A Comparative Analysis of Group Work Methodology in the Field of Second Level Education with Respect to Contrasting Learning Styles

and Social Skills.

Michael McGee G00280014

Submitted for the Bachelor of Science (Honours) in Design and Technology Education to Galway-Mayo Institute of Technology, Letterfrack

Research Supervisor: Readers: Programme: Module Title:

Kevin Maye

Name of 1st & 2nd readers Bachelor of Science (Honours) in Design and Technology Education DTE4 Thesis 46077

Date Submitted: 11/11/2013

PLAGIARISM DISCLAIMER

Michael Mc Gee G00280014 Bachelor of Science (Honours) in Design and Technology Education 2013-14 DTE4 Thesis 46077 Mr. Kevin Maye DTE4 Thesis (Interim Submission) 11/11/13 11/11/13 The text in RED throughout are quotes and information that has yet to be formatted.

11/11/13

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I begin by thanking my Research Supervisor, Mr. Kevin Maye, whose support and advice provided me with a solid foundation for this, my first academic thesis. Another lecturer who warrants acknowledgement is Dr. Pauline Logue, who provided me with ample guidance and support in my academic writing to date. I would also like to mention, Marie Barrett, the college Librarian and all the staff of the GMIT library who provided me with adequate books and resources to aid in my research. I am also thankful to the staff from the Castlebar, Claremorris and NUIG libraries for providing me with books that were not available in the college library. I would also like to acknowledge my family whose background in education and proof reading skills helped this thesis reach what I hope to be a high academic standard. Finally I would like to thank my peers whose encouragement proved to be a driving force in the completion of this thesis.

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SUMMARY
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ABBREVIATIONS
NCCA- National Council for Curriculum and Assessment DCG- Design and Communications Graphics ZPD- Zone of Proximal Development MTW- Materials Technology (Wood) PPT- PowerPoint

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TABLE OF FIGURES
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TABLE OF TABLES
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GLOSSARY
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
PLAGIARISM DISCLAIMER............................................................................................... I ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ................................................................................................... II SUMMARY ........................................................................................................................... III ABBREVIATIONS ............................................................................................................... IV TABLE OF FIGURES ............................................................................................................ V TABLE OF TABLES ............................................................................................................ VI GLOSSARY.......................................................................................................................... VII TABLE OF CONTENTS .................................................................................................. VIII 1. INTRODUCTION................................................................................................................ 1 2. AIMS AND OBJECTIVES ................................................................................................. 4 3. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY ....................................................................................... 5 4. GROUP WORK ................................................................................................................... 6 4.1. 4.2. 4.3. 4.4. 4.5. 4.6. 4.7. INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................... 6 DEFINITION OF A GROUP ............................................................................................. 6 ADVANTAGES OF GROUP WORK ................................................................................. 7 DISADVANTAGES OF GROUP WORK .......................................................................... 10 FACILITATOR INPUT .................................................................................................. 11 GROUP DYNAMICS .................................................................................................... 14 CONCLUSION............................................................................................................. 15

5. MODELS OF GROUP WORK ........................................................................................ 17 5.1. INTRODUCTION ......................................................................................................... 17 5.2. TEN SMALL GROUP MODELS BY LANG AND EVANS ................................................. 17 5.2.1. Think Pair Share .................................................................................................. 17 5.2.2. Brainstorming ...................................................................................................... 17 5.2.3. The Buzz ............................................................................................................... 18 5.2.4. Problem-Solving .................................................................................................. 18 5.2.5. Tutorial ................................................................................................................ 19 5.2.6. Panel, Symposium, Forum, Dialogue and Round Table ...................................... 19 5.2.7. Laboratory ........................................................................................................... 19 5.2.8. Role-Playing ........................................................................................................ 19 5.2.9. One-Three-Six ...................................................................................................... 20 5.2.10. Value-Clarifying .............................................................................................. 20 5.3. THE CIRCLE .............................................................................................................. 20 5.4. FLY ON THE WALL .................................................................................................... 21 5.5. MEETING EVERYONE'S NEEDS .................................................................................. 21 5.6. PEER SUPPORT .......................................................................................................... 21 5.7. CONCLUSION............................................................................................................. 22 6. LEARNING STYLES AND MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCES ..................................... 23 6.1. INTRODUCTION ......................................................................................................... 23 viii

6.2. DEFINITION OF LEARNING STYLES ............................................................................ 23 6.3. CRITIQUE OF LEARNING STYLES THEORY ................................................................. 24 6.4. GARDNER'S MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCES .................................................................... 24 6.5. LEARNING STYLE MODELS ....................................................................................... 26 6.5.1. Visual Auditory Kinesthetic ................................................................................. 26 6.5.2. Kolb's Learning Cycle.......................................................................................... 26 6.6. LEARNING STYLES IN GROUP FORMATION................................................................ 26 6.7. CONCLUSION............................................................................................................. 27 7. PERSONALITY TYPES ................................................................................................... 28 7.1. 7.2. 7.3. 7.4. 7.5. 7.6. 7.7. 7.8. 7.9. 7.10. 8.1. 8.2. 8.3. 8.4. 8.5. 8.6. 8.7. 8.8. 9.1. 9.2. 9.3. INTRODUCTION ......................................................................................................... 28 DEFINITION OF PERSONALITY ................................................................................... 29 BELBIN'S THEORY OF PERSONALITY ......................................................................... 29 INTROVERSION AND EXTROVERSION......................................................................... 29 MYERS BRIGGS INDICATOR ...................................................................................... 31 INDIVIDUALISM AND COLLECTIVISM......................................................................... 31 SHYNESS ................................................................................................................... 32 MASLOW'S THEORY OF PERSONALITY ...................................................................... 32 STRESS ...................................................................................................................... 33 CONCLUSION............................................................................................................. 33 INTRODUCTION ......................................................................................................... 35 STRUGGLING WITH THE DYNAMICS OF GROUP WORK.............................................. 35 SILENCES: THE CASE OF THE INVISIBLE BOY ............................................................ 35 GROUP FORMATION BASED ON LEARNING STYLES................................................... 35 OFLAZ AND TURUNC STUDY ..................................................................................... 35 GETTING ALONG WITH EACH OTHER ....................................................................... 35 THE SPRING PROJECT ................................................................................................ 35 CONCLUSION............................................................................................................. 37 REVIEW OF FINDINGS ................................................................................................ 38 REVIEW OF AIMS AND OBJECTIVES ........................................................................... 38 RECOMMENDATIONS ................................................................................................. 38

8. CASE STUDIES ................................................................................................................. 35

9. CONCLUSION .................................................................................................................. 38

10. BIBLIOGRAPHY ............................................................................................................ 39

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Chapter 1: Introduction

1. INTRODUCTION
To quote Donelson Forsyth, a professor in the University of Richmond, "Groups are and always will be essential to human life" (Forsyth, 1999, p. 2). The way in which these groups are structured and utilised may have bearings on their productivity, a concept explored throughout this thesis with a view to improving group work in a classroom setting. Kyprianidou et al. claim that "[R]esearch has shown that there is a need for education to promote a global shift away from teacher-centred instruction" (Kyprianidou, Demetriadis, Tsiatsos, & Pombortsis, 2012, p. 85). Blatchford et al. maintain that effective group work is the key to this shift stating that "[A] key aim in effective group work is the development of pupil independence, and a shift in responsibility for learning from teacher to pupil" (Blatchford, Kutnick, Baines, & Galton, 2003, p. 167). A move from teacher centred lessons is at the forefront of educational reform and is evident in a variety of ways, namely; module structure of teacher training programs, and National Council for Curriculum and Assessment (NCCA) initiatives such as the Framework for Junior Cycle and recent changes to the Maths and Design and Communications Graphics (DCG) syllabi (GMIT, 2013, pp. 163-164; NCCA, 2011; Jeffes, et al., 2012; DES & NCCA, 2006). "It is argued that research and theory relevant to group work in classrooms is limited, and that a new approach, sensitive to group work under everyday classrooms is required" (Blatchford, Kutnick, Baines, & Galton, 2003, p. 155). This said, thirteen years has since passed and works from a number if researchers including; Gardner, Hoult, Kyprianidou et al., Lang, Evans, amongst others have shed some light on what was once a grey area. This thesis will explore these works in the hope of linking the data retrieved in them to a secondary school scenario. Exley et al. suggest that "[t]here are many different types of small groups and innumerable types of actions and interactions occurring within them" (Exley & Dennick, 2004, p. 25). I agree with this statement adding that the selection process is of ample importance when placing individuals in their respective groups. "Small groups can become dysfunctional for a variety of reasons, either from poor facilitation and organization or by the actions of individual group members" (Exley & Dennick, 2004, p. 27). As such caution should be observed when grouping pupils as, it may free up time, but detrimental effects may occur at a later stage. Blatchford et al. suggests that allowing pupils to select their own groups has negative effects as it has potential to raise concerns around social divisions and isolate pupils who are not selected (Blatchford, Kutnick, Baines, & Galton, 2003, p. 166). 1

Chapter 1: Introduction Furthermore, they add that the teacher should not completely exclude the pupils from the selection process as there may be an opportunity to obtain further learning outcomes during this process. For example, pupils could be "asked to consider the advantages of working with peers other than their close friends" (Blatchford, Kutnick, Baines, & Galton, 2003, p. 166). This concept intertwines with one of the main benefits of group work coined by Lang et al. who propose that "[S]tudents gain insights into the attitudes, reactions, and sensitivities of others and may examine and modify their behavior" (Lang & Evans, 2006, p. 409). As the thesis progresses, chapter six will examine a variety of learning styles and intelligences, exploring their relevance to group work and identifying possible grouping structures that may counteract any negative impact that these traits may inflict on a group. Hoult questions the view that "learning styles and multiple intelligences are linked in classroom practice" (Hoult, 2005, p. 45) by implying that it is a common misconception. He claims learning styles are "the different approaches that individuals take" (Hoult, 2005, p. 45) whereas multiple intelligences "represent potentials or capacities that are linked to neurological functions and structures that respond to particular content in the world" (Hoult, 2005, p. 45). I am not fully convinced that this misconception carries as much weight as Hoult suggests and as such, I have decided to include both traits in the same chapter in an effort to explore their interconnection further. Howard Gardner's theory of Multiple Intelligences, Kolb's Learning Cycle and the concept of Visual, Auditory and Kinesthetic learning styles form the backbone of this section of the chapter. Similarly, chapter seven will delineate a number of personality types and identify possible methods of utilising such personalities to improve group work in a classroom scenario. Blatchford et al. state that "[I]f pupil groupings are to work effectively, there is a need to develop a coherent social pedagogy of the use of grouping within classrooms that promote school-based achievement and motivation" (Blatchford, Kutnick, Baines, & Galton, 2003, p. 161). It is my opinion that such pedagogy finds its roots in the individual personalities of the group members, highlighting the importance of researching such personalities if successful grouping is to take place. Chapter eight will examine a number of case studies and real life examples of group work implementation in an effort to confirm or deny some of the assumptions made earlier in the text. Department inspections in the subject areas of Material Technology (Wood) and Construction Studies found that group work has the potential to be beneficial in theory aspects of both subjects. "It is urged that the possibility of engaging children in group work 2

Chapter 1: Introduction be explored and developed when particular topics are being investigated in theory lessons" (DES, 2009, p. 5). Correct structure is detrimental in this development stage and I believe that exploration of these case studies may shed some light on this process. The final chapter will offer a conclusion of the main findings in this text before listing a number of recommendations for further research.

Chapter 2: Aims and Objectives

2. AIMS AND OBJECTIVES

The primary aim of this thesis is to compare various group work methodologies in the field of second level education as encountered by pupils with contrasting learning styles and social skills, with a view to providing a set of guidelines to which facilitators can adhere. Provision of these guidelines will attempt to identify ways to balance the distribution of learning outcomes for individual group members and maximise the educational and holistic benefits encompassed in the group work spectrum. In order to achieve this, the research will identify areas of social psychology that have the potential to affect the dynamics of group work in second level education and explore strategies to overcome or neutralise such impediments. By identifying numerous learning styles and compile numerous expert opinions on each style, a better understanding of the individual will be developed. For this reason, studies of personality types will also be undertaken where the difference between introverts and extroverts will be distinguished, allowing for comprehension of the psychological barriers that exist for some pupils when it comes to collaborative learning. In addition to this, a comparison of expert opinions on the structuring of groups and provision of critiques to each opinion will be performed before formation of my own comprehensive strategy. Finally, an assessment of the suitability of group work for pupils with individual learning styles and an exploration of strategies that have been implemented to increase this suitability by comparing numerous case studies in the area will be undertaken.

Chapter 3: Research Methodology

3. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
As argued by Bell "[A]ny investigation, whatever the scale, will involve reading what other people have written about your area of interest, gathering information to support or refute your arguments and writing about your findings" (Bell, 1999, p. 90). With this in mind the method of research employed for this thesis falls under the heading of secondary research. During my research for this thesis, I have encountered approximately thirty books and over twenty scholarly articles on group work, learning styles and psychology, with many more in existence and it is my contention to collaborate a range of theories from such publications. Books, scholarly articles, case studies and government publications will provide me with a solid foundation on which to build a comprehensive argument. Experts in the field of psychology such as Susan Bentham, Howard Gardner, Charles Fox and Anita Woolfolk will provide me with numerous theories which I will compare and contrast in order to give rise to insightful debates about and critiques of each theory in turn. The area of study in this thesis is well represented in the literature and for this reason I will attempt to utilise as many sources as possible with a view to selecting the best and most relevant data for inclusion. "It is always hard to leave out publications that may have taken many hours to read, but the selection has to be made" (Bell, 1999, p. 96), in order to produce, what I hope to be a quality piece of work. The importance of reading data compiled by a variety of sources cannot be stressed enough as it has the potential to confirm or deny the credibility of such data. Bell maintains that data that "at one stage might have seemed to be a promising line of enquiry may prove to be of little use once more reading has been done" (Bell, 1999, p. 98), a philosophy that was confirmed on numerous occasions during my literature review for this text. On a similar note further reading may shed light on a piece of text that may previously have been deemed irrelevant prompting the researcher to take a second look at it. Find another source for this last paragraph... over reliance on Bell.

Chapter 4: Group Work

4. GROUP WORK
4.1. Introduction

Throughout the literature it is evident, as Forsyth states, that "[G]roups usually exist for a reason" (Forsyth, 1999, p. 10). Whether it is a sports team, political party, or even a family, the context of the group bears a heavy weighting on the reason for its existence. The following chapter will focus on groups of adolescents in a classroom scenario. It will begin by defining the term 'group work' before outlining the pros and cons encompassed in it. Subsequently, it will examine the facilitator's role in groups and the effect they have on the group. It will also study the dynamics of groups and explore the effect this may have on a group's productivity. In conclusion, it will hone in on some of the key points encompassed in the chapter offering an insight into an ideal group work application in a secondary school scenario.

4.2.

Definition of a Group

A group is defined as a "number of persons or things belonging or classed together of forming a whole" (Sykes, 1976, p. 474). In addition "Furnham (1997) defines a group as more than two people who 'communicate regularly, share goals and interact with each other over time, so building up affective (or emotional) bonds'" (Mac Donagh, Linehan, & Weldridge, 2002, p. 165). The first definition is clear and concise, as most dictionary definitions tend to be; as such the second definition is required to provide a more comprehensive description of the word. Furnham's use of word interact captures the essence of the desired traits of a group, however, I would be sceptical of his use of the term 'share goals'. The concept of shared goals is a core element of group dynamics and will be explored further in Chapter 4.6, where provision of evidence that common goals are not always present in groups will be provided. In light of this, my working definition of a group 'is a number of individuals utilising the strengths of others in order to improve the quality of the task at hand'. A further definition from Forsyth defines a group as "two or more interdependent individuals who influence one another through social interaction" (Forsyth, 1999, p. 5). The use of the phrase 'social interaction' captures the essence of a core element encompassed in the group

Chapter 4: Group Work work spectrum, an element explored further in this thesis in the chapter on personality styles. In the context of education and indeed for the purposes of this thesis group work may be defined as "pupils working together as a group or team" (Blatchford, Kutnick, Baines, & Galton, 2003, p. 155). To further this definition Exley et al. suggest that "[T]he perfect group knows exactly what it is supposed to be doing and works collaboratively towards achieving its agreed deep learning goals" (Exley & Dennick, 2004, p. 25).

4.3.

Advantages of Group Work

"When students teach students, a valuable dimension is added to teaching and learning" (Lang & Evans, 2006, p. 413). This is a view shared by Forsyth, who, having already offered an intriguing definition of a group, promotes the benefits of the same. He argues that "[W]hen individuals join groups, their self-concept becomes connected to that group, and the value of that group comes to influence their feelings about their personal worth" (Forsyth, 1999, p. 79). In the context of holistic education such outcomes fall at the forefront of an educator's priorities. This said, a balance must be maintained between peer to peer learning and teachercentred modes of delivery. "There are times when a highly teacher-centred whole-class method is effective" (Lang & Evans, 2006, p. 403). An example of such an occasion may be the introduction of a new tool, where health and safety concerns trump any advantages that may be obtained from a group work exercise. "When small groups are used, it is more likely that students will understand the thinking skills or processes involved. When this occurs, learning is more likely to be transformed to new situations" (Lang & Evans, 2006, p. 409). Such applications will assist pupils in the storage and retrieval of knowledge gained during the session as a result of what Piaget described as assimilation (Furth, 1970, pp. 16-17). Piaget's concept of assimilation is described by Furth as a focus on "what is essential to all knowing, namely, the sameness, communality, and generalization in a given situation" (Furth, 1970, p. 17). This concept ties in with efforts by the NCCA to improve critical thinking skills of pupils studying DCG at Leaving Certificate level. The unpredictability of the examination paper and the intertwining of topics across the questions in the terminal exam encourage teachers to find innovative ways to teach the principles of each topic as opposed to the traditional rote learning methods of the past. "Put simply, groups make it easier to attain our goals" (Forsyth, 1999, p. 10).

Chapter 4: Group Work Piaget also had a variety of links to active learning, a concept that often sits hand in hand with group work. "Methods that require you to be active, such as group work, actually help you learn more easily and more thoroughly than the traditional passive ways" (O'Sullivan, Rice, Rogerson, & Saunders, 1996, p. 57). This became apparent to me during my teaching placement in 2013 when the average grade of one of my Material Technology (Wood) (MTW) classes increased following the adoption of a more active based theory lesson. The topic in question was hand tools and pupils were invited to test a variety of chisels that had been brought in as resources. Test answers for this test question were more commonly answered correctly as opposed to questions on the plane which was taught using an animated PowerPoint (PPT). During the lesson on chisels, pupils were invited to discuss the merits and demerits of each chisel as they sampled them. Kyprianidou et al. maintain that "[P]eer interaction in collaborative settings is expected to trigger learning mechanisms and promote the construction of knowledge" (Kyprianidou, Demetriadis, Tsiatsos, & Pombortsis, 2012, p. 87), a theory I believe to have been at play in this particular lesson. In the current economic climate class sizes are on the rise putting added pressure on teachers to give individual attention to each student in their class on a regular basis. Initiatives such as group work, if properly managed, can free up time to allow the teacher to provide such individual attention whilst improving the quality of learning for the students in parallel. Bolton provides the argument that "[W]e learn from our tutors, teachers and lecturers; we can learn far more from our peers" (Bolton, 2001, p. 58). This feeling is shared by Lang and Evans who state that "A group has access to more information and has a broader background than does any individual" (Lang & Evans, 2006, p. 409). Similar views are shared by many other experts in the field of educational psychology. One such person is Gillie Bolton who believes that "[E]veryone brings expectations, hopes and fears which combine with unspoken elements within the group to create curricula which are not stated and might be either productive or harmful. An awareness of this, and sensitivity to participants' sensitivities is invaluable" (Bolton, 2001, p. 58). This is explored further in chapter seven when personality styles are examined in greater detail, stressing the importance of including a variety of different personalities in each group to promote pupils social development. Some may argue that larger class sizes mean larger groups or more groups which come with consequences. "If the number of groups poses a particular problem, the teacher can think about working in ways that mean that only a few groups work at a time while the remainder of the class work individually" (Blatchford, Kutnick, Baines, & Galton, 2003, p. 165). An initiative such as this 8

Chapter 4: Group Work may prove particularly useful for practical demonstrations in an MTW class where the size of the class may warrant the splitting of demonstrations into more manageable group sizes. Forsyth captures the very essence of what is desired from group work. He states that "a group is more than the sum of the individual members" (Forsyth, 1999, p. 14). Teachers strive to make the most of the time spent with students and implementing group work appears to be a key element of this. This feeling was shared by numerous key thinkers in education including Vygotsky who "strongly believed that we can learn from others, both of the same age and of a higher age and developmental level" (Brooks, Abbott, & Bills, 2007, p. 50). This is further explored in Vygotsky's theory of the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) which "refers to the gap between what a person is able to do alone and what they can do with the help of someone more knowledgeable or skilled than themselves" (Brooks, Abbott, & Bills, 2007, p. 50). Brooks et al. suggest that his theory of ZPD has been influential in the development of collaborative learning programmes. "Depending on the individual, the environment and the nature of the lesson, teachers will need to use a variety of strategies to develop the zone of proximal development for pupils, including using different learning style methods" (Hoult, 2005, p. 41). Forsyth adds that "[E]ven though we must sometimes bend to the will of a group and its leaders, through groups we can reach goals that would elude us if we attempted them as individuals" (Forsyth, 1999, p. 23). This concept will be explore further in chapter six were learning styles are examined in greater depth. One of the best ways to view the benefits of group work is to look at real life applications. "Early research into industrial relations by Mayo at the Hawthorne Plant, Chicago (1927-32) suggested that group work boosts levels of productivity ... Mayo concluded that this was due to the benefits of working as a cohesive group" (O'Sullivan, Rice, Rogerson, & Saunders, 1996, p. 56). Though this is in an industrial setting many secondary school subject inspection reports boast similar findings (DES, 2009; DES, 2010; DES, 2011; DES, 2012). When in groups pupils have the opportunity to provide each other with feedback. "Feedback from peers is often seen as more grounded and less coercive than when it is received from a paid professional worker who may not have experienced similar concerns or who may be viewed as an authority figure by reluctant or involuntary clients" (Toseland & Rivas, 2005, p. 17) At a later stage in their book, An Introduction to Group Work Practice, the authors portray the importance of feedback by stating that "[F]eedback and clarification enhances accurate understanding of communications" (Toseland & Rivas, 2005, p. 74). Even when a teacher adopts a firm but fair approach an element of distance will remain between the 9

Chapter 4: Group Work teacher and his/her students, a distance that may rule out a teacher's ability to provide feedback that a student will take on board. In short "explanations used by peers are more relevant to students" (Lang & Evans, 2006, p. 409).

4.4.

Disadvantages of Group Work

Though the research shows that there are certain disadvantages to group work, with various techniques it is possible to put a positive spin on them. For example the sharing of individual opinions through a medium of group work "will inevitably lead some group members to challenge the assumptions and beliefs of others, which can be a painful experience leading to outright conflict and even hostility" (Exley & Dennick, 2004, p. 28). In order to place a positive spin on this conflict, Exley et al. suggest that the facilitator warns group members of possible arguments that may arise and point out the learning that can be obtained from such arguments (Exley & Dennick, 2004, p. 29). This is a perfect example of an element of the hidden curriculum surfacing in classroom teaching. In such a case pupils are learning the course content in parallel to learning valuable life lessons. The development of pupils' social skills is likely to add to their holistic development. Pupil awareness of this may also help to counteract Lang and Evans' assumption that "[U]nless small groups are used well and the benefits taught, some might rather work alone, thinking they can learn better" (Lang & Evans, 2006, p. 410). To allow this to go unaddressed may prove to be a failing on behalf of the teacher as "[I]ndividuals who never experience life within an organized network of interpersonal relations never develop their capacity to relate to others satisfactorily" (Forsyth, 1999, p. 64). "Some teachers believe that using small groups can lead to classroom management problems and off-task student behavior" (Lang & Evans, 2006, p. 408). Classroom management issues can lead to disruptive students and a negative learning environment which can result in the curriculum not being encompassed in the allocated time. "Poor classroom management often leads to misbehaviours which interfere with teaching and learning, and produces tremendous stress." (Rosas & West, 2009). An example of this appears in chapter eight during a case study in which a student teacher attempts to run a poorly structured group discussion during a lesson. Sharing of knowledge and skills is a core element in successful group work, however, 10

Chapter 4: Group Work "[I]n a group of students where some have more knowledge, more confidence and more relevant experience, it can be difficult to create an environment of positive sharing. It can also be difficult to give explanations and design learning tasks that contribute to the learning of all students" (Exley & Dennick, 2004, p. 151). This said, Exley and Dennick did not state that such an environment was unachievable. In fact with well structured groups it may be possible for the facilitator to ensure that all group members have something to bring to the table. In such cases the facilitator should highlight the sharing that is taking place to make students aware of the positive learning that is taking place. Care should be observed with this model to ensure everyone who has something to contribute gets the chance to do so. "Socially anxious people, even when they join groups, do not actively participate; they can be identified by their silence, downcast eyes, and low speaking voice" (Forsyth, 1999, p. 94). Early identification of these pupils will allow time for the facilitator to plan ways of getting them involved. The 'Think, Pair, Share' model discussed in the next chapter may lend itself to a possible solution for such a scenario, as working in pairs may prove less threatening to these socially anxious people. Individual thought time allocated to students in this model may also give them the time they need to think about what they wish to share, thus boosting their confidence to share it. A citation of Ellis and Hafner (2008) in an article by Kyprianidou et al. advocates that "some students feel uncomfortable with collaborative learning activities and frequently view them as a threat to their performance" (Kyprianidou, Demetriadis, Tsiatsos, & Pombortsis, 2012, p. 87). For some this may revive memories of past group experiences where the fear of 'being wrong' hindered their input to a group activity. Some personality types lend themselves to this feeling more than others but methods such as the brainstorming group work model by Lang, discussed in the next chapter, may reduce this fearful feeling. Brooks adds that "[A]dolescents tend incessantly to analyse their own beliefs and attitudes, and often assume that everyone else shares their concerns and is in turn analyzing them" (Brooks, Abbott, & Bills, 2007, p. 49). Again, with suitable facilitation techniques this may be reduced or even eliminated from a group. Examples of such techniques are explored in the following section.

4.5.

Facilitator Input

Whilst explaining the concept of assumptions in his book, Becoming a Critically Reflective Teacher, Brookfield poses the question of whether the facilitator should visit groups during 11

Chapter 4: Group Work task completion, or not (Brookfield, 1995, p. 4). On one hand he suggests that "(V)isiting groups is an example of respectful, attentive, student-centered teaching" (Brookfield, 1995, p. 4). Ellis concurs with this opinion stating that "your proximity to a student or a group can encourage on-task behaviour" (Ellis, 2007, p. 79). In contrast to this Brookfield also proposes that visiting groups "can be insulting to students, since it implies that you don't trust them enough to do what you've asked" (Brookfield, 1995, p. 4). One way to counteract this negative pupil perception is to adopt a method of observation coined by Lang and Evans; global observation (Lang & Evans, 2006, p. 429). This is a method of informal observation where the teacher/facilitator notes the dynamics and productivity of the group from afar, often without the pupils noticing (Lang & Evans, 2006, pp. 429-430). "Silence is the element in which great things fashion themselves together" (Carlyle, 2008, p. 250). This statement rings true for a variety of situations, group work being no exception. Bolton offers a number of insights into silence in groups, beginning by saying "[T]he leader must learn to allow for different sorts of silence - the reflective, the anxious, the embarrassed or puzzled" (Bolton, 2001, p. 61). A lot can be said in silence, the message I believe Bolton is portraying here is that productive silence should not be interrupted. He adds that "[S]ilence can be used fruitfully for deep reflection when individual group members feel responsible for their group" (Bolton, 2001, p. 61). Such reflective silences may be used to assist pupils in developing a better understanding of some of the benefits of group work discussed earlier in this chapter. For example, a short period of reflection could be allocated to a group at the end of a session in which the members can reflect on what they and others have brought to the group. Bolton concludes by stating that "[M]ore can sometimes be said in silence than words can manage" (Bolton, 2001, p. 61). On the flip side of this, too much noise can negatively affect groups. Exley and Dennick argue that "facilitators should be able to prevent 'normal' argument and debate turning into open hostility and a breakdown of collaborative learning" (Exley & Dennick, 2004, p. 29). In addition O'Sullivan et al. maintain that "[A] successful group will encourage all its members to speak, but this needs building up through both individual and group awareness" (O'Sullivan, Rice, Rogerson, & Saunders, 1996, p. 74). Perhaps in the early stages of the lifecycle of a group some sort of rules and routines should be established in order to determine who contributes, and at what stage. "In early childhood settings, it is evident that routines play an important role in shaping the dynamics of the classroom." (Salmon, 2010, p.

12

Chapter 4: Group Work 132). Salmon's serving of wisdom may help facilitators to maintain better control over group conversations. As mentioned earlier in this chapter, some pupils may lack the confidence to join in group discussions. The facilitator can intervene in such situations in a variety of ways depending on what is warranted by the situation. Exley and Dennick suggest that "[U]sing names can be very useful ... as you can specifically ask individuals to come in and join the debate" (Exley & Dennick, 2004, p. 29). Useful as this may appear at a first glance, this may add fuel to the fire, in that it may put these students under more pressure to contribute. O'Sullivan et al. offer a less intrusive option suggesting "that you all make one comment each so that everyone speaks and no one feels singled out" (O'Sullivan, Rice, Rogerson, & Saunders, 1996, p. 74). Such interventions are best done early on before the student in question becomes too isolated in the group. "Research has shown that after a certain length of time it is difficult to break into a conversation" (O'Sullivan, Rice, Rogerson, & Saunders, 1996, p. 74). Clear and concise instructions delivered in ways that suit a variety of learning styles may increase the productivity of a group. Oflaz and Turunc insinuate that "teachers are most helpful when they help students to learn in a way that best suits their style preference" (Oflaz & Turunc, 2012, p. 1335). The importance of clarity was stressed in a subject inspection in a County Cork secondary school where "[I]n one senior cycle lesson dealing with planning for sustainability in buildings students made notes and engaged in group work that was very well conceived and organised. Clear instructions were given to ensure effectiveness in the group work" (DES, 2011, p. 3). Caution on the part of the facilitator should be observed here as often pupils' interpretation of a teacher's instruction differs from the intended interpretation. "The surest way to know what you have 'said' to another person is to listen to the response you get back" (Mahony, 2007, p. 6). Put into context Mahony is advising the teacher to monitor the outcomes of certain tasks in order to ensure pupils understood the instructions. This model is somewhat flawed in that it does not allow for pupils' potential to interpret the instructions correctly and subsequently complete the task incorrectly. In my experience on Teaching Practice and also in a variety of sporting and work scenarios, I found that the best way to ensure clarity is to have the person repeat the instructions back to you. Time consuming as this may sound, it may save time in the long run by identifying potential misinterpretations of instructions whilst recapping the instruction for all involved. Finally, but by no means immaterial, planning by the facilitator can make or break a group work session. "Have a plan for students who are shy, lazy or dominate discussion, and those 13

Chapter 4: Group Work who lead the group off task or are negative" (Lang & Evans, 2006, p. 408). This will ensure most of the disadvantages mentioned earlier in the chapter are avoided, maximising productivity in the group. Planning will also allow the facilitator to manage time more efficiently. "Time is the coin of teaching. It's up to us to spend it wisely." (Cummings, 2000, p. 31).

4.6.

Group Dynamics

"The forces that result from the interactions of group members are often referred to as group dynamics" (Toseland & Rivas, 2005, p. 64). Another definition suggests it is "[T]he scientific study of groups" (Forsyth, 1999, p. 11). Both definitions warrant acknowledgement and a merging of the two provide a comprehensive working definition. It could be argued that group dynamics is the collective term used to describe the forces resulting from relations between group members, determined by scientifically analysing the group. Such forces could be further subcategorised, but not limited to headings such as; communication, cohesiveness and structure. With communication in mind "[I]n a group everyone needs both to give and receive messages regularly so that there is balance of decision making and responsibility" (O'Sullivan, Rice, Rogerson, & Saunders, 1996, p. 74). Methods of ensuring this were discussed earlier in the chapter whereby the 'Think, Pair, Share' model of group work was suggested to get everyone involved at an early stage. O'Sullivan et al. add that "[I]f your group is to perform successfully you must communicate with each other in order to agree the aims of the task and to form and maintain a cohesiveness" (O'Sullivan, Rice, Rogerson, & Saunders, 1996, p. 68). This statement shows that my proposed subheadings for elements of group dynamics are intertwined, leading me onto the heading of cohesiveness. Group cohesion can be defined as "unity, oneness, and solidarity" (Forsyth, 1999, p. 8) within a group. "At the individual level, cohesiveness derives from each member's attraction to other group members, whether this attraction is based on liking, respect, or trust" (Forsyth, 1999, p. 9). If this can be established early on then the group has the potential to be very productive. However if this is not the case, efforts should be made to rectify the situation. This may mean reorganising roles within the group or even swapping group members from one group to another. "The roles and interactions of the individual members may determine the group's 14

Chapter 4: Group Work productivity and success, and the way in which students are grouped may affect the results of the learning experience" (Kyprianidou, Demetriadis, Tsiatsos, & Pombortsis, 2012, p. 84), leading us onto the heading of structure. Bolton stresses the importance of group structure by implying that "a group is not a story written by one author, but a story authored by all the group members" (Bolton, 2001, p. 65). Lang and Evans add that "[T]he productivity and health of groups depend on how they are structured" (Lang & Evans, 2006, p. 410). Careful thought should go into the makeup of groups to ensure maximum learning for all involved. Diversity of learning styles and personality types allow pupils to draw traits they may be lacking from others in the group to help them to become more rounded individuals. Such efforts may assist pupils develop a level of self-understanding. "Self-understanding is one of the keys to understanding, communicating, and learning within a group context" (Haar, Hall, Schoepp, & Smith, 2002, p. 145), a comment not too far removed from Socrates' philosophy of wanting the students to know themselves by stating "that the unexamined life is not worth living" (Brickhouse & Smith, 1994, p. 13). To conclude, Bolton compares a group to a story. "What makes a story a story is the way the characters and the situation, and the readers' view of them change and develop. A group will not continue to get better and better; the duration and the shape of the 'plot' will vary for different groups" (Bolton, 2001, p. 64). The fluctuating elements involved in any given group work setting make a definitive list of instructions difficult to compile. Insert paragraph on shared goals, providing evidence of the existance of a variety of goals within a group. Case studies ???

4.7.

Conclusion

"A group, in a very real sense, is alive: It acquires energy and resources from its environment, maintains its structure, and grows over time" (Forsyth, 1999, p. 15). Group work by its very nature is a complex, yet valued, element of classroom teaching and learning. The advantages are abundant with many of the disadvantages being avoidable by employing suitable strategies. Pupils have a lot to gain from group work as it strives to improve their social and academic skills by promoting peer to peer learning. Pupils are encouraged to share their own knowledge and skills and draw on the skills of others to improve on areas of their own 15

Chapter 4: Group Work persona that may be lacking. Disagreements may occur but with adequate facilitation, maximum learning can be obtained from such disagreements. The role of the facilitator is ever changing and they must adapt their methodologies to suit each specific situation they face. If the old analogy, a good start is half the battle, is to be believed, then the structure of the group and its journey through the forming stage play a key role in shaping the dynamics of the group and have a knock on effect to everything that occurs thereafter.

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Chapter 5: Models of Group Work

5. MODELS OF GROUP WORK

5.1. Introduction

Lang and Evans outline a number of desired objectives and suggest possible methods of structuring groups to achieve such objectives (Lang & Evans, 2006, p. 402). They suggest that if active participation, increased motivation and a high rate of retention is required then problem solving and reporting groups are most suited (Lang & Evans, 2006, p. 402). On the other hand if a high level of cognitive understanding is desired creative thinking groups may be more suited (Lang & Evans, 2006, p. 402). In addition they suggest games, debates or simulations, if a change of pace is required (Lang & Evans, 2006, p. 402).

5.2.

Ten Small Group Models By Lang and Evans

5.2.1. Think Pair Share This method is "[A] good way to encourage students to participate in small groups or in class while students extend their thinking and interaction" (Lang & Evans, 2006, p. 405). The application of this model involves a short teacher presentation which is followed by pupils discussing their opinions in pairs before sharing their findings with the larger group. This model was referred to earlier in the text as a possible solution to enticing socially anxious people to become more involved in the activity. The teacher presentation at the beginning of this model allows for implementation of Lang and Evans' concept of teacher-centred wholeclass instruction to take place. Some elements of new learning have to be taught to provide pupils with a starting point on which to build further knowledge. This model appears to be a suitable candidate for implementing such a strategy through the medium of group work.

5.2.2. Brainstorming This method strives to induce a large quantity of ideas in a short period of time. An important factor here is to ensure that criticism is withheld and judgement is ruled out whilst ideas are being teased out. This adds a fun element to the task as "people like the freedom of expression" (Lang & Evans, 2006, p. 405) obtained by removing the pressure to constantly have the right answer. Personally, I would suggest erring on the side of caution with such a 17

Chapter 5: Models of Group Work method as it may allow for wrong information to go unchecked. This said, if the facilitator is in a position to carefully monitor content from all groups ensuring any incorrect data is rectified prior to the end of the activity, then such a method may prove fruitful. It provides an alternative option for the inclusion of socially anxious pupils in the group by removing the fear of giving a wrong answer. Classroom management should be well established prior to attempting such a method as individual outbursts may chastise pupils who provide incorrect answers. In short if the methodology of withholding judgement of answers is at play it is important to ensure all pupils observe this. 5.2.3. The Buzz In this case pupils are presented with a problem and invited to discuss it, in small groups, for a set period of time. Distribution of roles in each group provides for the recording of data obtained in the discussion, data which can be explored further on completion of the task. Such methodology may allow a facilitator encourage pupils to explore a concept in great depth, with each member of the class being given an opportunity to voice their opinion. O'Sullivan et al. suggest that "[O]ften there are people who dominate discussion in groups and those who say nothing. Those who talk a lot may not necessarily be over confident. They may dislike silences and feel guilty if they do not say something" (O'Sullivan, Rice, Rogerson, & Saunders, 1996, p. 74). Splitting the larger group into a number of smaller groups may reduce the number of these people in each group allowing time for others to get involved.

5.2.4. Problem-Solving This method involves the following steps; define the problem, brainstorm the likely causes of the problem, decide the most likely cause, brainstorm potential solutions, select the most likely solution, and decide when and how to implement the solution (Lang & Evans, 2006, p. 407). The merits of such a model are reiterated by Toseland et al. who suggest that "[T]he increased quantity of information available in groups can be beneficial ... for problem solving" (Toseland & Rivas, 2005, pp. 19-20). The logical steps of this model will also touch on elements of the hidden curriculum in that pupils can apply these steps to other aspects of their lives. The term hidden curriculum refers to features of classroom life that are inherent in

18

Chapter 5: Models of Group Work the social relations of schooling, but are not always visible to the pupils of teacher at the time of implementation (Margolis, 2001, p. ix). 5.2.5. Tutorial This method forms a discussion that can be lead by either the teacher or a student. It allows greater attention to be projected onto individual needs and entices pupils to engage in more active participation (Lang & Evans, 2006, p. 407). The concept of tutorial based learning brings the text to life and invites pupils to discuss and question the content which in turn links to the Socratic method of teaching. Socrates "taught by engaging others in dialogue, not by writing" (Noddings, 2007, p. 5). 5.2.6. Panel, Symposium, Forum, Dialogue and Round Table This method can invoke a motivating aspect to a lesson by stepping away from the traditional lecture based delivery of content (Lang & Evans, 2006, p. 407). In order to ensure learning outcomes are addressed, it may help to "conclude with a summation to ensure content is organized, correctly understood, and links to what is being studied" (Lang & Evans, 2006, p. 407). Similar in characteristics to the tutorial method mentioned above this method puts the focus of learning back on the pupils. The summation at the end is similar to a recap at the end of a lesson whereby the key learning is addressed and any incorrect knowledge is rectified. 5.2.7. Laboratory This method involves the formation of a group in order "to complete a project, an experiment, or practice something that has been presented" (Lang & Evans, 2006, p. 407). In the context of technical education this model is at the heart of practical lessons. Differentiation is present in most classrooms. In most cases the teacher can use innovative teaching strategies to accommodate all pupils. In the case of a practical class where projects may run for weeks on end this model, coined by Lang, is one such strategy. 5.2.8. Role-Playing "Role playing is an enactment of a social role in an imagined situation" (Toseland & Rivas, 2005, p. 296). In this model "each member is assigned a role to assume on a controversial topic" (Lang & Evans, 2006, p. 407). Members then act out their role with a view to 19

Chapter 5: Models of Group Work exploring all aspects of the topic. Additions to this model such as role reversal may help students visualize arguement from alternating view points. Role reversal has the potential to remove people from their comfort zone and view a situation from another perspective.

5.2.9. One-Three-Six This method is similar to the think pair share model mentioned earlier however the sizes of the sub-groups have been altered to increase the fountain of knowledge. Pupils are allocated time to ponder a topic individually prior to forming groups of three where they share their thoughts (Lang & Evans, 2006, p. 408). Finally each group joins with another to form groups of six. The larger groups of six will inform the remainder of the class of their findings. Such a model would be best utilised in a larger class group where a number of contrasting opinions may emerge, sparking further discussion.

5.2.10. Value-Clarifying This model is deemed controversial as pupils are asked to "seek alternative solutions" (Lang & Evans, 2006, p. 408) to a value laden topic. Some educators believe the approach to be a fad that is superficial and laden with inadequacies and problems whilst others believe it to be motivating and invaluable in the development of critical thinking skills (Lang & Evans, 2006, p. 408).

5.3.

The Circle

"No practice is more beloved of progressive educators than that of having students sit in a circle rather than rows" (Brookfield, 1995, p. 9). Brookfield argues that the circle "draws students into conversation and gives everyone a chance to be seen and heard" (Brookfield, 1995, p. 9). Further weight to the merits of this model are provided by Toseland et al. who suggest that "[B]ecause circular seating arrangements promote face-to-face interaction, they are often preferred to other arrangements" (Toseland & Rivas, 2005, p. 73). This said, "for students that are shy, self conscious about their different skin colour, physical appearance, or form of dress, unused to intellectual discourse, intimidated by disciplinary jargon and the culture of academe, or embarrassed by their lack of 20

Chapter 5: Models of Group Work education, the circle can be a painful and humiliating experience" (Brookfield, 1995, p. 9). In order to overcome such obstacles, further research into personality types is explored at a later stage in this thesis.

5.4.

Fly on the Wall

This concept of group facilitation involves the teacher grouping the pupils and providing them with minimal instruction about the task before withdrawing their presence to allow the pupils to work alone (Brookfield, 1995, p. 11). As the facilitator is removed from the group, "students feel their contributions are valuable and that they, individually, are responsible for the development of the lesson and the learning of classmates" (Lang & Evans, 2006, p. 403). This said, "[S]tudents will wonder how the teacher thinks they're doing and will be observing him or her closely for any clues to approval of censure" (Brookfield, 1995, p. 11). In such instances, non verbal communication such as a simple nod of the head or smile may suffice.

5.5.

Meeting Everyone's Needs

While "the best classes are those in which every student feels that his or her needs have been met" (Brookfield, 1995, p. 20), it should be noted that this unattainable standard can encourage students to take a narrow view of their needs, belittling the compassionate and student centred aim of the model (Brookfield, 1995, pp. 20-21). "It is impossible with a typical class size to plan an individual learning approach for every pupil" (Hoult, 2005, p. 49). Differing abilities in classrooms often see teachers relying on the more able pupils keeping occupied whilst the needs of others are met, a term often referred to as a "bedrock of busyness" (Sharp, Green, & Lewis, 1975, p. 122).

5.6.

Peer Support

"In discussion or problem-solving classes it can sometimes be helpful to explicitly mix the class so that you invite students who have a more advanced level of understanding and/or 21

Chapter 5: Models of Group Work greater experience to share their knowledge and work with students who are more novice" (Exley & Dennick, 2004, p. 152). In contrast Muijs et al. argue that once a peer tutor has gained knowledge in a particular aspect of the curriculum "a lot of the most effective tutoring involves pupils of similar abilities" (Muijs & Reynolds, 2011, p. 73). Grouping to ability may sound good in theory but in a practical situation it is not always possible to do so. In such instances where a group consists of mixed ability pupils the facilitator must be mindful of pupils feelings. "If the 'peer-tutored' student isn't to feel undermined and patronized, their contributions need to be given time and attention elsewhere in the class and if possible the roles reversed for different topics" (Exley & Dennick, 2004, p. 152)

5.7.

Conclusion

The diversity in the models outlined above instil an awareness of the importance of advanced planning prior to commencement of any group work exercise. Group work is not a one size fits all scenario and careful thought needs to be given in order to select the right model to employ for a specific situation. Unfortunately, it is not possible to select the ideal model simply by reading this chapter. None of the afore mentioned models are set in stone and each in turn must be tailored to suit the situation at hand. This is best done through trial and error coupled with critical reflection, using the models as a guide. Brookfield suggests that "while reading books, attending workshops, or watching colleagues can give you some useful insights and techniques ... it is wrong to assume that at some point in these activities, you will inevitably stumble on the exact answer to the problem you are experiencing" (Brookfield, 1995, p. 19). He adds that "[M]ore often than not, any ideas of suggestions we pick up will have to be sculpted to fit the local conditions in which we work" (Brookfield, 1995, p. 19). This statement does not belittle the merits of research, in fact it welcomes it as a starting point from which to draw conclusions from. With this in mind further reading on learning styles over the course of the next chapter may steer the path towards such conclusions.

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Chapter 6: Learning Styles

6. LEARNING STYLES AND MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCES

6.1. Introduction

Over the course of this chapter the reader will be provided with an insight into both learning styles and multiple intelligences. Beginning by offering a definition of the two terms the chapter goes on to provide a critique of the learning style theory. Howard Gardner, having undertaken extensive research in the field of multiple intelligence, plays an important role in the shaping of this chapter as his theories are discussed and dissected. As the chapter progresses various models of learning styles will be explored in an effort to form links between these models and their potential merits when applied to a group work scenario. Finally a conclusion will be offered.

6.2.

Definition of Learning Styles

Simply defined, learning styles are "the way that learners prefer to learn" (Hoult, 2005, p. 37). This definition is further developed by Campbell et al. who suggest that "[L]earning styles refers to individual differences in the way information is perceived, processed, and communicated" (Campbell, Campbell, & Dickinson, 1996, p. 174). In more academic terms Kyprianidou et al. add that "[T]he term 'learning style' is broadly used in the literature to refer to learners' classification schemes depending principally on their dominating cognitive and psychological traits when engaged in learning activities" (Kyprianidou, Demetriadis, Tsiatsos, & Pombortsis, 2012, p. 85). In light of these definitions I offer my own working definition which views learning styles as the preferences of an individual towards a specific style of delivery when encountering new knowledge. It is my contention that an individual may lean towards one of more of these styles at any given time. This thought is shared by O'Sullivan et al. who suggest that "[N]o one learning style is better than another. It is more important to be able to use each when appropriate" (O'Sullivan, Rice, Rogerson, & Saunders, 1996, p. 34).

6.3.

Definition of Multiple Intelligences

23

Chapter 6: Learning Styles Gardner has a very specific criterion when it comes to the definition intelligence. To Gardner "[A]n intelligence is a computational capacity - a capacity to process a certain kind of information - that originates in human biology and human psychology" (Gardner, 2006, p. 6). A bold assumption delineated by Gardner implies that "there is not, and there can never be, a single irrefutable and universally accepted list of human intelligences" (Gardner, 1993, p. 59). Abrupt as this may seem I am inclined to agree with him on the grounds that individuality and the diversity of opinions throughout the world make it difficult for people to agree on anything that cannot be scientifically proven. Even when such proof is available sceptics may still exist. Intelligences, as viewed by Gardner, "exist not as physically verifiable entities but only as potentially useful scientific constructs" (Gardner, 1993, p. 70), a term used to describe an entity that's foundation depends upon a subject's mind.

6.4.

Critique of Learning Styles Theory

"Whereas modern medicine owes much of its success to its reliance upon evidence-based treatments ... a thoughtful review of the data provides no support for style based instruction" (Rohrer & Pashler, 2012, p. 634) Rohrer et al. go on to argue that many of the studies conducted in the field of learning styles yield results that are compellingly negative (Rohrer & Pashler, 2012, p. 634). In contrast to this a study by Harr et al. found "(T)eachers who described visual learners were accustomed to writing directions on the board and relying on the written word to guide student learning. Teachers who described auditory learners could recall specific students who do best when listening and who make frequent eye contact (Haar, Hall, Schoepp, & Smith, 2002, p. 143)". In defence of their views Roher et al. add that "it does indeed make sense to speak of students who, in comparison with their peers, have poor visual-spatial ability and strong verbal ability, but this does not imply that such students will learn anatomy better if their text book has fewer diagrams" (Rohrer & Pashler, 2012, p. 635)

6.5.

Gardner's Multiple Intelligences

In his books, Frames of Mind: The Theory of Multiple Intelligences and Multiple Intelligences: New Horizons, Howard Gardner describes a number of 'human intelligences'

24

Chapter 6: Learning Styles namely; musical, bodily-kinesthetic, logical-mathematical, linguistic, spatial, interpersonal, and intrapersonal intelligence (Gardner, 1993; Gardner, 2006). In the past it was argued that the theory of intelligence "focuses purely on 'academic' intelligence, and so disparages other skills and abilities" (Brooks, Abbott, & Bills, 2007, p. 51). This is clearly evident in the IQ test, coined by Binet, which "is not and cannot be more than a statistically meaningful measure of certain standardized performances directly validated against scholastic success and therefore predictive of it" (Furth, 1970, p. 13). Gardner has taken a different approach to these matters arguing that "people do not have one general intelligence, but are characterized by a range of intelligences instead" (Brooks, Abbott, & Bills, 2007, p. 52). Gardner believes "that human cognitive competence is better described in terms of a set of abilities, talents, or mental skills" (Gardner, 2006, p. 6) that he calls intelligences. In dispute of Binet's concept of the IQ test as a means of measuring intelligence, Gardner claims that "[I]ntelligence tests are limited not only in the competences they examine but also in the way they examine them" (Gardner, 2006, p. 205). Here he is implying that the IQ test measures only a small aspect of a broad spectrum of intelligences, an implication I would agree with having seen firsthand the vast array of abilities displayed by my pupils on Teaching Practice. Many of these abilities fall under the domain of one or more of Gardner's multiple intelligences yet may have gone unevaluated in an intelligence test such as the IQ test. Gardner also states that such tests "require people to deal with a typical, decontextualized tasks rather than probing how people function when they are able to draw on their experience, feedback, prior knowledge, and colleagues, as they typically do" (Gardner, 2006, p. 205). As is the case with most psychological theories, Gardner's theory has a number of critiques. "One criticism focuses on what is seen as a lack of testability of Gardner's theories. This is seen to result from an ambiguity of the theory, in that it is not clear to what extent the intelligences are supposed to operate separately or interconnectedly" (Brooks, Abbott, & Bills, 2007, p. 55). Gardner defends his theory by adding that "intelligences always work in concert, and any sophisticated adult role will involve a melding of several of them" (Gardner, 2006, p. 8). Further to this Brooks et al. add that constructivist educators claim that "each learner will construct knowledge in a slightly different way, and that teaching should be varied to address the different needs and strategies of learners, a finding that confirms the views of those who take a 'multiple intelligences' approach" (Brooks, Abbott, & Bills, 2007, p. 57). To conclude Gardner advises that "[I]t is of the upmost importance that we recognize 25

Chapter 6: Learning Styles and nurture all of the varied human intelligences and all of the combinations of intelligences" (Gardner, 2006, p. 24). The key to this advice is the realisation that people draw on more than one intelligence for certain tasks. A realisation pushed by Gardner when he stress the importance of considering "individuals as a collection of aptitudes rather than as having a singular problem-solving faculty that can be measured directly through pencil-and-paper tests" (Gardner, 2006, p. 22).

6.6.

Learning Style Models

6.6.1. Visual Auditory Kinesthetic

"A simplistic view of style classifying pupils as either V, A or K runs the danger of ignoring the many other factors by which style is influenced" (Hoult, 2005, p. 49).

6.6.2. Kolb's Learning Cycle

Kolb "suggests that we learn more effectively by being actively involved in learning" (O'Sullivan, Rice, Rogerson, & Saunders, 1996, p. 32) "Kolb's model is based on a cycle which includes both active and passive learning and provides both concrete and abstract experience" (O'Sullivan, Rice, Rogerson, & Saunders, 1996, p. 32).

6.7.

Learning Styles in Group Formation

"Students may all need the same materials, or individuals may need different materials" (Lang & Evans, 2006, p. 428) "students becoming aware of their own individual as well as their teammates' mental strengths and weaknesses, began to honour differences and consider everyone as talented and competent" (Kyprianidou, Demetriadis, Tsiatsos, & Pombortsis, 2012, p. 106)

26

Chapter 6: Learning Styles "the adoption of learning styles theory should be explored in close relationship to supportive pedagogies and promising models of course organization that foster individual and group awareness and dialogue" (Kyprianidou, Demetriadis, Tsiatsos, & Pombortsis, 2012, p. 106).

6.8.

Conclusion

"Teachers who described visual learners were accustomed to writing directions on the board and relying on the written word to guide student learning. teachers who described auditory learners could recall specific students who do best when listening and who make frequent eye contact (Haar, Hall, Schoepp, & Smith, 2002, p. 143)" this argues the point "that learning styles are much more than labels" (Haar, Hall, Schoepp, & Smith, 2002, p. 143). "In attempting to design an ideal learning environment it is necessary to consider who you are teaching, what you are teaching and the teaching and learning styles you want to use." (Bentham, 2002, p. 162)

"that learning styles are much more than labels" (Haar, Hall, Schoepp, & Smith, 2002, p. 143). "learning styles and academic achievement have a parallel relationship" (Oflaz & Turunc, 2012, p. 1335) "Not only will the teacher improve the quality of his or her own teaching, but also help the learners to develop their less dominant preferred learning styles by implementing a range of activities involving all types of learners" (Oflaz & Turunc, 2012, p. 1338). "The need for teachers to understand the ways in which their pupils learn is vitally important" (Hoult, 2005, p. 42).

27

Chapter 7: Personality Styles

7. PERSONALITY TYPES
7.1. Introduction

"The classroom is a complex social system in which many dynamic social forces operate: friendships, power and influence, communication patterns, member roles, and school, classroom, and peer-driven behavior norms" (Lang & Evans, 2006, p. 397) "Behavioural research is still a long way from reaching the level of experimental sophistication of the natural sciences" (Child, 1997, p. 9) "Emotions can both help and hinder learning" (Brooks, Abbott, & Bills, 2007, p. 58) "someone's personality can change by means of psychoanalysis, the intervention of other professionals, as well as through self-reflection" (Mac Donagh, Linehan, & Weldridge, 2002, p. 143) "What we see in other people is conditioned by our own dispositions, attitudes, motives, biases, and interests, and we build up a rule of thumb about human nature on the grounds of previous anecdotal experience" (Child, 1997, p. 300). Such naive interpretations of personality "tend towards an over-simplified view of human nature, aggravated by the fact that most people create masks in order to disguise or create particular qualities at will and according to circumstances" (Child, 1997, p. 302). "personality characteristics play a significant role both in the act of learning and in attitudes towards the act of learning" (Child, 1997, p. 320). In some cases psychological discomfort can arise from feelings of isolation however Forsyth argues that "[T]he negative consequences of isolation are rarely seen when people voluntarily seek solitude of make good use of their time alone to engage in self-reflection" (Forsyth, 1999, p. 60). "Pupils should be encouraged to work in groups whatever the personality types involved. The general point is that the potential for difficulty can at the same time be the basis for the potential of group work to improve behaviour. If not, then difficulties between pupils may lie below the surface and inhibit all forms of classroom behaviour and learning" (Blatchford, Kutnick, Baines, & Galton, 2003, p. 167).

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Chapter 7: Personality Styles

7.2.

Definition of Personality

"Behavioural research is still a long way from reaching the level of experimental sophistication of the natural sciences" (Child, 1997, p. 9) Child argues that Maslow believed that "personality is shaped by the individual's reactions along the paths taken while the needs are in the process of being satisfied" (Child, 1997, p. 303). "Carl Rogers takes Maslow's view a stage further by suggesting that human beings perceive their expectations as reality and respond to this perceived reality in a way which helps the individual to 'self-actualisation'" (Child, 1997, p. 303). "Scientists broadly agree... personality should be viewed in terms of the totality of a person's functioning, rather than focussing only on specific attributes" (Mac Donagh, Linehan, & Weldridge, 2002, p. 141).

"Those relative stable and enduring aspects of individuals which distinguish them from other people, making them unique, but which at the same time permit a comparison between individuals" (Mac Donagh, Linehan, & Weldridge, 2002, p. 142). Citation of gross 1992

7.3.

Belbin's Theory of Personality

"Research by R. Meredith Belbin (1981) suggests that teams with high scorers on mental ability tests ... did not perform well in group tasks ... He also found that teams with similar personalities did not perform well" (O'Sullivan, Rice, Rogerson, & Saunders, 1996, p. 59). "Belbin focuses on how our personality moulds the roles we assume in groups" (O'Sullivan, Rice, Rogerson, & Saunders, 1996, p. 65).

7.4.

Introversion and Extroversion

Hirsh et al.. define introversion as a "preference for drawing energy from one's internal world of ideas, emotions and impressions" (Hirsh & Kummerow, 1998, p. 1). They go on to define 29

Chapter 7: Personality Styles extraversion as a "preference for drawing energy from the outside world of people, activities and things" (Hirsh & Kummerow, 1998, p. 1). In addition Mac Donagh et al. claim "[I]ntroverted feeling types are more likely to have reflective, self-conscious feelings" (Mac Donagh, Linehan, & Weldridge, 2002, p. 153), whereas, "[E]xtraverted types are more likely to embrace others and direct their energies/feelings outward" (Mac Donagh, Linehan, & Weldridge, 2002, p. 153). In the early 1900's Carl Jung made an informed guess that there was a physiological foundation to introversion and extroversion, with advancing technologies of brain scans and imaging this guess is nearing scientific validation (Laney, 2002, p. 61). "Jung stated that there are eight basic personality types: four main types, each with two sub-divisions into introversion and extroversion" (Mac Donagh, Linehan, & Weldridge, 2002, p. 151). The foundation for such a statement finds its roots in Jung's theory "that humans are born with an endowed temperament that places us somewhere on an introvert-extrovert continuum" (EveCahoon, 2003, p. 191). According to Child, Hans Jrgen Eysenck defined extraverts as "outgoing, relatively uninhibited, fond of activities which bring them into contact with other people, not attracted by solitary pursuits such as study, cravers after excitement, aggressive, unreliable, easy-going and optimistic" (Child, 1997, p. 311). It has been suggested that "too much noise, too much activity, too many projects can overwhelm an introvert" (Eve-Cahoon, 2003, p. 192). Such a statement is open to interpretation as one person's idea of 'too much' may differ from another's. On the basis of this statement, placement of an introvert into any type of group work activity in a classroom may prove counterproductive. This said, Eve-Cahoon did not suggest that noise, activity and projects in moderation impose negative feelings on an introvert. In fact, Laney suggests that "introverts need to balance their alone time with outside time, or they can lose other perspectives or connections" (Laney, 2002, p. 19). "Extroverts, being the majority, influence the entire cultural view of introversion" (Laney, 2002, p. 47). This majority often filters into the classroom and in turn into groups set out by the class teacher. Brookfield argues that students who see themselves as the minority of groups often develop fears about how they will be treated in academic culture (Brookfield, 1995, p. 12). It could be argued that this illusion of 'minority' may stem from Eve-Cahoon's proposal that "[B]ecause introverts may not speak up right away and they dislike interrupting, extroverts sometimes assume the introvert has nothing to contribute" (Eve-Cahoon, 2003, p. 192). This is a scenario that warrants facilitator input as discussed in an earlier chapter. For 30

Chapter 7: Personality Styles example, if an introvert fears interrupting the flow of conversation it may prove beneficial to begin the task as a pair exercise to ensure everyone gets a chance to voice their opinion prior to formation of a larger group. Exley et al. promotes this model by stating that "getting group members to talk in pairs about an issue can act as a catalyst for further open discussion" (Exley & Dennick, 2004, p. 30). The merits of such a model have potential on varying levels; on one hand the initial pair work may entice the introvert to continue verbal contribution when the larger group is formed, failing this the possibility of their earlier contribution being voiced by their partner may provide the group with an insight that may have gone unheard. Laney argues that "[I]ntroverts don't talk for talk's sake. When they speak they speak their mind" (Laney, 2002, p. 48). This argument could suggest that their input may be as insightful, if not even more so, than that of their extrovert counterpart.

"the extravert will have difficulty in maintaining interest in what can be a boring task" (Child, 1997, p. 320). "If an introverted person is believed to be incapable of portraying extraverted behaviour, then perception of extraverted behaviour will lead to the attribution of extraversion, regardless of the situational demands" (Angleitner, Furnham, & Van Heck, 1986, p. 162). "The difference was that introverted types were more likely to direct their energies towards their own activities, whereas extroverted types were more likely to direct their energies towards interaction with others" (Mac Donagh, Linehan, & Weldridge, 2002, p. 152) "students who are introverted ... may find the pace of the conversation intimidating" (Brookfield, 1995, p. 12)

7.5. 7.6.

Myers Briggs Indicator Individualism and Collectivism

"the idea that individuals are independent entities is peculiar to societies founded on individualism" (Forsyth, 1999, p. 71)

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Chapter 7: Personality Styles Forsyth defines individualism as "[A]n ideology or personal orientation that places greater emphasis on the individual, including his or her rights, independence, and relationships with other individuals, and less emphasis on the rights of the group" (Forsyth, 1999, p. 71). Forsyth defines collectivism as "[A]n ideology or personal orientation that emphasizes the similarity of all members of a group rather than each person's individuality" (Forsyth, 1999, p. 71). "People who live in collectivistic cultures think of themselves as group members first and individuals second, whereas people who live in individualistic cultures are egocentric rather than sociocentric" (Forsyth, 1999, p. 72). "Roles and responsibilities tend to be more tightly defined and followed in collectivistic cultures" (Forsyth, 1999, p. 73). "Competition between individuals is greater in individualistic countries, whereas cooperation and communalism is greater in collectivistic ones" (Forsyth, 1999, p. 73). These generalities are not without exception ... Just as cultures differ in how much they stress the individual versus the group, individuals within any given culture differ in the emphasis they put on their individuality versus their group memberships" (Forsyth, 1999, p. 73). "The individual who sees himself and his situation clearly and who freely takes responsibility for that self and for that situation is a very different person from the one who is simply in the grip of outside circumstances" (Rogers & Freiberg, 1994, p. 306). "Once individuals begin interacting and interrelating with each other, a subtle and pervasive force is at hand" (Mac Donagh, Linehan, & Weldridge, 2002, p. 163)

7.7.

Shyness

"Just as introversion-extraversion and social motives push people toward groups, other personal qualities push them away. Shyness, for example, reduces the frequency and quality of one's group experiences" (Forsyth, 1999, p. 93).

7.8.

Maslow's Theory of Personality

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Chapter 7: Personality Styles

7.9.

Stress

"A certain level of stress or arousal is [also] normal and healthy and can promote better academic and social achievement" (Leadbetter, Morris, Timmins, Knight, & Traxson, 1999, p. 38). "While groups provide social support, they are also the source of considerable stress for their members" (Forsyth, 1999, pp. 492-493). "Young people in educational settings have their problems too, sometimes of sufficient intensity for them to end up in serious physical or mental states" (Child, 1997, p. 79). "Awareness of what the stressors are and what might be done to overcome them goes some way towards alleviating the stressful symptoms" (Child, 1997, p. 82). Rogers et al. claims that when faced with group pressures it was those that displayed "general evidence of an incapacity to cope effectively with stress" (Rogers & Freiberg, 1994, p. 305) that tended to yield. They go on to suggest that these people "were emotionally restricted, lacking in spontaneity, tending to repress their own impulses" (Rogers & Freiberg, 1994, p. 305). "The person who is free within herself, who is open to her experience, who has a sense of her own freedom and responsible choice is not nearly so likely to be controlled by her environment as is the person who lacks these qualities"

7.10. Conclusion

Forsyth suggests that it is "[T]hrough membership in groups, we define and confirm our values and beliefs and take on or refine our social identity" (Forsyth, 1999, p. 23). Similarly, Toseland and Rivas discuss the concept of social integration a term defined as "how members fit together and are accepted in a group" (Toseland & Rivas, 2005, p. 78). They add that "[G]roups are not able to function effectively unless there is a fairly high level of social integration among members" (Toseland & Rivas, 2005, p. 78)

33

Chapter 7: Personality Styles "Some people talk readily, others are naturally quiet; a balance of contribution is" (Bolton, 2001, p. 59) an important cornerstone in successful group work.

Piaget "underestimated the individual differences between children in how they develop, and the fact that some of these differences are due to the cultural and social background of the child" (Brooks, Abbott, & Bills, 2007, p. 49).

"Research suggests that the brain learns best when confronted with a balance between high challenge and low threat" (Brooks, Abbott, & Bills, 2007, p. 58). "Fear arising from unpleasant experience may give rise to either fight or flight" (Child, 1997, p. 35). "There may also be perceived differences in 'status' and very real differences in confidence between group members" (Exley & Dennick, 2004, p. 152). "Conditions in society make it imperative that people learn to relate well to others and that the school accepts its responsibility for teaching skills that will equip students to fill useful, responsible, and productive roles" (Lang & Evans, 2006, p. 404). "Individuals may not like each other a great deal, and yet when they join together, they experience powerful feelings of unity and esprit de corps" (Forsyth, 1999, p. 14).

34

Chapter 8: Case Studies

8. CASE STUDIES
8.1. Introduction

8.2.

Struggling With the Dynamics of Group Work

8.3.

Silences: The Case of the Invisible Boy

"it is recommended that active methodologies, including group-work and pair work, be further developed. This kind of approach would provide extra opportunities for students to voice and discuss their opinions and to take a more active part in their own learning" (DES, 2012, p. 3).

8.4.

Group Formation Based on Learning Styles

8.5.

Oflaz and Turunc Study

"The results of this study indicate that students participate and do well in group work performances in the language classroom if the teacher takes the learning styles of the students into consideration when forming the groups" (Oflaz & Turunc, 2012, p. 1338). "It is seen that students can have difficulties at first when they are asked to do something that seems unnatural to them, but they adopt other learning styles that are not their preferred ones even if it is not very easy" (Oflaz & Turunc, 2012, p. 1338).

8.6.

Getting Along With Each Other

Lang 2006 pg 413

8.7.

The Spring Project

Models, Strategies, and Methods for Effective Teaching , a book authored by Lang and Evans contains the following case study (Lang & Evans, 2006, pp. 413-414). In this example, we see a student teacher who hoped to use a small group discussion during a lesson. However, 35

Chapter 8: Case Studies the class teacher thought the students would not be able to learn in groups because they have never worked in groups before. On the other hand the student teacher "was confident the students would welcome the opportunity to become more involved in their learning" (Lang & Evans, 2006, p. 413). He placed the class in groups of four and instructed them to identify problems and determine solutions to issues that had arose during a lunchtime play group the previous day. A time limit of fifteen minutes was set and pupils were allowed to form their own groups. What followed was mayhem, noise levels increased, some students were isolates, confrontation occurred between groups over the location in which each group should be placed in the room and cross discussion was taking place between alternating groups. By the time the student teacher attempted to regain control by properly distributing the groups, over half of the allocated fifteen minutes had passed. Efforts to calm the class were hindered by the fact that half the pupils could not hear the teacher over the noise generated by the arguments taking place. The student teacher also noticed that pupils did not have any means of recording the data obtained in what was now a very heated discussion. Just as he was about to pass out pencils and paper the bell sounded and the class was dismissed. Some students left angry at comments made by peers, others frustrated that they did not get to complete their task and the remainder were amazed as to what had just happened. On reading this case study there was a number of items that stood out to me. Firstly, the class teacher's rationale for not wanting the student teacher to implement a group discussion is questionable and based on the assumption that because a class has never experienced group work before it simply will not work. In his book, Five Minds for the Future, Gardner discusses the potential importance of group discussion, especially in relation to ethical issues, as it is said "to model reflection on the advantages and disadvantages of various courses of action, or the wisdom of attending to the opinions of others" (Gardner, 2004, p. 163). Speaking about group work observed during a subject inspection in a County Meath Secondary School, a Department Inspector claimed that it "worked best where members of each group were assigned clear roles and where these roles were rotated for each new task" (DES, 2010, p. 5). This was one of many aspects of successful group work overlooked by the student teacher in the above example. The inspector adds that "[G]roup work can be a very exciting methodology but needs to be managed very careful if it is to be productive for all students in the class" (DES, 2010, p. 5).

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Chapter 8: Case Studies

8.8.

Conclusion

37

Chapter 9: Conclusion

9. CONCLUSION
9.1. Review of Findings

Brookfield coined the term 'Perfect Ten' Syndrome where by a teacher strives to deliver the perfect lesson. Critically reflective teachers "know that the complexities of learning and the presence among students of diverse personalities, cultural backgrounds, genders, ability levels, learning styles, ideological orientations, and previous experiences make a perfect ten impossible to achieve" (Brookfield, 1995, p. 17). "No theory, especially one that classifies people, will fully meet individual needs" (Hoult, 2005, p. 42). "Although different, the theories of learning style and multiple intelligences raise an important question about practice: whether to plan to develop pupils' range of styles and intelligences or to focus on particular strengths" (Hoult, 2005, p. 49) . "As well as ensuring pupils' preferred learning styles and most developed intelligences are included in your planning, it is also a teacher's role to help develop those less preferred styles and less developed intelligences" (Hoult, 2005, p. 49). "A more valid assessment of language skills might examine a young child's ability to tell a story or provide a descriptive account of an experience, rather than examine his or her ability to repeat a series of sentences, define words, or solve antonymic or syllogistic tasks" (Gardner, 2006, p. 207).

9.2.

Review of Aims and Objectives

9.3.

Recommendations

"Often research uncovers additional avenues for learning and discovery" (Haar, Hall, Schoepp, & Smith, 2002, p. 144), this thesis being no exception.

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Chapter 10: Bibliography

10. BIBLIOGRAPHY
Angleitner, A., Furnham, A., & Van Heck, G. (1986). Personality Psychology in Europe: Current Trends and Controversies. Amsterdam: Offsetdrukkerij Kanters BV. Bell, J. (1999). Doing Your Research Project. Berkshire: Open University Press. Blatchford, P., Kutnick, P., Baines, E., & Galton, M. (2003). Towards a Social Pedagogy of Classroom Group Work. International Journal of Educational Research , 153-172. Bolton, G. (2001). Reflective Practice: Writing and Professional Development. London: Sage Publications . Brickhouse, T. C., & Smith, N. D. (1994). Plato's Socrates. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Brookfield, S. D. (1995). Becoming a Critically Reflective Teacher. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Inc. Brooks, V., Abbott, I., & Bills, L. (2007). Preparing to Teach in Secondary Schools: A Student Teacher's Guide to Professional Issues in Secondary Education. Berkshire: Open University Press. Campbell, L., Campbell, B., & Dickinson, D. (1996). Teaching & Learning Through Multiple Intelligences. Boston: Allyn & Bacon. Carlyle, T. (2008). Sartor Resartus. Surry Hills: Accessible Publishing Systems PTY LTD. Child, D. (1997). Psychology and the Teacher. London: Cassell. Cummings, C. (2000). Winning Strategies for Classroom Managment. Alexandria, Virginia: ASCD. DES. (2009). Subject Inspection of Construction Studies and Materials Technology (Wood): Role number 72440K. Dublin: Department of Education and Skills. DES. (2011). Subject Inspection of Construction Studies and Materials Technology (Wood): Role Number 76064F. Dublin: Department of Education and Skills. DES. (2012). Subject Inspection of Materials Technology (Wood) and Construction Studies: 81012N. Dublin: Department of Education and Skills. DES. (2010). Subject Inspection of Materials Technology (Wood) and Construction Studies: Roll Number 71970L. Dublin: Department of Education and Skills. DES, & NCCA. (2006). Design and Communication Graphics Syllabus. Dublin: The Stationary Office. Ellis, V. (2007). Learning and Teaching in Secondary Schools (3rd Ed.). Exeter: Learning Matters Ltd.

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Chapter 10: Bibliography Eve-Cahoon, H. (2003). Understanding the Introvert Preference. Journal of Nursing Education , 191-193. Exley, K., & Dennick, R. (2004). Conditions for Successful Small Group Teaching. Oxon: Routledge. Forsyth, D. R. (1999). Group Dynamics. Belmont: Wadsworth Publishing Company. Furth, H. G. (1970). Piaget for Teachers. New Jersey: Prentice-Hall Inc. Gardner, H. (2004). 5 Minds for the Future. Boston: Harvard Business School Press. Gardner, H. (1993). Frames of Mind: The Theory of Multiple Intelligences. London: Fontana Press. Gardner, H. (2006). Multiple Intelligences: New Horizons. New York: Basic Books. GMIT. (2013). GMIT Prospectus. Galway: GMIT. Haar, J., Hall, G., Schoepp, P., & Smith, D. H. (2002). How Teachers Teach to Students with Different Learning Styles. Clearing House , 142-145. Hirsh, S. A., & Kummerow, J. M. (1998). Introduction to Type in Organizations. Palo Alto: Consulting Psychologists Press. Hoult, S. (2005). Reflective Reader: Secondary Professional Studies. Exeter: Learning Matters Ltd. Jeffes, J., Jones, E., Cunningham, R., Dawson, A., Cooper, L., Straw, S., et al. (2012). Research into the impact of Project Maths on student achievement, learning and motivation. Berkshire: NFER. Kyprianidou, M., Demetriadis, S., Tsiatsos, T., & Pombortsis, A. (2012). Group formation based on learning styles: can it improve students' teamwork? Educational Technology Research & Development , 83-110. Laney, M. O. (2002). The Introvert Advantage: How to Thrive in an Extrovert World. New York: Workman Publishing Company. Lang, H. R., & Evans, D. N. (2006). Models, Strategies, and Methods for Effective Teaching. Boston: Pearson Education Inc. Leadbetter, J., Morris, S., Timmins, P., Knight, G., & Traxson, D. (1999). Applying Psychology in the Classroom. New York: David Fulton Publishers. Mac Donagh, J., Linehan, C., & Weldridge, R. (2002). Behavioural Science for Marketing and Business Students. Dublin: Gill & MacMillan. Mahony, T. (2007). Making Your Words Work: Using NLP to Improve Communication, Learning and Behaviour. Carmarthen: Crown House Publishing Ltd. NCCA. (2011, November). NCCA. Retrieved November 09, 2013, from www.ncca.ie: http://ncca.ie/framework/doc/NCCA-Junior-Cycle.pdf

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Chapter 10: Bibliography Oflaz, M., & Turunc, T. (2012). The effect of Learning Styles on Group Work Activities. Procedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences , 1333-1338. O'Sullivan, T., Rice, J., Rogerson, S., & Saunders, C. (1996). Successful Group Work. London: Kogan Page Limited. Rogers, C., & Freiberg, H. J. (1994). Freedom to Learn. New Jersey: Prentice Hall Inc. Rohrer, D., & Pashler, H. (2012). Learning Styles: Where's the Evidence? Medical Education , 634-635. Rosas, C., & West, M. (2009). Teachers beliefs about classroom management: preservice and inservice teachers' beliefs about classroom management. International Journal of Applied Educational Studies , 5.1, 54. Salmon, A. K. (2010). Engaging young children in thinking routines. Childhood Education , 132. Sykes, J. B. (1976). The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Current English. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Toseland, R. W., & Rivas, R. F. (2005). An Introduction to Group Work Practice. Boston: Pearson Education Inc.

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