PEDAGOGICAL POSSIBILITIES FOR ARGUMENTATIVE AGENCY IN ACADEMIC DEBATE

Argumentation & Advocacy, 1998, Vol. 35 Issue 2, p41-60 Gordon R. Mitchell, ssoci!te "ro#essor, $ni%ersit& o# "itts'ur(h
)ur principle is the po*er o# indi%idu!ls to p!rticip!te *ith others in sh!pin( their *orld throu(h the hu+!n c!p!cit& o# l!n(u!(e, )ur co++it+ent to !r(u+ent e-presses our #!ith in re!son-(i%in( !s ! .e& to th!t po*er, )ur co++it+ent to !d%oc!c& e-presses our #!ith in or!l e-pression !s ! +e!ns to e+po*er people in situ!tions o# their li%es, )ur rese!rch studies the pl!ce o# !r(u+ent !nd !d%oc!c& in these situ!tions o# e+po*er+ent, )ur te!chin( see.s to e-p!nd students/ !ppreci!tion #or the pl!ce o# !r(u+ent !nd !d%oc!c& in sh!pin( their *orld, !nd to prep!re students throu(h cl!ssroo+s, #oru+s, !nd co+petition #or p!rticip!tion in their *orld throu(h the po*er o# e-pression, !nd )ur pu'lic in%ol%e+ent see.s to e+po*er throu(h !r(u+ent !nd !d%oc!c&. -- +eric!n 0orensic ssoci!tion 1redo 2he lo#t& (o!ls enu+er!ted in the +eric!n 0orensic ssoci!tion/s 1redo h!%e lon( ser%ed !s 'e!cons th!t steer ped!(o(ic!l pr!ctice in !r(u+ent!tion !nd de'!te. 2he 1redo/s e-pression o# #!ith in 3re!son (i%in(.3 3or!l e-pression3 !nd critic!l thin.in( !s #or+ul!s #or student 3e+po*er+ent3 is re#lected in the +!n& te-t'oo.s th!t h!%e 'een *ritten to (uide the !c!de+ic stud& o# !r(u+ent!tion. 32he rele%!nce o# s.ill in !r(u+ent!tion see+s sel#-e%ident to !n&one li%in( in ! de+ocr!tic societ&,3 *rite Geor(e 4. 5ie(el+ueller !nd 6!c. 7!& in r(u+ent!tion8 In9uir& !nd d%oc!c&, 32he notion o# #ull !nd #ree pu'lic de'!te on the %it!l issues #!cin( societ& is deepl& rooted in the docu+ents !nd ide!s co+prisin( the +eric!n conscience3 :199;, p. 6<. M!.in( ! si+il!r point in the introduction to their te-t'oo. r(u+ent!tion !nd 1ritic!l =ecision M!.in(, Rich!rd =. Rie.e !nd M!lcol+ ). >ill!rs su((est th!t 3the !'ilit& to p!rticip!te e##ecti%el& in re!soned discourse le!din( to critic!l decision +!.in( is re9uired in %irtu!ll& e%er& !spect o# li#e in ! de+ocr!c&3 :199;, p. -%ii<. 34e need de'!te not onl& in the le(isl!ture !nd the courtroo+ 'ut in e%er& other !re! o# societ& !s *ell,3 echoes ustin 6. 0reele& in r(u+ent!tion !nd =e'!te, 3since +ost o# our ri(hts !re directl& dependent on de'!te3 :1996, p. 5<. 0or those schooled in the tr!dition o# !r(u+ent!tion !nd de'!te, #!ith in the tensile stren(th o# critic!l thin.in( !nd or!l e-pression !s pill!rs o# de+ocr!tic decision-+!.in( is !l+ost second n!ture, ! n!tur!l out(ro*th o# disciplin!r& tr!inin(. 2his #!ith, inscri'ed in the +eric!n 0orensic ssoci!tion/s 1redo, reproduced in scores o# !r(u+ent!tion te-t'oo.s, !nd rehe!rsed o%er !nd o%er !(!in in introductor& !r(u+ent!tion courses, (rounds the !ct o# !r(u+ent!tion ped!(o(& in ! pro(ressi%e politic!l %ision th!t s*ells the enthusi!s+ o# te!chers !nd students !li.e, *hile ostensi'l& loc!tin( the stud& o# !r(u+ent!tion in ! ?one o# rele%!nce th!t lends ! distincti%e sense o# +e!nin( !nd si(ni#ic!nce to !c!de+ic *or. in this !re!. =e+o(r!phic sur%e&s o# de'!ters su((est th!t indeed, the pr!ctice o# de'!te h!s si(ni#ic!nt %!lue #or p!rticip!nts. >o+e studies con#ir+ de'!te/s potenti!l !s ! tool to de%elop critic!l thin.in( !nd co++unic!tion s.ills. 0or e-!+ple, >e+l!. !nd >hields #ind th!t 3students *ith de'!te e-perience *ere si(ni#ic!ntl& 'etter !t e+plo&in( the three co++unic!tion s.ills :!n!l&sis, deli%er&, !nd or(!ni?!tion< utili?ed in this stud& th!n students *ithout the e-perience3 :19;;, p. 194<. In ! si+il!r %ein, 1ol'ert !nd @i((ers *rite th!t 3the conclusion see+s #!irl& si+ple, de'!te tr!inin( is !n e-cellent *!& o# i+pro%in( +!n& co++unic!tion s.ills3 :1985, p. 23;<. 0in!ll&, 7ee#e, A!rte !nd Borton pro%ide stron( corro'or!tion #or these o'ser%!tions *ith their !ssess+ent th!t 3+!n& rese!rchers o%er the p!st #our dec!des h!%e co+e to the s!+e (ener!l conclusions. 1ritic!l thin.in( !'ilit& is si(ni#ic!ntl& i+pro%ed '& courses in !r(u+ent!tion !nd de'!te !nd '& de'!te e-perience3 :1982, pp. 33-34, see !lso >nider 1993<.

Mitchell - Pedagogical Po i!ilitie - Page "

)ther studies docu+ent the pro#ession!l success o# de'!ters !#ter (r!du!tion. 0or e-!+ple, 15C o# persons in 7eele !nd M!tlon/s sur%e& o# #or+er de'!ters *ent on to 'eco+e 3top-r!n.in( e-ecuti%es3 :7eele !nd M!tlon 1984<. 2his #indin( is consistent *ith the results o# 1enter/s sur%e&, *hich su((ests th!t p!rticip!tion in #orensics is !n e+plo&ee !ttri'ute desired stron(l& '& 'usinesses, especi!ll& l!* #ir+s :1enter 1982, p. 5<. 4hile these sur%e& d!t! 'ode *ell #or de'!te students prep!rin( to test the *!ters o# the corpor!te Do' +!r.et, such d!t! shed little li(ht on the de(ree to *hich !r(u+ent!tion s.ills le!rned in de'!te !ctu!ll& tr!nsl!te into pr!ctic!l tools o# de+ocr!tic e+po*er+ent. Re(!rdless o# *hether or not sur%e& d!t! is e%er (ener!ted to de#initi%el& !ns*er this 9uestion, it is li.el& th!t #!ith in de'!te !s !n inherentl& de+ocr!tic cr!#t *ill persist. 1o++itted to !##ir+in( !nd sto.in( the pro(ressi%e ener(ies produced '& this #!ith in !r(u+ent!tion, 'ut !lso interested in pro'le+!ti?in( the !ssu+ptions th!t under(ird pre%!ilin( !ppro!ches to !r(u+ent!tion ped!(o(& #or heuristic purposes, in this ess!& I +!.e ! dou'le (esture. )n the one h!nd, I underscore the i+port!nce o# (roundin( the pr!ctice o# !c!de+ic !r(u+ent!tion to notions o# de+ocr!tic e+po*er+ent. )n the other h!nd, I ch!llen(e the notion th!t such ! (roundin( +!neu%er c!n 'e !cco+plished *ith #!ith !lone. Mo%in( 'e&ond the ch!r!cteri?!tion o# !r(u+ent!ti%e !cu+en !s ! s.ill to 'e !c9uired e-clusi%el& throu(h cl!ssroo+ or tourn!+ent tr!inin(, I propose ! notion o# !r(u+ent!ti%e !(enc& th!t 'rin(s 9uestions o# purpose to the center o# ped!(o(ic!l pr!ctice8 0or *h!t purpose !re !r(u+ent!tion s.ills usedE 4here c!n the& 'e e+plo&ed +ost po*er#ull& :#or 'etter or *orse<E 4h!t c!n 'e le!rned #ro+ e##orts to 'rin( !r(u+ent!tion s.ills to 'e!r in concrete rhetoric!l situ!tions outside o# tourn!+ent contest roundsE In ! three p!rt discussion, I !d%!nce !n !n!l&sis th!t conte-tu!li?es these 9uestions !nd proposes re#lecti%e ide!s th!t in%ite response in the on(oin( con%ers!tion !'out the +e!nin( !nd purpose o# conte+por!r& !c!de+ic de'!te. #ter s.etchin( the ch!r!cteristics o# so+e co++onl&

!d%!nced %ie*s on the n!ture o# the connection 'et*een !r(u+ent!tion ped!(o(& !nd de+ocr!tic e+po*er+ent :in p!rt one<, I e-pl!in ho* !r(u+ent!ti%e !(enc& c!n ser%e !s ! conceptu!l 'rid(e lin.in( !c!de+ic pr!ctice to e+po*er+ent :in p!rt t*o<, !nd then discuss speci#ic str!te(ies #or +!.in( the pursuit o# !r(u+ent!ti%e !(enc& ! (uidin( principle #or *or. *ithin !c!de+ic settin(s :in p!rt three<. FIMI2> )0 "$RGFH "RG" R 2)RH "G= G)GH In the process o# e-pl!inin( their te!chin( !ppro!ch, !r(u+ent!tion schol!rs so+eti+es in%o.e ! 'i#urc!tion th!t sep!r!tes !c!de+ic stud& o# !r(u+ent!tion #ro+ !pplied pr!ctice in pu'lic !r(u+ent. 2his e-pl!n!tion t&pic!ll& 'e(ins *ith !n elucid!tion o# the de+ocr!tic !nd e+!ncip!tor& potenti!l o# de'!te !s ! process o# decision+!.in(, !nd then proceeds to !n e-pl!n!tion o# !c!de+ic stud& !s !n essenti!l prep!r!tor& step on the *!& to !chie%e+ent o# such e+!ncip!tor& potenti!l. 2his route o# e-pl!n!tion is consistent *ith the +eric!n 0orensic ssoci!tion 1redo, *hich decl!res th!t the purpose o# #orensic educ!tion is to 3prep!re students throu(h cl!ssroo+s, #oru+s, !nd co+petition #or p!rticip!tion in their *orld throu(h the po*er o# e-pression3 :9td. in 0reele& 1996, p. 122<. 4ritin( #ro+ this posture to de#end the %!lue o# B!tion!l =e'!te 2ourn!+ent :B=2< polic& co+petition, Gd*!rd "!nett! posits th!t B=2 de'!te 3*ill prep!re students to 'e societ!l le!ders ...3 :1990, p. ;6, e+ph!sis !dded<. >i+il!rl&, ustin 0reele& su((ests th!t !c!de+ic de'!te 3pro%ides prep!r!tion #or e##ecti%e p!rticip!tion in ! de+ocr!tic societ&3 !nd 3o##ers prep!r!tion #or le!dership3 :199;, p. 21, e+ph!sis !dded<. 4h!t !re the ent!il+ents o# such ! prep!r!tor& #r!+e*or. #or !r(u+ent!tion ped!(o(&, !nd ho* do such ent!il+ents +!ni#est the+sel%es in te!chin( pr!ctice E )n the sur#!ce, the rhetoric o# prep!r!tion see+s innocuous !nd consistent *ith other unre+!r.!'le idio+s e+plo&ed to descri'e educ!tion :colle(e prep courses !nd prep school sprin( to +ind<. Ao*e%er, '& #r!+in( !r(u+ent!tion ped!(o(& !s prep!r!tion #or student e+po*er+ent, educ!tors +!& !ctu!ll& constr!in the e+!ncip!tor& potenti!l o# the de'!te enterprise. In this %ein, !ppro!ches th!t !re purel& oriented to*!rd prep!r!tion pl!ce students !nd te!chers s9u!rel& in

Mitchell - Pedagogical Po i!ilitie - Page #

the pro%er'i!l ped!(o(ic!l 'ullpen, ! peripher!l sp!ce +!r.ed o## #ro+ the #ield o# soci!l !ction. In *h!t #ollo*s, I pursue this tent!ti%e h&pothesis '& interro(!tin( the #r!+e*or. o# prep!r!tor& ped!(o(& on three le%els, considerin( ho* it c!n position sites o# !c!de+ic in9uir& %is-!-%is 'ro!der pu'lic spheres o# deli'er!tion, ho* it c!n #l!tten !nd de#er consider!tion o# co+ple- issues o# !r(u+ent!ti%e en(!(e+ent !nd ho* it c!n in%ite un*ittin( co-option o# !r(u+ent!ti%e s.ills. s t*o pro+inent te!chers o# !r(u+ent!tion point out, 3M!n& schol!rs !nd educ!tors ter+ !c!de+ic de'!te ! l!'or!tor& #or testin( !nd de%elopin( !ppro!ches to !r(u+ent!tion3 :Aill !nd Fee+!n 199;, p. 6<. 2his e-pl!n!tion o# !c!de+ic de'!te s9u!res *ith descriptions o# the stud& o# !r(u+ent!tion th!t hi(hli(ht de'!te tr!inin( !s prep!r!tion #or citi?enship. s ! s!#e sp!ce th!t per+its the controlled 3testin(3 o# !ppro!ches to !r(u+ent!tion, the !c!de+ic l!'or!tor&, on this !ccount, constitutes ! tr!inin( (round #or 3#uture3 citi?ens !nd le!ders to hone their critic!l thin.in( !nd !d%oc!c& s.ills. 4hile !n isol!ted !c!de+ic sp!ce th!t !##ords students !n opportunit& to le!rn in ! protected en%iron+ent h!s si(ni#ic!nt ped!(o(ic!l %!lue :see e.(. 1o%erstone 1995, p. 8-9<, the notion o# the !c!de+ic de'!te tourn!+ent !s ! sterile l!'or!tor& c!rries *ith it so+e distur'in( i+plic!tions, *hen the +et!phor is e-tended to its li+it. 2o the e-tent th!t the !c!de+ic sp!ce 'e(ins to t!.e on ch!r!cteristics o# ! l!'or!tor&, the '!rriers de+!rc!tin( such ! sp!ce #ro+ other spheres o# deli'er!tion 'e&ond the school (ro* t!ller !nd less per+e!'le. 4hen such '!rriers re!ch insur+ount!'le di+ensions, !r(u+ent!tion in the !c!de+ic settin( un#olds on ! purel& si+ul!ted pl!ne, *ith students pr!cticin( critic!l thin.in( !nd !d%oc!c& s.ills in strictl& h&pothetic!l thou(ht-sp!ces. lthou(h the& +!& rese!rch !nd tr!c. pu'lic !r(u+ent !s it un#olds outside the con#ines o# the l!'or!tor& #or rese!rch purposes, in this !ppro!ch, students *itness !r(u+ent!tion 'e&ond the *!lls o# the !c!de+& !s spect!tors, *ith little or no !pp!rent recourse to directl& p!rticip!te or !lter the course o# e%ents :see Mitchell 1995, 1998<.

2he sense o# det!ch+ent !ssoci!ted *ith the spect!tor posture is hi(hli(hted durin( episodes o# !lien!tion in *hich de'!ters cheer ne*s o# hu+!n su##erin( or +is#ortune. Inste!d o# #ocusin( on the %iscer!l ne(!ti%e responses to ne*s !ccounts o# hu+!n de!th !nd +iser&, de'!ters o%erco+e *ith the co+petiti%e ?e!l o# contest round co+petition sho* ! tendenc& to concentr!te on the +e!nin(s th!t such e%idence +i(ht hold #or the stren(th o# their !c!de+ic de'!te !r(u+ents. 0or e-!+ple, ne*s reports o# +!ss st!r%!tion +i(ht tid& up the 3uni9ueness o# ! dis!d%!nt!(e3 or 'olster the 3inherenc& o# !n !##ir+!ti%e c!se3 :in the technic!l p!rl!nce o# de'!te-spe!.<. Murchl!nd c!te(ori?es culti%!tion o# this 3spect!tor3 +ent!lit& !s one o# the +ost politic!ll& de'ilit!tin( #!ilures o# conte+por!r& educ!tion8 3Gduc!tion!l institutions h!%e #!iled e%en +ore (rie%ousl& to pro%ide the .ind o# ci%ic #oru+s *e need. In #!ct, one could e!sil& conclude th!t the principle purposes o# our schools is to depri%e successor (ener!tions o# their ci%ic %oice, to turn the+ into +ute !nd unco+prehendin( spect!tors in the dr!+! o# politic!l li#e3 :1991, p. 8<. 1o+plete reli!nce on the l!'or!tor& +et!phor to (uide ped!(o(ic!l pr!ctice c!n result in the un#ortun!te #oreclosure o# cruci!l le!rnin( opportunities. 2hese opportunities, *hich *ill 'e discussed in +ore det!il in the l!ter sections o# this piece, center !round the process o# !r(u+ent!ti%e en(!(e+ent *ith *ider pu'lic spheres o# deli'er!tion. In the strictl& prep!r!tor& +odel o# !r(u+ent ped!(o(&, such direct en(!(e+ent is !n !cti%it& th!t is !ppropri!tel& pursued #ollo*in( the co+pletion o# !c!de+ic de'!te tr!inin( :see e.(. 1o%erstone 1995, p. 8<. "rep!r!tor& stud& o# !r(u+ent!tion, undert!.en in the con#ines o# the !c!de+ic l!'or!tor&, is conducted on the pl!ne o# si+ul!tion !nd is desi(ned to p!%e the *!& #or e%entu!l !pplic!tion o# critic!l thin.in( !nd or!l !d%oc!c& s.ills in 3re!l*orld3 conte-ts. >uch ! prep!r!tor& ped!(o(& h!s ! tendenc& to de#er re#lection !nd theori?!tion on the politic!l d&n!+ics o# !c!de+ic de'!te itsel#. 0or e-!+ple, +!n& te-t'oo.s introduce students to the i+port!nce o# !r(u+ent!tion !s the '!sis #or citi?enship in the openin( ch!pter, +o%e on to discussion o# speci#ic s.ills in the inter%enin( ch!pters, !nd ne%er return to the o'%ious 'ro!der 9uestion o# ho* speci#ic s.ills c!n 'e utili?ed to support e##orts o# p!rticip!tor&

Mitchell - Pedagogical Po i!ilitie - Page $

citi?enship !nd de+ocr!tic e+po*er+ent. Inso#!r !s the !r(u+ent!tion curriculu+ does not #orthri(htl& the+!ti?e the connection 'et*een s.ill-'!sed le!rnin( !nd de+ocr!tic e+po*er+ent, the prospect th!t students *ill #ull& de%elop stron( senses o# tr!ns#or+!ti%e politic!l !(enc& (ro*s incre!sin(l& re+ote. 2he underculti%!tion o# student !(enc& in the !c!de+ic #ield o# !r(u+ent!tion is ! p!rticul!rl& pressin( pro'le+, since soci!l theorists such !s 0ouc!ult, A!'er+!s !nd 2our!ine h!%e proposed th!t in#or+!tion !nd co++unic!tion h!%e e+er(ed !s si(ni#ic!nt +edi! o# do+in!tion !nd e-ploit!tion in conte+por!r& societ&. 2hese schol!rs !r(ue, in di##erent *!&s, th!t ne* !nd p!rticul!rl& insidious +e!ns o# soci!l control h!%e de%eloped in recent ti+es. 2hese +ethods o# control !re insidious in the sense th!t the& su##use !pp!rentl& open pu'lic spheres !nd structure opportunities #or di!lo(ue in su'tle !nd o#ten ne#!rious *!&s. 4ho h!s !uthorit& to spe!. in pu'lic #oru+sE Ao* does socioecono+ic st!tus deter+ine !ccess to in#or+!tion !nd close o## sp!ces #or pu'lic deli'er!tionE 4ho deter+ines *h!t issues !re pl!ced on the !(end! #or pu'lic discussionE It is i+possi'le to seriousl& consider these 9uestions !nd still he* closel& to the ide! th!t ! sin(le, +onolithic, essenti!li?ed 3pu'lic sphere3 e%en e-ists. Inste!d, +ultiple pu'lic spheres e-ist in di%erse cultur!l !nd politic!l +ilieu-, !nd co++unic!ti%e pr!ctices *or. to tr!ns#or+ !nd re*e!%e continuousl& the nor+!ti%e #!'ric th!t holds the+ to(ether. >o+e pu'lic sp!ces !re %i'r!nt !nd #ull o# e+!ncip!tor& potenti!l, *hile others !re coloni?ed '& restricti%e institution!l lo(ics. r(u+ent!tion s.ills c!n 'e pr!cticed in 'oth conte-ts, 'ut ho* c!n the utili?!tion o# such s.ills tr!ns#or+ positi%el& the n!ture o# the pu'lic sp!ces *here di!lo(ue t!.es pl!ceE 0or students !nd te!chers o# !r(u+ent!tion, the hei(htened s!lience o# this 9uestion should si(n!l the d!n(er th!t critic!l thin.in( !nd or!l !d%oc!c& s.ills !lone +!& not 'e su##icient #or citi?ens to !ssert their %oices in pu'lic deli'er!tion. Institution!l interests 'ent on shuttin( do*n di!lo(ue !nd discussion +!& recruit ne* (r!du!tes s.illed in !r(u+ent!tion !nd deplo& the+ in in#or+!tion c!+p!i(ns

desi(ned to neutr!li?e pu'lic co+petence !nd shortcircuit de+ocr!tic decision-+!.in( :one %!ri!nt o# A!'er+!s/ 3coloni?!tion o# the li#e*orld3 thesis, see A!'er+!s 1981, p. 3;6-3;3<. A!'er+!s sees the e+er(ent c!p!cit& o# c!pit!list institutions to sust!in the+sel%es '& +!nu#!cturin( le(iti+!c& throu(h str!te(ic co++unic!tion !s ! de%elop+ent th!t pro#oundl& tr!ns#or+s the M!r-ist politic!l d&n!+ic. @& coloni?in( ter+s !nd sp!ces o# pu'lic di!lo(ue *ith instru+ent!l, str!te(ic!ll&-+oti%!ted re!sonin(, institutions !re s!id '& A!'er+!s to h!%e en(ineered ! 3re#eud!li?!tion3 o# the pu'lic sphere. In this distorted sp!ce #or pu'lic discussion, corpor!tions !nd the st!te #or(e ! +onopol& on !r(u+ent!tion !nd su'%ert critic!l deli'er!tion '& +e+'ers o# !n enli(htened, de'!tin( pu'lic. 2his coloni?!tion thesis supple+ents the tr!dition!l M!r-ist pro'le+!tic o# cl!ss e-ploit!tion '& hi(hli(htin( ! ne* !-is o# do+in!tion, the *!& in *hich c!pit!list s&ste+s rel& upon the str!te(ic +!n!(e+ent o# discourse !s ! +ode o# le(iti+!tion !nd e-ploit!tion. Indeed, the i+plicit 'rid(e th!t connects !r(u+ent!tion s.ills to de+ocr!tic e+po*er+ent in +!n& !r(u+ent!tion te-t'oo.s crosses perilous *!ters, since institutions #!cin( 3le(iti+!tion crises3 :see A!'er+!s 19;5< rel& incre!sin(l& on recruit+ent !nd deplo&+ent o# !r(u+ent!ti%e t!lent to +!nu#!cture pu'lic lo&!lt&. RG$MGB2 2IVG GGB1H In '!sic ter+s the notion o# !r(u+ent!ti%e !(enc& in%ol%es the c!p!cit& to conte-tu!li?e !nd e+plo& the s.ills !nd str!te(ies o# !r(u+ent!ti%e discourse in #ields o# soci!l !ction, especi!ll& *ider spheres o# pu'lic deli'er!tion. "ursuit o# !r(u+ent!ti%e !(enc& ch!r(es !c!de+ic *or. *ith de+ocr!tic ener(& '& lin.in( te!chers !nd students *ith ci%ic or(!ni?!tions, soci!l +o%e+ents, citi?ens !nd other !ctors en(!(ed in li%e pu'lic contro%ersies 'e&ond the school&!rd *!lls. s ! 'rid(in( concept, !r(u+ent!ti%e !(enc& lin.s deconte-tu!li?ed !r(u+ent!tion s.ills such !s rese!rch, listenin(, !n!l&sis, re#ut!tion !nd present!tion, to the 'ro!der politic!l telos o# de+ocr!tic e+po*er+ent. r(u+ent!ti%e !(enc& #ills (!ps le#t in purel& si+ul!tion-'!sed +odels o# !r(u+ent!tion '& #ocusin( ped!(o(ic!l ener(ies on str!te(ies #or utili?in( !r(u+ent!tion !s ! dri%er o# pro(ressi%e soci!l ch!n(e. Mo%in( 'e&ond !n e-clusi%el& s.ill-

Mitchell - Pedagogical Po i!ilitie - Page %

oriented curriculu+, te!chers !nd students pursuin( !r(u+ent!ti%e !(enc& see. to put !r(u+ent!ti%e tools to the test '& e+plo&in( the+ in situ!tions 'e&ond the sp!ce o# the cl!ssroo+. 2his !ppro!ch dr!*s #ro+ the *or. o# 7incheloe :1991<, *ho su((ests th!t throu(h 3critic!l constructi%ist !ction rese!rch,3 students !nd te!chers culti%!te their o*n senses o# !(enc& !nd *or. to tr!ns#or+ the *orld !round the+. 2he sense o# !r(u+ent!ti%e !(enc& produced throu(h !ction rese!rch is di##erent in .ind #ro+ those s.ills th!t !re honed throu(h !c!de+ic si+ul!tion e-ercises such !s polic& de'!te tourn!+ents. Gncounters *ith 'ro!der pu'lic spheres 'e&ond the re!l+ o# the !c!de+& c!n deli%er uni9ue ped!(o(ic!l possi'ilities !nd opportunities. @& !nchorin( their *or. in pu'lic sp!ces, students !nd te!chers c!n use their t!lents to ch!n(e the tr!Dector& o# e%ents, *hile e%ents !re still un#oldin(. 2hese e-periences h!%e the potenti!l to tri((er si(ni#ic!nt shi#ts in politic!l !*!reness on the p!rt o# p!rticip!nts. c!de+ic de'!ters nourished on !n e-clusi%e diet o# co+petiti%e contest round e-perience o#ten co+e to see politics li.e ! pictures9ue l!ndsc!pe *hirrin( '& throu(h the *indo* o# ! speedin( tr!in. 2he& stud& this politic!l l!ndsc!pe in (re!t det!il, r!rel& :i# e%er< entert!inin( the ide! o# stoppin( the tr!in !nd e-itin( to !lter the course o# un#oldin( e%ents. 2he resultin( spect!tor +ent!lit& de#lects !ttention !*!& #ro+ ro!ds th!t could c!rr& their !r(u+ents to *ider spheres o# pu'lic !r(u+ent!tion. Ao*e%er, on the occ!sions *hen students !nd te!chers set !side this spect!tor +ent!lit& '& directl& en(!(in( 'ro!der pu'lic !udiences, .e& !spects o# the politic!l l!ndsc!pe ch!n(e, 'ec!use the point o# re#erence #or e-periencin( the l!ndsc!pe shi#ts #und!+ent!ll&. In the 2ru+!n >ho*, the le!d ch!r!cter is 'orn into ! 3h&perre!l3 :see @!udrill!rd 1983< li#e o# pure si+ul!tion, *here thous!nds o# tin& hidden c!+er!s record his e%er& +o%e #or ! *orld-*ide, li%e tele%ision !udience. 2ru+!n c!n onl& 're!. throu(h the illusion th!t his li#e is ! st!(ed e%ent '& re!li?in( e%entu!ll& th!t he h!s the po*er to ch!n(e the set, !nd there'& disrupt the c!re#ull& scripted stor&line o# the 3sho*.3 Fi.e*ise, !c!de+ic de'!ters possess consider!'le l!tent

!(enc& to ch!n(e the set th!t ser%es !s the '!c.drop #or their discussions in polic& de'!te tourn!+ents. 2he& c!n !cco+plish this '& turnin( their !ttention 'e&ond ! n!rro* e-clusi%e #ocus on co+petiti%e success in tourn!+ent contest rounds !nd to*!rd possi'le roles the& +i(ht pl!& in 'ro!der #ields o# soci!l !ction. 2he resultin( shi#t in perspecti%e ch!n(es #und!+ent!ll& the d&n!+ics o# !c!de+ic de'!te '& #ore(roundin( the centr!l purpose o# the !cti%it&8 to ser%e !s ! +ediu+ o# de+ocr!tic e+po*er+ent. 2he notion o# !r(u+ent!ti%e !(enc& is not onl& i+port!nt #or the t!s. o# lendin( *ei(ht to proDects in de'!te oriented to*!rd the telos o# de+ocr!tic e+po*er+ent. 2he pursuit o# !ction rese!rch c!rries intrinsic tr!ns#or+!ti%e 'ene#its in the #or+ o# concrete politic!l ch!n(e. @uildin( on 0els.i/s !r(u+ent th!t 3it is not ten!'le to !ssu+e th!t her+etic!ll& se!led #oru+s #or discussion !nd de'!te c!n #unction !s trul& opposition!l sp!ces o# discourse3 :1989, p. 1;1<, Girou- points to 0ouc!ult !nd Gr!+sci !s schol!rs *ho h!%e +!de en(!(e+ent *ith 'ro!der pu'lic spheres ! +!tter o# !c!de+ic responsi'ilit&. c!de+ics c!n no lon(er retre!t into their c!reers, cl!ssroo+s, or s&+posiu+s !s i# the& *ere the onl& pu'lic spheres !%!il!'le #or en(!(in( the po*er o# ide!s !nd the rel!tions o# po*er. 0ouc!ult/s :19;;< notion o# the speci#ic intellectu!l t!.in( up stru((les connected to p!rticul!r issues !nd conte-ts +ust 'e co+'ined *ith Gr!+sci/s :19;1< notion o# the en(!(ed intellectu!l *ho connects his or her *or. to 'ro!der soci!l concerns th!t deepl& !##ect ho* people li%e, *or., !nd sur%i%e :Girou- 1991, p. 5;, see !lso Girou- 1988, p. 35<. 4ithin the li+ited hori?on o# ?ero-su+ co+petition in the contest round #r!+e*or. #or !c!de+ic de'!te, 9uestions o# purpose, str!te(&, !nd pr!ctice tend to coll!pse into #or+ul!ic !-io+s #or co+petiti%e success under the crushin( *ei(ht o# tourn!+ent pressure. 2he purpose o# de'!te 'eco+es unrelentin( pursuit o# %ictor& !t ! ?ero-su+ (!+e. >tr!te(ies !re de%eloped to (!in co+petiti%e ed(es th!t tr!nsl!te into contest round success. =e'!te pr!ctice in%ol%es de'!ters 3spe*in(3 ! hi(hl& technic!l, speci!li?ed discourse !t e-pert Dud(es tr!ined to underst!nd enou(h o# the speeches to render decisions. G%en in 3.riti. rounds,3 *here the

Mitchell - Pedagogical Po i!ilitie - Page &

politic!l st!tus !nd +e!nin( o# the p!rticip!nts/ o*n discourse is up #or (r!'s, :see >h!n!h!n 1993< the contest round #r!+e*or. tends to #ree?e the discussion into 'ipol!r, ?ero-su+ ter+s th!t hi(hli(ht co+petiti%e p!&o##s !t the e-pense o# opportunities #or co-oper!ti%e 3rethin.in(.3 4hen the culti%!tion o# !r(u+ent!ti%e !(enc& is pursued !s ! centr!l ped!(o(ic!l (o!l in !c!de+ic de'!te, 9uestions o# purpose, str!te(&, !nd pr!ctice t!.e on +uch 'ro!der +e!nin(s. 2he purpose o# p!rticip!tin( in de'!te (ets e-tended 'e&ond Dust *innin( contest rounds :!lthou(h th!t purpose does not need to 'e !'!ndoned co+pletel&<, !s de'!ters inter%ene in pu'lic !##!irs directl& to !##ect soci!l ch!n(e, !nd in the process, 'olster their o*n senses o# politic!l !(enc&. In this !ppro!ch, de'!te str!te(& 'e(ins to 'e!r ! rese+'l!nce to soci!l +o%e+ent str!te(i?in(, *ith 9uestions o# ti+in(, co!lition'uildin(, !nd pu'licit& t!.in( on incre!sin( i+port!nce. 0in!ll&, de'!te pr!ctice itsel# 'eco+es d&n!+ic !s de'!ters in%ent ne* #or+s o# !r(u+ent!ti%e e-pression t!ilored speci#ic!ll& to support p!rticul!r proDects o# politic!l inter%ention into #ields o# soci!l !ction. 1FG RIBG >" 1G> 0)R RG$MGB2 2IVG GGB1H $p to this point, I h!%e 'een descri'in( !r(u+ent!ti%e !(enc& in (ener!l ter+s, stri%in( to loc!te the notion in ! *ider #r!+e o# re#erence. In this #in!l section, I distill +ore speci#ic ide!s th!t ser%e !s pro%ision!l !ns*ers to the 9uestions th!t initi!ll& dro%e the stud&8 Ao* c!n !r(u+ent!tion s.ills 'e usedE 4here c!n the& 'e +ost po*er#ull& e+plo&edE 4h!t c!n 'e le!rned #ro+ e##orts to !ppl& !r(u+ent!tion s.ills in concrete rhetoric!l situ!tionsE $lti+!tel&, the di+ensions !nd d&n!+ics o# !r(u+ent!ti%e !(enc& !re properties th!t e+er(e or(!nic!ll& out o# situ!ted ped!(o(ic!l +ilieu-. 2he idios&ncr!tic interests !nd t!lents o# p!rticul!r students !nd te!chers sh!pe the +!nner in *hich s.ills o# !r(u+ent!tion recei%e e-pression !s tools o# de+ocr!tic e+po*er+ent. tte+ptin( to theori?e the proper, precise n!ture o# these e-pressions *ould in!ppropri!tel& pre-e+pt cre!ti%e e##orts to in%ent +odes o# !ction t!ilored to #it loc!l situ!tions. +ore heuristic!ll&

%!lu!'le theoretic!l t!s. *ould in%ol%e !n e-plor!tion o# historic!l !tte+pts to pursue !r(u+ent!ti%e !(enc& in de'!te pr!ctice. In *h!t #ollo*s, I *e!%e description o# this :!l'eit li+ited< recent histor& into discussions o# the pro+ises !nd pit#!lls in%ol%ed in the pr!ctic!l pursuit o# !r(u+ent!ti%e !(enc&. 2his discussion *ill +o%e throu(h #our st!(es, *ith e!ch st!(e hi(hli(htin( ! p!rticul!r t&pe o# !r(u+ent!tion ped!(o(&8 pri+!r& rese!rch, pu'lic de'!te, pu'lic !d%oc!c&, !nd de'!te outre!ch. "ri+!r& rese!rch "ossi'ilities #or !r(u+ent!ti%e !(enc& !re o'scured *hen de'!te schol!rship is !ppro!ched #ro+ ! purel& spect!tor-oriented perspecti%e, !n !cti%it& to 'e conducted on the sidelines o# 3!ctu!l3 pu'lic polic& discussion. Inso#!r !s the !ct o# rese!rch is con#i(ured !s ! one-*!& tr!ns!ction in *hich de'!ters (!ther !nd !ssi+il!te in#or+!tion p!ssi%el& throu(h i+person!l ch!nnels, this spect!tor orient!tion (!ins currenc& !nd 'eco+es !n !c9uired h!'it. 4ithin this ped!(o(ic!l hori?on, possi'le options #or !ction th!t +o%e 'e&ond tr!dition!l li'r!r& rese!rch !nd contest round !d%oc!c& 'eco+e +ore di##icult to %isu!li?e. Ao*e%er, *hen de'!ters recon#i(ure the+sel%es !s producers o# .no*led(e, r!ther th!n p!ssi%e consu+ers o# it, it 'eco+es e!sier to culti%!te senses o# person!l !(enc&. )ne %er& '!sic *!& th!t !c!de+ic de'!ters c!n re%erse this e9u!tion is '& turnin( +ore to pri+!r& rese!rch !s ! tool o# de'!te prep!r!tion. "ri+!r& rese!rch in%ol%es de'!ters (ener!tin( e%idence 3#ro+ scr!tch,3 '& cont!ctin( sources directl& !nd en(!(in( the+ in con%ers!tion. I# the resultin( di!lo(ue is illu+in!tin(, !nd the con%ers!tion p!rtner:s< !(ree, the tr!nscripts o# such con%ers!tions c!n 'e pu'lished, !nd su'se9uentl& 9uoted !s e%idence in contest rounds. 0or e-!+ple, Fo&ol! :F < de'!ter M!dison F!ird once !uthored ! hi(h school de'!te h!nd'oo. th!t cont!ined tr!dition!l !nd e-pected e%idence on the 198;I88 hi(h school topic, 'ut !lso included tr!nscripts o# inter%ie*s conducted '& F!ird *ith Fo&ol! $ni%ersit& politic!l science pro#essors. F!ird produced e-tre+el& po*er#ul, le(iti+!tel& pu'lished e%idence '& 9u!li#ied sources +erel& '& !s.in( pro%oc!ti%e 9uestions to such sources !nd then distri'utin( the docu+ent throu(hout the de'!te

Mitchell - Pedagogical Po i!ilitie - Page '

co++unit&. 2he resultin( e-ch!n(e &ielded !n illu+in!tin( stre!+ o# ne*l&-(ener!ted .no*led(e, especi!ll& since F!ird pitched 9uestions to the pro#essors in ! +!nner th!t hi(hli(hted !nticip!ted st!sis points o# contest round de'!te. Interlocutors en(!(ed '& students in this +!nner h!%e responded enthusi!stic!ll& !nd reciproc!ted '& !s.in( 9uestions !'out the n!ture o# the de'!te !cti%it& itsel# !s *ell !s the speci#ic #e!tures o# proDects pursued '& !r(u+ent!tion schol!rs. n !ddition!l e-!+ple o# !ction rese!rch occurred *hen >!+#ord/s de'!te te!+ en(!(ed (o%ern+ent o##ici!ls !nd hu+!nit!ri!n *or.ers in ! re+!r.!'le e-+!il di!lo(ue concernin( !n issue pro+inent in de'!tes on the 198;-1998 intercolle(i!te polic& de'!te topic re(!rdin( $.>. securit& !ssist!nce to >outhe!st si!. >peci#ic!ll&, >!+#ord/s Feon!rd Bei(h'ors !s.ed !'out *hether or not the $nited >t!tes should disclose the +!ps o# 'o+'in( runs on F!os conducted durin( the Vietn!+ *!r. 0or intercolle(i!te de'!te p!rticip!nts, this *!s !n especi!ll& pertinent 9uestion (i%en th!t +!n& te!+s *ere runnin( !##ir+!ti%e c!ses th!t de!lt *ith the issue o# de+inin( I re+o%in( une-ploded ordin!nce #ro+ F!os. 2he di!lo(ue resultin( #ro+ Bei(h'ors/ 9ueries pro%ided ! #!scin!tin( !nd #resh perspecti%e on the de+inin( discussion, !nd +!n& o# the e+!il +ess!(es *ere 9uoted in contest rounds !s le(iti+!te e%idence #ollo*in( =o&le >r!der/s pu'lic!tion o# the +!teri!l on his *e'site :see >r!der 1998<. "ri+!r& rese!rch is co++onpl!ce in +ost !c!de+ic circles, sources o#ten cont!ct e!ch other directl& !nd then re#erence these con%ers!tions in pu'lic te-ts, !nd +ultitudes o# pu'lished inter%ie*s c!n 'e #ound in schol!rl& 'oo.s !nd Dourn!ls. 4hile pri+!r& rese!rch h!s not t!.en root !s ! *idespre!d pr!ctice in !c!de+ic de'!te, so+e #e!r th!t i# pri+!r& rese!rch (!ins in popul!rit&, !uthors, e-perts, !nd other pu'lished *riters *ill 'e delu(ed '& ! torrent o# !nno&in( correspondence #ro+ insolent !c!de+ic de'!ters. p!rt #ro+ the #!ct th!t this concern re#lects ! #und!+ent!ll& lo* opinion o# hi(h school de'!ters/ senses o# ci%ic responsi'ilit&, this scen!rio *ould 'e +ost li.el& to occur i# de'!ters pursued pri+!r& rese!rch proDects #ro+ !n

e-clusi%el& co+petiti%e perspecti%e, !s.in( 9uestions purel& to elicit !ns*ers th!t +i(ht cont!in %!lu!'le contest round e%idence. Ao*e%er, i# de'!ters (r!sp th!t pri+!r& rese!rch +ethodolo(& c!rries *ith it the politic!l responsi'ilities o# pu'lic en(!(e+ent, it *ill 'e e!sier #or the+ to see th!t pri+!r& rese!rch proDects not onl& (ener!te e%idence #or !c!de+ic de'!tes, such proDects !lso #eed ne* in#or+!tion !nd ide!s into discussions t!.in( pl!ce in *ider pu'lic spheres o# deli'er!tion. "u'lic de'!te )nce students 'e(in to concei%e o# rese!rch !re!s !s #ields o# !ction, it 'eco+es e!sier to in%ent str!te(ies #or inter%ention. )ne such str!te(& in%ol%es the e-tension !nd !d!pt!tion o# the de'!te process 'e&ond the i++edi!te peer !udience. 0or e-!+ple, #!+ili!rit& *ith de'!te !##ords students the e-pertise !nd *here*ith!l to or(!ni?e, e-ecute !nd !+pli#& pu'lic de'!tes. @& cre!tin( #oru+s *here s!lient !nd pressin( conte+por!r& issues c!n 'e de'!ted !nd discussed in ! ro'ust, *ide-open #!shion, students c!n lend %i'r!nc& to the pu'lic sphere. "u'lic de'!tes represent sites o# soci!l le!rnin( *here the spirit o# ci%ic en(!(e+ent c!n #lourish, ide!s c!n 'e sh!red, !nd the +o+entu+ o# soci!l +o%e+ents c!n 'e sto.ed. $nli.e top-do*n co++unic!tion en(ineered '& +!ss +edi! ne*s outlets !nd pu'lic opinion pollin(, the inter!ction th!t occurs in pu'lic de'!tes is ! uni9ue #or+ o# di!lectic!l co++unic!tion. =&n!+ic, '!c.-!nd-#orth e-ch!n(e !+on( !udience !nd !d%oc!tes pushes issues 'e&ond sh!llo* lines o# sound-'&te de%elop+ent. 2he dr!+! o# de'!te dr!*s in interested !udiences, cre!tin( the possi'ilit& th!t di!lo(ue *ill spill out*!rd 'e&ond the i++edi!te de'!te %enue !nd into co++unities, schools, uni%ersities !nd other ci%ic (roups. It is throu(h this process th!t the #!'rics o# +ultiple pu'lic spheres !re spun !nd *o%en to(ether to #or+ the %!rie(!ted p!tterns o# 3soci!l .no*led(e,3 or sh!red underst!ndin(s !nd e-pect!tions th!t 3(o%ern su'se9uent discourse3 :see 0!rrell 19;6, Goodni(ht 1992<. n e-cellent pu'lic de'!te dri%en '& !n !c!de+ic de'!te te!+ occurred in 1994, *hen 1&rus 7i!ni !nd "!ul >.ier+ont de'!ted the contentious loc!l issue o# *here to 'uild ! 'rid(e o%er the )hio Ri%er in the Fouis%ille, 7H co++unit&. 7i!ni, >.ier+ont, !nd the $ni%ersit& o# 7entuc.& co!chin( st!##

Mitchell - Pedagogical Po i!ilitie - Page (

rese!rched the issue, prep!red !r(u+ents, !nd presented !n in#or+!ti%e !nd *ell-recei%ed pu'lic de'!te on >epte+'er 30, 1994 :see 4!l#oort 1994<. 0ollo*in( the de'!te, 7i!ni !nd >.ier+ont *ere delu(ed *ith 9uestions !'out the $7 de'!te societ&, citi?ens, politici!ns !nd pu'lic interest !cti%ists e-pressed !+!?e+ent th!t such ! uni%ersit& or(!ni?!tion e-isted, !nd ur(ed the te!+ to continue their in%ol%e+ent in co++unit& issues. @ec!use #or+!ts #or pu'lic de'!tes !re #le-i'le, students !nd te!chers c!n t!ilor #or+!ts !nd topics cre!ti%el& to #it loc!l needs, !s *ell !s e-peri+ent *ith ne* #or+s o# de'!tin(. M!rch 19, 199; de'!te on the topic o# police 'rut!lit& held !t the $ni%ersit& o# "itts'ur(h de+onstr!ted the d&n!+is+ o# ! #or+!t th!t +i-es student de'!ters *ith hi(h-pro#ile !d%oc!tes in #ront o# ! (ener!l pu'lic !udience. In this pu'lic de'!te, te!chers !nd students entered !n intense contro%ers& i(nited '& the de!th o# 6onn& G!++!(e, ! 31-&e!r old @l!c. +!n .illed '& *hite police o##icers in ! predo+in!ntl& *hite su'ur' o# "itts'ur(h !#ter ! 9uestion!'le tr!##ic stop in 1995. #ter 'ein( pushed to the (round !nd h!%in( ! ni(ht stic. held !(!inst the '!c. o# his nec. #or o%er t*o +inutes, G!++!(e died o# !sph&-i!tion. 2his c!se (!l%!ni?ed ! (rounds*ell o# protest in the cit& !(!inst police 'rut!lit&, !nd ! citi?en (roup pushed #or the est!'lish+ent o# !n independent re%ie* 'o!rd to #ield citi?en co+pl!ints !'out police 'eh!%ior. 2his propos!l touched o## ! he!ted contro%ers& re(!rdin( the !ppropri!teness !nd e##ecti%eness o# such ! 'o!rd #or de!lin( *ith the pro'le+ o# police 'rut!lit& in "itts'ur(h. t !n or(!ni?!tion!l +eetin( e!rl& in 199;, $ni%ersit& o# "itts'ur(h de'!ters +et !nd selected this topic to de'!te. 2o rese!rch the topic, so+e students c!n%!ssed the li'r!r& #or +!teri!ls, *hile others cont!cted soci!l +o%e+ents, (o%ern+ent o##ices, !nd citi?ens in%ol%ed in the contro%ers& #or their %ie*points on the de'!te. #ter !ppro-i+!tel& t*o *ee.s o# rese!rch, students +et to 'e(in dr!#tin( indi%idu!l speeches. Incorpor!tin( the e%idence the& h!d (!thered, students *or.ed on cr!#tin( !r(u+ents !nd polishin( their deli%er& s.ills. t the ne-t session one *ee. l!ter, !n initi!l pr!ctice de'!te *!s held *here students

#urther *or.ed on their spe!.in( !nd 'e(!n +!sterin( the concepts o# re#ut!tion !nd cross e-!+in!tion in the pu'lic #or+!t. #ter ! series o# #urther pr!ctice sessions, !n initi!l pu'lic de'!te *!s conducted, *here the students de'!ted *ith e!ch other #or !n !udience +!de up o# uni%ersit& students !nd #!cult&. 0ollo*in( this #irst pu'lic de'!te, +e+'ers o# the te!+ then solicited outside !d%oc!tes to Doin in de'!tin( the s!+e topic in ! +ore !+'itious e%ent pitched to *ider !udiences includin( +e+'ers o# the (ener!l pu'lic !nd the +edi!. 2he de'!te co!chin( st!## secured co++it+ents o# p!rticip!tion #ro+ t*o +e+'ers o# cit& council, the president o# the loc!l police union, !nd ! represent!ti%e o# ! loc!l citi?en !ction (roup. 0or this second pu'lic de'!te, ! three-on-three #or+!t *!s used, *here one student *!s pl!ced !s !n !d%oc!te on e!ch side o# the resolution, *ith three other students !sse+'led !s ! p!nel o# 9uestioners. Foc!l +edi! outlets lent +o+entu+ to the pu'lic de'!te '& de%otin( si(ni#ic!nt co%er!(e to the e%ent. 2he "itts'ur(h "ost-G!?ette pro%ided sp!ce to !d%ertise the de'!te t*o *ee.s prior to the e%ent, !nd then de%oted ! #ull p!(e o# co%er!(e to the de'!te in the >und!& p!per #ollo*in( the de'!te. In "itts'ur(h ne*s*ee.l& pu'lished ! p!rti!l tr!nscript o# the de'!te, !nd the "itts'ur(h 2ri'une-Re%ie* r!n ! stor& on the de'!te the d!& !#ter it occurred. Reporters #ro+ t*o loc!l tele%ision st!tions !lso !ttended the de'!te, *ith 4"JI-2V runnin( the de'!te !s the le!d stor& on their 11 p.+. ne*sc!st. s ! culti%!tion site #or !r(u+ent!ti%e !(enc&, this pu'lic de'!te pro%ided ! #oru+ #or students to con#ront 3re!l *orld3 pu'lic !d%oc!tes in ! de'!te !'out ! pressin( !nd s!lient loc!l topic. 2his pro%ided !n occ!sion #or students to hone their pu'lic !d%oc!c& s.ills in ! +e!nin(#ul politic!l conte-t. It should 'e pointed out th!t not !ll students p!rticip!tin( in the de'!te *ere o# the s!+e politic!l persu!sion or e%en #!%ored est!'lish+ent o# the citi?en police re%ie* 'o!rd. 2here *!s one student de'!tin( e!ch side o# the 9uestion :Doinin( t*o other outside !d%oc!tes #or e!ch side<, !nd the three person p!nel o# student 9uestioners #e!tured represent!tion !lon( ! 'ro!d spectru+ o# politic!l %ie*s. @& !s.in( 9uestions directl& to pro+inent #i(ures in the loc!l dispute re(!rdin( the est!'lish+ent o# ! citi?en re%ie* 'o!rd to +onitor police 'eh!%ior, "itts'ur(h de'!ters inDected no%el

Mitchell - Pedagogical Po i!ilitie - Page )

!r(u+ents !nd perspecti%es into the pu'lic di!lo(ue !nd pro%ided ! #oru+ #or supporters !nd opponents o# the 'o!rd to 3+eet #!ce-to-#!ce in ! structured settin(, inste!d o# D!*in( !t one !nother in the +edi! !nd courts !nd pu'lic r!llies3 :Muschic. 199;, see !lso A!ppe 199;, Mitchell 199;<. >i+il!r pu'lic de'!tes h!%e 'een st!(ed re(ul!rl& '& pro+inent !c!de+ic de'!te te!+s such !s @!tes 1olle(e, 1l!re+ont Mc7enn! 1olle(e, the $ni%ersit& o# Io*!, !nd the $ni%ersit& o# Ver+ont. M!n& !ctors outside the de'!te co++unit& #ind the de'!te process %er& !ttr!cti%e, !nd this +!.es it e!sier to or(!ni?e !nd pro+ote pu'lic de'!tes. @ut the politic!l e##ects o# de'!te !re not !uto+!tic!ll& e+!ncip!tor& or pro(ressi%e. 2he de'!ter/s instinct, culled #ro+ the de+ocr!tic #!ith inscri'ed in !r(u+ent!tion te-ts, is th!t +ore discussion !l*!&s (ood. 2his is ! tid& principle, 'ut *hen it co+es to on-the-(round soci!l ch!n(e, it depends on t&pe o# discussion th!t de'!te en!'les. Institutions o#ten use de'!te !s ! le(iti+!tin( tool. 2he& c!n point to their p!rticip!tion in de'!tes !s e%idence de+onstr!tin( their 3co++it+ent to the co++unit&,3 i.e. proo# o# their de+ocr!tic pedi(ree. I# one/s (o!l is to use de'!te !s ! tool to ch!llen(e corrupt or re(ressi%e institutions, the possi'ilit& e-ists th!t such e##orts c!n end up +!.in( the institutions stron(er !nd less responsi%e to pu'lic concerns. )ne *!& !round this pit#!ll is to e+'r!ce the notion th!t !n essenti!l p!rt o# the de'!te process in%ol%es citi?ens e+po*erin( the+sel%es to in%ent, cl!ri#&, !nd !+pli#& their %ie*points in pu'lic #oru+s. 0or e-!+ple, in e%!lu!tin( ! recent G" (r!nt propos!l #or ! series o# n!tion!l pu'lic de'!tes on the topic o# en%iron+ent!l Dustice in 'ro*n#ields rede%elop+ent polic&, 1h!rles Fee o# the $nited 1hurch o# 1hrist endorsed the ide! o# pu'lic de'!tes on the (rounds th!t such de'!tes c!n (ener!te 3soci!l c!pit!l3 #or pre%iousl& e-cluded st!.eholders to !ssert their %oices in polic& discussions. 32he production o# soci!l c!pit!l, ! #or+ o# *hich is the !'ilit& to conduct pu'lic discourse,3 Fee e-pl!ined, 3is critic!l to sol%in( co+plepro'le+s !nd !chie%in( he!lth& !nd sust!in!'le co++unities3 :1996<.

In order to +!-i+i?e the potenti!l o# the de'!te +ediu+ !s ! (ener!tor o# citi?en e+po*er+ent, ho*e%er, de'!te resources need to 'e put to*!rd proDects such !s citi?en !d%oc!c& tr!inin( !nd co++unit& !ction rese!rch th!t !re desi(ned to 'uild co++unit& c!p!cit& #or pu'lic discussion. "u'lic de'!te or(!ni?in( is p!rtl& ! lo(istic!l ende!%or, in%ol%in( such t!s.s !s securin( de'!te %enues, inter!ctin( *ith +edi!, !nd pl!nnin( on-site set +!n!(e+ent. 4hile these e##orts c!n &ield ne* sp!ces #or pu'lic discussion, i# !c!de+ic!ll& sterile, irrele%!nt, or one-sided discussion do+in!tes such sp!ces, pre%!ilin( p!tterns o# !lien!tin( pu'lic discourse *ill 'e +irrored !nd reproduced in such e%ents. >uch !n un#ortun!te outco+e *ould onl& (!l%!ni?e the loc.s '!rrin( tr!dition!ll& e-cluded se(+ents o# the popul!tion #ro+ pu'lic discussion. 2hus, it is i+per!ti%e th!t 3K+Le+'ers o# i+p!cted !nd dis!d%!nt!(ed co++unities +ust 'e p!rt o# the inter!cti%e process o# pl!nnin( !nd de%elopin( this concept Ko# pu'lic de'!teL,3 :Fee 1996<. 4h!t does 3inter!ction3 +e!n in this conte-tE )n ! '!sic le%el, !n inter!cti%e pl!nnin( process *ould see+ to re9uire sh!red decision-+!.in( po*er re(!rdin( deter+in!tion o# #or+!ts, d!tes, %enues, !nd topics o# pu'lic de'!tes, *ith e!ch st!.eholder h!%in( ! s!& in ne(oti!tin( these +!tters. @ut on ! +ore #und!+ent!l le%el, inter!ction +ust occur th!t en!'les !c!de+ic de'!ters to le!rn #ro+ people li%in( in i+p!cted co++unities, 3K2Lhere is !lso the need #or students !nd uni%ersities to le!rn #ro+ !nd 'e tr!ined '& co++unit& residents re(!rdin( the histor&, !spir!tion, concerns, !ssets, *isdo+, culture, .no*led(e, (enius, !nd %ision resident in th!t co++unit&3 :Fee 1996<. $lti+!tel&, the po*er o# pu'lic de'!te !s ! +ediu+ o# de+ocr!tic e+po*er+ent #or dis!d%!nt!(ed !nd i+p!cted co++unities +!& depend on the e-tent to *hich !c!de+ic schol!rs !nd de'!ters push #or 3! deeper e-!+in!tion o# the *ord Minter!cti%e/3 :Fee 1996< *hen it co+es ti+e to #or(e p!rtnerships 'et*een !c!de+ic institutions !nd co++unit& (roups. =e'!te outre!ch 2he tr!ns#or+!ti%e di+ension o# de'!te ped!(o(& c!n 'e pursued in outre!ch e##orts desi(ned to sh!re de'!te *ith tr!dition!ll& underser%ed student popul!tions !nd co++unities. 4ith reco(nition o# the e+!ncip!tor& potenti!l o# critic!l thin.in( !nd

Mitchell - Pedagogical Po i!ilitie - Page *+

or!l !d%oc!c& s.ills in h!nd, students !nd te!chers tr!ined in !r(u+ent!tion !re tod!& tr!ns#or+in( de'!te pr!ctice into ! tool o# e+po*er+ent '& coll!'or!tin( *ith students *ho !re s&ste+!tic!ll& denied opportunities #or en(!(in( in e-citin(, re*!rdin( !nd po*er#ul intellectu!l !cti%ities in their schools. =e'!te outre!ch e##orts c!rr& politic!l si(ni#ic!nce 'ec!use the& counter une9u!l tre!t+ent in the educ!tion!l s&ste+, ! +!Dor root o# ine9u!lit& in our societ&. >chools !re pl!ces *here pre%!ilin( p!tterns o# discri+in!tion !re loc.ed into pl!ce #re9uentl& '& un#!ir pu'lic t!- s&ste+s !nd shortsi(hted curricul!r !ppro!ches th!t sli(ht 3!t ris.3 or 3under!chie%in(3 students '& 3tr!c.in(3 the+ into less ri(orous cl!sses '!sed on un#!ir or !r'itr!r& +e!ns o# 3e%!lu!tion,3 such !s st!nd!rdi?ed test scores :see Girou- 1988, 7o?ol 1991, 4!de 199;<. =e'!te is !n !cti%it& thic. *ith +oti%!tion !nd l!den *ith dr!+!, +e!nin(, !nd purpose. @ec!use de'!te is !t once in%itin( !nd ch!llen(in(, it is !n !cti%it& th!t h!s ! uni9ue !ppe!l to students *ho h!%e 'een !lien!ted '& the 'l!nd ped!(o(ic!l #!re ser%ed up in the #re9uentl& routini?ed !nd pro(r!++ed cl!ssroo+ discussions o# the present !(e. Gi%en the declinin( conditions o# l!r(e ur'!n school s&ste+s in the $nited >t!tes, #undin( #or e-tr!curricul!r !cti%ities in pu'lic hi(h schools is +ore o#ten th!n not none-istent. 2he cost o# pro%idin( de'!te pro(r!+s is o#ten prohi'iti%e #or #in!nci!ll& str!ined inner cit& hi(h schools. @ec!use the prep!r!tion !nd deli%er& o# de'!te !r(u+ents pro%ides students *ith the opportunit& to thin. critic!ll&, de%elop their !c!de+ic rese!rch s.ills, i+pro%e their co++unic!tion !'ilities, sol%e pro'le+s cre!ti%el&, !nd incre!se their sel#-con#idence, support #or this !cti%it& is ! cruci!l e+po*er+ent tool #or &outh :@re(er 1998, p. 11, see !lso 4!de 1998, p. 80<. $r'!n =e'!te Fe!(ues :$=Fs< in tl!nt!, @ir+in(h!+, 1hic!(o, =etroit, Fouis%ille, Be* Hor., !nd 2usc!loos! currentl& pro%ide opportunities o# this sort to students !ttendin( tr!dition!ll& underser%ed !nd +!r(in!li?ed pu'lic schools. Recentl&, the )pen >ociet& Institute :'illion!ire Geor(e >orts/ phil!nthropic #ound!tion< h!s e+er(ed !s ! (enerous 'ene#!ctor o# such le!(ues !nd is *or.in( to

e-p!nd !nd deepen the (ro*in( net*or. o# innercit& de'!te pro(r!+s in the $nited >t!tes. 3Gncour!(in( di!lo(ue 'et*een students !nd te!chers #ro+ inner-cit& schools !nd those #ro+ outside the inner-cit& c!n result in pro#ound le!rnin(,3 !n )pen >ociet& Institute :)>I< in#or+!tion!l #lier e-pl!ins, 34hen those *ho r!rel& h!%e opportunit& to inter!ct co+e to(ether on the co++on (round o# ! de'!te tourn!+ent, educ!tion 'eco+es the 'rid(e !cross the ch!s+s o# di##erence. s one inner-cit& tl!nt! student noted8 M4hen *e !re *or.in( to(ether on !n !r(u+ent, I see our si+il!rities +ore th!n our di##erences/3 :)pen >ociet& Institute 199;, p. 2<. Recentl& pu'lished liter!ture su((ests th!t the $=F initi!ti%es !re +eetin( *ith (re!t success in sti+ul!tin( ne* de'!te circuits !nd 'rin(in( de'!ters #ro+ di%erse '!c.(rounds to(ether in ! %!riet& o# ped!(o(ic!l +ilieu- :see e.(. @!r'er 1998, @re(er 1998, F&nn 1998<. 2he ne*est $=Fs in >t. Fouis, 7!ns!s 1it&, !nd 2usc!loos! h!%e l!r(el& replic!ted the 3 tl!nt! +odel3 o# $=F or(!ni?!tion, *hich prioriti?es polic& de'!te tourn!+ent co+petition !s the pri+!r& ped!(o(ic!l tool #or redressin( educ!tion!l ine9uities. 2here is no den&in( th!t contest round co+petition is ! po*er#ul +oti%!tin( #orce th!t dr!*s in no%ices !nd pushes !d%!nced de'!ters to di??&in( hei(hts o# pro#ession!l !nd !c!de+ic e-cellence, so there is e%er& re!son to e-pect th!t these ne* ur'!n de'!te le!(ues *ill succeed in s*ellin( the r!n.s o# po*er#ul hi(h school de'!ters #ro+ the n!tion/s +etropolit!n !re!s. 4ith the co+petiti%e en(ines o# the ne* >ortssponsored $=F circuits in >t. Fouis, 7!ns!s 1it&, !nd 2usc!loos! no* #irin( !lon(side the ori(in!l tl!nt!, 1hic!(o !nd =etroit tourn!+ent le!(ues, it is di##icult to 9uestion the e!rl& success o# the p!rtnership #or(ed 'et*een the >orts 0ound!tion !nd +e+'ers o# the !c!de+ic de'!te co++unit&. Ao*e%er, it is i+port!nt to conte-tu!li?e these e!rl& successes '& puttin( the !d%!nt!(es !nd dr!*'!c.s o# ! strictl& co+petiti%e ped!(o(& in *ider politic!l perspecti%e. s e!rlier portions o# this !rticle discussed, *hen *e!ned on !n e-clusi%e diet o# tourn!+ent contest round co+petition, de'!ters tend to de%elop ! spect!tor +ent!lit& re(!rdin( politic!l !##!irs. 0ro+ this %!nt!(e point, the politic!l l!ndsc!pe rese+'les ! *hir *itnessed throu(h the

Mitchell - Pedagogical Po i!ilitie - Page **

*indo*s o# ! speedin( tr!in. 2here is ! ris. th!t $=F de'!ters 'rou(ht up throu(h such ! ped!(o(ic!l pro(r!+ *ill 'e steered !*!& #ro+ opportunities to de%elop !nd !ppl& their !r(u+ent!ti%e s.ills in or(!nic proDects o# de+ocr!tic e+po*er+ent th!t !re #ocused on pressin( loc!l issues in their co++unities. 0ortun!tel&, >orts/ )pen >ociet& Institute is out in #ront o# the !c!de+ic de'!te co++unit& on this point. 2he >orts (r!nt (uidelines #or the hi(h school de'!te pro(r!+ cont!in descriptions o# (r!nt-+!.in( criteri! #or hi(h school de'!te proDects, !nd one such criterion #!%ors #undin( #or 3nonco+petiti%e de'!te initi!ti%es *hich e-ist !s !n o##shoot o# the co+petiti%e co+ponent !nd e+plo& topics o# rele%!nce to students3 :)pen >ociet& Institute 1998, p. 1<. 2o d!te, none o# the >orts-#unded $=Fs h!%e de%eloped si(ni#ic!nt 3nonco+petiti%e de'!te initi!ti%es,3 !lthou(h there !re d&n!+ic ped!(o(ic!l possi'ilities in this re(!rd. 0or e-!+ple, nonco+petiti%e de'!te initi!ti%es could in%ol%e entire co++unities in pu'lic discussions, de'!tes, !nd !ction rese!rch proDects pitched to !ddress pressin( topics o# loc!l concern. @ec!use such proDects *ould 'e unhin(ed #ro+ the restricti%e (rid o# po*er th!t under(irds ?ero-su+ contest round de'!te co+petition, p!rents, &oun(er children, !nd other citi?ens could p!rticip!te !s !ctors, not Dust !udience spect!tors. Bo%el #or+s o# !r(u+ent couched in +ultiple !esthetic re(isters *ould 'eco+e #!ir (!+e. 34h& !re &ou de'!tin(E3 +i(ht suppl!nt 34h!t/s &our !##ir+!ti%e c!seE3 !s the +ost co++on 9uestion sh!red !+on( p!rticip!nts in de'!te e%ents. "u'lic d%oc!c& It is possi'le to (o 'e&ond thin.in( o# de'!te !s ! re+edi!l tool to redress educ!tion!l ine9uities !nd to st!rt seein( de'!te !s ! politic!l !cti%it& th!t h!s the potenti!l to e+po*er students !nd te!chers to ch!n(e the underl&in( conditions th!t c!use ine9uities !+on( schools !nd co++unities in the #irst pl!ce. In this t!s., the pu'lic !d%oc!c& s.ills le!rned '& de'!ters c!n 'e e-tre+el& e##ic!cious. 2he !'ilit& to present ide!s #orce#ull& !nd persu!si%el& in pu'lic is po*er#ul tool, one th!t 'eco+es e%en +ore d&n!+ic *hen coupled *ith the rese!rch !rid critic!l thin.in( !cu+en

th!t co+es *ith intensi%e de'!te prep!r!tion. cruci!l ele+ent o# this tr!ns#or+!ti%e ped!(o(& is pu'lic !d%oc!c&, +!.in( de'!te pr!ctice directl& rele%!nt to !ctors *ho !re studied durin( rese!rch, !nd +!.in( the topics rese!rched rele%!nt to the li%es o# students !nd te!chers. )n this point, 6ur(en A!'er+!s h!s ser%ed !s !n i+pressi%e e-e+pl!r, (i%in( concrete e-pression to his theories o# discourse ethics !nd co++unic!ti%e !ction in nu+erous direct inter%entions into the Ger+!n pu'lic sphere :see A!'er+!s 1994, 199;, Aolu' 1991<. 2he se inter%entions h!%e t!.en the #or+ o# ne*sp!per !rticles, speeches !nd pu'lic !ppe!r!nces on such topics !s the historic!l interpret!tion o# B!tion!l >oci!lis+, the process o# Ger+!n reuni#ic!tion, tre!t+ent o# i++i(r!nt popul!tions in Ger+!n&, !nd the politic!l role o# the student +o%e+ent. A!'er+!s presented his +ost co+prehensi%e co++ents on this l!tter issue !t ! 6une, 1968 +eetin( o# the $nion o# Ger+!n >tudents. t this +eetin(, he su((ested th!t students h!%e the c!p!cit& to roll '!c. 3coloni?!tion o# the li#e*orld3 !nd protect the pu'lic sphere '& pro+otin( *ideopen pu'lic discussin( o# pressin( politic!l issues. @& doin( this, A!'er+!s su((ested th!t the students could directl& co+plic!te institution!l +o%es to co%er #or le(iti+!tion de#icits '& #encin( o## pu'lic scrutin& !nd t!+pin( do*n critic!l protest. 2he student +o%e+ent is o# centr!l i+port!nce, !ccordin( to A!'er+!s, 'ec!use it c!lls into 9uestion the le(iti+!c& o# c!pit!list societ& !t its *e!.est points. It un+!s.s the ideolo(ic!l o'#usc!tion, criti9ues the !tte+pts !t di%ersion !nd opens discussion on #und!+ent!l issues o# econo+ics !nd politics. It does not !ccept the prete-t th!t onl& e-perts c!n decide on +!tters o# econo+ic !nd politic!l concern. Inste!d it re+o%es the !ur! o# e-pertise #ro+ st!te decision-+!.in( !nd su'Dects polic& in (ener!l to pu'lic discussion :Aolu' 1991, p. 88<. Moti%!ted '& the pu'lic!tion o# A!'er+!s/ doctor!l dissert!tion, 2he >tructur!l 2r!ns#or+!tion o# the "u'lic >phere, Ger+!n students !rr!n(ed +!ss protests in e!rl& 1968 !(!inst the >prin(er pu'lishin( house, producer o# the @ild?eitun(, ! +!ss circul!tion ne*sp!per tr!din( in

Mitchell - Pedagogical Po i!ilitie - Page *"

sens!tion!lis+ !nd h!rd-line conser%!tis+. t A!'er+!s/s ur(in(, the students *ere ener(i?ed to initi!te this resist!nce, choosin( to t!r(et >prin(er '!sed on the 0r!n.#urt school/s sust!ined criti9ue o# the +!ss +edi! !s !rchene+& o# un#ettered pu'lic !r(u+ent!tion. s Aolu' descri'es, 3K!l press such !s >prin(er/s h!s the dou'le #unction o# e-cludin( the pu'lic #ro+ re!l issue-oriented discussions !nd o# +o'ili?in( the pu'lic !(!inst those *ho, li.e the protesters, tr& to en(ender pu'lic de'!te3 :1991, p. 88<. 2his !nti->prin(er c!+p!i(n is one e-!+ple o# student +o%e+ent +o'ili?!tion undert!.en in n!+e o# A!'er+!s/ su((ested proDect o# 3repolitici?in(,3 or re-!cti%!tin( pu'lic spheres o# deli'er!tion :sec A!'er+!s 19;0<. l!in 2our!ine, ! sociolo(ist *ho h!s *or.ed closel& *ith the student +o%e+ents in 0r!nce !nd 1hile, !r(ues th!t the uni9ue cultur!l position students inh!'it !##ords the+ unc!nn& politic!l +!neu%er!'ilit&8 3>tudents c!n no* pl!& !n i+port!nt role 'ec!use the sh!rp rise in their nu+'ers !nd the incre!sed dur!tion o# studies h!%e resulted in the constitution o# student collecti%ities *ith their o*n sp!ce, c!p!'le o# opposin( the resist!nce o# their o*n culture !nd o# their person!l concerns to the sp!ce o# the l!r(e or(!ni?!tions th!t see. to i+poses the+sel%es e%en +ore directl& upon the+3 :1988, p. 120<. 2he s.ills honed durin( prep!r!tion #or !nd p!rticip!tion in !c!de+ic de'!te c!n 'e utili?ed !s po*er#ul tools in this re(!rd. $sin( sophistic!ted rese!rch, critic!l thin.in(, !nd concise !r(u+ent present!tion, !r(u+ent!tion schol!rs c!n 'eco+e #or+id!'le !ctors in the pu'lic re!l+, !d%oc!tin( on 'eh!l# o# ! p!rticul!r issue, !(end!, or %ie*point. 0or co+petiti%e !c!de+ic de'!ters. this sort o# !d%oc!c& c!n 'eco+e !n i+port!nt e-tension o# ! lon( rese!rch proDect cul+in!tin( in ! stron( person!l Dud(+ent re(!rdin( ! (i%en polic& issue !nd ! concrete pl!n to inter%ene politic!ll& in pursuit o# those 'elie#s. 0or e-!+ple, on the 1992-93 intercolle(i!te polic& de'!te topic de!lin( *ith $.>. de%elop+ent !ssist!nce polic&, the $ni%ersit& o# 2e-!s te!+ r!n !n e-tr!ordin!ril& success#ul !##ir+!ti%e c!se th!t c!lled #or the $nited >t!tes

to ter+in!te its support #or the 0lood ction "l!n, ! dis!ster-+!n!(e+ent pro(r!+ proposed to e9uip the people o# @!n(l!desh to de!l *ith the conse9uences o# #loodin(. =urin( the course o# their rese!rch, 2e-!s de'!ters de%eloped close *or.in( lin.s *ith the Intern!tion!l Ri%ers Bet*or., ! @er.ele&-'!sed soci!l +o%e+ent de%oted to stoppin( the 0lood ction "l!n. 2hese lin.s not onl& cre!ted ! #ruit#ul rese!rch ch!nnel o# pri+!r& in#or+!tion to the 2e-!s te!+, the& helped 2e-!s de'!ters or(!ni?e s&+p!thetic +e+'ers o# the de'!te co++unit& to support e##orts '& the Intern!tion!l Ri%ers Bet*or. to 'loc. the 0lood ction "l!n. 2he $ni%ersit& o# 2e-!s te!+ c!pped o## !n e-tr!ordin!r& &e!r o# contest round success !r(uin( #or ! '!n on the 0lood ction "l!n *ith !n !cti%ist proDect in *hich te!+ +e+'ers supple+ented contest round !d%oc!c& *ith other +odes o# politic!l or(!ni?in(. >peci#ic!ll&, 2e-!s de'!ters circul!ted ! petition c!llin( #or suspension o# the 0lood ction "l!n, or(!ni?ed ch!nnels o# de'!ter input to 3pressure points3 such !s the 4orld @!n. !nd $.>. 1on(ress, !nd solicited c!pit!l don!tions #or the Intern!tion!l Ri%ers Bet*or.. In ! letter circul!ted pu'licl& to +ultiple !udiences inside !nd outside the de'!te co++unit&, 2e-!s !ssist!nt co!ch R&!n Good+!n lin.ed the !r(u+ents o# the de'!te co++unit& to *ider pu'lic !udiences '& e-pl!inin( the enor+ous co+petiti%e success o# the '!n 0lood ction "l!n !##ir+!ti%e on the intercolle(i!te tourn!+ent circuit. 2he de'!te !cti%it&, Good+!n *rote, 3'rin(s ! uni9ue !spect to the +!r.etpl!ce o# ide!s. Ide!s +ost o#ten (!in success not throu(h politics, the persons *ho support the+, or throu(h #orcin( out other %oices throu(h sheer econo+ic po*er, 'ut r!ther on their o*n +erit3 :1993<. 2o e+ph!si?e the point th!t this co+petiti%e success should 'e tre!ted !s !n i+port!nt #!ctor in pu'lic polic&-+!.in(, Good+!n co+p!red the le%el o# ri(or !nd intensit& o# de'!te rese!rch !nd prep!r!tion o%er the course o# ! &e!r to the *or. in%ol%ed in co+pletion o# +!sters/ thesis. recent !rticle in the 1hronicle o# Ai(her Gduc!tion esti+!ted th!t the le%el !nd e-tent o# rese!rch re9uired o# the !%er!(e colle(e de'!ter #or e!ch topic is e9ui%!lent to the !+ount o# rese!rch re9uired #or ! M!ster/s 2hesis. I# &ou +ultiplied the nu+'er o# !cti%e colle(e de'!ters :!ppro-i+!tel& 1,000< '& th!t +!n& rese!rch hours the +!ss *or.

Mitchell - Pedagogical Po i!ilitie - Page *#

e##ort spent on e-plorin(, co+prehendin(, !nd #or+ul!tin( positions !round rele%!nt pu'lic polic& issues is o'%iousl& !stoundin( :Good+!n 1993<. n !ddition!l e-!+ple o# ! pu'lic !d%oc!c& proDect undert!.en '& de'!ters too. pl!ce under the 1995-96 colle(e de'!te topic c!llin( #or incre!sed $.>. securit& !ssist!nce to the Middle G!st. t the B!tion!l =e'!te 2ourn!+ent in 1996, ! $ni%ersit& o# "itts'ur(h te!+ !d%oc!ted ! pl!n +!nd!tin( th!t unreco(ni?ed r!' %ill!(es in Isr!el recei%e +unicip!l ser%ices such !s electricit&, se*!(e tre!t+ent !nd *!ter. #ter the pl!n *!s de#ended success#ull& in contest round co+petition, interested co!ches !nd de'!ters Doined to(ether to or(!ni?e !cti%ities on the #in!l d!& o# the tourn!+ent. 2hese !cti%ities included circul!tion o# in#or+!tion!l +!teri!l re(!rdin( the pli(ht o# unreco(ni?ed r!' %ill!(es in Isr!el, %ideo displ!&s o# the conditions in unreco(ni?ed r!' %ill!(es such !s Gin Aud, !nd co+pil!tion o# 65 si(n!tures supportin( ! petition *hich st!ted the #ollo*in(8 3Botin( th!t +!n& r!' %ill!(es in Isr!el currentl& do not recei%e '!sic +unicip!l ser%ices such !s se*!(e tre!t+ent, electricit&, !nd *!ter, *e c!ll on the (o%ern+ent o# Isr!el to reco(ni?e such %ill!(es !nd pro%ide these essenti!l ser%ices.3 0ollo*in( the conclusion o# the tourn!+ent, this petition *!s #or*!rded to ssoci!tion o# 0ort&, the r!' ssoci!tion #or Au+!n Ri(hts, !nd the G!lilee >ociet&, soci!l +o%e+ents +o'ili?in( #or r!' %ill!(e reco(nition in Isr!el. +ore recent e-!+ple o# pu'lic !d%oc!c& *or. in de'!te too. pl!ce !t the B!tion!l Ai(h >chool Institute, ! su++er de'!te *or.shop hosted '& Borth*estern $ni%ersit& in 1998. t this *or.shop, ! (roup o# hi(h school students rese!rched !n !##ir+!ti%e c!se c!llin( #or !n end to the $.>. '!llistic +issile de#ense :@M=< pro(r!+. 0ollo*in( up on ! *ee. o# intensi%e tr!dition!l de'!te rese!rch th!t &ielded ! hi(hl& success#ul !##ir+!ti%e c!se, the students (ener!ted ! short te-t desi(ned !s ! %ehicle to t!.e the !r(u+ents o# the !##ir+!ti%e to *ider pu'lic !udiences. 2his te-t *!s pu'lished !s !n online G-print on the noted 0eder!tion o# +eric!n >cientists *e'site :see 1heru' >tud& Group 1998<. In this process o# tr!nsl!tin( de'!te

!r(u+ents into ! pu'lic te-t, c!re *!s t!.en to she!r prose o# unnecess!r& de'!te D!r(on, +et!phors *ere e+plo&ed li'er!ll& to render the !r(u+ents in +ore !ccessi'le ter+s, !nd re#erences to popul!r culture *ere included !s de%ices to (round the '!n-@M= !r(u+ent in e%er&d!& .no*led(e. >o+e +!& e-press reser%!tions !'out the prospect o# de'!ters settlin( on p!rticul!r %ie*points !nd de#endin( the+ in pu'lic, (i%en th!t the tr!dition o# s*itch-side polic& de'!tin( h!s tended to tie e##ecti%e critic!l thin.in( *ith the notion o# suspended Dud(+ent. Ao*e%er, it is possi'le to +!int!in ! critic!l posture, e%en *hile t!.in( !n !cti%e, inter%entionist st!nce %is-N-%is politic!l !##!irs. 3Gener!ll& spe!.in(, !ction rese!rchers see the process o# (!inin( .no*led(e !nd ch!n(in( societ& !s interlin.ed, e%en insep!r!'le,3 e-pl!ins M!rtin, 3Inter%ention to ch!n(e societ& produces underst!ndin(-includin( ne* perspecti%es o# #und!+ent!l theoretic!l si(ni#ic!nce--*hich in turn c!n 'e used to de%elop +ore e##ecti%e inter%ention3 :p. 264, see !lso >holle 1994<. 3Rese!rch !nd !cti%is+ should oper!te in t!nde+,3 Mil!n R!i *rites in ! discussion on Bo!+ 1ho+s.&, 3&ou need to inter!ct *ith others in order to de%elop ide!s3 :R!i 1995, p. 59<. critic!l !nd tr!ns#or+!ti%e +ethod o# !ction rese!rch re9uires const!nt re#lection to ensure th!t !ll !spects o# the rese!rch enterprise :e.(. purpose, nor+!ti%e !ssu+ptions, +ethodolo(ic!l tools, !nd tent!ti%e conclusions< !re pro'le+!ti?ed !nd re%ised throu(hout the ende!%or !s p!rt o# !n on(oin( le!rnin( process. 2he notions o# const!nt ch!n(e !nd unle!rnin( on the p!rt o# the rese!rcher !nd continuous re!rticul!tion o# .no*led(e :underst!ndin(< throu(hout the rese!rch !ct dr!* #ro+ the #ield o# critic!l :tr!ns#or+!ti%e< ped!(o(& !nd cultur!l studies. s 7incheloe e-pl!ins, 3ItLhe critic!l core o# critic!l !ction rese!rch in%ol%es its p!rticip!tor& !nd co++un!ll& discursi%e structure !nd the c&cle o# !ction !nd re#lection it initi!tes3 :1993, p. 183<. 4ool(!r h!s ch!r!cteri?ed the s&ner(istic interpl!& !+on( di+ensions o# in9uir& !s the 3d&n!+ic o# iter!ti%e reconceptu!li?!tion,3 ! process *here'& 3pr!ctitioners #ro+ ti+e to ti+e reco(ni?e the de#ects o# their position !s !n occ!sion #or re%isin( its '!sic !ssu+ptions3 :1991, p. 382<. ccordin( to 4ool(!r, *h!t sets this d&n!+ic in +otion is the pr!ctitioner/s e+'r!ce o# 3re#le-i%it&3,

Mitchell - Pedagogical Po i!ilitie - Page *$

i.e. !##ir+!ti%e pro'le+!ti?!tion o# schol!rs/ o*n conceptions o# the+sel%es !s critic!l !(ents in li(ht o# continu!ll& shi#tin( theoretic!l !ssu+ptions. Re#le-i%it&, 4ool(!r e-pl!ins, 3!s.s us to pro'le+!ti?e the !ssu+ption th!t the !n!l&st :!uthor, sel#< st!nd in ! disen(!(ed rel!tionship to the *orld :su'Dects, o'Dects, scientists, thin(s<3 :4ool(!r, p. 383<. 2his posture sh!res +uch in co++on *ith cert!in rese!rch orient!tions in critic!l ethno(r!ph&. >uch orient!tions hold th!t 3*or. +ust #ind *!&s o# co++unic!tin( th!t do not si+pl& re!##ir+ old M*!&s o# seein(/, it +ust ch!llen(e the %er& #ound!tions o# our e-perience o# oursel%es &et 'e underst!nd!'le !nd sensi'le.3 2his in%ol%es co++it+ent 3to stud& the ch!r!cter !nd '!ses o# one/s o*n *or. pr!ctices !nd their rel!tion to the .no*led(e such pr!ctices produce3 :>i+on !nd =ippo 1986 , p. 200<. In the conte-t o# rhetoric!l theor&, Fe#t h!s loc!ted ! si+il!r di!lectic !t *or. in the s&ner(istic interpl!& 'et*een the 3productionist3 !nd 3interpreti%e3 i+pulses o# cl!ssic!l rhetoric!l theor& :see Fe#t 1996 , p. 89-100<. 0ro+ ! science studies !n(le, 4ool(!r !r(ues th!t the potenti!l re#le-i%e 'ene#its o# !ction rese!rch !re stron( *!rr!nts #or its e+'r!ce !nd pursuit !s ! schol!rl& +ethod o# rese!rch. ... K2Lhe prospect o# en(!(in( *ith Kpolic&+!.ers !nd other interested !udiences 'e&ond the !c!de+&L see+s too (ood !n opportunit& to +iss. 2he !tte+pt to #or(e !nd +!n!(e rel!tionships *ith potenti!l !udiences pro%ides ! *elco+e e-peri+ent!l pro'e. 0or it pro%ides the ch!nce o# !c9uirin( #irst-h!nd e-perience o# !tte+pts to ch!n(e people/s +inds. >o *e should *elco+e opportunities to 'eco+e in%ol%ed in this .ind o# e-ercise. Bot 'ec!use this *ill le(iti+!te our o*n enterprise, it +!& or +!& not. @ut 'ec!use it *ill pro%ide e-cellent +!teri!ls #or #urther thin.in( throu(h the conse9uences o# presu+in( to .no* so+ethin( #or ! p!rticul!r !udience outside Lour o*n #ieldsL :4ool(!r 1991, p. 386<. 4ool(!r/s co++ent!r& hi(hli(hts the #!ct th!t ! stron( sense o# re#le-i%it& c!n 'e !chie%ed onl& *hen schol!rs e+'r!ce episte+olo(ic!l hu+ilit& !nd curiosit& :see 0reire 1985, p. 1;3, 0reire !nd M!cedo, p. 380<, le!%in( their !c!de+ic r!isons

d/etre open to 9uestion !nd en(!(in( in ! perenni!l pursuit o# di##erent *!&s o# .no*in(. In the conte-t o# !r(u+ent!ti%e !(enc&, such ! posture +i(ht 'e supported throu(h inter+ittent !nd !ltern!tin( episodes o# pu'lic !d%oc!c& !nd !c!de+ic stud&, *here students dr!* upon the s&ner(istic interpl!& 'et*een the t*o sp!ces o# in%esti(!tion to c!li'r!te their e%ol%in( politic!l opinions !nd inter%entions. >uch ! posture !ddresses 1o%erstone/s concerns th!t de'!ter-dri%en pu'lic !d%oc!c& proDects *ould t!.e on the ch!r!cter o# 3+!ss !ctions3 desi(ned to 3ho+o(eni?e the indi%idu!l +e+'ers o# the de'!te co++unit&3 :1995, p. 9<. @& !ssu+in( ! re#le-i%e st!nce th!t relentlessl& dest!'ili?es !nd interro(!tes the !ssu+ptions under(irdin( p!rticul!r pu'lic !d%oc!c& proDects, de'!ters c!n !dd ! cruci!l ele+ent o# re#lection to their pr!ctice. >uch re#lection c!n hi(hli(ht the potenti!l d!n(ers o# politic!l en(!(e+ent !nd (ener!te str!te(ies to ne(oti!te these pit#!lls throu(h sh!red discussion. 1o%erstone/s #e!r th!t the r!dic!l hetero(eneit& o# politic!l opinions #ound in the de'!te co++unit& 3+e!ns th!t +!ss politic!l !ction is doo+ed to #!il3 :1995, p. 9< is !ccur!te !s ! di!(nosis o# the utopi!n prospects #or ! +onolithic !nd ideolo(ic!ll& consistent soci!l +o%e+ent to sprin( #orth #ro+ the r!n.s o# !cti%ist de'!te p!rticip!nts. Ao*e%er, 1o%erstone o%erloo.s the e+!ncip!tor& potenti!l o# s+!ller (roups *ithin the de'!te co++unit& to or(!ni?e *ith li.e-+inded colle!(ues. 4hile the r!dic!l hetero(eneit& o# politic!l orient!tion in the de'!te co++unit& li.el& 'loc.s the #or+!tion o# ! ho+o(enous +!ss politic!l +o%e+ent, the s!+e di%ersit& !lso h!s the potenti!l to support ! p!nopl& o# ideolo(ic!ll& di%erse :!nd e%en contr!dictor&< +icro-+o%e+ents. lthou(h p!rticip!nts in these s+!ller +o%e+ents +!& 'e !d%oc!tin( di##erent c!uses !nd pursuin( distinct str!te(ies o# inter%ention, the co++on thre!d lin.in( their proDects to(ether is ! 9uest to de%elop !r(u+ent!tion s.ills !s tools to i+p!ct e%ents un#oldin( in #ields o# soci!l !ction. 1)B1F$>I)B 2he continuin( decerti#ic!tion o# the pu'lic sphere is ! pheno+enon th!t ser%es !s !n ur(ent in%it!tion #or !r(u+ent!tion schol!rs to de%elop re+edi!l responses. s the 1redo o# the +eric!n 0orensic ssoci!tion tru+pets, +e+'ers o# the #orensics

Mitchell - Pedagogical Po i!ilitie - Page *%

co++unit& in this n!tion !re *ell positioned to +!.e such responses, (i%en the co++unit&/s co++it+ent to de'!te !nd !r(u+ent!tion !s tools o# de+ocr!tic e+po*er+ent. In this ess!&, I h!%e !r(ued th!t #!ith !lone is insu##icient to 'rin( !'out the tr!nsl!tion o# !r(u+ent!tion s.ills into tools o# de+ocr!tic e+po*er+ent. Inste!d, such ! success#ul tr!nsl!tion re9uires !##ir+!ti%e e##orts to cle!r sp!ces th!t #ree schol!rs to e-ercise !nd de%elop senses o# !r(u+ent!ti%e !(enc&. 4ith (re!ter roo+ to +!neu%er #or in%entin( str!te(ies #or !ction, t!.in( ris.s, +!.in( +ist!.es !nd !##ectin( ch!n(e, schol!rs c!n 'e(in to en%ision ho* to do thin(s *ith !r(u+ents not onl& in the co?& con#ines o# contest round co+petition, 'ut in the *orld 'e&ond !s *ell. G%olution o# the ide! o# !r(u+ent!ti%e !(enc&, in 'oth theor& !nd pr!ctice, is dri%en '& the idios&ncr!tic !nd o#ten eccentric person!l senti+ents !nd politic!l !lle(i!nces held '& students !nd te!chers o# !r(u+ent!tion. 2hose interested in seein( de'!te s.ills 'eco+e tools #or de+ocr!tic e+po*er+ent h!%e the !'ilit& to culti%!te !r(u+ent!ti%e !(enc& in their respecti%e ped!(o(ic!l !nd politic!l +ilieu. 2his +i(ht in%ol%e supportin( !nd encour!(in( e##orts o# students to en(!(e in pri+!r& rese!rch, or(!ni?e !nd per#or+ pu'lic de'!tes, undert!.e pu'lic !d%oc!c& proDects, !ndIor sh!re the ener(& o# de'!te *ith tr!dition!ll& underser%ed !nd e-cluded student popul!tions throu(h outre!ch e##orts. Much h!s !lre!d& 'een done in this re(!rd, 'ut there !re !lso +!n& ne* ch!llen(es on the hori?on. Methodolo(ies !nd philosophies o# pri+!r& de'!te rese!rch !re in need o# on(oin( re#ine+ent, rese!rch !nd re#lection on inno%!ti%e pu'lic de'!te #or+!ts !re necess!r& to e-tend the de+ocr!tic potenti!l o# such e%ents, e+!ci!ted pu'lic spheres e%er&*here !re *!itin( #or spirited pu'lic !d%oc!c& proDects to ener(i?e #oru+s #or citi?en discussion, !nd ne* str!te(ies #or de'!te outre!ch !re essenti!l to sto.e the +o+entu+ !lre!d& 'uildin( in ur'!n de'!te le!(ues !cross the n!tion. 2he title o# Ao*!rd 5inn/s e-cellent 'oo., Hou 1!n/t @e Beutr!l on ! Mo%in( 2r!in :1994< cont!ins ! poi(n!nt !-io+ #or those *ho +i(ht 9uestion pursuit o# !r(u+ent!ti%e !(enc& in

!c!de+ic de'!te on the (rounds th!t it +!.es de'!te 3too politic!l.3 =e'!te h!s !l*!&s 'een ! politic!l !cti%it&, !nd no !+ount o# !c!de+ic insul!tion *ill e%er 'e !'le to shield it co+pletel& #ro+ the politic!l currents th!t s*irl outside the !u(ust h!lls o# contest round co+petition. )n ! +ost '!sic le%el, !c!de+ic de'!te is intert*ined politic!ll& *ith the 0ord Motor 1o+p!n&, "hillips 66 "etroleu+, !nd the >oros 0ound!tion, three +!Dor corpor!te 'ene#!ctors th!t support the !cti%it&. 2o the e-tent th!t these or(!ni?!tions p!rl!& their institution!l !##ili!tions *ith de'!te into pu'lic rel!tions *ind#!lls :see e.(. @!r'er 1998<, the l!'or o# !c!de+ic de'!ters 'eco+es politic!l '& %irtue o# the use-%!lue it (ener!tes #or corpor!te sponsors. t the s!+e ti+e th!t !n !c!de+ic de'!ter p!rticip!tin( in ! 7!ns!s 1it& contest round +i(ht 'e !d%oc!tin( %oci#erousl& #or ! h&pothetic!l pl!n th!t reins in pro#li(!te 'urnin( o# #ossil #uels, ! "hillips 66 co+p!n& e-ecuti%e in Be* Hor. +i(ht 'e (ener!tin( !ddition!l s!les #or the oil industr& '& usin( the co+p!n&/s support #or educ!tion !nd de'!te to close re!l 'usiness de!ls *ith #ence-sittin( in%estors. 2hose still s.eptic!l !'out the !pplic!'ilit& o# 5inn/s 3+o%in( tr!in3 !-io+ to de'!te +i(ht *!nt to consider #in!ll& the re+!r.!'le !cti%ities o# the Gnron 1orpor!tion. s ! +!Dor oil !nd (!s co+p!n&, Gnron, Inc. h!d ! %ested interest in in#luencin( the content o# !c!de+ic de'!tes on the 199;-98 hi(h school topic. >ince th!t &e!r/s topic c!lled #or !##ir+!ti%es to stren(then en%iron+ent!l protection, Gnron e-ecuti%es .ne* th!t +!n& hi(h school de'!ters *ould 'e rese!rchin( !nd de'!tin( (lo'!l *!r+in(, ! politic!l !nd scienti#ic contro%ers& th!t c!rries enor+ous econo+ic si(ni#ic!nce #or Gnron. ctin( to protect this interest, the co+p!n& disp!tched t*o e-ecuti%es on ! re+!r.!'le '!rnstor+in( tour o# hi(h school de'!te *or.shops in the su++er o# 199;. Fu((in( *ith the+ !r+lo!ds o# #ree e%idence, the Gnron e-ecuti%es +!de their *!& to !t le!st #our su++er *or.shops, *here the& presented !n e-tensi%e slide sho* th!t de'un.ed the theor& o# (lo'!l *!r+in( !nd touted the en%iron+ent!l 'ene#its o# oil !nd (!s e-plor!tion. 2o return once !(!in to 5inn/s ter+inolo(&, the de'!te tr!in is !lre!d& 'ein( pulled #!st '& po*er#ul politic!l en(ines. 2he pressin( 9uestion o# the d!& should 'e 34here do *e *!nt to (oE3 not 3Ao* c!n *e st!& neutr!lE3

Mitchell - Pedagogical Po i!ilitie - Page *&

t ! recent dinner held in his honor, @rent 0!rr!nd :=e'!te 1o!ch o# Be*!r. Ai(h >chool o# >cience< (!%e ! 'rilli!nt !nd +o%in( speech th!t touched on +!n& o# the the+es discussed in this ess!&. Foo.in( '!c. on his o*n c!reer, 0!rr!nd o##er ! poi(n!nt ch!r(e #or the #uture. 3"erh!ps the ti+e h!s co+e #or e!ch o# us to consider choosin( ! ro!d th!t tr!%els to other pl!ces th!n Dust 'et*een pr!ctice rounds !nd tourn!+ent sites,3 0!rr!nd re#lected, 32hrou(h so+e !d+ittedl& d!r. ti+es *hen e!ch o# us #elt li.e %oices in the *ilderness, *e cr!dled, protected, re#ined !nd polished this (e+ o# educ!tion. It is ti+e no* to c!rr& it out into the *orld !nd sh!re it3 :0!rr!nd 199;<.

Mitchell - Pedagogical Po i!ilitie - Page *'

RG0GRGB1G> rono*it?, >t!nle& O Aenr& Girou-. Gduc!tion >till $nder >ie(e. 2nd Gd. 4estport, 1B8 @er(in !nd G!r%e&, 1993. -----. "ost+odern Gduc!tion "olitics, 1ulture, !nd >oci!l 1riticis+ Minne!polis8 $ni%ersit& o# Minnesot! "ress, 1991. @!r'er, Io*!.!. 3 (reein( to =is!(ree.3 )pen >ociet& Institute Be*s :>u++er 1998<8 14-15. @!udrill!rd, ,6e!n. >i+ul!tions. 2r!ns. 0oss, "!tton !nd @eitch+!n. Be* Hor.8 >e+iote-tKeL, 1983. @re(er, @eth. 3@uildin( )pen >ocieties 2hrou(h =e'!te.3 1onte+por!r& r(u+ent!tion !nd =e'!te 19 :1998<8 #orthco+in(. 1enter, =. 3=e'!te !nd the 6o' M!r.et.3 =e'!te Issues 15 :1982<8 5. 1heru' >tud& Group. 3Return o# the =e!th >t!rE3 Internet G-print. 0eder!tion o# +eric!n >cientists *e'site. 6ul& 31, 1998. )nline !t http8II***.#!s.or(I sppIeprintI. 1ol'ert, 7ent !nd 2ho+pson @i((ers, 34h& >hould 4e >upport =e'!teE3 6ourn!l o# the +eric!n 0orensic ssoci!tion 21 :>prin( 1985<8 23;-240<. 1o%erstone, l!n. 3 n In*!rd Gl!nce8 Response to Mitchell/s )ut*!rd cti%ist 2urn.3 In Ro(er >olt, Gd. $nited >t!tes 0orei(n "olic&8 1hin! 1!rds. 4inston->!le+, B18 4!.e 0orest $ni%ersit&, 19958 ;-10. 0!rr!nd, @rent. G+or& 7e& 1o!ch ddress. 1 0e'ru!r& 199;. 2r!nscript8 printed in Gordon Mitchell, Gd., "roceedin(s/ o# the 0irst =i%ersit& Recruit+ent !nd Retention Ide!#est. "itts'ur(h8 $ni%ersit& o# "itts'ur(h, 1998. 0!rrell, 2ho+!s @. 37no*led(e, 1onsensus, !nd Rhetoric!l 2heor&.3 Pu!rterl& 6ourn!l o# >peech 62 :0e'ru!r& 19;6<8 1-14. 0els.i, Rit!. @e&ond 0e+inist esthetics. 1!+'rid(e8 A!r%!rd $ni%ersit& "ress, 1989. 0ouc!ult, Michel. =iscipline !nd "unish. Be* Hor.8 Vint!(e, 19;;. 0reele&, ustin 6. r(u+ent!tion !nd =e'!te, 9th Gd. Be* Hor.8 4!ds*orth, 1996. 0reire, "!ulo. 2he "olitics/ o# Gduc!tion8 1ulture "o*er !nd Fi'er!tion. Be* Hor.8 @er(in !nd G!r%e&, 1985. 0reire, "!ulo !nd =on!ldo M!cedo. 3 =i!lo(ue8 1ulture, F!n(u!(e, !nd R!ce.3 A!r%!rd Gduc!tion!l Re%ie* 65 :0!ll 1995<8 3;;-402. Girou-, Aenr&. "ost+odernis+, 0e+inis+, !nd 1ultur!l "olitics. l'!n&8 >t!te $ni%ersit& o# Be* Hor. "ress, 1991. -----. >choolin( !nd the >tru((le #or "u'lic Fi#e. Minne!polis8 $ni%ersit& o# Minnesot! "ress, 1988. Good+!n, R&!n. Fetter circul!ted !t 1993 B!tion!l =e'!te 2ourn!+ent. )cto'er 29, 1993. 1op& on #ile *ith the !uthor. Goodni(ht, G. 2ho+!s. 31ontro%ers&.3 In =onn "!rson, Gd. r(u+ent in 1ontro%ers&8 "roceedin(s o# the >e%enth >1 I 0 1on#erence on r(u+ent!tion. nn!nd!le, V 8 >peech 1o++unic!tion ssoci!tion, 19928 1-13. A!'er+!s,6ur(en. @erlin Repu'lic8 4ritin(s on Ger+!n&. 2r!ns. >te%en Rend!ll. Fincoln, BG8 $ni%ersit& o# Be'r!s.! "ress, 199;. -----. 2he "!rt !s 0uture. 2r!ns. !nd Gd. M!"ens.&. Fincoln, BG8 $ni%ersit& o# Be'r!s.! "ress, 1994. -----. 2he 2heor& o# 1o++unic!ti%e ction. 2r!ns. 2ho+!s Mc1!rth&. @oston8 @e!con "ress, 1981. -----. Fe(iti+!tion 1risis. 2r!ns. 2ho+!s Mc1!rth&. @oston8 @e!con "ress, 19;5.

Mitchell - Pedagogical Po i!ilitie - Page *(

-----. 2o*!rd ! R!tion!l >ociet&8 >tudent "rotest, >cience, !nd "olitics. 2r!ns. 6ere+& 6. >h!piro. @oston8 @e!con "ress, 19;0. A!ppe, 7ell&. 3>hould "itts'ur(h A!%e ! 1i%ili!n "olice Re%ie* @o!rdE3 "itts'ur(h "ost-G!?ette :M!rch 23, 199;<8 @-4. Aill, @ill !nd Rich!rd 4. Fee+!n. 2he rt !nd "r!ctice o# r(u+ent!tion !nd =e'!te. Fondon8 M!&#ield, 199;. Aolu', Ro'ert. 6ur(en A!'er+!s8 1ritic in the "u'lic >phere. Fondon8 Routled(e, 1991. 7ee#e, F., 2. A!rte !nd F. Borton. Introduction to =e'!te. Be* Hor.8 M!c+ill!n, 1982. 7eele, Fuc& !nd Ron!ld M!rion. 3 >ur%e& o# "!rticip!nts in the B!tion!l =e'!te 2ourn!+ent 194;1980.3 6ourn!l o# the +eric!n 0orensics ssoci!tion 20 :1984<8 194-205. 7incheloe, 6oe F. 2o*!rd ! 1ritic!l "olitics o# 2e!cher 2hin.in(. 4estport8 @er(in !nd G!r%e&, 1993. -----. 2e!chers !s Rese!rchers8 Pu!lit!ti%e In9uir& !s ! "!th to G+po*er+ent. Fondon8 0!l+er "ress, 1991 7o?ol, 6on!th!n. >!%!(e Ine9u!lities. Be* Hor.8 A!rper1ollins, 1991. Fee, 1h!rles. Fetter to Gordon Mitchell !nd 6ohn =elic!th. )cto'er 12, 1996. 1op& on #ile *ith the !uthor. Fe##, Mich!el. 32he Ide! o# Rhetoric !s Interpreti%e "r!ctice8 Au+!nist/s Response to G!on.!r.3 In l!n G. Gross !nd 4illi!+ M. 7eith, Gds. Rhetoric!l Aer+eneutics8 In%ention !nd Interpret!tion in the (e o# >cience. Be* Hor.8 >$BH "ress, 199;8 89-100. F&nn, Fes. 3=e'!tin( 0undin(, 0undin( =e'!tin(8 2he 1hic!(o =e'!te 1o++ission/s 2!le o# 2*o 1ities,3 1onte+por!r& r(u+ent!tion !nd =e'!te 19 :1998<8 #orthco+in(.

M!rtin, @ri!n. 3>tic.in( ! Beedle into >cience8 2he 1!se o# "olio V!ccines !nd the )ri(in o# I=>.3 >oci!l >tudies o# >cience 26 :1996<8 245-;6. Mitchell, Gordon R. 3Re#le-i%e 0i!t8 Incorpor!tin( the )ut*!rd cti%ist 2urn Into 1ontest >tr!te(&.3 2he Rostru+ ;2 :6!nu!r& 1998<8 11-21. -----. 3@oth >ides Bo*.3 "itts'ur(h "ost-G!?ette :M!rch 23, 199;<8 @-4. -----. 32i+e #or n cti%ist )ut*!rd 2urn in c!de+ic =e'!te.3 In Ro(er >olt, Gd. $nited >t!tes 0orei(n "olic&8 1hin! 1!rds. 4inston->!le+, B18 4!.e 0orest $ni%ersit&, 19958 4-;. Murchl!nd, @ern!rd. 3Introduction.3 In @ern!rd Murchl!nd, Gd. Ai(her Gduc!tion !nd the "r!ctice o# =e+ocr!tic "olitics. =!&ton, )A8 7etterin( 0ound!tion, 19918 1-9. Muschic., "!ul. 3@!c.ers, 0oes o# "olice Re%ie* Go nother Round.3 "itts'ur(h 2ri'une-Re%ie* :M!rch 20, 199;<8 @1. )pen >ociet& Institute. Ai(h >chool =e'!te "ro(r!+ Gr!nt Guidelines. 19138. Internet. )nline. )pen >ociet& Institute *e'site. %!il!'le !t http8II***.soros.or(. -----. Be* Hor. $r'!n =e'!te Fe!(ue "ro(r!+ Botes. 199;. Internet. )nline. )pen >ociet& Institute *e'site. %!il!'le !t http8II***.soros.or(. "!nett!, Gd*!rd M. 3 R!tion!le 0or =e%elopin( ! B!tion!ll& 1o+petiti%e B!tion!l =e'!te 2ourn!+ent )riented "ro(r!+.3 r(u+ent!tion !nd d%oc!c& 2; :0!ll 1990<8 68-;;. R!i, Mil!n. 1ho+s.&/s "olitics. Fondon8 Verso, 1995. Rie.e, Rich!rd =. !nd M!lcol+ ). >ill!rs. r(u+ent!tion !nd 1ritic!l =ecision M!.in(, 4th Gd. Be* Hor.8 ddison 4esle& Fon(+!n, 199;. >e+l!., 4. !nd =. >hields. 32he G##ect o# =e'!te 2r!inin( on >tudents "!rticip!tion in the @icentenni!l Houth =e'!tes.3 6ourn!l o# the +eric!n 0orensic ssoci!tion 13 :19;;<8 194.

Mitchell - Pedagogical Po i!ilitie - Page *)

>h!n!h!n, 4illi!+. 37riti. o# 2hin.in(.3 In Ro(er G. >olt !nd Ross 7. >+ith, Gds., Ae!lth 1!re "olic&8 =e'!tin( 1o%er!(e 1ures. 4inston>!le+, B18 4!.e 0orest $ni%ersit&, 19938 3-8. >holle, =!%id. 32he 2heor& o# 1ritic!l Medi! "ed!(o(&.3 6ourn!l o# 1o++unic!tion In9uir& 18 :>u++er 1994<8 8-29. >i+on, Ro(er I. !nd =on!ld =ippo. 3)n 1ritic!l Gthno(r!phic 4or..3 nthropolo(& !nd Gduc!tion Pu!rterl& 1; :1986<8 195-202. >nider, l#red. 3>peech 1o++unic!tion Must 'e G+ph!si?ed in +eric!n Ai(h >chools8 >ur%e& o# G+piric!l 0indin(s.3 2he Rostru+ :6!nu!r& 1993<. >r!der, =o&le. 1998. Internet. )nline. "erson!l 4e'site. %!il!'le !t http8II***.pu'lic.!su.eduIQsr!derI. 2our!ine, l!in. Return o# the ctor8 >oci!l 2heor& in "ostindustri!l >ociet&. 2r!ns. M&rn!

God?ic. Minne!polis8 $ni%ersit& o# Minnesot! "ress, 1988. 4!de, Meliss!. 32he 1!se #or $r'!n =e'!te Fe!(ues.3 199;. In Gordon Mitchell, Gd., "roceedin(s o# the 0irst =i%ersit& Recruit+ent !nd Retention in =e'!te Ide!#est. "itts'ur(h8 $ni%ersit& o# "itts'ur(h, 19988 ;;-82. 4!l#oort, Bin!. 3>ite 0i(ht8 $7 =e'!ters 2!c.le @rid(e 1ontro%ers&.3 Fouis%ille 1ourier-6ourn!l :>epte+'er 30, 1994<8 1@. 4ool(!r, >te%e. 32he Ver& Ide! o# >oci!l Gpiste+olo(&8 4h!t "rospects #or ! 2rul& R!dic!l MR!dic!ll& B!tur!li?ed Gpiste+olo(&/E3 In9uir& 34 :>epte+'er 1991<8 3;;-89. 5ie(el+ueller, Geor(e 4. !nd 6!c. 7!&. r(u+ent!tion, In9uir& !nd d%oc!c&, 3rd Gd. Beedh!+ Aei(hts, M 8 ll&n !nd @!con, 199;. 5inn, Ao*!rd. Hou 1!n/t @e Beutr!l on ! Mo%in( 2r!in. @oston8 @e!con @oo.s, 1994.