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The Biomechanics of Force Distribution in Implant-Supported Prostheses
The Biomechanics of Force Distribution in Implant-Supported Prostheses
Force distribution with natural teeth depends on micromovement induced by the periodontal ligament. The location and cusp inclination of the tooth qualitatively alter the force pattern. Osseointegrated implants do not have micromovement associated with force distribution. Force distribution to the osseointegrated implant interface is completely different than with natural teeth. Alterations in tooth location and cusp inclination are suggested to limit implant overload. Force distribution in splinted natural teeth and osseointegrated prostheses are compared. The mechanism of interface force distribution and the consequences of poor interface fit are interrelated. The differential mobility of splinted natural teeth affects diagnosis and treatment. However, combining natural teeth with an osseointegrated prosthesis requires new design principles. (INT J ORAL MAXILLOFAC IMPLANTS 1993;8:19-31.)
Key words: differential mobility, force distribution, impact area, interface force distribution, micromovement, micron movement, modulus of elasticity
JOMI on CD-ROM, 1993 Jan (19-31 ): The Biomechanics of Force Distribution in Implan
However, the vertical elements of each system have opposing characteristics. The implant-abutment-prosthesis interfaces introduce minute degrees of flexibility as the result of retaining screw deformation. These factors have a profound effect on the concepts of force distribution when systems are compared and introduce the risk of clinical failure when teeth and implants are combined in support of prosthesis without an understanding of these fundamental differences. Character of Force Distribution. A scientific analysis of force distribution is statistically indeterminate1 because of variable factors that prevent quantifying measurements. For instance, cortical and medullary bone have different elasticities.1 The attaching screws have much more deflection (flexibility) than the prosthesis framework. The relative intimacy of interface fit of the prosthesis to the abutments will alter force distribution.1 Cantilever force application and the geometric location of the fixtures further alter force distribution patterns. Force Distribution Analysis. Finite element analysis of fixture design (ie, computer mathematical models) has shed light on the distribution of force with various implant configurations.4 However, Brunski3 has pointed out the enormity of the problem when considering all of the variables involved in the evaluation of the in vivo total prosthesis-implant-bone system. In the absence of quantified force analysis, clinically pertinent estimates of force distribution in natural teeth and fixture-supported systems may be made1 with simplified models2,5 and/or simplified assumptions.6,7 Simplified approximation of force distribution is an essential first step in diagnosis and treatment planning; the following discussion is made within the parameter of these limitations.
Definitions
Macromovement. Movement of a tooth or prosthesis component more than 0.5 mm and easily observable. Micromovement. Movement of a tooth, prosthesis, or implant system component 0.1 to 0.5 mm and not readily observable but subject to measurement. Micron-movement. A term (coined here) to describe angstrom level (microscopic) movement below 100 m (less than 0.1 mm) that is not observable or subject to measurement in vivo by ordinary means.
JOMI on CD-ROM, 1993 Jan (19-31 ): The Biomechanics of Force Distribution in Implan
buccal cusp incline, the resultant line of force, perpendicular to that inclination, falls at a great distance (D) from the center or rotation of the tooth6,7 (Fig 1a). Torque. Lateral force is expressed as torque, which is the force multiplied by the perpendicular distance from the center or rotation (Fig 1a). As shown in Fig 1b, lateral force can be effectively diminished by reducing the cusp inclination of the impact area so the resultant line of force passes closer to the center of rotation of the tooth. Compressive and tensile forces are exerted on the periodontal ligament as the tooth exhibits micromovement about the center of rotation (Figs 1a and 1b). The length of the root significantly enhances the distribution of force to the alveolar bone.
JOMI on CD-ROM, 1993 Jan (19-31 ): The Biomechanics of Force Distribution in Implan
of the vertical overlap of the incisors. High levels of torque are produced on the retaining screw (FxD). Optimal implant orientation, as well as a therapeutic alteration in occlusal impact area (discussed later), effectively reduces torque. The resultant line of force can be redirected more vertically by altering the occlusal impact area to provide a horizontal stop (Fig 2b). The resultant line of force is more in line with the implant orientation and its supporting bone, thus effectively reducing torque on the retaining screw and alveolar bone. In general, the location and impact area (inclination) should be given serious consideration in the restorative phase of implant-supported prostheses. The favorable force distribution associated with splinted natural teeth6,7 (resulting from the micromobility of natural teeth) does not apply to multiple-implant-supported prostheses. The micron-mobility of osseointegration (less than 100 m) tends to concentrate force distribution in the area of force application.
JOMI on CD-ROM, 1993 Jan (19-31 ): The Biomechanics of Force Distribution in Implan
distribution of force along the surfaces of natural tooth roots around the center of rotation in the apical third. An osseointegrated implant has no equivalent micromovement; therefore, the forces are concentrated at the crest of the ridge. Torque can be reduced on the implant by creating true cusp-to-fossa occlusal relationships and/or decreasing the inclination of the occlusal impact area. Alteration of the occlusal relationship (such as a cross bite) provides contact more in line with the implant rather than lateral to it. Lateral eccentric contact on a posterior implant-supported prosthesis should be eliminated when possible. The vertical level of implant location is dictated by anatomy. The greater the implant-occlusal distance, the more torque is produced on the crestal bone.
JOMI on CD-ROM, 1993 Jan (19-31 ): The Biomechanics of Force Distribution in Implan
be discussed later. When occlusal impact force is exerted on the middle tooth of the implant-supported prosthesis, similar to a natural tooth splint shown in Fig 5c, the lingually inclined resultant line of force distributes most of the force to the crest of alveolar bone of the middle implant (arrow, Fig 5e) with little distributed to the adjacent implant sites. Micromovement and Force Distribution. The same principle is applied to multiple-implant-supported prostheses that is applied to a single implant; namely, in the absence of micromovement provided by the periodontal ligament, there is no effective force distribution to multiple implants in the same prosthesis. This is because the prosthesis is stiff (rigid) and the implants and bone have only micron-movement, which is not great enough to effectively distribute force to all of the implants. However, multiple-fixture force transmission can take place because of the deformation of retaining screws1,2 and possible overload caused by poor interface fit between prosthesis and abutments.1 Retaining Screw Deformation and Stress Distribution. Because of their reduced size and metallurgical composition, the abutment and prosthesis retaining screws permit more deflection (flexibility) than other members of the total prosthesis-fixture-investing bone system. Whatever force transmission takes place between multiple implants finds its origin in the deformation (flexibility) of the retaining screws.1,2 However, this is extremely difficult to quantify on multiple abutments.3 Rangert et al2 found that retaining screw deformation permitted 100-m (0.1-mm) vertical depression of a natural tooth that was splinted to a fixture on an experimental model. It is debatable whether 100 m of vertical movement is enough to distribute clinically significant force to the periodontal ligament. Certainly 100 m of lateral movement is not enough to distribute force to the periodontal ligament, because "normal" tooth movement is in the range of 0.5 mm (previously defined in this text as micromovement, which distributes stress). Modulus of Elasticity of the Gold Retaining Screws. Gold retaining screws are not rigid. This can be demonstrated by screwing a rigid multiple-implant metal ceramic-casting into place with different patterns of gold screw tightening. Changes occur in the abutment/gold coping interface not because the rigid metal ceramic material flexes, but because the gold screws can elongate. Gold screws are, therefore, the most "flexible" portion of the system and permit enough micromovement to distribute force (to the fixtures). However, as demonstrated by the Rangert et al2 experiment, the magnitude of the deflection of the retaining screws (abutment and gold screws) is in the extreme lower end of the range of micromovement, defined here as 0.1 to 0.5 mm. Pending three-dimensional finite element analysis of multiple-fixture-supported prostheses, it is unknown at what micron deflection range force transmission will be effectively transmitted to all fixtures.
JOMI on CD-ROM, 1993 Jan (19-31 ): The Biomechanics of Force Distribution in Implan
Resultant Force Distribution. If an occlusal force is applied to the buccal slope of the middle tooth of a multiple-implant-supported prosthesis (Fig 6a), a lingual resultant line of force will be generated. The degree of force distribution to the adjacent implants depends on the relative of elasticity of the gold screws and the interface fit of all the components of the system. Over a period of time, more force will be distributed to adjacent implants (arrows) because of the micromovement of the gold screws. To prevent undetected gold screw fracture caused by metal fatigue, with possible overload of the remaining implants, it is advisable to replace the gold screws during the lifetime of the restoration. Cantilevered prostheses or angulated abutments place greater stress on gold screws and the more rigid titanium abutment screws. Sheer Stress. As shown in Fig 6b, an occlusal force that results in a buccal or lingual line of force creates shear force on the gold retaining screw, titanium abutment screw, and the superior portion of the implant itself (arrows). To prevent loosening and/or breakage, a number of factors are significant: (1) inclination of the impact area (cusp inclines); (2) vertical distance from the occlusal impact to the implant and to the abutment; (3) location of the impact area lateral to the axis of the implant; and (4) the inclination of the implant relative to the line of force generated by the impact area (occlusion).
JOMI on CD-ROM, 1993 Jan (19-31 ): The Biomechanics of Force Distribution in Implan
Multiple-Implant-Supported Prosthesis. As stated previously, poor interface fit leads to a high incidence of gold screw metal fatigue and eventual failure. In single tooth restorations, loosening, and gold screw failure become clinically obvious. However, in multiple-implant-supported prostheses, poor interface fit and subsequent gold retaining screw failure shifts the occlusal load to those sites where there is good preloaded interface fit. As a result, the remaining implants can be subject to occlusal overload. This is particularly critical if the gold screw failure takes place on a distal abutment. A lever arm that puts greater load on the adjacent fixture-abutment-prosthesis configuration is created. Titanium Abutment Screw. Titanium abutment screws are stronger than gold (cylinder) retaining screws. Therefore, metal fatigue will usually produce gold screw failure before the titanium abutment screw is affected. Single Tooth Abutment. Poor interface fit usually causes loosening or fracture of the retaining screw and continual failure. When a UCLA abutment-type restoration is required, premanufactured cylinders should be used rather than plastic waxing sleeves, which are technique sensitive fit. Several factors can reduce the shear stress on the retaining screws: (1) reduction of the inclination of the impact area (Fig 1d); (2) narrowing of the occlusal table, and/or moving the occlusal contact area more in line with the implant location (crossbite, Fig 3b); (3) improved implant orientation with the use of computerized tomography9 and surgical guides10; and (4) alteration of the impact area for anterior maxillary single tooth restorations (Fig 2b).
JOMI on CD-ROM, 1993 Jan (19-31 ): The Biomechanics of Force Distribution in Implan
For example, lateral force applied to the firm posterior abutment (arrow, Fig 9a) initiates a rotation about the center of rotation located approximately in the firm canine on that side. However, the lateral force is distributed to the remaining firm teeth only, with very little to the more mobile premolar teeth included within the splint because of their high differential mobility (Fig 9a). Mobile Terminal Abutment. Mobile terminal abutments create special diagnostic and clinical problems because of the high differential mobility between the abutments and their strategic location. As shown in Fig 9b, when the terminal abutments of splinted teeth have a high differential mobility, lateral force (arrow) initiates a rotation about the firm canine on that side, as shown in Fig 9a. However, the mobile terminal abutment creates a lever arm mechanical advantage that can cause a metallurgical failure of the prosthesis, loosening of the castings on the anterior teeth, and /or periodontal breakdown of the firm anterior teeth. In summary, force transmission depends on micromovement. Differential mobility between natural tooth abutments distributes forces disproportionately to the firm teeth. Mobile posterior abutments within a multitooth splint can cause lever arm overload forces on the strong anterior abutments.
JOMI on CD-ROM, 1993 Jan (19-31 ): The Biomechanics of Force Distribution in Implan
U-shaped pin can be added to the internal attachment. U-Shaped Pin Attachment. A U-shaped pin (Selle R, CDT, So-Mar Dental Studies, Jamaica, NY; personal communication, 19XX) can be placed through the interface between the male and female internal attachment (from the lingual aspect). Special laboratory procedures are required for semiprecision or precision attachments. Because the male and female relationship is so precise, it is suggested that the U-shaped pin be in place during cementation. Telescopic Copings. An alternative technique for combining natural tooth and implant-supported prostheses uses substructure copings that are permanently cemented to the natural teeth (Fig 10b). The superstructure telescopic copings over the natural teeth are attached to the fixed-retrievable implant-supported prosthesis. The telescopic superstructure coping is temporarily cemented to the natural tooth coping; the implant portion of the prosthesis is screw retained (Fig 10b). Some clinical problems can occur: (1) the telescopic copings can separate and the natural tooth can be intruded vertically into the alveolar bone; (2) "temporary" cement between the telescopic copings can harden and prevent separation; and (3) secondary caries can occur.
JOMI on CD-ROM, 1993 Jan (19-31 ): The Biomechanics of Force Distribution in Implan
Reduced Implant Lever Arm. The following principles should be applied: l. A cantilevered pontic extended from a free-standing implant-supported prosthesis should never exceed that which can be supported by the implants alone.
2. Attachment of splinted natural teeth to an implant-supported cantilever increases the load on the implants rather than supporting them. 3. Implants support the teeth and not visa versa. 4. When combining splinted natural teeth with an implant-supported prosthesis, the lever arm on the implant-supported portion should be reduced as much as possible (ie, shorter than if it were a free-standing prosthesis). 5. A cantilevered pontic should be extended from the splinted natural teeth, as far as appropriate, as if it were free standing. 6. The method of attachment between the two prostheses should be relatively nonrigid (ie, semiprecision with or without a U-shaped pin). 7. Rigid attachments (eg, precision attachments, cantilevered screw attachments) cause possible lever arm overload on the implants. Combined Prosthesis Design. The erroneous design in Fig 11a should be modified by applying the above principles. Cantilevered pontics are extended from each segment that can be supported by the respective natural teeth and implants (Fig 11b). The internal attachment between the two should not be overly rigid and is designed to prevent horizontal separation rather than force distribution. This design reduces the stress on the implants without overloading the natural teeth.
Summary
Force distribution between members of a system depends on a complex relationship between the relative stiffness of the structural parts with its investment medium (periodontal ligament or osseointegration). A rigid prosthesis is necessary to distribute force in all types of multiple-unit-supported prostheses. When force is applied to one portion of a multiple-tooth-supported prosthesis, the micromovement of the periodontal ligament (0.5 mm range) initiates movement of the whole rigid structural entity (teeth and prosthesis). This micromovement distributes force to the remaining natural teeth. With a multiple-implant-supported prosthesis, force application to one portion is distributed to the nearest osseointegrated fixture interface. The force is concentrated at that interface. The amount of distribution to the remaining fixtures depends on the degree of deformation (flexibility) of the investing bone, fixture, abutment, retaining screws, and prosthesis. The range of deformation of the most flexible part of the system (the retaining screws) is at the lower end of micromotion (in the range of 100
JOMI on CD-ROM, 1993 Jan (19-31 ): The Biomechanics of Force Distribution in Implan
m). Therefore, the amount of force distribution to the remaining fixtures is much less than that found with a periodontal ligament, which can permit 0.5 mm of movement (500 m). Paradoxically, because of the relative "flexibility" of the periodontal ligament, force distribution is dependent on a rigid structural entity of teeth and prosthesis. Conversely, because the osseointegrated interface permits no movement, force distribution depends on some deformation of the fixture-abutment-retaining screw complex. Combined prostheses using implants and natural teeth should be approached with caution. Internal attachments and/or telescopic coping construction have been used. However, force transmission is completely different in both segments. Implants always support the natural teeth, rather than visa versa, because of the overwhelming differential in mobility between periodontal ligament micromovement and the osseointegrated implant interface. New design principles have been recommended to avoid implant overload.
JOMI on CD-ROM, 1993 Jan (19-31 ): The Biomechanics of Force Distribution in Implan
1. Skalak R. Biomechanical considerations in osseointegrated prostheses. J Prosthet Dent 1983;49:843-848. 2. Rangert B, Gunne J, Sullivan DY. Mechanical aspects of a Brnemark implant connected to a natural tooth: an in vitro study. Int J Oral Maxillofac Implants 1991;6:177-186. 3. Brunski J. Biomaterials and biomechanics in dental implant design. Int J Oral Maxillofac Implants 1988;3:85-97. 4. Rieger MR, Mayberry MS, Brose MO. Finite element analysis of six endosseous implants. J Prosthet Dent 1990;63:671-676. 5. Weinberg LA. Lateral force in relation to denture base and clasp design J Prosthet Dent 1956;6:785-800. 6. Weinberg LA. Force distribution in splinted anterior teeth. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol 1957;10:484-494. 7. Weinberg LA. Force distribution in splinted posterior teeth. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol 1957;10:1268-1276. 8. Posselt U. Studies in the mobility of the human mandible. Acta Odontol Scand 1952;10(suppl 10):3. 9. Weinberg LA. CT scan as a radiologic data base for optimum implant orientation. J Prosthet Dent 1993 (in press). 10. Mecall RA, Rosenfeld AL. The influence of residual ridge resorption patterns on implant fixture placement and tooth position. Part II. Presurgical determination of prosthesis type and design. Int J Periodont Rest Dent 1992;12:32-51.
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Figs. 1a to 1d : Comparison of torque production in natural and implant-supported prostheses relative to changes in cuspal inclination. O = vertical occlusal force; F = resultant force; CR = center of rotation; D, d = distance; T = torque.
Figs. 2a and 2b : Modification of the anterior impact area can reduce torque. F = resultant force; D = distance; T = torque.
JOMI on CD-ROM, 1993 Jan (19-31 ): The Biomechanics of Force Distribution in Implan
Figs. 3a and 3b : Location of the impact area more in line with the implant can reduce torque (posterior cross bite, right). O = vertical occlusal force; F = resultant force; D = distance; T = torque.
Figs. 4a and 4b : Vertical level of the implant can influence torque production (left). When the implant is severely inclined (right), the increased vertical level of the residual bone can exaggerate torque production. O = occlusal impact area; F = resultant line of force; x, y, z = increasing distance of line of force to crest of ridge; X, Y, Z = torque increases as the crest of the ridge is located more apically.
JOMI on CD-ROM, 1993 Jan (19-31 ): The Biomechanics of Force Distribution in Implan
Figs. 5a to 5e : Comparison of force distribution with a natural tooth splint compared to an implant-supported prosthesis. F = resultant line of force; CR = center of rotation; O = occlusal force.
Figs. 6a and 6b : Gold screw micromovement permits force distribution (left). Lateral force produces structural shear Stress on all the components (right). O = occlusal force; F = resultant line of force.
JOMI on CD-ROM, 1993 Jan (19-31 ): The Biomechanics of Force Distribution in Implan
Figs. 7a and 7b : Interface fit affects shear stress on gold retaining screws. F = force application.
Figs. 8a and 8b : The location of vertical force changes the force distribution to the implants. O = vertical component force.
JOMI on CD-ROM, 1993 Jan (19-31 ): The Biomechanics of Force Distribution in Implan
Figs. 9a and 9b : When the terminal abutment of a prosthesis is firm, the weak included teeth are mutually supported (left). A mobile terminal abutment produces a lever arm that can overcome strong anterior teeth (right). R = center of rotation; II = Class II, macromobility; I = Class I, micromobility.
Figs. 10a and 10b : An internal attachment with a U-shaped pin can prevent vertical separation ( left). A telescopic coping can be used to combine natural teeth with a fixed-retrievable implant-supported prosthesis (right).
JOMI on CD-ROM, 1993 Jan (19-31 ): The Biomechanics of Force Distribution in Implan
Figs. 11a and 11b : A long lever arm is produced when an implant-supported prosthesis is cantilevered to a natural tooth prosthesis (left). Less torque is created if cantilevers are extended from both prostheses and joined with an internal attachment (right).