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Complete Unit 2 Notes Chem
Complete Unit 2 Notes Chem
Introduction
This unit includes the following. Shapes of molecules and ions. Intermediate bonding and bond polarity. Consideration of intermolecular forces. The study of the Periodic Table looking at Groups 2 and 7. edo! reactions" particularly those concerning Group 7 elements and their compounds. ate of reaction #kinetics$ Chemical e%uilbria &rganic chemistry' alcohols and halogenoalkanes. (echanisms (ass and infrared spectrometry Green chemistry.
Assessment
The )nit e!amination will be *hour *+ minutes. It will carry ,- marks. It will contain three sections" ." / and C. Section A is an ob0ecti1e test 2 multiple choice %uestions. Section B short3answer and e!tended answer %uestions. Section C will contain e!tended answer %uestions on contemporary conte!ts. 4uestions on the analysis and e1aluation of practical work will also be included in either section / or C. 4uality of written communication will be assessed in sections / and C.
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Cl
Be Cl
Cl
Boron tri(luoride& B") 6ot and cross diagram.
Be
180O
Cl
F F B F F B
F
120O
There are three bonding pairs #electron area in a bond$' these will spread the ma!imum distance apart 3 that is at an angle of *2-o. This molecule is flat" that is it lies in a plane' such a molecule is said to be planar. 7ith three bonds at an angle of *2-o /89 is said to be trigonal %lanar.
-3-
H H C H H
(ethane has four bonding electron pairs in the 1alence shell. These position themsel1es as far apart as possible to form a tetrahedral sha%e with a bond angle of *-:.+o.
H C H H
109.5O
Ammonia& $H) 6ot and cross diagram. .mmonia has three bonding electron pairs and a lone pair of electrons in the 1alence shell. These position themsel1es as far apart as possible" but the lone pair has a greater repulsion than the bonding pairs pushing the bonding pairs closer together and reducing the bond angle to *-7.+o. The molecule is %yramidal.
N H
N
Water& H'! 6ot and cross diagram.
H H
107.5O
(olecule
H O
104.5O
7ater has two bonding electron pairs and two lone pairs of electrons in the 1alence shell. The two lone pairs ha1e a greater repulsion than the bonding pairs" pushing the bonding pairs closer together and reducing the bond angle to *-;.+o. The molecule is bent.
-4-
H H
Carbon dio+ide& C!' 6ot and cross diagram. Carbon dio!ide has two electron regions in the 1alence shell. These position themsel1es as far apart as possible. The molecule is linear. (olecule
C
180O
Cl Cl Cl P Cl Cl
Phosphorus pentachloride has fi1e bonding electron pairs in the 1alence shell. The molecule is trigonal bi%yramidal.
Cl
90O
Cl
P Cl
Cl
120O
Two of the bonds are at *,-o. The other three are in a plane at *2-o.
Cl
F F S F F F F
Sulphur he!afluoride has si! bonding electron pairs in the 1alence shell. The molecule is octahedral with bond angles of :-o
F F F F S F
90O
-5-
H H N H
+ H
The ammonium ion has four bonding pairs of electrons in the 1alence shell #one of theses being a dati1e bond$. The molecule is tetrahedral with bond angles of *-:.+o.
H N H H
N
ammonia py ami!al H "on! an#le 107 H
o
H
$a%e non-linea "on! an#le 104.5o
H H
-6-
7e can use ad1anced 5P theory to predict the shape of any molecule or ion. 01 '1 )1 *1 ,1 -1 Decide on the central atom 2ecord its number o( outer electrons
Count the number o( bonding atoms Add 0 e3 (or each atom I( the s%ecies is 4 charged I( the s%ecies is 5 charged Add 0 e3 (or each charge Subtract 0 e3 (or each charge
"ind the total number o( electron %airs6 Determine the sha%e o( the s%ecies7 Pairs Sha%e ' Linear ) 8rigonal Planar * 8etrahedral , 8rigonal bi%yramidal !ctahedral Show any lone %airs6 8he number o( Lone %airs : 8otal number o( %airs 4 bonding %airs
91
-7-
5!ample
P=;
>
* %airs : 8etrahedral
The number of Eone pairs B Total number of pairs 2 bonding pairs B ;3; B -
H P H H
5!ample
I8
3 ;
- %airs : !ctahderal
The number of Eone pairs B Total number of pairs 2 bonding pairs B D3; B 2
.. F F .. & F
90O
-8-
5ach of these atoms is also connected to three other carbon atoms. In this way a giant structure is built up from these tetrahedral units.
This structure" held together by strong co1alent bonds" is 1ery difficult to break apart. So diamond has 1ery high melting and boiling points. It is the hardest natural substance. Since all the electrons are taken up in bonding diamond is a non3conductor. 6iamonds are attracti1e which means they are used as 0ewellery. Its hardness makes it useful for cutting instruments such as drill tips.
;ra%hite
In graphite each carbon atom has three bonds" so three of the four electrons are taken up in forming these bonds. The remaining electron is allowed to mo1e from atom to atom 3 it is delocalised. Since three bonds form" the bond angle around each carbon is *2- o and a he!agonal arrangement is set up.
These he!agons 0oin together in a plane forming a sheet of he!agonally arranged carbon atoms.
-9-
Graphite is made up of these layers held together by Eondon forces #Fan der 7aalsG forces$. Sometimes it is referred to as a layer structure.
The carbon atoms in graphite are held together by co1alent bonds forming a giant structure" so the melting and boiling points are high. Since each atom has a free electron" graphite is able to conduct electricity. The layers held together by weak intermolecular forces can slide o1er each other" making a soft slippery substance. Graphite can be used for electrodes as it is a conductor" and unlike metals it does not react during electrolysis. It can be used as a lubricant because of its slippery nature.
"ullerenes
6iamond and graphite were thought to be the only allotropes of carbon until late in the twentieth century. In *:,+ a new form of carbon was disco1ered that consisted of spherical molecules containing D- carbon atoms.
These molecules resembled the construction of a building by an architect called /uckminster 8uller. .s a result" the molecule was named buckminsterfullerene. The molecule also resembles a football" so it is often called a ?bucky3ball@. Similar molecules ha1e since been made that contain 7- or more carbon atoms. This family of molecules are called fullerenes.
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$anotubes
.nother form of carbon de1eloped as a result of the disco1ery of fullerenes is the nanotube. The indi1idual layers in graphite are called graphemes. . nanotube can be regarded as a grapheme which has rolled up to form a cylinder. The name comes from the diameter of the cylinder. . single3walled carbon nanotube is a one3atom thick sheet of graphite rolled up into a seamless cylinder with diameter *32 nm.
Such cylindrical carbon molecules ha1e no1el properties that make them potentially useful in many applications in nanotechnology" electronics" optics and other fields of materials science. They e!hibit e!traordinary strength and uni%ue electrical properties" and are efficient conductors of heat.
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This occurs if each of the atoms ha1e the same pull on the electron pair in the bond #e%ual electronegati1ity$. It can be found in molecules of elements such as & 2" /r2 and <2. Since the atoms in each of these molecules are the same they will ha1e the same electronegati1ity.
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In most compounds howe1er one atom will ha1e a greater electronegati1ity than the other" and so will ha1e a greater pull on the electrons" so distorting the electron region.
This process of mo1ing away from the perfect e!ample is called %olarisation. The e!tent of the polarisation will depend on the difference in electronegati1ity of the two atoms. The polarisation of a co1alent bond will mean that one part of the molecule is more negati1e #the most electronegati1e atom$ than the other and causing the bond to be polar. =ydrogen chloride is an e!ample of a molecule which contains a %olar bond. The chlorine possesses a higher electronegati1ity" so will draw the electron pair in the co1alent bond towards itself.
'(
Cl
3.0
'-
2.1
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Intermediate bonding
In )nit * #Ionic /onding$ it was noted that ionic compounds can be polariJed which gi1es them a co1alent character. 7hen a molecule has a polar bond" it gi1es the co1alent substance an ionic character. To regard a compound as ?co1alent@ or ?ionic@ is too simplistic for understanding .S chemistry. It is more correct to 1isualiJe type of bonding on a sliding scale where compounds can be described as ?%redominantly covalent @ or ?%redominantly ionic@. 5lectronegati1ity 1alues can be used to gi1e an appro!imate idea of the predominant type of bonding in a binary compound. 5lectronegati1ity difference Percentage ionic character 5lectronegati1ity difference Percentage ionic character 5lectronegati1ity difference Percentage ionic character 5lectronegati1ity difference Percentage ionic character -.* -.+ -.: *: *.7 +* 2.+ 7: -.2 * *.22 *., ++ 2.D ,2 -.9 2 *.* 2D *.: +: 2.7 ,; -.; ; *.2 92.D9 2., ,D -.+ D *.9 9; 2.* D7 2.: ,, -.D : *.; 9: 2.2 79.,: -.7 *2 *.+ ;9 2.9 7; 9.* :* -., *+ *.D ;7 2.; 7D 9.2 :2
Eooking at a selection of substances Substance Chlorine" Cl2 .mmonia" <=9 7ater" =2& Calcium chloride" CaCl2 Eithium o!ide" Ei2& Potassium fluoride" H8 5lectKy 1alue * 9.9.9.+ 9.9.+ ;.5lectKy 1alue 2 9.2.* 2.* *.*.-., 5lectKy difference -.: *.; 2.2.+ 9.2 L ionic chKr *: 9: D9 7: :2
If these are then plotted on the diagram below" it can be seen the type of bonding is a continuum rather than a black and white picture. *29;L ionic character +D7,:*--
=2&
Cl2
NH3
H2O
CaCl
2
)i2O
*F
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'(
Cl
3.0
'-
2.5
To decide whether a molecule will be polar" it is necessary to look at where the centres of positi1e and negati1e charge are placed. . molecule of trichloromethane is polar
H '( Cl Cl C
'Cen% e o+ ne#a%i,e -.a #e
Cl
Cl C Cl Cl Cl
Cen% e o+ "o%. ne#a%i,e an! po/i%i,e -.a #e
Since there is no separation of charge in tetrachloromethane this is not a polar molecule. .nother e!ample of a molecule with polar bonds" but is non3polar o1erall is carbon dio!ide.
'3.5
'( 2.5
'3.5
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&ne way of testing a substance to see if it is composed of polar molecules is to place an electrostatic charge near a 0et of the li%uid.
B0 e%%e no11le C.a #e! o! 2.e -.a #e on %.e pola mole-0le -a0/e/ %.e mole-0le/ %o "e a%% a-%e! %o %.e -.a #e! o!.
The greater the angle of deflection the more polar the molecule.
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'6,
8orces of attraction must e!ist between atoms and molecules which are not chemically bonded because at a low enough temperature all substances become li%uids or solids 2 e1en helium" which consists of inert" uncombined atoms. The three types of Intermolecular force to be considered areA Di%ole 3 di%ole attractions London or van der Waals< (orces& and Hydrogen bonding.
H '( C
Cl Cl
'-
Cl
In a polar material there is an attraction between the positi1e charge in one molecule and the negati1e charge in the other.
+ - + + +- + + + +
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.s the molecular mass of the gases increases" the atoms contain more electrons and so the siJe of the 1an der 7aalKs forces increases. .s the attracti1e forces between the molecules increases" it becomes more difficult to separate the molecules from each other and so the boiling points increase.
-18-
Hydrogen Bonding
=ydrogen bonds" with energies usually in the range from 2-3;- kN mol 2*" are typically ten times as strong as 1an der 7aalsK forces" and about one3tenth as strong as co1alent bonds. Two conditions are necessary for formation of hydrogen bondsA #i$ . = atom must be co1alently bonded to a highly electronegati1e atom usually <" & or 8. =ydrogen only has one electron which is used when hydrogen bonds to another element. The elements listed abo1e are highly electronegati1e and so draw the electron pair in the bond towards themsel1es. This lea1es the proton on the hydrogen e!posed. ( -
H
P o%on e4po/e!
#ii$ The ad0acent molecule must ha1e a lone pair of electrons on an <" & or 8 atom. The hydrogen" with its > charge" is strongly attracted to the ad0acent lone pair. This is more than 0ust a polar attraction" and is strongly directional #along the line of the lone pair$. Oou need to draw it with the polar bonds and lone pairs marked. ( ( -
H
)one pai
3
Hy! o#en "on!
H
P o%on e4po/e!
(olecules which show hydrogen bonding between molecules includeA i$ =8' ii$ all compounds with 2&= groups" including water' iii$ all compounds with 2<=2 groups" including <= 9. In addition these molecules can all hydrogen3bond to water.
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H N
H N
H
(
Water
H
-
O
Hydrogen (luoride
H O
-
F F
( (
-20-
The three molecules below illustrate the 1arious strengths of these intermolecular forces.
H 3C
CH2
CH3
Propane is composed of non3polar molecules and so only has van der Waals (orces between the molecules.
(etho!ymethane has a similar molecular mass to propane" but has a higher boiling point because the molecules are polar" so there are di%ole3di%ole attractions as well as 1an der 7aals forces.
- + H3C OH CH2
:%.anol7 ".p. 8 78oC
5thanol has hydrogen bonding which is significantly stronger than the other intermolecular forces and so a much higher boiling point than metho!ymethane e1en though they ha1e the same molecular mass.
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+--
;--
9--
2--
*--
The boiling points of the alkanes increases with molecular mass. This happens because the higher the molecular mass" the greater the number of electrons and so the greater the chance of an imbalance and formation of an instantaneous dipole. The 1an der 7aalsK forces #Eondon forces$ increase.
* 2 9 ; + D 7 , : *** *2
The melting point of the alkanes increases with molecular mass for the same reason" but the pattern is not so straightforward as the different packing of molecules in the solid according to whether the number of carbon atoms is odd or e1en causes an additional factor in the determination of the melting points. The closer the molecules are able to approach each other" the greater the induction effect and so the greater the 1an der 7aalsK forces. 7hen an alkane has branching present" the molecules cannot approach each other so closely and there is less area o1er which contact can occur" so branched alkanes ha1e lower boiling points. The table below illustrates the effect of branching in alkane molecules on the boiling point. .lkane /utane (ethylpropane (olecular mass +D +D Structural formula C=9C=2C=2C=9 C=9C=#C=9$C=9 Skeletal formula /oiling point 3-.+oC 3**.7 oC
- 22
2-
3;-
3D-
3,-
- 23
H2 O
300
Boilin# Poin%5*
HF NH 3
200
100
Pe io!
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Solubility
In general a sol1ent will dissol1e a substance that contains similar intermolecular forces.
+ +
+ + -
+ +
+ + -
+ +
+ + -
+ - + + -
Some ionic compounds do not dissol1e in water because the electrostatic attraction between the ions" the Lattice enthal%y" is too great for the water molecules to o1ercome. To be soluble the energy produced by hydrating the ions # the hydration enthal%y$ must be more negati1e than the energy holding the ion together # the lattice enthal%y$.
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- 26
2edo+
The term 56&I stands for 2 D)CTI&<3!@ID.TI&<. &!idation can be defined as gain of o!ygen or loss of hydrogen. eduction can be defined as loss of o!ygen or gain of hydrogen. The most important definition is gi1en in terms of electrons. &II6.TI&< is E&SS of 5E5CT &<S 56)CTI&< is G.I< of 5E5CT &<S &ne way of accounting for electrons is to use !@IDA8I!$ $#MB 2S.
!+idation number
The o!idation number of an atom shows the number of electrons which it has lost or gained as a result of forming a compound e.g. 8e2> needs to gain two electrons for it to become neutral iron atom therefore its o!idation number is >2. )sing o!idation numbers it is possible to decide whether redo! has occurred. Increase in o!idation number is o!idation. 6ecrease in o!idation number is reduction. 7e can apply a series of rules to assign an o!idation state to each atom in a substance.
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5!amples *. The o!idation number of S in =2S&; =2 S &; 2 ! >* Q ; ! 32 >2 Q 3, >2 >D 3, s B >D 2. The o!idation number of S in S2&,23 S2 &; Q , ! 32 B 32 Q 3*D B 32 >*; 3*D B 32 S B >7 9. The o!idation number of Cl in <aCl&9. <a Cl &9 >* Q 9 ! 32 >* Q 3D >* >+ 3D Cl B >+ ;. The o!idation number of (n in (n&;3 (n &; Q ; ! 32 B 3* Q 3, B 3* >7 3, B 3* (n B >7
BBB-
BBB-
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2edo+ 2eactions
7hen magnesium is placed into a solution of copper sulphate" a reaction occurs which in simple terms is called a ?dis%lacement reaction@. Chemical e%uationA Ionic e%uationA (g > CuS&; (gS&; > Cu (g#s$ > Cu2>#a%$ (g2>#a%$ > Cu#s$
The copper in this reaction is taking electrons from the magnesium. The copper gains electrons 3 it is 2 D#C D The magnesium loses electrons 3 it is !@IDIS D So this is a 2 D!@ reaction. 7hene1er one substance gains an electron another substance must lose an electron" so reduction and o!idation always go together.
e!0-in# a#en%
o4i!i/in# a#en%
In this e!ample the o!idising agent #copper ions$ is reduced and the reducing agent #magnesium$ is o!idised. This always happens with redo! reactionsA3 in a redo! reaction the o!idising agent is reduced and the reducing agent is o!idised.
ele-% on/
56)CI<G .G5<T > (.T5 I.E The reducing agent loses electrons and so is o!idised.
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The table shows us that the o!idation number of /r goes from >* to -" so it is reduced. The iodine goes from 3* to -" so this is o!idised. .nother e!ample eactants Species <a in <a&Cl & in <a&Cl Cl in <a&Cl &!idKn <o >* 32 >* )$a!Cl '$aCl 5 $aCl!) &!idKn <o >* >* 3* >+ 32
Products Species <a in <aCl <a in <aCl&9 Cl in <aCl Cl in <aCl&9 & in <aCl&9
In this reaction the Cl in <a&Cl is o!idised in one reaction to >+ and in another reaction is reduced to 3*. Such an occurrence is called dis%ro%ortionation. 6isproportionation takes place a particular species undergoes simultaneous o!idation and reduction.
- 30
Hal( ?uations
7hen a redo! reaction occurs" one substance gains electrons and one substance losed electrons. These two processes can be considered separately. )sing the e!ample of magnesium and copper sulphateA 5lectron gain 5lectron loss Cu2>#a%$ > 2e3 (g#s$ Cu#s$
b$ balance hydrogen atoms with hydrogen ions <&93 > 0AH5 <H*> > )H'& c$ balance the charges using electrons 8urther e!ample. Construct a half e%uation forA Cr2&723 2Cr9> a$ balance o!ygen atoms with water Cr2!923 2Cr9> > 9H'! Be3 > <&93 > 0A=5 <=;5 > 9=2&
b$ balance hydrogen atoms with hydrogen ions 0*H5 > Cr2&723 2Cr9> > 9H'& c$ balance the charges using electrons -e3 5 0*=5 > Cr2&7'3 'Cr9> > 7=2&
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&ther e!amples *. Chlorine reacts with potassium iodide to form potassium chloride and iodine. (a) 7rite the half e%uation for the o!idation of iodide 2I3 I2 > 2e3 (b) (c) 2Cl3 7rite the half e%uation for the reduction of chlorine Combine the two half e%uations. Cl 2 > 2e3 2Cl3
2. /romine reacts with iron#II$ to form iron#III$ and bromide. (a) 7rite the half e%uation for the o!idation of iiron#II$ 3 e (b) (c) > e3 7rite the half e%uation for the reduction of bromine Combine the two half e%uations
9. Chlorine reacts with a solution of sulphur dio!ide to form sulphate and chloride ions. #a$ The half e%uation for the o!idation of sulphur dio!ide isA
5,a 5$$$5app/5-on,e /ion5%mp5/- a%-.665216169755.!o- 32
S&2 > 2=2& S&;23 > ;=> > 2e3 #b$ 7rite the half e%uation for the reduction of bromine. /r 2 > 2e3 2/r3
(c) Combine the two half equations. 4H+ + 2Br
-
SO2
2H2O
Br2
SO42-
- 33
8H P 2I!DIC 8ABL
;rou% '
8he %hysical %ro%erties o( the elements6 5lements of group 2 e!ist as solids at room temperature due to the strength of metallic bonding. The delocalised electrons in the structures gi1e each element a sil1ery sheen and causes them to be good electrical conductors. They differ from other metals of the periodic table in a number of waysA i$ They are soft. ii$ They ha1e low melting points" boiling points and low densities. &n descending the group" the atomic radii become bigger but the number of delocalised electrons remain the same. The metallic bonds then become weaker as delocalised electrons become more thinly spread as metallic radius increases. This is why the hardness" melting and boiling points decrease from top to bottom. 6ensities increase down a group due to the mass of the nuclei increasing faster than the atomic radii and therefore the atomic 1olumes. "lame colours 7hen group * or 2 metals or their compounds are placed in a flame" their electrons are pushed to a higher energy le1el. .s the electrons drop back to a lower le1el again they gi1e out energy in the form of light. The light is characteristic of each particular metal and gi1es the flame a certain colour. The energy emitted is only of certain allowed fre%uencies which correspond to certain electronic transitions. 8or groups * and 2 this happens to be in the 1isible region. Eithium Sodium Potassium red yellow lilac calcium strontium barium C brick red crimson R red apple green
These can be used in analysis to detect the presence of these elements. C <ote 2 Calcium gi1es a red flame if there arenKt any sodium impurities present. 7hen 1iewed through a diffraction grating the colours are seen as bands of coloured lines. 5ach element has a specific set of lines and so can be identified in the emission s%ectrum e1en if other elements are present. Eight coming from a gas in the laboratory or from a distant star can be analysed in this way.
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"irst ioniDation energy 5lement /eryllium (agnesium Calcium Strontium /arium 8irst Ionisation 5nergy RkNmol3* :-7;+:+++--
The first IoniJation energies drop down the group as the outer electron is further away from the nucleus and the inner shielding increases. The drop in ioniJation energy down the group means that the metals become more reacti1e down the group. Successive ionisation energies6 The second ionisation energy of group 2 elements is higher than the first as the second electron is remo1ed from an already positi1e ion. There is greater attraction to as the effecti1e nuclear charge attracting the outer electron has increased. The third ionisation energy of group 2 elements is much higher than the second. The third electron must be remo1ed from an doubly positi1ely charged ion and from a stable full energy le1el closer to the nucleus. ;rou% ' lement (g at.no. *2 Ca at.no. 2Sr at.no. 9, /a at.no. +D configuration S<eT 9s S.rT ;s2 SHrT +s2 SIeT Ds2
2
- 35
2eactions with water Group 2 elements are less reacti1e than the corresponding group * element. /eryllium does not react e1en in steam. (agnesium burns when heated in steam to form magnesium o!ide and hydrogen. (g > =2& (g& > =2 Calcium" strontium and barium all react with cold water with increasing 1igour to form the metal hydro!ide and hydrogen. Calcium hydro!ide is only sparingly soluble in water" so this reaction produces effer1escence and a thick white suspension. Ca > 2=2& Ca#&=$2 > =2 Sr > 2=2& Sr#&=$2 > =2 /a > 2=2& /a#&=$2 > =2
- 37
Solubility o( grou% ' sul%hates and hydro+ides The table below shows the trend in the solubilities of group 2 sulphates. Sulphate (agnesium Calcium Strontium /arium description Soluble Slightly soluble Insoluble Insoluble Solubility molR*--g water 9D-- ! *-3; ** ! *-3; -.D2 ! *-3; -.--: ! *-3;
It can be seen that the sulphates become less soluble down the group. (agnesium sulphate is 1ery soluble" barium sulphate is insoluble and is part of the test for sulphates. The hydro!ides show the re1erse of this trend with the compounds in general becoming more soluble down the group. Calcium hydro!ide is only slightly soluble in limewater but barium hydro!ide is a 1ery soluble alkali which can be used in titrations. . =ydro!ide Solubility molR*--g water (agnesium -.2 ! *-3; Calcium *D ! *-3; Strontium 99- ! *-3; /arium 2;- ! *-3;
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The decomposition is a result of the polarising power of the cation. .s polarising power of the cation increases" compounds become more co1alent in character and less stable to heat. Going down the group the cations become larger" so their polaring power decreases. The smallest ion" (g2>" has the highest charge density #is the most polarising$" and forms the compound with the small anion most readily #i.e. at the lowest temperature$. . large anion like C&923 or <&93 is %olarisable& and is decomposed most readily by a polarising cation. Group * compounds are more stable because the cation has only one positi1e charge and so it is less polarising. It is the polarising power of the cation that causes decomposition of the nitrates also. .ll the nitrates decompose. Group * nitrates" e!cept for lithium break down to form metal nitrite and o!ygen. Eithium and group 2 elements" ha1ing a more polarising cation break down to a greater e!tent into metal o!ide" nitrogen dio!ide and o!ygen.
)i Na * >" C/
Be 9# Ca S Ba
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;rou% 9
Physical Pro%erties
Halogen Chlorine /romine Iodine A%%earance o( element at room tem%erature Green gas ed3brown li%uid Grey3black solid A%%earance o( element in a?ueous solution Pale green #almost colourless$ &range or yellow /rown A%%earance o( element in hydrocarbon solution Pale green #almost colourless$ ed Fiolet
.ll halogens are diatomic #I2$A as they contain more electrons going down the group" the dispersion forces between the molecules increase" so the melting and boiling %oints increase. The colour depends on the absorption of light" which in turn depends on an electron 0umping to a higher3energy orbital. .s the atoms get larger" less energy is needed for an electron to 0ump into the lowest unoccupied orbital" and so the element absorbs more strongly at longer wa1elengths #i.e. in the 1isible region$" and appears darker. .ll halogens are soluble in non3polar sol1ents like he!ane. Chlorine is slightly soluble in water" bromine e1en less" and iodine 1irtually insoluble.
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Chemical reactions
The halogens tend to gain electrons to form halide ions& @3. In the process of gaining an electron" the electron is remo1ed from some other substance" so the halogens tend to be o!idising agents.
- 41
Dis%lacement reactions
The potassium halides indicate the o!idising powers of the =alogens. =alogen displacement reactions using potassium halides illustrate the increasing strength of o!idising power of the halogen going up the group. Chlorine will o!idise bromide and iodide ions' bromine will o!idise iodide ions' and iodine will not react with either Cl 2 or /r2. The reactions are illustrated in the table below (i!ture Potassium iodide > chlorine Potassium bromide > chlorine Potassium iodide > bromine 5%uationsA .ppearance of potassium halide solution Colourless Colourless Colourless .ppearance of halogen solution Colourless Colourless orange .ppearance after mi!ing brown orange brown Conclusion Iodine displaced /romine displaced Iodine displaced
Cl2#g$ > 2/r2#a%$ 2Cl2#a%$ > /r2#a%$ Cl2#g$ > 2I2#a%$ 2Cl2#a%$ > I2#a%$ /r2#a%$ > 2I2#a%$ 2/r2#a%$ > I2#a%$
The salt solutions" e.g. <aCl" <a/r and <aI" are initially colourless.
!+idation o( ironGII1
Iron is a transition metal and it can form compounds of iron#II$ and iron#III$. Chorine is capable of o!idising iron#II$ to iron#III$. If chlorine water is added to a pale green solution of containing 8e 2>" a yellow solution containing 8e9> is formed. Cl2 > 28e2> 2Cl3 > 28e9> /romine is also able to o!idise iron#II$ to iron#III$" but iodine is not a strong enough o!idising reagent to carry out this reaction.
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Iodine titrations
Thiosulphate and iodine titrations are used to determine the concentration of o!idising agents. 8irst of all the o!idising agent is added to a solution containing e!cess iodide ions. This o!idises the iodide ions to iodine gi1ing a brown colour. 2I3 I2 > 2e3 #the electrons go to the o!idising agent$ Thiosulphate #usually as sodium thiosulphate$ is then added from a burette' this reacts with the iodine to form colourless products. 2S2&923 > I2 2I3 > S;&D2 6uring the titration" the colour intensity decreases" e1entually reaching a pale yellow colour. .t this point" a few drops of starch solution are added to gi1e the deep blue comple! showing the last traces of iodine. Thiosulphate is then added dropwise" until the mi!ture becomes colourless. 8rom a known concentration of thiosulphate" it is possible to determine the number of moles of chemical in1ol1ed in the reaction.
5!ample . -.,--g of a contaminated sample of potassium iodate" HI& 9" was dissol1ed in 2+-cm9 of solution. 2+cm9 of this solution was added to an e!cess of potassium iodide and dilute sulphuric acid. The mi!ture re%uired 2*.D-cm9 of -.*mol dm39 sodium thiosulphate solution to remo1e the iodine released. Calculate the percentage purity of the potassium iodate. (oles of sodium thiosulphate B 2*.D- R *--- ! -.* B -.--2*D mol 5%uation for the titrationA 2S2&923 > I2 2I3 > S;&D23
(oles of iodine B -.--2*D R 2 B -.--*-, mol 5%uation for the formation of iodineA +I3 > I&93 > D=> 9I2 > 9=2&
(oles of iodate in the 2+cm9 sample B -.--*-, R 9 B -.---9D mol (oles of iodate in the 2+-cm9 solution B -.---9D ! 2+- R2+ B -.--9D (ass of pure potassium iodate B -.--9D ! 2*; B -.77-;g Percentage purity B -.77-; R -.,--- ! *-- B :D.9L
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Iodide
Oellow precipitate
<o effect
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Chlorine as a bleach
Chlorine is sparingly soluble in water. Some of the dissol1ed chlorine reacts in a dis%ro%ortionation reaction #one in which an element is simultaneously o!idised and reduced$A Cl2#g$ > =2&#l$ =Cl&#a%$ > =>#a%$ > Cl2#a%$ o!idation states S-T S>*T S2*T =Cl&" or chloric#I$ acid" is called a bleach" since it is able to o!idise coloured compounds such as litmus. It will also kill bacteria by o!idising them. This is made use of in water purification. The water supply is treated with sufficient chlorine to gi1e a concentration of about -.+ mg dm 29. .t this le1el" harmful organisms are killed" but humans can drink the water without effect #other than a slight odour$.
If" instead" chlorine is passed into a hot" concentrated solution of sodium hydro!ide" the disproportionation goes further" forming chlorate#F$ and chloride 2 note that one Cl goes up by + o!idation numbers #- to >+$" and fi1e Cls go down by one #- to 2*$A 9Cl > D&=2 Cl& 2 > +Cl 2 > 9= &
2 9 2
The chlorate#F$ can be e!tracted by filtration and purified by recrystallisation as it is less soluble in water than the chloride. Similar reactions occur for bromine and iodineA these go all the way to /r& 93 and I&93 e1en in dilute solution.
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2A8 S
8he Collision theory
The collision theory e!plains rates of reaction in terms of colliding particles. 5ssentially it says that before two particles can react they ha1e to undergo a collision with each other. =owe1er" if the rate of a reaction is compared to the number of collisions which take place it is found that only certain collisions produce a reaction. In order to produce a reaction" the molecules must ha1e the correct orientation and sufficient energy' If the orientation is not correct then nor reaction occurs when molecules collide.
If a collision does not ha1e the acti1ation energy" molecules do not react.
The factors which determine the rate of a chemical reaction are the following. *. Concentration' the higher the concentration" the more there are in a gi1en 1olume and so the more often the particles will collide in a set time. 2. Pressure in a gas' for a gas increase in pressure increases the number of particles in a gi1en 1olume and so this is the same as concentration. 9. 8em%erature' the higher the temperature" the faster the particles mo1e and so the greater the number of collisions in a set time. .lso the energy of the particles increases" so more effecti1e collisions take place. ;. Sur(ace area for solid and li%uidRgas' the reaction will occur where the two types of particle meet" at the surface" so the greater the surface area" the greater the number of collisions in a set time. +. . catalyst pro1ides an alternate reaction route of lower acti1ation energy allowing more collisions in a set time to produce a reaction.
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<umber of molecules
21
Temperature T9 U T2 U T*
22 23
(olecular energy This type of graph is called a (a!well3/oltJmann distribution. It shows the distribution of molecular energy within a gas. The horiJontal a!is shows the energy le1el and the 1ertical is the number of particles that ha1e that energy. .t a higher temperature the a1erage energy of the molecules increases. The area under each cur1e is the same" as this represents the total number of molecules" it does not of course change with temperature.
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Activation nergy
8or molecules to react bonds ha1e to first be broken. This means energy is taken in. 7hen molecules collide and react" they mo1e through a state of high potential energy. This can be pictured as an energy barrier. The energy re%uired for a reaction to take place is called the activation energy& A.
5nergy
>ea-%an%/ /
:? P o!0-%/
Path of reaction Products of a reaction will only form if the particles ha1e sufficient energy to o1ercome this energy barrier" the siJe of this barrier being the acti1ation energy. The higher the 1alue of the acti1ation energy" the lower the number of effecti1e collisions and so the lower the rate of reaction. The acti1ation energy can be shown on the (a!well3/oltJmann distribution graph.
:? :?
&nly molecules with energy e%ual to or higher than the acti1ation energy can react. This is represented by the area under the line to the right of the .cti1ation 5nergy line.
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This means that as the temperature is increased many more molecules can react.
Catalysts
. catalyst is a substance which" when added to a reaction #normally in a small amount$ will increase the rate of reaction. The substance does take part in the reaction" but if it changes it is normally reformed by the end of the reaction" so it can perform its task again. Catalysts are of great economic importance" because many of the chemical reactions used in industry will not take place #or re%uire too much energy$ without a catalyst. 5!amplesA (aking fertilisersA 8e in =aber process #see below$ to make ammonia' Pt for o!idation of ammonia to make nitric acid Petroleum processingA .l2&9 in cracking' Pt in isomerisation' PtR e and PtRIr in reforming (argarine productionA <i in hydrogenation of unsaturated oils. Catalysts do not generally affect the original pathway for a reaction" but pro1ide a different pathway in addition" which re%uires a lower activation energy. /ecause of this" more molecules will ha1e enough energy to react" and so there will be more successful collisions.
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5. )ncatalysed reaction
5. Catalysed reaction
.s the acti1ation energy is lowered" more molecules ha1e sufficient energy to react. The lower acti1ation energy also applies to the re1erse reaction" so both forward and re1erse reactions are speeded by the same amount. =ence there is no change in the e%uilibrium yield" although e%uilibrium is attained more rapidly.
>:?C2&ON
= <
@:?@SO>P2&ON
= = < = =
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Homogeneous catalysts can form intermediates which contain the catalyst but then decompose to form products. e.g. The reaction' ./>C high acti1ation energy low acti1ation energy low acti1ation energy
Catalysed reaction . > catalyst .3catalyst Intermediate .3catalyst / > C > catalyst
<ote 3 The catalyst may change o!idation state during the reaction.
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CH MICAL I#ILIB2IA
Dynamic ?uilibrium
5%uilibrium in1ol1es reversible reactions which do not go to completion. If we consider a reaction between . and / to form C and 6 which is re1ersible. 7hen . and / are mi!ed" the molecules will form C and 6. =owe1er" as soon as molecules of C and 6 are formed and collide they can also react to become . and /. Such a reaction is written' . > / C > 6 The reaction reaches a point at which the proportion of each chemical becomes constant. This is described as e?uilibrium. If the reactants are mi!ed" their concentrations will fall" rapidly at first" but then more and more slowly" until they settle to their ?e%uilibrium@ 1alues. (eanwhile the amounts of products will increase" until they too achie1e their e%uilibrium amounts. The actual 1alues of these amounts depend on the conditions.
5%uilibrium is when a reaction has a constant concentration of reactants and products. 7hen e%uilibrium is reached" the reaction has not stoppedA instead" the rate at which the forward reaction is proceeding is e!actly balanced by the rate of the re1erse reaction. This is what is meant by ?dynamic@ e%uilibrium P indi1idual molecules are reacting all the time" but the o1erall concentrations of the substances do not change. Summary 3 at e?uilibriumJ the system is closed #no substances can be added or lost$. rate of forward reaction B rate of re1erse reaction. all measurable 1ariables are unchanging #concentration of each substance" pressure" temperature$.
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If the pressure of the system is increased" the system reacts to counteract the increase. In the reaction abo1e this means that the reaction will shi(t to the right" reducing the number of gas molecules present and so reducing the pressure.
A ) A A A ) ) A A A A
The pressure of a gi1en 1olume of gas will depend upon how many gas molecules there are in it. .s the pressure is increased" two N molecules form * E molecules" reducing the pressure of the gas.
) ) ) ) A ) A A
In generalA Increasing the %ressure o( a gaseous reaction causes a shi(t towards the side with (ewer gas molecules6 Decreasing the %ressure o( a gaseous reaction causes a shi(t towards the side with the larger number o( gas molecules6
:n!o%.e miea-%ion
If the temperature of an e%uilibrium reaction is increased" the system tries to counteract this change by reducing the temperature again by carrying out the endothermic reaction. In generalA Increasing the tem%erature o( a reaction causes a shi(t towards the endothermic reaction6 Decreasing the tem%erature o( a reaction causes a shi(t towards the e+othermic reaction6
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Adding a Catalyst
Catalysts do not alter the e%uilibrium constant or the position of e%uilibrium. They do affect the time needed for the system to reach e%uilibrium.
.s chlorine is passed into the system its concentration is increased. The system acts to reduce the chlorine le1el again by shifting to the right.
.s the chlorine concentration is decreased. The system acts to increase it again by shifting to the left.
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.s the temperature is increasd" the system acts to oppose this change. The cooling endothermic reaction is fa1oured and it shifts to the right.
Hea%
emo1ing the of ammonia as soon as it forms will cause the position of e%uilibrium to mo1e to the right and gi1e a bigger yield of ammonia. #This is achie1ed by cooling the mi!ture as the ammonia turns into a li%uid first$. 7hen the pressure is increased the e%uilibrium shifts to the side with least gas molecules. " The reaction shifts from left to right" gi1ing a bigger yield of ammonia. . =aber process plants operate between 2--3;-- atmospheres pressure. 6ecreasing the temperature leads to a higher yield of ammonia because the reaction from left to right is e!othermic and causes the temperature to rise again if ammonia is formed. In the =aber process a moderately high temperature of around +-- oC is used to speed the rate at which e%uilibrium is reached. This temperature is chosen in spite of the fact that a lower temperature gi1es a higher yield. The optimum #best$ conditions for this process which gi1e the greatest yield areA 9+- atmospheres' high pressure increases yield. about ;+-VC ' high temperature cuts yield but increases rate. and the use of a catalyst" iron" to increase the rate.
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The first part of the name of an halogenoalkane gi1es the position and name of the halogen concerned. The second part of the name is based on the rest on the hydrocarbon structure.
= = C = = C = = C = = C = Cl = = C = = C = = C = = C /r = C = =
*3chlorobutane
= = C = = C = = I C C = =
23/romopentane
= C = =
Cl Cl
2"936ichloroheptane
23Iodo323methylbutane
93/romo393methylhe!ane
8y%es o( Halogenoal=anes
There are three types of halogenoalkane' primary" secondary and tertiary. They are classified according to the number of carbon groups attached to the carbon with the halogen" I" group.
H H C 3 H
H > C 3 H
> > C 3 H
Secondary Two carbon # $ groups attached to the carbon with the I group is a seconary halogenoalkane.
Primary <o or one carbon # $ group attached to the carbon with the I group is a primary halogenoalkane.
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Pre%aration o( Halogenoal=anes
=alogenoalkanes are generally made by reacting the appropriate alcohol it with a halogenating reagents. =alogenating agents include phosphorus pentachloride" sodium chloride with concentrated sulphuric acid" sodium bromide with concentrated phosphoric acid and phosphorus with iodine. Phosphorus pentachloride reacts 1igorously with alcohols at room temperature. C2=+&= > PCl+ C2=+Cl > =Cl > P&Cl9 Choro3 compounds can also be formed by heating the alcohol under reflu! with sodium chloride and concentrated sulphuric acid. =2S&; > <aCl =Cl > <a=S&; =Cl > C9=7&= C9=7Cl > =2& To form a bromo3 compound" the alcohol is heated under reflu! with sodium bromide and concentrated phosphoric acid. The concentrated phosphoric acid reacts with the sodium bromide to form hydrogen bromide" and the hydrogen bromide carries out the substitution. =9P&; > <a/r =/r > <a=2P&; =/r > C9=7&= C9=7/r > =2& To produce iodo3 compounds" the alcohol is mi!ed with red phoshorus and iodine is added gradually. The mi!ture is then heated under reflu!. P > *WI2 PI9 PI9 > 9C=9C=#&=$C=9 9C=9C=IC=9 > =9P&9 Concentrated sulphuric acid cannot be used to make bromoalkanes or iodoalkanes as the halide ion is o!idiJed to the halogen.
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2eactions o( Halogenoal=anes
=alogenoalkanes commonly undergo nucleo%hilic substitution and elimination reactions. $ucleo%hilic substitution reactions . nucleo%hile is a species #molecule or negati1e ion$ which can donate an electron pair in a chemical reaction. =alogenoalkanes undergo substitution reactions with nucleophiles such as &= 2 and <=9. with %otassium hydro+ide6 ConditionsA =eat under reflu! in a?ueous solution. /oth <a&= or H&= are suitable. C'H,Br 5 $a!H Ga?1 C'H,!H 5 $aBr with %otassium cyanide ConditionsA eflu! solution of halogenoalkane and potassium cyanide in ethanol. C'H,Br 5 >C$ C'H,C$ 5 >Br propanenitrile This adds a carbon atom to the chain and forms a nitrile. with ammonia ConditionsA =eat with concentrated ammonia in a sealed tube. or heat with alcoholic ammonia. C'H,I 5 $H) C'H, $H' 5 HI 5thylamine #an amine$ &ther products includeA #C 2=+$2<= and #C2=+$9< .mines are molecules containing a < functional group. limination reactions If a halogenoalkane is boiled with potassium hydro!ide solution in ethanol rather than water an elimination reaction takes place in which an alkene is formed and hydrogen halide is gi1en off #eliminated$. ConditionsA =eat under reflu! with al=ali and ethanol as sol1ent. )se H&= here. CH)CH'Br CH'CH' 5 HBr
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The hydrogen halide formed will dissol1e in the water forming = > and I3 ions. The ions then react with the sil1er ions in the solution producing a precipitate. The appearance of the precipitate depends upon the halide ion generated in the hydrolysis reaction. .g>#a%$ > I3#a%$ .gI#s$ 8his reaction is used to test (or halogenoal=anes6 =eat sample of halogenoalkane with a%ueous hydro!ide ions. .cidify with dilute a%ueous nitric acid. .dd a few drops of a%ueous sil1er nitrate. . white precipitate soluble in dilute a%ueous ammonia" indicates chloride. . buff precipitate insoluble in dilute a%ueous ammonia but soluble in concentrated a%ueous ammonia" indicates bromide. . yellow precipitate insoluble in concentrated a%ueous ammonia indicates iodide.
2eactivity o( halogenoal=anes
esults of in1estigations show that the rate of hydrolysis of the halogenoalkanes occurs in the orderA 03iodobutane / 03bromobutane / 03chlorobutane The ease of reaction depends on the ease of breaking the C3=al bondA /ond A C3I C3/r C3Cl C38 3* /ond enthalpy terms #kN mol $A >29, >27D >99, >;,; Thus the ease of bond breaking is" C3I / C3Br / C3Cl / C3"6 #This outweighs the effects caused by greater polariJation in the C3=al bond$.
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#ses o( halogenoal=anes
=alogenoalkenes are use as fire retardants and refrigerants as they are unreacti1e and particularly for the fire retardants they are non3combustible . 8reon *2 C82Cl2 is a refrigerant and an e!ample of a chlorofluorcarbon #C8C$. The C38 and C3Cl bonds are 1ery strong. The result is that it does not decompose easily so lasts for the lifetime of a refrigerator. It does not decompose %uickly when discarded but does so in the upper atmosphere. The radicals it forms react with oJone. The loss of oJone leads to an increase in )F radiation reaching the 5arthGs surface and a corresponding increase in skin cancers in humans. (odern refrigerants are hydrofluorocarbons" =8Cs" such C8 9C=28. They do not lead to oJone depletion. PFC used as electrical insulator 3S3C=23C=Cl3Tn3 The C3Cl bond is strong so PFC insulation lasts a long time but when discarded it does not rot #it is not biodegradable$. Teflon" or %olyGtetra(luoroethene1 is essentially poly#ethene$ chains in which all the = atoms ha1e been replaced by fluorinesA 2C822C822C822C822C822C822C822C822C822 etc. It is used to line non3stic= (rying %ans and sauce%ans" and for low3friction bearings. .s the C38 is 1ery strong it is non3biodegradable. 66T is a pesticide used to kill mos%uitos. CCl9 X Cl3CD=+3C3CD=+3Cl X = The strong C3Cl bonds gi1e 66T a long life in the field killing pests. It is howe1er so long li1ed that it persists in the en1ironment and builds up in the food chain threatening creatures at the top of the chain.
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Alcohols
.lcohols contain the 3&= functional group. General formula 2 CnH'n50!H The first part of the name of an alcohol is according to the longest carbon atom se%uence. The second part of the name is 2ol. . number will be included to indicate the position of the alcohol group.
= & & = & =
Pen%an-2-ol
3-me%.yl"0%an-2-ol
There are three types of alcohol' primary" secondary and tertiary. They are classified according o the number of carbon groups attached to the carbon with the &= group.
H H H C O H > C O H H H
Primary <o or one carbon # $ group attached to the carbon with the &= group is a primary alcohol.
> > C O H H
Secondary Two carbon # $ groups attached to the carbon with the &= group is a secondary alcohol.
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2eactions o( Alcohols
Combustion .ll alcohols undergo combustion to form carbon dio!ide and water. 8or e!ample the e%uation for the combustion of butanol is as follows' C;=:&= > D&2 ;C&2 > +=2& 2eaction with sodium .ll alcohols react with sodium. 2 &= > 2<a 2 &<a > =2 This e%uation is similar to the reaction of sodium with water" e!cept that an al=o+ide is formed rather a hydro!ide. e.g. 5thanol and sodium 2C2=+&= > 2<a 2 C2=+&<a > =2 Sodium etho!ide
2eaction with %hos%horus %entachloride .ll alcohols react with phosphorus pentachloride. 8his is used as a test (or the 3!H grou%. The presence of the &= group can be shown by adding phosphorus pentachloride to the compound. . reaction takes place forming hydrogen chloride which appears as steamy white fumes. &= > PCl+ Cl > P&Cl9 > =Cl In the reaction with phosphorus pentachloride a chloro group replaces the 3&= group. e.g. Propanol and phosphorus pentachloride C=9C=2C=2&= > PCl+ C=9C=2C=2Cl > P&Cl9 > =Cl 2eaction with other halogenating agents .lkyl bromides can be made from the reaction of an alcohol with =/r. =/r is made in situ from H/r and =2S&; forms bromoalkanes during heating under reflu!. C2=+&= > =/r C2=+/r > =2& .lkyl chlorides can be made by reflu!ing the alcohol with conc. =Cl in the presence of YnCl 2 C2=+&= #l$ > =Cl #g$ C2=+Cl #l$ > =2& #l$ Iodoalkanes can be made in a reaction phosporus triiodide from iodine and red phosporus. 9C2=+&= > PI9 9C2=+I > =9P&9 The relati1e reacti1ities of alcohols in halogenation are tertiary U secondary U primary alcohol.
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!+idation o( alcohols
Primary and secondary alcohols can be o!idised by heating with a mi!ture of dilute sulphuric acid with sodium or potassium dichromate#FII$ solution. .cidified dichromate#FI$ solution is produces a colour change from orange to blue3green when it has undergone o!idation reactions. In writing e%uations for these o!idation reactions S&T is used to represent the o!idising agent. Primary alcohols form an aldehyde" and then on further o!idation" form carbo!ylic acids.
H > C O H H
Primary alcohol
O > C H
.ldehyde
O > C O H
Carbo!ylic acid
> > C O H H
Secondary alcohol e.g. CH)CHG!H1CH) 5 L!M propan323ol
O > C >
Hetone CH)C!CH) 5 H'! propanone
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Hea%
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&nce the carbo!ylic has been formed" it needs to be separated from the reaction mi!ture and other products. This is done by distillation.
6istillation is used to separate a 1olatile product from a mi!ture of in1olatile substances" or substances that ha1e a boiling point of at least +-oC higher than the component being collected.
Hea%
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2 AC8I!$ M CHA$ISMS
2eaction Classi(ication
The table below re1iews the organic reactions studied for .S chemistry" how they are classified and the reaction mechanisms where re%uired. 2eaction .lkane and halogen .lkene and =2 .lkene and halogen and =/r .lkene and hydrogen halide .lkene and H(n&; .lkene polymeriJation .lcohol with =2S&;#a%$ and H2Cr2&7 .lcohol with halogenating agents =alogenoalkanes and H&=#a%$ =alogenoalkanes and H&=#eth$ =alogenoalkanes and water 2eaction classi(ication Substitution .ddition #reduction$ .ddition .ddition &!idation PolymeriJation &!idation Substitution Substitution 5limination Substitution R =ydrolysis 2eaction mechanism 8ree radical substitution 5lectrophilic addition #/r2$ 5lectrophilic addition #=/r$
"ree radical reactions . typical e!ample of these is between an alkane and a halogen. e.g. methane and chlorine. They in1ol1e an attack by an atom or group with an unpaired electron called a free radical. In the abo1e reaction ultra1iolet light causes chlorine atoms #free radicals$ to form" Cl. and methyl radicals" C=9. are also in1ol1ed. The dot shows the unpaired electron. lectro%hilic addition reactions . typical e!ample of these is between an alkene and a hydrogen halide. e.g. ethene and hydrogen bromide. They in1ol1e an attack by an ion or group with a positi1e or partial positi1e charge called an electrophile. In the abo1e reaction the electrophile is a hydrogen ion =>. 5lectrophiles attack centres of negati1e charge like the electrons in a double bond. These are addition reactions because the two reactants are added together to gi1e one product. e.g. C'H* 5 Cl' CH'ClCH'Cl $ucleo%hilic substitution reactions . typical e!ample of these is between an alcohol and hydro!ide ions. e.g. ethanol and a%ueous sodium hydro!ide. They in1ol1e an attack by an ion or group with a negati1e or partial negati1e charge called a nucleophile. In the abo1e reaction the hydro!ide ion &= 3 is the nucleophile. . nucleophile attacks a centre of positi1e charge such as the partial positi1e charge on the carbon atom holding a halogen C>3I. It is a substitution reaction because the attacking species replaces the species originally attached to the carbon atom under attack. e.g. CH)CH'Br 5 !H3 CH)CH'!H 5 Br3
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limination reactions . typical e!ample is the formation of an alkene from an alcohol. 5.g. 5thanol reacting to form ethene. They in1ol1e atoms or groups from either side of a single carbon to carbon bond being remo1ed #eliminated$ to form a double bond. e.g. CH)CH'!H C'H* 5 H'! Hydrolysis reactions These all in1ol1e a reaction with water. e.g. CH)CH'Br 5 H'! CH)CH'!H 5 HBr 2eduction reactions These in1ol1e a reaction with hydrogen. . compound gains hydrogen. This can be hydrogen =2 or from a reducing agent like Ei.E=; in ether or a%ueous <a/=;. e.g. CH)CH! 5 'LHM CH)CH'!H !+idation reactions These reactions in1ol1e the loss of hydrogen or the gain of o!ygen. .n o!idising agent like acidified potassium dichromate #FI$ is used. e.g. CH)CH'!H 5 'L!M CH)C!!H 5 H'! Polymerisation reactions These reactions in1ol1e the 0oining of small molecules called monomers to make large molecules called polymers. . large number #n$ of monomer molecules in in1ol1ed and a long polymer molecule is formed. e.g. nC'H* 3GC'H*1n3
Classi(ication o( 2eagents
Chemists aim to de1elop a systematic approach to chemical reactions. In order to do this for organic chemistry it is useful to classify types of compound and how they beha1e. It is also useful to classify reagents so that predictions can be made about the most effecti1e way of carrying out a new reaction. eagents can be classified in 1arious ways including o+idising agents" reducing agents and chlorinating agents.
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3 3
The single headed curly arrows represent the mo1ement of one electron. Homolytic (ission in1ol1es the formation of radicals. . radical is an atom or group of atoms with an unpaired electron. In a heterolytic fission process" the bond does not split the electrons e1enly" but both electrons go to one of the atoms on one side of the bond.
The species formed by this process are ions' a cation and an anion. The cation" because of the positi1e charge" will be attracted to a region of negati1e charge. It has a 1acancy for two electrons" so it tends to accept an electron from another atom and form a bond. Such a species is called a nucleo%hile. . carbon atom possessing a positi1e charge is called a carbocation. The anion" because of the negati1e charge" will be attracted to a region of positi1e charge. It has two electrons a1ailable" so it tends to donate an electron to another atom and form a bond. Such a species is called an electro%hile. . carbon atom possessing a negati1e charge is called a carbanion.
De(initions
Three important definitions are gi1en here. "ree radical 3 . free radical an atom or group of atoms with an unpaired electron. $ucleo%hile 3 . nucleophile is a species attracted to a region of positi1e charge and is an electron pair donor. lectro%hile 3 .n electophile is a species attracted to a region of negati1e charge and is an electron pair acceptor.
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2eaction Mechanisms
The following reaction mechanisms ha1e been studies in )nit *A The reaction of methane with chlorine 2 Photochemical (ree radical substitution The reaction of bromine and hydrogen bromide with ethene 2 lectro%hilic addition The reaction hydrogen bromide with propene 3 lectro%hilic addition
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H H C
'(
3
'-
*. The halogen in the halogenoalkane is electronati1e so draws the bonding electron pair towards itself and creating a partial positi1e charge on the carbon.
2. The partial positi1e charge on the carbon in1ites attack of nucleophiles such as a hydro!ide ion.
H H C
'(
3
'-
9. The hydro!ide ion donates an electron pair to the carbon and starts to form a bond.
H C H
;. .n intermediate is formed with the C3& bond forming and the C3I bond breaking.
This reaction in1ol1es two species #the halogenoalkane molecule and hydro!ide ion$ in the slow #bond breaking$ step and is designated S$'.
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H H H HO C H H -
H C 3
HO
H H 3 HO C H 3
7ith tertiary halogeonalkanes" the carbon groups around the carbon with the halogen attached stabilise the ion" so allowing the ion to form. &nce the ion has been formed the hydro!ide ion can 0oin in place of the halogen. The intermediate formed" the carbocation" is planar" so the hydro!ide ion can attack from either side.
> >
> C 3
> >
> C OH
If the hydro!ide ion attacked from the opposite side from that shown" the product would be the mirror image of the molecule abo1e. In these reactions" the slow step is the breaking off of the halogen and this in1ol1es only the halogenoalkane" that is one species" and it is designated S$0.
Inde%endent research
esearch the formation of oJone in the upper atmosphere" the free radical reaction mechanisms in1ol1ed in the breakdown of this oJone and the part played by aircraft emission of nitrogen o!ides.
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;reen Chemistry
Green Chemistry refers to the processes in the chemical industry that are being rein1ented to make them more sustainable. The term sustain means to keep going. If we use resources faster than they can be replaced" clearly this is a situation that cannot keep going. Sustainability is about li1ing in a way that preser1es resources and the en1ironment for future generations. The idea of ?green chemistry@ is to obtain all the 1aluable products" but in ways that do not damage the en1ironment. Green chemistry is about making the chemical industry more sustainable. The Chemical industry needs to become greener to' educe waste. 6e1elop more economically 1iable processes. educe their en1ironment impact. Sa1e limited resources.
Changing to renewable sources If renewable resources replace non3renewable materials raw materials will be conser1ed and the process becomes more sustainable. Plants can be used as a source of certain organic compounds instead of oil. These can be e!tracted directly from plants or deri1ed from processing plant material" such as using fermentation to produce ethanol from plant starch and sugars. #se o( alternatives to haDardous chemicals This in1ol1es replacing dangerous chemicals used in a process with less harmful chemicals which can do the same 0ob. It includes changing processes so that less risky reagents are used or less destructi1e intermediates are formed. It also includes using less damaging sol1ents for a process. #se o( more e((icient catalysts Introduction of more efficient catalyst enables lower temperatures and pressures to be used and so sa1es energy. (ore efficient catalysts create fewer bye3products and so reduce waste.
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2eduction o( energy use Changing to processes that use lower pressures and temperatures reduce the energy re%uired to make a gi1en product. )se of e!othermic reactions to pro1ide heat reduces the amount of non3renewable energy used" for e!ample introducing a heat transfer system #using hot products to heat incoming reactants$. )se of microwa1es instead of hotplates allows more efficient heating" as it heats the rele1ant molecules directly. 2eduction in the amount o( waste ecycling materials means that less waste is produced. (aking biodegradable products means that they can be broken down by natural processes and so reduce the materials that need to be treated after use. +am%les Polylactic acid .n e!ample of this is the production of the biodegradable plastic" polylactic acid" PE.. The lactic acid" 23hydro!ypropanoic acid" for this process can be produced by using bacteria to carry out the con1ersion from plant starch and sugars.
H H C H n O H O C H C O H O
H H C H O C H n C ( nH2O
Since lactic acid is a substance produced by li1ing organisms it means that the PE. is biodegradable. 2oundu% . new process for the production of a herbicide called ? oundup@ was de1eloped. The original process re%uired the use of methanol #to!ic$ and hydrogen cyanide #e!tremely to!ic$" but the new process" using a copper catalyst" does not use these materials. The new process utiliJes endothermic reactions" so it is safer and easier to control. The original process produced *;L waste" whereas the new process re3uses the catalyst and recycles any other uncon1erted chemicals" and so has no waste. The new process uses fewer steps and so produces a higher yield. thanoic acid 5thanoic acid can be manufactured from methanol and carbon mono!ideA C=9&= > C& C=9C&2= . new process uses a combination catalyst consisting of iridium with ruthenium compounds. This catalyst produces purer ethanoic acid and so reduces the energy re%uired for the purification.
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Summary The table below summarises which of the new processes fulfills the fi1e main ways of making the chemical industry more sustainable. PE. enewable resources .lternati1e to haJardous chemicals 6e1elopment of new catalyst (ore efficient energy use eduction in waste Oes Oes Oes Oes Oes Oes Oes oundup 5thanoic acid
Acid 2ain
Products or waste products may enter the atmosphere and dissol1e in clouds to form acid rain" thus leading to change of soil p= and ri1er water p= etc. e.g. Sulphur dio!ide" nitrogen o!ides" carbon dio!ide.
!Done De%letion
Products or waste products may enter the atmosphere and lead to oJone depletion" thus leading to increased le1els of )F radiation reaching the 5arths surface. e.g. C8CKs" products from combustion of plastics and <itrogen o!ides.
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Climate change
&ne of the key concerns of sustainability is pre1enting damage to the en1ironment. The atmosphere is a 1ital part of the 5arthKs en1ironment" and so the effect of peopleKs acti1ities on the atmosphere needs to be understood and monitored. The 5arth recei1es radiation from the sun. This arri1es mainly as 1isible light and ultra3 1iolet radiation. Certain proportions of this radiation are absorbed by the atmosphere or reflected into space. .bout half of it reaches the surface of the 5arth" where it is absorbed and re3radiated" but at a lower energy' in the infra3red fre%uency.
Fi/i"le an! 0l% a ,iole% li#.% + om %.e /0n Some #a/e/ in %.e a%mo/p.e e a"/o " in+ a- e! a!ia%ion
Some li#.% i/ a"/o "e! in %.e a%mo/p.e e an! /ome i/ e+le-%e! in%o /pa-e
Hal+ %.e li#.% ea-.e/ %.e :a %.G/ /0 +a-e $.e e i% i/ a"/o "e! an! e- a!ia%e! in %.e in+ a- e!.
Some gases in the atmosphere absorb infra3red radiation. <itrogen and o!ygen" the main gases in the atmosphere do not absorb infra3red radiation as they are completely non3polar. Gases composed of polar molecules do absorb infra3red radiation. 7hen the molecules absorb infra3red they increase their 1ibration and their kinetic energy" which of course increases to temperature. Such gases are therefore called ?greenhouse gases@ and can be responsible for climate change or global warming. Carbon dio!ide" water 1apour and methane are the main greenhouse gases. The atmosphere naturally contains a certain le1el of carbon dio!ide" but human acti1ity increases these le1els. The effects of human acti1ity are called anthro%ogenic e((ects. Scientists are able to use computer pro0ections to plot the e!pected climate based on there being no anthropogenic carbon dio!ide. 7hen these pro0ections are compared with plots of global temperatures" they show clearly that it is the anthropogenic carbon dio!ide that is responsible for climate change.
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The e!tent to which human acti1ity placed carbon dio!ide into the atmosphere can be measured by use of the ?carbon footprint@. The carbon footprint is the %uantity of carbon dio!ide a certain item or acti1ity places into the air in a complete cycle. The carbon footprint is measured in tones of carbon dio!ide. If any item or process" when input and output of carbon dio!ide is considered" does not add any carbon dio!ide to the atmosphere" it is designated carbon neutral.
Alternative (uels
)se of fossil fuels as energy sources for 1ehicles" power generation plants or domestic heating is one of the key acti1ities which places carbon dio!ide into the atmosphere. If these can be made carbon neutral or ha1e their carbon footprint reduced" it is ad1antageous to the en1ironment. &ne way of reducing the carbon footprint is to use biofuels. The principle of a biofuel is that they are formed by plants that take up carbon dio!ide from the air to make the plant material which is then con1erted into fuel" and when the fuel is burnt" it simply puts back into the air the carbon dio!ide it originally remo1ed" so o1erall it does not add to the carbon dio!ide le1el" and can therefore be described as carbon3neutral. This simple 1iew of biofuels does not howe1er pro1ide the full picture. /ioethanol for e!ample is produced from sugar cane in /raJil and from maiJe in the )S.. The production of ethanol in the )S. uses fertiliJers and pesticides which ha1e taken energy #form oil$ to make. The ethanol then needs to be separated by distillation" a process again which uses energy from oil. /iodiesel is more effecti1e in reducing the carbon footprint because it does not re%uire distillation. =ydrogen is a much better alternati1e fuel as it only produces water when it is burnt. The key point about hydrogen is how it is produced. If it is made by electrolysis using mains electrical supply" it can still ha1e a large carbon footprint if the electrical generation in1ol1es the combustion of fossil fuels. In the same way hydrogen generated by the reaction of methane with steam" the final products being hydrogen and carbon dio!ide" has a significant carbon footprint. =ydrogen produced by electrolysis" where the electrical energy was deri1ed from sunlight would of course be 1ery en1ironmentally friendly.
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