 1omen:> the spirits o% the 8lessed enter into 1hate5er %orm they 1ill4 %or they could scarcely 8e content 1ith any lesser %reedom o% e3pression4 and this is the Place o% Contentment7 .nder the circumstances4 it may 8e that the ;uestion as to 1hy there are no male e;ui5alents to the hur 8ecomes redundant7 &ut it 1ill still 8e as'ed 1hether the :a5era)e uslim: actually thin's in terms o% such comple3 sym8olism4 in 1hich case the ans1er must 8e that such thin)s do not need to 8e spelt out analytically

in order to 8e understood Athou)h not necessarily conceptuali<edB 8y those 1hose minds4 ima)ination and sensi8ility ha5e 8een shaped 8y Islam7 Only 1hen certain ;uestions are as'ed does it 8ecome necessary to spin out 1ords in e3planation4 and the :a5era)e uslim: does not as' these ;uestions4 8ut 'no1s that all 1ill 8e 1ell in Paradise> and this is enou)h7 &ut %or ho1 lon)G I% "od alone is eternal in the precise meanin) o% the 1ord and i%4 1hen all is done4 a )reen tree )ro1s in the )round o% hell4 ho1 can He promise the 8lessed that they 1ill ne5er ha5e to lea5e ParadiseA?71(7#-BG In the %irst place4 there is no e;ui5alence 1hatsoe5er 8et1een Paradise and hell Aany more than there is 8et1een the di5ine ercy and the di5ine $rathB7 The one is open4 the other closed4 the one is 8oundless4 the other limited7 "ood and e5il4 thou)h 1e ha8itually spea' o% them as a pair4 do not 8elon) to the same order or the same de)ree o% reality4 1hich is 1hy 1e are promised that a )ood deed 1ill 8e re1arded ten%old = or a hundred%old Aor 1ith any au)mentation one cares to ima)ineB = 1hereas the e5il deed recei5es only its e;ui5alent in punishment and no more than that A)ood is %ertile4 e5il is 8arrenB7 ,econdly4 Paradise is :open in a 5ery special sense> it opens out on to the 6i5ine4 and in the Presence o% Him 1ho is 8oth eternal and in%inite4 there can 8e no end to anythin)7 :Allah has promised to the 8elie5ers = men and 1omen = "ardens 8eneath 1hich ri5ers %lo14 1herein they 1ill a8ide4 8lessed "ardens o% ine3hausti8le deli)ht> and4 )reater still4 the rid1an o% Allah = this is the supreme triumph:A?7/7+2B7 Rid1an is usually translated as :acceptance: or :)ood pleasure:> %or its 5er8al root radiya4 the dictionary o%%ers such meanin)s as :to 8e satis%ied:4 :to consent:4 :to appro5e:4 8ut no translation can con5ey the %orce and si)ni%icance o% a 1ord 1hich descri8es somethin) )reater than Paradise itsel%4 i% only 8ecause Paradise is di%%icult enou)h to ima)ine 1ithout our ha5in) to ima)ine 1hat is 8eyond it7 $e can only clin) to the idea o% :openness:4 1hich is itsel% un)raspa8le in purely human terms o% re%erence7 The Prophet said that a moment 1ill come 1hen "od as's the 8lessed i% they are content4 and they 1ill reply4 :Ho1 should 1e not 8e content4 0ord4 1hen Thou has )i5en us 1hat Thou didst not )i5e to any o% Thy creaturesG: Then He 1ill say4 :,hall I )i5e you somethin) more e3cellent than thisG: and they 1ill as' 1hat could 8e more e3cellent7 He 1ill reply@ :I shall cause y rid1an to ali)ht upon you777: And the Prophet said also@ :$hile the people o% Paradise are in their en9oyment a li)ht 1ill shine upon them and4 raisin) their heads4 they 1ill see that their 0ord has loo'ed do1n upon them %rom a8o5e7 He 1ill say@ CPeace 8e upon you4 O people o% ParadiseIC 777 He 1ill then loo' at them and they 1ill loo' at Him4 and they 1ill not turn aside to any o% their en9oyment so lon) as they are loo'in) at Him until He 5eils Himsel% %rom them4 thou)h His 0i)ht remains7: And a)ain4 the Prophet said@ :&y Him in 1hose hand is my soul4 no )i%t o% His is more precious than this loo'in) upon HimI: and 1hen the 5ision %ades4 and they ha5e come 8ac' to themsel5es and return to their celestial household4 their companions in deli)ht o8ser5e that they are no1 more 8eauti%ul than they 1ere 8e%ore:7 This is 9ourney:s end and land%all %or those 1ho prayed durin) their earthly

li5es@ : y 0ord4 cause me to land at a 8lessed landin)=place4 %or Thou art the 8est o% those 1ho 8rin) to land%all:A?72372/B7 There is here a per%ect matchin)7 I% 1e translate rid1an as :acceptance: on the part o% "od4 then islam may 8e translated as :acceptance: on man:s part> he :accepts: "od4 1ith all that this implies4 and :accepts: his destiny4 1ith all the distress it may contain4 and he ta'es the :strai)ht path: 1hich leads to Paradise and4 8eyond4 to the 8eati%ic 5ision> and4 8ecause o% this4 "od :accepts: him and )i5es him :0i)ht upon li)ht:7 $hen4 in accordance 1ith the %irst Pillar o% his reli)ion4 the uslim ma'es the Con%ession o% Faith he attaches himsel% to the essential and puts aside all that is = in appearance = other=than="od4 and he ac'no1led)es the truth 8rou)ht 8y the messen)ers7 $hen4 in accordance 1ith the second Pillar4 he prays = 1hether in a mos;ue or on the desert sands4 in a $estern city or in the polar re)ions = he places himsel% at the centre o% all possi8le 1orlds4 %or "od has promised that He 1ill 8e present 1here5er His name is mentioned4 and the place 1here He is present is necessarily central in e5ery dimension7 $hen4 in accordance 1ith the third Pillar4 this uslim pays the poor=due and o8ser5es the o8li)ation o% lo5in)='indness to1ards his %ello1s4 he ac'no1led)es the ri)hts o% other creatures = made in the same ima)e as himsel% = and reco)ni<es that "od4 1ho is close to him4 is close also to them7 $hen he %asts4 in accordance 1ith the %ourth Pillar4 he detaches himsel% %rom the locality in 1hich he is temporarily housed4 the 8etter to prepare himsel% %or his e5erlastin) home7 And 1hen4 as a pil)rim4 he stands 8e%ore the !a:8a in ecca Aa%ter circlin) it se5en timesB4 the centrality already pre%i)ured 8y his orientation 1hen he prayed %ar o%% is made actual7 Clothed only in t1o pieces o% plain4 unse1n cloth4 he has le%t 8ehind him the characteristics 1hich identi%ied him in this 1orld4 his race4 his nationality4 his status> he is no lon)er so=and=so %rom such=and=such a place4 8ut simply a pil)rim7 &eneath his 8are %eet4 li'e mother=o%=pearl4 is the pale mar8le o% this amphitheatre at the centre o% the 1orld4 and althou)h he is commanded to lo1er his eyes 1hen prayin) else1here4 he is no1 permitted to raise them and loo' upon the !a:8a4 1hich is the earthly shado1 o% the Pole or Pi5ot around 1hich circle the starry hea5ens7 Althou)h Paradise may still seem %ar distant4 he has already come home7

AAra8icB Praise is Adue onlyB to Allah4 0ord o% the $orlds7