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Chapter 7: Mechanical Properties Chapter 7: Mechanical Properties
Chapter 7: Mechanical Properties Chapter 7: Mechanical Properties
Chapter 7: Mechanical Properties Chapter 7: Mechanical Properties
Elastic σ e = Eε
Stress = σ = force/area response
Pure Shear
stress τ e = Fshear
Ao
Strain: physical deformation response of a
material to stress, e.g., elongation. strain γ = tan θ
Elastic τ e = Gγ
response
Pure Torsional Shear
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MatSE 280: Introduction to Engineering Materials ©D.D. Johnson 2004/2006-2008 MatSE 280: Introduction to Engineering Materials ©D.D. Johnson 2004/2006-2008
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Engineering Stress Common States of Stress
• Tensile stress, s: • Shear stress, t: • Simple tension: cable
F
σ=
Ao
Ski lift (photo courtesy P.M. Anderson)
Ao
σz > 0 σ h< 0
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MatSE 280: Introduction to Engineering Materials ©D.D. Johnson 2004/2006-2008 MatSE 280: Introduction to Engineering Materials ©D.D. Johnson 2004/2006-2008
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Engineering Strain Elastic Deformation
• Tensile strain: • Lateral (width) strain: 1. Initial 2. Small load 3. Unload
δ/2
bonds
Lo
wo stretch
δ/2 return to
δL/2 δL/2 initial
• Shear strain: δ
θ/2
F
F Linear-
γ = tan θ Strain is always elastic
π/2 - θ dimensionless. Elastic means reversible! Non-Linear-
elastic
π/2 θ/2 δ
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MatSE 280: Introduction to Engineering Materials ©D.D. Johnson 2004/2006-2008 MatSE 280: Introduction to Engineering Materials ©D.D. Johnson 2004/2006-2008
gauge
F length
F
linear linear
• Other types:
Plastic means permanent! elastic elastic δ -compression: brittle materials (e.g., concrete)
δplastic -torsion: cylindrical tubes, shafts.
δelastic
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MatSE 280: Introduction to Engineering Materials ©D.D. Johnson 2004/2006-2008 MatSE 280: Introduction to Engineering Materials ©D.D. Johnson 2004/2006-2008
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Linear Elasticity Example: Hooke’s Law
• Hooke's Law: σ=Eε (linear elastic behavior)
• Modulus of Elasticity, E: Units: E [GPa] or [psi]
(also known as Young's modulus) Copper sample (305 mm long) is pulled in tension with stress of
276 MPa. If deformation is elastic, what is elongation?
• Hooke's Law: σ = E ε
For Cu, E = 110 GPa.
σ Axial strain Axial strain
Δl σl
E σ = Eε = E ⇒ Δl = 0
l0 E
ε (276MPa)(305mm)
Width strain
Δl = = 0.77mm Width strain
Linear- 110x103 MPa
elastic
Hooke’s law involves axial (parallel to applied tensile load) elastic deformation.
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MatSE 280: Introduction to Engineering Materials ©D.D. Johnson 2004/2006-2008 MatSE 280: Introduction to Engineering Materials ©D.D. Johnson 2004/2006-2008
bonds
stretch
return to
initial
δ
F
F Linear-
elastic tension
Elastic means reversible! Non-Linear- compression
elastic Adapted from Fig. 2.8
δ Callister & Rethwisch 3e.
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MatSE 280: Introduction to Engineering Materials ©D.D. Johnson 2004/2006-2008 MatSE 280: Introduction to Engineering Materials ©D.D. Johnson 2004/2006-2008
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Mechanical Properties Elasticity of Ceramics
• Recall: Slope of stress strain plot (proportional to the E) • Elastic Behavior And Effects of Porosity
depends on bond strength of metal E= E0(1 - 1.9P + 0.9 P 2)
E larger
E smaller Al2O3
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Young’s Modulus, E Poisson's ratio, ν
Graphite
Metals Composites
Ceramics Polymers
Alloys
Semicond
/fibers
• Poisson's ratio, ν: Units: ν dimensionless
1200
1000 Diamond
800
600
Si carbide width strain Δw / w ε
400 Tungsten
Molybdenum
Al oxide
Si nitride
Carbon fibers only
ν =− =− =− L
E(GPa) 200
Steel, Ni
Tantalum <111>
CFRE(|| fibers)* axial strain Δl / l ε εL
Platinum Si crystal
Cu alloys <100> Aramid fibers only
100 Zinc, Ti
80 Silver, Gold Glass-soda AFRE(|| fibers)*
Aluminum Glass fibers only
60
Magnesium, GFRE(|| fibers)*
40 Tin
Concrete Axial strain
109 Pa 20 GFRE*
CFRE*
10
Graphite GFRE( fibers)* ε
8 CFRE( fibers)*
6 AFRE( fibers)* Based on data in Table B2, Callister 6e.
Polyester
4 PET
PS
Composite data based on metals: ν ~ 0.33 -ν
reinforced epoxy with 60 vol%
ceramics: ν ~ 0.25
PC Epoxy only
2 of aligned carbon (CFRE),
PP aramid (AFRE), or glass (GFRE) fibers.
1
0.8
HDPE
Width strain polymers: ν ~ 0.40
0.6 Wood( grain)
PTFE
0.4
Why does ν have minus sign?
0.2 LDPE
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MatSE 280: Introduction to Engineering Materials ©D.D. Johnson 2004/2006-2008 MatSE 280: Introduction to Engineering Materials ©D.D. Johnson 2004/2006-2008
In terms of width, A = w 2, then ΔA/A = 2 w Δw/w2 = 2Δw/w = –ΔL/L. Polymers: Network (Bakelite) 0.49 Chain (PE) 0.40 ~generic value
Hence, Δw / w (− Δl / l) 1
Elastomer: Hard Rubber (Ebonite) 0.39 (Natural) 0.49
ν =− =− € = 1/ 2
2
Incompressible solid.
Δl / l Δl / l Water (almost).
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MatSE 280: Introduction to Engineering Materials ©D.D. Johnson 2004/2006-2008 MatSE 280: Introduction to Engineering Materials ©D.D. Johnson 2004/2006-2008
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Example: Poisson Effect Other Elastic Properties
Tensile stress is applied along cylindrical brass rod (10 mm
τ M
diameter). Poisson ratio is ν = 0.34 and E = 97 GPa. • Elastic Shear
modulus, G:
G simple
• Determine load needed for 2.5x10 –3 mm change in diameter if
the deformation is entirely elastic?
1 γ Torsion test
τ=Gγ
Width strain: (note reduction in diameter) M
εx = Δd/d = –(2.5x10 –3 mm)/(10 mm) = –2.5x10 –4
• Elastic Bulk P
modulus, K:
Axial strain: Given Poisson ratio P P
Pressure test:
εz = –εx/ν = –(–2.5x10 –4)/0.34 = +7.35x10 –4 Init. vol = Vo.
Vol chg. = ΔV
Poisson
ε3 in z
δw /2 2ro
In x-direction, total linear strain is: 1
ε1 = {σ − ν (σ 2 + σ 3 )} εz , σz
E 1
• Material, geometric, and loading parameters all contribute to deflection. 1
• Larger elastic moduli minimize elastic deflection. or = {(1+ ν )σ 1 − ν (σ 1 + σ 2 + σ 3 )}
E
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MatSE 280: Introduction to Engineering Materials ©D.D. Johnson 2004/2006-2008 MatSE 280: Introduction to Engineering Materials ©D.D. Johnson 2004/2006-2008
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Complex State of Stress and Strain in 3-D Solid Plastic (Permanent) Deformation
• Hooke’s Law and Poisson effect gives total linear strain:
(at lower temperatures, i.e. T < Tmelt/3)
1 1
ε1 = {σ − ν (σ 2 + σ 3 )} or {(1+ ν )σ 1 − ν (σ 1 + σ 2 + σ 3 )}
E 1 E • Simple tension test:
• For uniaxial tension test σ1= σ2 =0, so ε3= σ3/E and ε1=ε2= –νε3. Elastic+Plastic
engineering stress, σ at larger stress
• Hydrostatic Pressure:
Elastic
σ 1 + σ 2 + σ 3 Tr σ 1 initially
P = σ Hyd = = ε1 = {(1+ ν )σ 1 − 3ν P}
3 3 E permanent (plastic)
after load is removed
• For volume (V=l1l2l3) strain, ΔV/V = ε1+ ε 2+ ε3 = (1-2ν)σ3/E
ΔV P εp engineering strain, ε
= 3(1− 2ν )
V E
plastic strain Adapted from Fig. 7.10 (a),
Bulk Modulus, B or K: P = –K ΔV/V so K = E/3(1-2ν) (sec. 7.5) Callister & Rethwisch 3e.
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MatSE 280: Introduction to Engineering Materials ©D.D. Johnson 2004/2006-2008 MatSE 280: Introduction to Engineering Materials ©D.D. Johnson 2004/2006-2008
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Stress-Strain in Polymers Compare Yield Stress, σYS
• 3 different types of behavior
For plastic polymers: σy(ceramics)
• YS at maximum stress just
Brittle after elastic region. >>σy(metals)
• TS is stress at fracture!
>> σy(polymers)
plastic
Room T values
Highly elastic Based on data in Table B4,
Callister 6e .
a = annealed
hr = hot rolled
ag = aged
cd = cold drawn
cw = cold worked
• Highly elastic polymers: qt = quenched & tempered
• Elongate to as much as 1000% (e.g. silly putty).
• 7 MPa < E < 4 GPa 3 order of magnitude!
• TS(max) ~ 100 MPa some metal alloys up to 4 GPa
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MatSE 280: Introduction to Engineering Materials ©D.D. Johnson 2004/2006-2008 MatSE 280: Introduction to Engineering Materials ©D.D. Johnson 2004/2006-2008
ultimate
stress
strength dσ T dA
dF = 0 = σ T dAi + Ai dσ T =− i
σT Ai
Typical response of a metal Neck – acts Fractional fractional
Increase in decrease
as stress decreased force due to Increased force due to
Flow stress in load-
concentrator decrease in gage diameter increase in applied stress
bearing
strain area
engineering strain
• Metals: occurs when necking starts. At the point where these two competing changes
dσ T dA dl dσ T
• Ceramics: occurs when crack propagation starts. in force equal, there is permanent neck. σT
= − i = i ≡ dεT
Ai li
⇒
dεT
= σT
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Compare Tensile Strength, σTS Example for Metals: Determine E, YS, and TS
Graphite/
Metals/ Composites/
Ceramics/ Polymers
Alloys
Semicond
fibers Stress-Strain for Brass
5000 C fibers Room T values • Young’s Modulus, E (bond stretch)
Aramid fib
3000 E-glass fib σ − σ 1 (150 − 0)MPa
TS(ceram) E= 2 = 93.8GPa
Tensile strength, TS (MPa)
=
2000 Steel (4140) qt ε2 − ε1 0.0016 − 0
1000 W (pure) Diamond
A FRE(|| fiber)
GFRE(|| fiber) ~TS(met)
Ti (5Al-2.5Sn) a CFRE(|| fiber)
Steel (4140)cwa
Cu (71500)
Cu (71500) hr
Si nitride
Al oxide
~ TS(comp) € • 0ffset Yield-Stress, YS (plastic deformation)
Steel (1020)
300 Al (6061) ag
200
Ti (pure) a
Ta (pure)
>> TS(poly) YS = 250 MPa
Al (6061) a Si crystal
100 wood(|| fiber)
<100> Nylon 6,6
Glass-soda PC PET • Max. Load from Tensile Strength TS
40 Concrete PVC GFRE( fiber)
PP CFRE( fiber) €
30 d 2
A FRE( fiber)
HDPE Fmax = σTS A0 = σTS π 0
20 Graphite 2
LDPE
2
10 Based on data in Table B4, 12.8x 10−3 m
= 450MPa π = 57,900N
Callister & Rethwisch 3e. 2
• Gage is 250 mm (10 in) in length and 12.8 mm
(0.505 in) in diameter.
wood ( fiber) • Subject to tensile stress of 345 MPa (50 ksi) • Change in length at Point A, Δl = εl0
€ Δl = εl0 = (0.06)250 mm = 15 mm
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MatSE 280: Introduction to Engineering Materials ©D.D. Johnson 2004/2006-2008 MatSE 280: Introduction to Engineering Materials ©D.D. Johnson 2004/2006-2008
Ao − Af
• Another ductility measure: %RA = x100
Ao
• Note: %RA and %EL are often comparable.
- Reason: crystal slip does not change material volume.
cup-and-cone fracture in Al brittle fracture in mild steel - %RA > %EL possible if internal voids form in neck.
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MatSE 280: Introduction to Engineering Materials ©D.D. Johnson 2004/2006-2008 MatSE 280: Introduction to Engineering Materials ©D.D. Johnson 2004/2006-2008
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Toughness Resilience, Ur
• Energy to break a unit volume of material, • Resilience is capacity to absorb energy when deformed elastically
or absorb energy to fracture. and recover all energy when unloaded (=σ2YS/2E).
• Approximate as area under the elastic stress-strain curve.
• Approximate as area under the stress-strain curve.
1. Load 3. Reapply
load
Strain
Adapted from Fig. 7.17, Elastic strain
Callister & Rethwisch 3e.
recovery
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MatSE 280: Introduction to Engineering Materials ©D.D. Johnson 2004/2006-2008 MatSE 280: Introduction to Engineering Materials ©D.D. Johnson 2004/2006-2008
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Strength of Ceramics - Elastic Modulus Strength of Ceramics - Flexural Strength
• RT behavior is usually elastic with brittle failure. • 3-point bend test employed for RT Flexural strength.
• 3-point bend test employed (tensile test not best for brittle materials).
Al2O3
cross section
d R
b δ = midpoint
rect. circ. deflection
d 3Ff L
F F L3 σ fs = • Typical values:
x E= (rect. cross section) b 2bd 2 Material σ fs (MPa) E(GPa)
F δ 4bd 3 Si nitride 250-1000 304
slope = Circular cross-section
Si carbide 100-820 345
F L3
L= length between
δ 8Ff L load pts
E= (circ. cross section) R σ fs = Al oxide 275-700 393
δ δ 12πR 4 πd 3
b = width
d = height or glass (soda-lime) 69 69
linear-elastic behavior diameter Data from Table 7.2, Callister & Rethwisch 3e.
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MatSE 280: Introduction to Engineering Materials ©D.D. Johnson 2004/2006-2008 MatSE 280: Introduction to Engineering Materials ©D.D. Johnson 2004/2006-2008
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Stress-Strain in Polymers Time-dependent deformation in Polymers
• Stress relaxation test: • Large decrease in Er for T > Tg.
• Necking appears along • Mechanism unlike metals, necking
entire sample after YS! due to alignment of crystallites. -strain in tension to εο (amorphous
105 rigid solid polystyrene)
and hold. Er (10 s) 3 (small relax) Fig. 7.28, Callister &
- observe decrease in in MPa 10
Load vertical Rethwisch 3e.
transition (Fig. 7.28 from A.V.
stress with time. 101 region Tobolsky, Properties
and Structures of
Polymers, Wiley and
tensile test 10 -1 Sons, Inc., 1960.)
viscous liquid
εo 10 -3 (large relax)
strain
60 100 140 180 T(°C)
σ(t) Tg
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Hardening Using Work-Hardening
• An increase in σy due to plastic deformation. Influence of “cold working” on low-carbon steel.
σ
large hardening 2nd drawn
σy
1 1st drawn
σy small hardening
0 Undrawn wire
ε
• Curve fit to the stress-strain response after YS:
Processing: Forging, Rolling, Extrusion, Drawing,…
• Each draw of the wire decreases ductility, increases YS.
• Use drawing to strengthen and thin “aluminum” soda can.
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MatSE 280: Introduction to Engineering Materials ©D.D. Johnson 2004/2006-2008 MatSE 280: Introduction to Engineering Materials ©D.D. Johnson 2004/2006-2008
• HB = Brinell Hardness
– TS (psia) = 500 x HB
– TS (MPa) = 3.45 x HB
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Hardness: Measurement Account for Variability in Material Properties
• Elastic modulus is material property
• Critical properties depend largely on sample flaws
(defects, etc.). Large sample to sample variability.
• Statistics
n
Σ xn
– Mean x=
n
1
n
2 2
– Standard Deviation s =
(
Σ xi − x )
n −1
where n is the number of data points
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MatSE 280: Introduction to Engineering Materials ©D.D. Johnson 2004/2006-2008 MatSE 280: Introduction to Engineering Materials ©D.D. Johnson 2004/2006-2008
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