4 Oileld Review

Casabe: New Tricks for an Old Field

At some point in the operational life of an oil eld, natural drive dwindles and
additional energy is needed to sustain production rates. In the Casabe eld water-
ooding has been used to enhance oil recovery. However, a combination of sensitive
lithology, structural complexity and water channeling caused hardware to fail and
wells to collapse, disrupting the waterood efciency. New techniques in geologic
analysis, waterooding, drilling and production optimization are restoring this
once-prolic eld to its former glory.
Mauro Amaya
Ral Amaya
Hctor Castao
Eduardo Lozano
Carlos Fernando Rueda
Ecopetrol SA
Bogot, Colombia
Jon Elphick
Cambridge, England
Walter Gambaretto
Leonardo Mrquez
Diana Paola Olarte Caro
Juan Peralta-Vargas
Arvalo Jos Velsquez Marn
Bogot
Oileld Review Spring 2010: 22, no. 1.
Copyright 2010 Schlumberger.
For help in preparation of this article, thanks to Jos Isabel
Herberth Ahumada, Marvin Markley, Jos A. Salas, Hector
Roberto Saldao, Sebastian Sierra Martinez and Andreas
Suter, Bogot; and Giovanni Landinez, Mexico City.
AIT, CMR-Plus, Petrel, PowerPak XP, PressureXpress,
TDAS and USI are marks of Schlumberger.
Crystal Ball is a mark of Oracle Corp.
IDCAP, KLA-GARD and KLA-STOP are marks of M-I SWACO.
Old elds have stories to tell. The story of the
Casabe eld, 350 km [220 mi] north of Bogot
and situated in the middle Magdalena River
Valley basin (MMVB) of Colombias Antioquia
Department, began with its discovery in 1941.
The eld was undersaturated when production
began in 1945, and during primary recovery the
production mechanisms were natural depletion
and a weak aquifer. In the late 1970s, at the end
of the natural drive period, the operator had
obtained a primary recovery factor of 13%. By this
time, however, production had declined signi-
cantly to nearly 5,000 bbl/d [800 m
3
/d]. Seeking
to reverse this trend, Ecopetrol SA (Empresa
Colombiana de Petrleos SA) conducted water-
ood tests for several years before establishing
two major secondary-recovery programs in the
mid to late 1980s.
>
Casabe oil production and water injection. Waterood pilot projects took place in the late 1970s, but it
was not until 1985 that the rst of two major waterood programs began. During the rst three years of
each program, high injection rates were possible; however, water soon found ways through the most
permeable sands. Early breakthrough and well collapse forced the operator to choke back injection.
The steady decline in injection was accompanied by a decline in production, and attempts to reverse
this trend were unsuccessful. In 2004, when the Casabe alliance was formed, production rates were
5,200 bbl/d. By early February 2010, these rates had increased to more than 16,000 bbl/d.
ORSPR10Michael MoodyFigure 01
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Oil 1. Peralta-Vargas J, Cortes G, Gambaretto W, Martinez
Uribe L, Escobar F, Markley M, Mesa Cardenas A,
Suter A, Marquez L, Dederle M and Lozano E: Finding
Bypassed Oil in a Mature FieldCasabe Field, Middle
Magdalena Valley Basin, Colombia, presented at the
ACGGP (Asociacin Colombiana de Gelogos y
Geosicos del Petrleo) X Symposio Bolivariano,
Cartagena, Colombia, July 2629, 2009.
Marquez L, Elphick J, Peralta J, Amaya M, Lozano E:
Casabe Mature Field Revitalization Through an Alliance:
A Case Study of Multicompany and Multidiscipline
Integration, paper SPE 122874, presented at the SPE
Latin American and Caribbean Petroleum Engineering
Conference, Cartagena de Indias, Colombia, May 31
June 3, 2009.
2. Cordillera is Spanish for range. Colombia has three
ranges: Oriental (eastern), Central, and Occidental
(western). These are branches of the Andes Mountains
that extend along the western half of the country. The
MMVB runs WSW-NNE, and the Magdalena River runs
northward through it, eventually owing into the
Caribbean Sea.
3. Barrero D, Pardo A, Vargas CA and Martnez JF:
Colombian Sedimentary Basins: Nomenclature,
Boundaries and Petroleum Geology, a New Proposal.
Bogot, Colombia: Agencia Nacional de Hidrocarburos
(2007): 7881, http://www.anh.gov.co/paraweb/pdf/
publicaciones.pdf (accessed February 5, 2010).
30039schD4R1.indd 1 5/6/10 9:36 PM
Spring 2010 5
During the secondary-recovery period, struc-
tural complexities, sensitive shales, heteroge-
neous sands and viscous oils all conspired to
undermine the effectiveness of the waterood.
And although initially successful at increasing
production, injected water broke through prema-
turely at the production wells, an indicator of
bypassed oil (previous page). Sand production
occurred in a high percentage of wells, contribut-
ing to borehole collapse and causing failure of
downhole equipment. Water-injection rates were
gradually decreased in an attempt to overcome
these issues, and waterooding became less
effective at enhancing oil recovery; from 1996
onward the production rates declined between
7% and 8% per year.
In 2004 Ecopetrol SA and Schlumberger
forged an alliance to revitalize the Casabe eld.
Using updated methods for managing highly
complex reservoirs, the alliance reversed the
decline in production: From March 2004 to
February 2010, oil production increased from
5,200 to more than 16,000 bbl/d [820 to
2,500 m
3
/d].
1
Also, the estimated ultimate recovery
factor increased from 16% to 22% of the original oil
in place (OOIP).
This article describes the complexities of the
reservoirs within the Casabe concession and the
oil recovery methods employed over the last
70 years, concentrating primarily on the major
reengineering work using updated methods that
began in 2004.
A Prolic Yet Complex Region
The middle Magdalena River Valley basin is an
elongated depression between the Colombian
Central and Oriental cordilleras and represents
an area of 34,000 km
2
[13,000 mi
2
].
2
Oil seeps are
common features within the basin; their pres-
ence was documented by the rst western explor-
ers in the 16th century. These reservoir indicators
motivated some of the earliest oil exploration and
led to the discovery in 1918 of the giant eld
called La CiraInfantas, the rst eld discovered
in Colombia. Since that time, the MMVB has
been heavily explored. Its current oil and gas
reserves include more than 1,900 million bbl
[302 million m
3
] of oil and 2.5 Tcf [71 billion m
3
]
of gas.
3
30039schD4R1.indd 2 5/6/10 9:36 PM
6 Oileld Review
The abundance of hydrocarbon resources in
the basin attests to the prolic petroleum system
active in this region. A thick, organic-rich lime-
stone and shale succession was deposited in an
extensive pericratonic trough along the north-
west margin of the Guyana shield during the
Cretaceous Period.
4
These underlying source
rocks are separated from the primary reservoirs
by an Eocene unconformity. Major uid-migra-
tion mechanisms to elds within the MMVB con-
sist of direct vertical migration where La Luna
Formation subcrops the Eocene unconformity,
lateral migration along the Eocene sandstone
carrier and vertical migration through faults.
The Colorado, Mugrosa and La Paz forma-
tions that make up the Casabe eld were depos-
ited during the Paleogene Period. These are
found at depths of 670 to 1,700 m [2,200 to
5,600 ft]. The reservoir sands in the eld are
classied in three main groups: A, B and C,
which are subdivided into operational units
(above). Sands are typically isolated by imper-
meable claystone seals and have grain sizes that
vary from silty to sandy to pebbly.
Structurally the Casabe eld is an 8-km
[5-mi] long anticline with a three-way closure,
well-dened eastern ank and a southern plunge.
The northern plunge is found outside the area of
the Casabe eld in the Galn eld. A high-angle
NE-SW strike-slip fault closes the western side of
the trap. Associated faults perpendicular to the
main fault compartmentalize the eld into eight
blocks. Drilling is typically restricted to vertical
or deviated wells within each block because of
heavy faulting and compartmentalization.
Throughout the history of the eld, develop-
ment planners have avoided placing wells in the
area close to the western fault. This is because
reservoir models generated from sparse 2D seis-
mic data, acquired rst around 1940 and later in
the 1970s and 1980s, failed to adequately identify
the exact location of major faults including the
4. Pericratonic is a term used to describe the area around a
stable plate of the Earths crust (craton).
5. Although the exact fault locations were not well-dened,
by conservatively locating the wells away from the
fault zones the waterood planners ensured wells
remained within the correct block and inside the
western fault closure.
6. For more on historical structural maps from the Casabe
eld: Morales LG, Podesta DJ, Hateld WC, Tanner H,
>
Casabe structural setting. The Casabe eld lies to the west of La CiraInfantas eld in the middle Magdalena River Valley basin (left). The principal
MMVB structures and producing elds are shown in the generalized structural cross section A to A (top right). The basin is limited on the east by a thrust
belt, uplifting the oldest rocks. Cretaceous and Paleocene (green), Oligocene (orange) and Miocene (yellow) rocks are shown in the central part of the basin
cross section. The preMiddle Eocene uplift and erosion have exposed the Central Cordillera on the west (gray). The Casabe eld is highly layered, as shown in
the detailed structural cross section (bottom right). (Figure adapted from Barrero et al, reference 3, and Morales et al, reference 6.)
ORSPR10Michael MoodyFigure 02
0
m
Peroles
field
La CiraInfantas
field
Barrancabermeja Nuevo Mundo syncline Rio Suarez
anticline
Casabe
field
Central
Cordillera
A A
10,000
5,000
15,000
10 0 20 km
5 0 10 mi
M
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n
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La Cira shale
Cretaceous
5,000 ft
M
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Casabe
Peas
Blancas
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N
La Cira
Infantas
Peroles
Jones SH, Barker MHS, ODonoghue J, Mohler CE,
Dubois EP, Jacobs C and Goss CR: General Geology and
Oil Occurrences of Middle Magdalena Valley, Colombia,
in Weeks LG (ed): Habitat of Oil. Tulsa: The American
Association of Petroleum Geologists, AAPG Special
Publication 18 (1958): 641695.
7. For more on undeveloped areas in the Casabe eld:
Gambaretto W, Peralta J, Cortes G, Suter A, Dederle M
and Lozano Guarnizo E: A 3D Seismic Cube: What For?,
paper SPE 122868, presented at the SPE Latin American
and Caribbean Petroleum Engineering Conference,
Cartagena, Colombia, May 31June 3, 2009.
8. Peas Blancas eld, discovered in 1957, is located 7 km
[4 mi] to the southwest of the Casabe eld. Both elds
have the same operator. The area between the elds was
surveyed because oil indicators were found.
30039schD4R1.indd 3 5/6/10 9:36 PM
Spring 2010 7
main strike-slip fault. The lack of a more accu-
rate structural model caused two main problems:
Reservoir engineers underestimated OOIP and
waterood planners found it difcult to locate
injector-producer pairs within the same reservoir
and, to a lesser extent, within the same fault
block.
5
These uncertainties led the managers and
experts of the 2004 Casaba alliance to build a
multicomponent redevelopment plan.
Ecopetrol SA has long-standing experience in
and knowledge of the eld and the measures
undertaken to keep it producing decade after
decade. Schlumberger provides new oileld tech-
nologies to the operator, including seismic sur-
veying, downhole measurements, data analysis
and specialized drilling, as well as domain exper-
tise to decipher the challenges faced. With these
capabilities the alliance was condent it could
obtain results within a year.
The key goals of the redevelopment plan were
to increase reserves, manage the waterood pro-
grams more efciently and address drilling-
related problems such as reactive lithology,
tripping problems, low ROP, borehole collapse
and washouts, and completion challenges such as
poor cementing and casing collapse. Tackling
each of these elements involved close collabora-
tion between the operators professionals and
technical experts from the service company. The
rst stage of the project involved a thorough eld-
wide analysis based on existing data and the gath-
ering of new data using the latest technologies,
such as 3D seismic surveys and 3D inversion.
Undeveloped Areas and Attic Oil
Forty years ago it was common to create struc-
tural maps by identifying formation tops from
well data. With hundreds of evenly distributed
wells this task was quite straightforward over
most of the Casabe concession.
6
However, a large
undeveloped area near the main NE-SW strike-
slip fault encompassed over 20 km
2
[7.7 mi
2
].
Smaller undeveloped locations also existed.
7
A lack of well log data in these undeveloped
areas meant that formation tops were not avail-
able to create structural maps for several key
areas of operator interest. As a result, signicant
potential oil reserves were possibly being over-
looked. To improve structural understanding and
help increase reserves, Ecopetrol SA commis-
sioned a high-resolution 3D seismic survey.
Geophysicists designed the survey to encom-
pass both the Casabe and Peas Blancas elds
and also the area in between.
8
WesternGeco per-
formed the survey during the rst half of 2007,
acquiring more than 100 km
2
[38 mi
2
] of high-
resolution 3D seismic data; data interpretation
followed later that year. The new data enabled
creation of a more precise and reliable structural
model than one obtained from formation tops,
with the added advantage of covering almost the
entire Casabe concession (below).
In addition to accurately dening the struc-
ture of the subsurface, seismic data can also give
reservoir engineers early indications of oil-
bearing zones. In some cases oil-rich formations
appear as seismic amplitude anomalies, called
bright spots. However, these bright spots do not
guarantee the presence of oil, and many opera-
tors have hit dry holes when drilling on the basis
of amplitude data alone.
>
Casabe structural maps and model. Structural maps of the eld were
generated using formation tops from well logs (Formation Tops). But
operators avoided drilling along the main strike-slip fault for fear of exiting
the trap; hence, tops were unavailable (Structural Sketch, red-shaded area).
This poorly dened and undeveloped area represented signicant potential
reserves. High-resolution 3D seismic data were used to create a rened set
of structural maps (Seismic Data). These maps indicate additional faults in
the eld and adjusted positions of existing faults compared to the formation
top maps. Calibration of the new maps from existing well logs further
improved their accuracy. Geophysicists input the maps into Petrel software
to form a 3D structural model of the subsurface (inset, right). (Figure
adapted from Peralta-Vargas et al, reference 1.)
ORSPR10Michael MoodyFigure 03
Structural Sketch
with Well Locations
Formation Tops Seismic Data
Area not
drained
or drilled
Well location
Depth, ft
3,300
4,050
4,800
Depth, ft
3,300
4,900
6,500
0
0 6,000 ft
1,000 2,000 m 0
0 6,000 ft
1,000 2,000 m
0 1,000 2,000 m
0 3,000 6,000 ft
N N
N
N
30039schD4R1.indd 4 5/6/10 9:36 PM
8 Oileld Review
Several conditions can create misleading
amplitude anomalies, but careful processing and
interpretation can distinguish them. Analysis of
amplitude variation with offset (AVO) corrects
data during the common midpoint gathering
process (above).
9
Using AVO-corrected amplitude
maps as an additional verication tool, interpret-
ers were able to conrm both undeveloped and
attic oil accumulations.
Attic oil is an old concept. Operators know
there can be oil in these higher zones, but identi-
fying them is difcult if the exact location of
faults is uncertain. Interpretation of the Casabe
3D seismic data claried eld corridors where
wells had not been planned because of the uncer-
tainty surrounding the main fault position. Wells
have since been drilled along these corridors
with successful results (next page, top).
A detailed geologic model provided a better
understanding of the subsurface conditions,
which helped during the waterood planning and
drilling processes. Prestack inversion of the 3D
survey data yielded eldwide estimates of rock
properties.
10
Geophysicists calibrated these esti-
mates using data acquired by a suite of new-
generation logging tools (see New Wells and
Results, page 15) in approximately 150 wells.
Using these calibrated rock types, geologists
created a facies distribution map, which they
combined with the structural model to create a
model of reservoir architecture.
The architectural model highlighted more
than 15 reservoirs with an average thickness of
3 m [10 ft] each. Reservoir engineers analyzed
10 of these reservoirs and discovered an addi-
tional 5 million bbl [800,000 m
3
] of estimated
reserves.
11
The geologic model was then used dur-
ing the waterood redevelopment process to help
improve both areal and vertical sweep efciency.
Effective Waterooding
When the Casabe eld was switched from natural
drive to waterood in the late 1970s, the operator
chose to use a typical ve-spot pattern with
approximately 500 injector and producer pairs.
To sweep the upper and lower sections of Sands A
and B, up to four wells were drilled per injection
location (next page, bottom). During the initial
waterood period, injection rates peaked in 1986
and 1991. These dates correspond to the rst and
second year after the beginning of the two water-
ood programs for the northern and southern
areas of the Casabe eld.
Two to three years after each peak there was
a noticeable drop in the water-injection rates.
This was due mainly to the restrictions imposed
on the rates to avoid casing collapse. However,
the reduction in water-injection rates was also
inuenced by several other factors. These issues
were identied in the alliances redevelopment
plan and became a large part of the requirements
for reworking the Casabe waterood programs.
9. For more on AVO analysis: Chiburis E, Franck C,
Leaney S, McHugo S and Skidmore C: Hydrocarbon
Detection with AVO, Oileld Review 5, no. 1
(January 1993): 4250.
10. For more on inversion: Barclay F, Bruun A,
Rasmussen KB, Camara Alfaro J, Cooke A,
Cooke D, Salter D, Godfrey R, Lowden D, McHugo S,
zdemir H, Pickering S, Gonzalez Pineda F, Herwanger J,
Volterrani S, Murineddu A, Rasmussen A and Roberts R:
Seismic Inversion: Reading Between the Lines,
Oileld Review 20, no. 1 (Spring 2008): 4263.
11. Amaya R, Nunez G, Hernandez J, Gambaretto W and
Rubiano R: 3D Seismic Application in Remodeling
Browneld Waterooding Pattern, paper SPE 122932,
presented at the SPE Latin American and Caribbean
Petroleum Engineering Conference, Cartagena de
Indias, Colombia, May 31June 3, 2009.
12. For more on understanding high-mobility ratios:
Elphick JJ, Marquez LJ and Amaya M: IPI Method:
A Subsurface Approach to Understand and Manage
Unfavorable Mobility Wateroods, paper SPE 123087,
presented at the SPE Latin American and Caribbean
Petroleum Engineering Conference, Cartagena,
Colombia, May 31June 3, 2009.
>
Minimizing uncertainty of amplitude anomalies. Bright spots (top left) are high-amplitude features on
seismic data. These features can indicate oil accumulations, although they are no guarantee. One
technique for understanding bright spots begins with modeling the amplitudes of reections from
reservoirs containing various uids (top right). The amplitude at the top of a sand reservoir lled with
water decreases with offset. The amplitude at the top of a similar reservoir containing gas can
increase with offset. The results are compared with actual seismic traces containing reections from a
sand reservoir (bottom left) to more accurately characterize reservoir uid. Combined with other
information such as seismic inversion data, AVO-corrected amplitude maps (bottom right) can be a
useful tool to conrm the presence of oil (light-blue areas). (Figure adapted from Gambaretto et al,
reference 7.)
ORSPR10Michael MoodyFigure 04
Bright spots
AVO-corrected
amplitude map
AVO anomaly
Typical amplitude signature
Undeveloped area
Hydrocarbons
Uncorrected common
midpoint gather
Amplitude anomaly
Offset
Offset
Offset
30039schD4R1.indd 5 6/10/10 2:49 PM
Spring 2010 9
The operator had recorded early water break-
through in the elds producers during both
waterood programs. This was a result of injec-
tion water channeling inside high-permeability
layers. Also, a poor mobility ratio was present
throughout the eld: Viscous oils (14.8 to 23.3 API
gravity in the upper sands and 15.4 to 24.8 API
gravity in the lower sands) were pushed aside by
the more freely owing water, and once break-
through occurred the water inux increased.
12

These conditions caused a poor vertical sweep
efciency average of only 20%.
>
Attic well. Experts had long predicted a eld corridor along the main
strike-slip fault, but the lack of accurate seismic data made the risk of
drilling these zones too high. Interpretation of the 2007 3D seismic survey
enabled geophysicists to identify undeveloped drilling locations (red
ellipses, left) close to the major fault. A new offset well, approved for Block
VIII, was very close to the main strike-slip fault (dashed-green box, left). 3D
seismic data and structural maps (middle) visualized using Petrel software
helped well planners position the well. The trajectory avoided major faults
and targeted a large undeveloped zone and two attic oil zones in the B and
C sands (right). The wells constructed during the rst and second drilling
campaigns were vertical; in the third campaign, especially from late 2008
onward, most of the wells drilled were offset wells in target pay zones close
to faults. (Figure adapted from Amaya et al, reference 11.)

ORSPR10Michael MoodyFigure 05
Undeveloped
Attic oil
B sands
Attic oil
C sands
Blocks I and II
Block III
Block IV
Block V
Block VI
Block VII
Block VIII
Drilled wells
Approved locations
Proposed locations
Undeveloped areas
0
0 6,000 ft
1,000 2,000 m
N
N
New well
D
e
p
t
h
,

m
400
600
800
1,000
1,200
1,400
1,600
.
Casabe eld injection and production scheme.
Original eld-development plans included as
many as four wells per injection location to ood
the multilayered sands (blue wells). Up to two
wells were used to extract oil, but in some
locations a single production well commingled
uids from Sands A and B, B and C, or A, B and C
(green wells). The current string design for new
injector-producer pairs, shown in a later gure,
limits drilling to only one well per location. This
change has reduced cost and also the incidence
of proximity-induced well collapse. (Figure
adapted from Peralta-Vargas et al, reference 1.)
ORSPR10Michael MoodyFigure 06
2,500
A1
A2
B1 SUP
B1 INF
B2 SUP
B3
C
A3
3,000
3,500
4,000
4,500
B2 INF
5,000
5,500
L
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r

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s
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s
Formation 80 20
Spontaneous
Potential
0 20 mV ohm.m
Resistivity
Sand
Depth,
ft
La Cira
Shale
A1 A2
Injection Production
B1 B2 A B CBA
30039schD4R1.indd 6 5/6/10 9:36 PM
10 Oileld Review
Sand production and high-velocity jetting of
sandy water through perforations signicantly
eroded casing walls and completion hardware in
the producers. During a critical period of the
waterood, numerous wells collapsed and were
abandoned or taken off line. To sustain production
levels the operator chose to convert many injec-
tion wells to producers, but this drastically
affected the waterood patterns (left).
Choking back injection rates to mitigate
well collapses was another factor that caused an
uneven water-ow pattern. Areal sweep was poor,
resulting in many areas of bypassed oil. The
elds redevelopment team wanted to reestablish
patterns to improve areal sweep efciency.
Therefore, a large part of the third drilling cam-
paign involved planning and placement of new
injectors and producers. These were located to
recreate an evenly spread network of wells
throughout the eld. However, areal sweep is
largely dependent on obtaining good vertical
sweep efciency. Waterood specialists rst
needed to design better injection control systems
that would improve vertical sweep and also pro-
vide a mechanism to reduce the damaging effects
of water channeling on the production strings.
Vertical sweep efciency is determined by the
effectiveness of water, owing from injector
wells, at pushing oil through permeable layers to
formation-connected oil producers. The original
multiwell injector design had no injection prole
control, so water owed preferentially through
the most permeable formations. This water-
channeling effect is aggravated by several mech-
anisms: Shallower sands can be unintentionally
fractured during waterooding, signicantly
increasing permeability. The injectivity index of
deeper layers may suffer if low-quality injected
water causes plugging of perforations or deposits
of scale in the production casing. Also, injected
water bypasses viscous oil, present in large
amounts in the Casabe eld, and breakthrough
takes place in producers. As a consequence,
water ows through the layer of highest permea-
bility and may not be injected at all in others,
especially in the deeper sands with skin damage.
This has been a distinctive feature during Casabe
production operations.
To optimize ooding, water management spe-
cialists recommended selective injection strings
using waterood-ow regulators (next page).
These designs would enable the operator to choke
back injection rates in specic layers irrespective
of the reservoir pressure, permeability, skin dam-
age or any other factors that would normally
affect ow. Each layer is packed off to prevent any
>
Comparison of 1986 and 2003 waterood patterns. By 1986 the operator had
established an evenly distributed network of ve-spot injection patterns throughout
the Casabe eld (top). Well collapses had occurred in nearly 70% of the wells in
Block VI, and a signicant number of collapses had been recorded in all other
blocks in the eld. In 2003 (bottom) many of the collapsed wells remained abandoned
or inactive and numerous injectors had been converted to producers. Experts
suggested a new drilling campaign to reestablish eldwide ve-spot patterns.
(Figure adapted from Elphick et al, reference 12.)
ORSPR10Michael MoodyFigure 07
2003
Waterflood Patterns in Block VI
1986
Producers
Injectors
Top of A sands
Top of B sands
Top of C sands
Fault traces
3,000
2,400
1,800
1,200
600
0
0 750 1,500
East, ft
N
o
r
t
h
,

f
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600
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N
o
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f
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30039schD4R1.indd 7 5/6/10 9:36 PM
Spring 2010 11
uids within that zone of the wellbore from invad-
ing another zone. An injection nozzle is located
within this section and is controlled from the sur-
face. The new selective-string designs have
improved the vertical sweep efciency by enabling
the operator to maintain higher injection rates
into layers less affected by waterood-induced
problems. Conversely, the new designs have miti-
gated issues related to channeling by allowing a
reduction of rates in problematic layers.
Use of a single well designed with packed-off
ow control was also much more cost-effective
than the previous design of up to four wells per
injection location. Up to 16 water-ow regulators
have now been installed in injectors in the
Casabe eld. This solution also addressed the
possibility that drilling several injectors in close
proximity to one another was one of the likely
causes of casing collapse.
Overcoming Drilling Difculties
From rst production in 1945 to the end of 2006,
approximately 45% of the production wells in the
Casabe eld had at some point collapsed, with
different levels of severity. As a result, wells were
abandoned, left inactive or reactivated only after
costly workovers. The abandoned and inactive
wells represented millions of dollars in capital
investment in the eld and in lost revenue due to
lower production rates. The majority of casing
collapses had occurred in Block VI, which also
has the largest proven reserves. It was therefore
the focus of a casing-collapse study.
13
In the rst stage of the Block VI study,
production engineers gathered casing-collapse
statistics. In 2006 this block contained 310 wells.
A total of 214 showed some degree of collapse.
Slightly more producers than injectors collapsed,
but the difference was minor and indicated no
trend. Of the total number of wells with recorded
collapse events, 67 were abandoned and 80 were
inactive, a factor that the operator knew would
severely impact injection and production rates.
The remaining wells had been reactivated after
costly workovers. The engineers then looked for
a correlation between the 214 collapses and
when these wells were drilled to identify any
drilling practices that were incompatible with
the Casabe eld.
Three main drilling campaigns coincided with
the primary-recovery, or natural-drive, period
(1941 to 1975); the secondary-recovery, or water-
ood, period (1975 to 2003); and nally the
waterood period of the Casabe alliance (2004 to
present). Of the wells drilled during the rst
campaign, 78% had casing-collapse events during
operation. In the second campaign this gure
was slightly less, at 68%. This period, however,
corresponded to the waterood programs; hence
many more wells had been drilled. During the
study period there were no recorded collapse
events in Block VI for wells constructed in the
third drilling campaign. This change was consid-
ered to be a result of improved drilling practices,
which are discussed later in this section.
To determine a link between casing collapse
and subsurface conditions, the investigators con-
sidered the updated stratigraphic and structural
models built from the new 3D seismic data.
Petrel seismic-to-simulation software enabled
the production engineers to display both models
in the same 3D window. Using modeling tools,
they could then tag and clearly see the wellbore
depths and the locations along the Casabe struc-
ture where collapses had been recorded.
The engineers discovered that casing collapse
had occurred in all stratigraphic levels. However,
collapse distribution did highlight a strong cor-
relation to the overburden and to the water-
ooded formations. The analysis of well location
>
Selective injection design. New injection strings in the Casabe eld have up
to 16 waterood-ow regulators (WFRs). WFRs and check valves prevent
backow and sand production in case of well shutdown. The zone-isolated
injection devices are placed in the highly layered stratigraphic proles of the
most-prolic producers that commingle uids from A, B and C sands.
Production logs are unavailable because of rod pumps, but injection logs are
available: Track 1 describes a typical lithology of A sands (yellow shaded
areas); spontaneous potential logs (blue curves) are more accurate than
gamma ray logs (red curve) in the presence of radiation from feldspar, which
occurs naturally in the eld. Track 2 shows resistivity response of the formation
at two measurement depths (red and blue curves) and water-injection zones
(green shaded area). (Figure adapted from Elphick et al, reference 12.)
ORSPR10Michael MoodyFigure 08
A3
A21
A2
A1H
Sand
Spontaneous
Potential
mV 80 20
Resistivity
ohm.m 0 15
Gamma Ray
Four-zone injector schematic
gAPI 0 150
Perforations
WFR
Packer
13. Olarte P, Marquez L, Landinez G and Amaya R: Casing
Collapse Study on Block VI Wells: Casabe Field, paper
SPE 122956, presented at the SPE Latin American
and Caribbean Petroleum Engineering Conference,
Cartagena, Colombia, May 31June 3, 2009.
30039schD4R1.indd 8 5/6/10 9:36 PM
12 Oileld Review
within the eld and well-collapse distribution
revealed an evenly spread number of events,
which indicated no areal localization (above).
The next stage of the study was a probabilistic
analysis to evaluate the frequency of events
based on two variables: number of casing-
collapse events and operational year. Production
engineers created probabilistic distributions by
plotting both variables for each drilling campaign
using the Monte Carlo simulation component of
the Crystal Ball software. The results showed the
highest number of events (about 30) for the wells
drilled during the rst drilling campaign occurred
in 1985, coinciding with the beginning of the rst
major waterood program.
Interventions were more frequently per-
formed on wells drilled during the second drilling
campaign, which meant that the timing of each
collapse event was recorded with greater cer-
tainty than for wells drilled during the rst drill-
ing period. Therefore, the probabilistic analysis
was even more reliable. It revealed that casing
collapse occurred primarily during the rst few
years of the waterood project and peaked during
1988. Investigators identied a critical period of
>
Areal and stratigraphic localization of casing collapse in Block VI. Statistical analysis of casing-collapse events within each stratigraphic section (left)
showed collapses in every formation. However, event frequency in the overburden and in the waterooded zones (mainly Sands A1, A2, B1 and B2) was
several times higher than in other zones, indicating these intervals are more likely to cause collapse. Using Petrel modeling tools, engineers included Block
VI casing collapses in the structural model. A structural map of one reservoir (right) indicates collapses occurred throughout the block and not in any
specic area. (Figure adapted from Olarte et al, reference 13.)
ORSPR10Michael MoodyFigure 09
Overburden Colorado Mugrosa La Paz
A2
0
10
20
30
40
N
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m
b
e
r

o
f

c
o
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l
a
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s
e

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v
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n
t
s
Stratigraphic formation
50
60
70
80
B2 B3 B1 A3 A1 C
Faults
Production wells Injection wells
N
>
Critical uid levels for production casing and liners of the rst drilling campaign. Testing using
TDAS software determined the critical load condition for uid evacuation in Block VI wells from the rst
drilling campaign. Casing (green box, left) and liners (red box, right) were tested rst to obtain critical
uid-evacuation levels based on original design specications and again after calculations of 10%, 20%
and 30% wall loss. All wells for the simulation were at depths of 5,000 ft; depending on the amount of wall
loss, a collapse was probable as borehole uid levels fell. For example, 7-in., 20-lbm/ft API Grade H40
casing strings could collapse even at their installed condition when the uid was evacuated past 3,200 ft.
Wells that passed the rst simulated test failed when wall loss was increased. This result indicated
that corrosion or general wear-and-tear (causing wall loss) would have weakened casing or liners
to the limit of collapse when the uid level dropped to values that had been recorded in the eld.
(Figure adapted from Olarte et al, reference 13.)
ORSPR10Michael MoodyFigure 11
5,000
7-in. H40
20 lbm/ft
7-in. J55
20 lbm/ft
7-in. K55
23 lbm/ft
7-in. N80
23 lbm/ft
6
5
/8-in. H40
20 lbm/ft
6
5
/8-in. J55
20 lbm/ft
4,000
3,000
2,000
1,000
0
4,500
3,500
2,500
1,500
500
F
l
u
i
d

l
e
v
e
l
,

f
t
Casing Liners
0% wall loss
10% wall loss
20% wall loss
30% wall loss
30039schD4R1.indd 9 5/6/10 9:36 PM
Spring 2010 13
time during which collapse frequency was high.
This period coincided with the most intense rates
of water injection (right).
The next stage of the study evaluated the
mechanical integrity of the wells in the Casabe
eld. This evaluation found that for the producers
in Block VI collapses occurred only in the produc-
tion liners and casing. To uncover the root causes
for all these collapses, every event was evaluated
using TDAS tubular design and analysis software.
The application enables analysis of the mechani-
cal performance of a casing in two scenarios.
First, an initial installed state considers the origi-
nal casing-design specication and downhole con-
ditions such as temperature and pressure. The
next scenario includes subsequent operationally
induced events such as injection and production
that are interpreted as forces on the casing, called
case loads. Engineers analyzed case loads for
compressional, tensional and triaxial stresses.
To begin, engineers needed to dene the
installed condition, characterized by tempera-
ture, pressure and casing strength, for casing
designs in Block VI. Then they could apply case
loads to determine when a casing would fail.
Pressure and temperature proles for each well
were calculated using logs from the Casabe eld.
Because corrosion also signicantly reduces cas-
ing strength, the USI tool, which measures ultra-
sonic acoustic impedance, was used to determine
the loss of wall thickness attributed to corrosion
(see Scanning for Downhole Corrosion, page 42).
According to the USI data, wells exhibited wall
losses between 10% and 35%. Engineers dened
four corrosion proles at 0%, 10%, 20% and 30%
wall loss. These four proles were combined with
pressure and temperature data to generate the
installed conditions that engineers needed to
begin simulation of operational loads.
Engineers performed hundreds of simulations
using the TDAS software. The rst analysis con-
sidered uid evacuation, a decrease of uid level
in the borehole, which can be a critical load con-
dition for casing collapse. Fluid levels in the well-
bore may become low during the productive life
of a eld for several reasons. These include low
productivity, increased extraction during produc-
tion, sand ll, decreased water injection, and
swabbing and stimulation operations, all of which
had taken place in the Casabe eld. When uid
level drops, the internal pressure no longer bal-
ances the external pressure and the casing must
sustain this force. The critical load condition for
casing collapse occurs when the differential pres-
sure is higher than the casing can withstand.
After analysis of the casing design chosen
for wells during the first drilling campaign,
engineers discovered that the specifications
had resulted in casing strings that were not
robust enough to withstand fluid evacuation
combined with the wall losses observed in
Block VI (previous page, bottom).
The nal mechanical analysis was related to
the main operational events leading to casing col-
lapse. The reservoir pressure prole within the
formation during water injection could impact
the casing in both producers and injectors. The
calculated increase in load from waterooding
was applied to casing that had passed critical
load conditions in the earlier simulations; the
new test would determine if the additional pres-
sure could cause them to collapse. This analysis
indicated that waterooding increased the like-
lihood of casing collapse.
Once all critical limits and conditions for
the Casabe eld had been obtained, production
engineers ran simulations for several casing
strings with different specications to nd an
optimal design for future wells. The TDAS simula-
tions enabled them to specify an ideal model that
would give an estimated service life of 20 years.
This model has been applied to all new wells
drilled throughout the eld, with a successful
reduction in the frequency of recorded casing col-
lapse to less than 2% of wells from 2006 to 2009.
This is a dramatic improvement compared with
events during the previous 60 years, in which 69%
of wells in Block VI experienced collapses.
>
History of casing-collapse frequency. The frequency of collapse events by
year was plotted for the rst and second drilling campaigns (top). In 1985 the
highest frequency (28) of reported events was recorded for wells from the rst
drilling campaign. For wells from the second drilling campaign, which occurred
during the waterood period, the peak frequency (20) of reported collapses
occurred in 1988. Both values correspond to the beginning of the waterood
programs in the northern and southern areas of the Casabe eld. A critical
10-year period from 1985 to 1995 was identied as coinciding with the highest
rates of production and water injection (bottom). (Figure adapted from Olarte
et al, reference 13.)
ORSPR10Michael MoodyFigure 10
0
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w
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e
d
Operational year
10
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r
a
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,

b
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/
d
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Oil produced
Water injected
First drilling campaign
Second drilling
campaign
Critical collapse period
Critical collapse period
30039schD4R1.indd 10 5/6/10 9:36 PM
14 Oileld Review
Together with the results from the other
major milestones of the eld-redevelopment
plan, the new casing designs enabled the alliance
to begin a new drilling campaign. The third
campaign began in 2004, and by 2007 a total of
37 wells had been drilled. The alliance wanted to
drill as efciently as possible to improve produc-
tion, but problems were encountered during
drilling. These included stuck pipe caused by dif-
ferential sticking in depleted reservoirs, prob-
lematic wiper trips resulting from highly reactive
shales and well control issues introduced by
water inux from the waterooding.
To address the hole-stability and stuck-pipe
problems, the redevelopment team began by
improving the drilling uid design. Drillers had
been using the KLA-GARD mud additive to pre-
vent clay hydration, but it had little to no
success at inhibiting reaction in the troublesome
Casabe shales. Consequently, Schlumberger and
M-I SWACO initiated an investigation to nd a
more effective shale inhibitor.
Laboratory analysis of 13 different uid addi-
tives was conducted to compare their reaction-
inhibiting capabilities on Casabe lithology.
Experts deduced, from core and cuttings sam-
ples, that the clays and shales were highly reac-
tive to water; therefore, the optimal drilling uid
must prevent water from contaminating them.
The KLA-STOP mud system was compatible with
the Casabe shales and had the best properties for
inhibiting these reactions: Its uid composition
includes a quaternary amine that prevents water
from penetrating target formations by depositing
a synthetic coating along the borehole wall.
When the new system was put to use, however,
it did not meet expectations, and the reactive
lithology continued to affect drilling time. Design
iterations continued until 2008; at this point
experts had increased KLA-STOP concentration
to 2% and added 3% to 4% potassium chloride
[KCl]. However, hole problems persisted and
experts concluded that another contaminant
could be affecting the mud system. Using core
samples from a wide range of wells, analysts mea-
sured pore throat sizes and laboratory specialists
performed mineralogical analysis to determine
the causes.
14. For more on bicenter bits and reaming-while-drilling
technologies: Rasheed W, Trujillo J, van Oel R,
Anderson M, McDonald S and Shale L:
Reducing Risk and Cost in Diverse Well Construction
Applications: Eccentric Device Drills Concentric Hole
and Offers a Viable Alternative to Underreamers,
paper SPE 92623, presented at the SPE/IADC
Drilling Conference, Amsterdam, February 2325, 2005.
>
New versus old drilling design. Original drilling designs included a traditional polycrystalline diamond
compact bit (top), but swelling clays caused problems during tripping. Engineers designed a reaming-
while-drilling (RWD) BHA that incorporated a smaller pilot bit and a reamer (tan box). RWD enabled
oversized boreholes, which helped compensate for swelling and achieve target diameters for casing.
Further optimizations included larger cutters and a backup set of cutters to improve ROP (blue box). A
change in the number of nozzles and in the nozzle diameter dramatically reduced the washouts that
were causing cementing problems (bottom). The decision to redesign the bit was made partly to cope
with clay reactions. A new mud system has successfully inhibited the clay, and engineers are now
reconsidering a concentric bit to improve drilling efciency.
ORSPR10Michael MoodyFigure 14
Pilot bit
28 cutters
5 nozzles
5 blades
13.4-mm cutter
Reamer
33 cutters
2 nozzles
4 blades
13.4-mm cutter
8
1
/2-in. bit
Pilot bit
26 cutters
6 nozzles
4 blades
19-mm cutter
Reamer
27 cutters
2 nozzles
4 blades
19-mm cutter
Modification: Stabilization
pad and guardian bearing
to drill out
Washout log
Before After
8
1
/2-in. OD stabilizer 6
1
/4-in. miscellaneous sub 6
1
/2-in. collar
Schematic of First Four Sections of the Original BHA with a Concentric Bit
Design Improvements of Bicentric Bits and RWD
30039schD4R1.indd 11 6/10/10 2:49 PM
Spring 2010 15
The tests indicated that concentrations of
smectite, previously identied as the swelling
clay, decreased with depth. But the mineralogical
analysis also revealed the presence of illite and
kaolinite, which were not included as part of the
original mud system investigation. These disper-
sive clays break off into the mud upon contact
with water, causing drilling problems such as bit
balling, and also increase the viscosity of the
mud, making mud-weight curves less accurate. A
more complete understanding of downhole con-
ditions enabled engineers to design a new mud
system with improved KLA-GARD B and IDCAP D
clay inhibitors. KCl was completely removed from
the uid, helping to reduce environmental
impact and cleanup.
The mineralogy study showed why drilling in
the waterooded zones was obviously problem-
atic. Existing methods to avoid water inux
involved shutting in several injection wells up to
several weeks before drilling to reduce pressure.
In one extreme case 40 injectors were taken off
line to drill just 2 wells, which ultimately reduced
production rates.
Experts looked into the different ways they
could reduce water inux while also limiting any
effect on the waterood programs. Instead of
shutting in injectors they could increase produc-
tion in layers that were drilling targets, even if
this meant producing large volumes of water. In
addition, connected producers that were cur-
rently shut in could be reactivated, and if they
had no pump, there was a possibility that enough
pressure had built up for them to ow naturally.
Only after these steps were taken and deemed
insufcient would the alliance consider shutting
in injectors.
Another part of the investigation involved
reducing injector shut-in time. To avoid water
inow, injectors were taken off line 15 days
before drilling commenced. However, it was
found that to avoid water delivery from the injec-
tor to the drilling location, injectors could be
shut in just before the drill bit penetrated the
connected zone. Also, with the production-based
pressure-reducing measures, injector shut-in
time was reduced from seven days to just two,
depending on the level of production.
The continuing difculties with stuck pipe and
tripping problems led the alliance to seek other
options. After initial analysis of the drilling-related
issues, engineers selected a bicenter bit and ream-
ing-while-drilling technologies.
14
A pilot well,
CB-1054, was drilled with the new hardware, and
tripping times were notably reduced. Engineers
used the results from the pilot well to optimize the
bit and BHA designs. Experts ran unconned com-
pressive-strength tests on core samples taken at
numerous depths from several wells in the Casabe
eld, which returned values from 585 to 845 psi
[4.0 to 5.8 MPa]. The results from this analysis
allowed the engineers to optimize the number of
primary cutters and to introduce backup cutters
on the drill bit (previous page).
Since the introduction of new technologies
and updated practices, the drilling problems
faced in the Casabe eld have been resolved.
Better quality holes have increased the effective-
ness of cementing jobs. Tripping times have been
reduced by more than 22%. Higher ROPs have
been achieved with updated cutter congura-
tions and a PowerPak XP extended power steer-
able hydraulic motor (below). The majority of
new wells in the Casabe eld have directional
S-type boreholes deeper than 5,200 ft [1.6 km] to
avoid collisions with existing and new wells or to
reach reserves in fault zones.
New Wells and Results
The sands in the Casabe eld have been exten-
sively developed, but it is common in mature
elds to nd oil in unexpected places. For exam-
ple, some zones in the Casabe eld were over-
looked because the presence of low-resistivity
pay is difcult to detect using traditional resis-
tivity tools; alternative tools are discussed later
in this section. Other zones in the eld were inac-
cessible because a lack of structural data made
the drilling risk too high. Using structural infor-
mation acquired by the alliance, the operator is
now developing the highest section of the Casabe
elds anticline structure in the B sands within
Block V.
Only one well in this block, the wildcat
Casabe-01 located downdip in the ank of the
anticline, exhibited oil shows in the thin sands
within the attic zones, but these zones had never
been tested. A new well, located updip of the
wildcat well, was proposed to develop the A
sands. After reviewing the new 3D seismic data
and the projected length of the oil leg, geoscien-
tists revised the total depth for this newly pro-
posed well and suggested deepening it to reach
the B sands.
>
Drilling results. The new RWD and bicenter bit drilling technologies have
had a considerable impact, improving hole quality, reducing total trip times,
increasing ROP, minimizing stuck-pipe risk, reducing backreaming operations,
and improving the quality of primary cementing jobs. Average drilling-job times
have been cut from 15.3 days to 6.8 days.
ORSPR10Michael MoodyFigure 15
Well
2
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s
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2009 2010
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1
2
7
D
C
B

1
1
2
6
D
C
B

1
2
7
1
D
C
B

1
1
4
0
D
C
B

1
1
2
9
D
C
B

1
2
5
1
C
B

1
1
1
0
D
C
B

1
1
4
7
D
C
B

1
1
8
4
D
C
B

1
1
3
7
D
Average drilling time
for year
2010
Optimized wells in 2009, average depth 5,400 ft
30039schD4R1.indd 12 5/6/10 9:36 PM
16 Oileld Review
Data from this new well included chromatog-
raphy performed on mud from the B sands,
which revealed well-dened oil shows, and log
interpretation conrmed the oil presence. This
oil is due to a lack of drainage from the updip
wells. New data acquired with the PressureXpress
LWD tool indicated the compartment was at
original pressure. Interpretation of data from
the CMR-Plus combinable magnetic resonance
logs conrmed movable oil (below). The interval
was completed and the well produced 211 bbl/d
[34 m
3
/d] of oil with no water cut. Historically,
ORSPR10Michael MoodyFigure 12
A sands
B sands
New well
Oil
Water
Lithology
Sandstone
Bound Water
4,850
4,950
5,000
4,900
Depth,
ft
Schlumberger-Doll Research
mD 0.1 1,000
4,900
Timur-Coates
Permeability
Resistivity
mD 0.1 1,000
Neutron Porosity
% 60 0
Bulk Density
g/cm
3
1.65 2.65
T
2
Cutoff
ms 0.3 3,000
AIT 10-in. Array
Capillary-Bound Fluid Clay 1
ohm.m 0.1 1,000
AIT 20-in. Array
ohm.m 0.1 1,000
AIT 30-in. Array
ohm.m 0.1 1,000
AIT 60-in. Array
ohm.m 0.1 1,000
AIT 90-in. Array
ohm.m 0.1 1,000
Invaded Zone
ohm.m 0.1 1,000
Small-Pore Porosity
T
2
Log Mean
T
2
Distribution
ms 0.3 3,000
0 29
4
,
9
0
4

t
o

4
,
9
2
2

f
t
M
D
4
,
8
8
3

t
o

4
,
8
9
2

f
t
M
D
0 500 1,000 1,500
Pressure, psi
Original pressure
Depleted
sands
Hydrostatic
Fault 130
D
e
p
t
h
,

f
t
2,000 2,500 3,000 3,500
5,500
5,000
4,500
4,000
3,500
3,000
2,500
2,000
Fault 120
PressureXpress data Hydrostatic Normal gradient
>
Discovering the unexpected in Well CSBE 1069. A new well drilled to reach Sand B in Block V (right) reected a change in previous practices; in this area
the B sands were considered depleted and invaded by water. After interpretation of mud logs indicated oil shows in two locations, Schlumberger acquired
pressure and nuclear magnetic resonance logs in the low-resistivity intervals. Interpretation of the CMR-Plus log (left) conrmed the presence of oil
(green-shaded areas Track 4). Pressure data (inset middle) indicated the bypassed oil zones were at original reservoir pressure (blue box) along the
normal gradient.
30039schD4R1.indd 13 5/6/10 9:36 PM
Spring 2010 17
experts did not look for oil downdip in the
Casabe eld because the deeper formation had
been agged as a water zone.
The eld provided another surprise during a
routine replacement of a retired well. A produc-
ing well had been mechanically damaged as a
result of sand production induced by the water-
ood. A replacement was planned using improved
design factors garnered from the casing-collapse
investigation. The operator drilled the well into
the C sands for coring purposes. Before drilling,
this zone was considered to be water prone, but
during drilling, mud log interpretation suggested
there might be oil in these deeper sands. Log
interpretation was inconclusive because of the
low resistivity; a new approach was required to
identify movable oil (above).
Interpretation of CMR-Plus data suggested
movable oil corresponding to the oil shows in the
mud logs. Based on these results, the operator
decided to test the well, which produced
130 bbl/d [21 m
3
/d] of oil with no water cut. After
six months, cumulative production reached
11,000 bbl [1,750 m
3
] with no water cut. These
values represent additional reserves where none
were expected.
The Casabe eld redevelopment project is
now in its sixth year, revitalizing the mature oil
eld. Figures gathered at the beginning of 2010
show the Casabe alliance has increased overall
production rates by nearly 250% since 2004. This
improvement is due in part to a fast-track study
that quickly identied the root causes impacting
the efciency of the waterood programs in the
eld and discovered additional oil reserves using
newly acquired data.
The collaboration between Ecopetrol SA and
Schlumberger has been notably successful and
the partnership is currently scheduled to con-
tinue the Casabe story until 2014. Production
wells are being added in the newly dened south-
ern Casabe eld, enabled by the 2007 3D seismic
survey and improved logging methods. The new
drilling practices and waterood technologies are
expected to achieve commercial production rates
for many years to come. MJM
>
Log conrmation of low-resistivity pay. Well CSBE 1060 log interpretation indicated shaly sand zones with
salinities exceeding 50,000 ppm NaCl. Identifying oil in the presence of high-salinity formation water may be difcult
because resistivity measurements cannot be used to distinguish the two (red-shaded area in Resistivity track).
Shaly sands have higher water content than sand alone, and an alternative to resistivity measurements is needed.
The CMR-Plus tool, which measures relaxation time of hydrogen molecules to identify oil and water, uncovered the
presence of oil (Free oil, red-shaded area). Based on these results the interval was tested and returned clean oil,
conrming low-resistivity pay in the Casabe eld.
ORSPR10Michael MoodyFigure 13
Depth,
ft
Caliper
in. 16 6
5,200
5,350
5,250
Free water
5,300
Free oil
Timur-Coates
mD 1,000 0.1
T
2
Cutoff
ms 3,000 0.3
Computed Gamma Ray
gAPI 140 0
Spontaneous Potential
mV 40 60
AIT 30-in. Array
ohm.m 20 0.2
AIT 60-in. Array
ohm.m 20 0.2
Neutron Porosity
% 0 60
Bulk Density
g/cm
3
2.65 1.65
Invaded Zone
Resistivity
ohm.m 20 0.2 AIT 30-in. Array
ohm.m 1,000 0.1
AIT 60-in. Array
ohm.m 1,000 0.1
Total CMR-Plus Porosity
Capillary-Bound Fluid Oil
Small-Pore Porosity
% 0 40
CMR-Plus Bulk Fluid
% 0 30
CMR-Plus Bulk Water
% 0 30
Density Porosity
% 0 30
CMR-Plus 3-ms Porosity
% 0 40
Free Fluid
% 0 40
Free-Fluid Taper
% 0 40
Density Porosity
% 0 40
Invaded Zone
ohm.m 1,000 0.1
Permeability
Resistivity
Moved Water
Bound Water
T
2
Log Mean
ms 3,000 0.3
T
2
Distribution
29 0
30039schD4R1.indd 14 5/6/10 9:36 PM