R/C Slabs: Design and Verification by the Yield-Lines Method

Basis of Yield Line Theory

This method of limit analysis for R/C slabs was formulated at the beginning of the century The Yield Line Method is an upper bound approach, since: the ultimate load is evaluated by formulating a suitable collapse mechanism (compatible with the boundary conditions) equilibrium is enforced via the Principle of Virtual Works, by equating the work done by the external loads to the work (= energy) dissipated along certain particular lines, called yield lines Being an upper bound approach, this method gives ultimate loads that are either correct or too high (i.e. not on the safe side) For a given mechanism, the bending moments at some points of the slab are not below the resisting moment of the slab section (= mRd)

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What is a yield line?

Consider a reinforced concrete slab that is progressively loaded to failure: prior to cracking, the distribution of bending moments follows the linear elastic theory; after cracking, cracking the distribution of the bending moments changes due to the decrease in flexural rigidity of the cracked portions with further loading, yielding of the reinforcing steel occurs, and the slab undergoes a redistribution of the bending moments (with the moments at the yield locations remaining practically constant)

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What is a yield line?

As the load on the slab is further increased, the lines where cracking concentrates (across which the steel has yielded) will propagate until a collapse mechanism is formed. These lines are referred to as yield lines The yield line distribution at collapse is called a yield line pattern

(T h i l U (Technical University i it of fB Berlin) li )

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General considerations

The first yielding of the tension steel generally occurs at the location of the maximum bending moment; however, the final yield line pattern depends on a variety of factors (reinforcement arrangement, boundary conditions, type of loading) A yield line is an idealized representation of a band of intense cracking across which the tension steel has yielded; for the purpose of analysis, the band is represented by a single line It i is clear l th that, t f for th the collapse ll load l dt to b be reached, h d th the yield i ld li line must t have a sufficient plastic rotation capacity (= ductility).

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General rules to formulate a yield line pattern

Once the collapse mechanism has developed, the deformations along the yield lines (= plastic deformations) are much larger than the elastic deformations of the slab between the yield lines Hence, it is reasonable to assume that, once a mechanism has formed, the slab portions between the yield lines remain plane; thus, all additional deformations (= rotations) take place at the yield lines This gives some basic rules for the formulation of a yield line pattern: 1. yield lines must be straight, acting as axes of rotation for the rigid slab segments in between 2. the supported (or clamped) edges will act as axes of rotation 3. axes of rotation pass through point supports 4. for compatibility of deformations, a yield line must pass through the intersection of the axes of rotation of adjacent segments

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Examples of yield line patterns

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Multiple yield line patterns

one-way collapse

two-way collapse

local collapse

If multiple yield line patterns are possible, the most likely to occur is the one corresponding to the lowest ultimate load
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Plastic moment at yield line

For a yield line that runs at right angles to the reinforcement, the ideal ultimate of resistance per unit width can be calculated as mu = Asfy (d 0.6As fy/fc) where As is the total area of tension reinforcement, fy the yield strength of the steel, d the effective depth, p and fc the compressive p cylinder y strength g of concrete

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Generally, slabs are reinforced by multi-directional reinforcing bars (typically in the x and y directions)

Moreover, as in the previous examples, a yield line is not always normal to the reinforcement direction

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Calculation of resisting moments

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The reinforcing bars are assumed to act as wires: their bending stiffness is neglected they can develop only normal stresses only bending moments are developed (no twisting moments)
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Calculation of the ultimate moment

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mnu = mxucos2() + myusin2()

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Johansens yield criterion for calculating the ultimate moment

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This criterion is based on the following assumptions: 1. the actual y yield line can be replaced p by y a stepped pp yield line, y , consisting of small steps in the x- and y-directions 2. the twisting moments acting in the x- and y-direction are 0 3 3. th strength the t th of f the th section ti i not is t influenced i fl d by b kinking ki ki of f the th rebars crossing a yield line

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Woods assumption for determining the resisting moment along yield lines

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Woods assumption: kinking of rebars

Johansens assumption: rebars remain straight

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Comparison between the two yield criteria and experimental results by Thomas (1974)

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General observations

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The slab can develop a torsional moment across the yield line, although the two reinforcement cannot. Consider the following case: mxu = myu 2() + sin mnu = mxu [cos [ i 2()] = mxu = myu mntu = (mxu myu) sin()cos() = 0 Such a slab is said to be isotropic, or isotropically reinforced.

When mxu myu the slab is said to be orthotropic, or orthotropically reinforced; in this case, the ultimate bending moment depends on the orientation of the yield line

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Determination of the Ultimate Load Virtual Work Equation External Loads

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To analyze a slab by the Virtual Work Principle ay yield line p pattern is p postulated a convenient point within the slab is chosen, and given a small displacement in the direction of the load the th resulting lti displacements di l t at t all ll points i t of f the th slab l b (x,y), ( ) as well ll as the rotations of the slab segments about the yield lines may be found as a function of the work done by a generic load w(x,y) can be calculated by the following equation:

External work = w(x,y)(x,y)dxdy

Note that the support reactions do not contribute, because the supports do not undergo displacements

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Determination of the Ultimate Load Virtual Work Equation Internal Work

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The work done by the internal actions at the yield lines will be due only to the bending moments, because the work done by the torsional moments and the shear forces is zero, when summed over the whole slab: this is due to the fact that these actions are equal and opposite, on the faces of the same yield line moreover, for any displacement of the yield line, there is no relative l ti displacement di l t between b t th slab the l b segments t adjacent dj t to t the th yield line (other than a rotation normal to the yield line)

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Determination of the Ultimate Load Virtual Work Equation Internal Work

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Therefore, the internal work is due only to the bending moments: Internal work = imnulini

By equating the external work to the internal work, the virtual work equation may be written as

w(x,y)(x,y)dxdy = imnulini
When applied to a given slab, the displacement term cancels from the equation and the ultimate load is given in terms of the slab dimensions and the ultimate moments per unit width

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Worked-out example Simply-supported square slab

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Components of internal work

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Most slabs are reinforced in the x- and y-direction, and the ultimate resisting moments mxu and my yu are known Therefore, it is easier to deal separately with the x- and y-components of the internal work done: imnulini = i (mxucos2 + myusin2)nili = = i (mxunii cos y0i + myunii sin x0i) = = i mxu xi y0i + i myu yi x0i where xi and yi are the components of ni in the x- and y-direction respectively, and x0i and y0i are the projected lengths of the yield line Hence, it is not necessary to find the ultimate resisting moments normal to the yield line

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Components of internal work (2)

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imnulini = i (mxucos2 + myusin2)nili = = i (mxuni cos y0i + myuni sin x0i) = = i mxu xi y0i + i myu yi x0i

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Worked-out examples Isotropic square slab (SS and CL edges)

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Minimum-Load Principle

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In most cases, a yield line pattern cannot be drawn without unknown dimensions locating the yield line positions In these cases, the unknown dimensions will be included in the Virtual Work Equation, which will be expressed in the form Wu = f(L1, L2, L3)

Since an upper bound approach is used, the values of the unknowns are those that minimize Wu: Wu/L1 = 0; Wu/L2 = 0; Wu/L3 = 0

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Examples of yield line patterns with unknown parameters

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