Seiches and Harbour Oscillations

Alexander B. Rabinovich
1,2
1
Russian Academy of Sciences, P.P. Shirshov Institute of Oceanology
36 Nakhimovsky Pros., !osco", ##$%%$ R&SSIA
'(mail) a*r+iki.rssi.ru
2
,eartment of -isheries and Oceans, Institute of Ocean Sciences
%.6/ 0est Saanich Road, Sidney, 1.2., 3.4 516 2ANA,A
'(mail) Ra*inovichA+ac.dfo(mo.gc.ca
Submitted to: 7and*ook of 2oastal and Ocean 'ngineering
0orld Scientific
January 30, 2008
I. Introduction
Seiches are lon!"eriod #tandin o#cillation# in an enclo#ed ba#in or in a locally i#olated "art
o$ a ba#in %in the Ja"ane#e literature they are commonly &no'n a# 8secondary oscillations
9undulations: of tides; (c$. 7onda et al. 1)08* Nakano, 1)32* Nakano and &noki, 1)+2,-. .he
term /#eiche#0 a""arently oriinated $rom the 1atin 'ord siccus 'hich mean# dry or ex"o#ed
%$rom the ex"o#ure o$ the littoral 2one at the do'n!#'in- (7utchinson, 1)34* 0ilson, 1)42,.
5ree!#ur$ace o#cillation#, &no'n a# seiches or seiching in la&e# and harbour# or a# sloshing in
co$$ee cu"#, bathtub# and #torae tan&#, have been ob#erved #ince very early time#* a vivid
de#cri"tion o$ #eichin in 1a&e 6on#tance, S'it2erland, 'a# iven in 137), and the $ir#t
in#trumental record o$ #eiche# obtained in 1430 in 1a&e 8eneva (0ilson, 1)42* !iles, 1)47,.
<orgen (1))3, de#cribe# #eiche# a# =the rhythmic, rocking motions that "ater *odies undergo
after they have *een distur*ed and then s"ay *ack(and(forth as gravity and friction gradually
restore them to their original, undistur*ed conditions>. .he#e o#cillation# occur at the natural
re#onant "eriod# o$ the ba#in %#o called 8eigen eriods;- and "hy#ically are #imilar to vibration# o$
a uitar #trin and an ela#tic membrane. .he re#onant %eien- "eriod# o$ #eiche# are determined
by the ba#in eometry and de"th (c$. 0iegel, 1)+7* 0ilson, 1)42, and in natural ba#in# may be
$rom a $e' ten# o$ #econd# to #everal hour#. .he o#cillation# are &no'n a# natural %or eigen-
modes. .he mode 'ith the lo'e#t $re9uency %and thu#, the lone#t "eriod- i# re$erred to a# the
fundamental mode (!ei, 1))2,.
.he #et o$ #eiche eien $re9uencie# %"eriod#- and a##ociated modal #tructure# are a
$undamental "ro"erty o$ a "articular ba#in and are inde"endent o$ the external mechani#m $orcin
the o#cillation#. :n contra#t, the am"litude# o$ the enerated #eiche# #tronly de"end on the
enery #ource that enerate# them, and can there$ore have "ronounced variability (7utchinson,
1)34,. Re#onance occur# 'hen the dominant $re9uencie# o$ the external $orcin match the eien
$re9uencie# o$ the ba#in.
7ar*our oscillations %coastal seiches accordin to (?iese and 2haman, 1))3,- are a
#"eci$ic ty"e o$ #eiche motion that occur in "artially enclo#ed ba#in# %ul$#, bay#, $;ord#, inlet#,
"ort#, and harbour#- that are connected throuh one or more o"enin# to the #ea (0iegel, 1)+7*
!ei, 1))2,. <arbour o#cillation# di$$er $rom #eiche# in clo#ed 'ater bodie# %$or exam"le, in
la&e#- in three "rinci"al 'ay# (Ra*inovich, 1))3,:
%1- :n contra#t to #eiche# enerated by direct external $orcin %e.., atmo#"heric "re##ure,
'ind, and #ei#mic activity-, harbour o#cillation# are mainly enerated by lon 'ave#
enterin throuh the o"en boundary %harbour entrance- $rom the o"en #ea.
%2- =nery lo##e# o$ #eiche# in clo#ed ba#in# are mo#tly a##ociated 'ith di##i"ation, 'hile the
decay o$ harbour o#cillation# i# mainly due to radiation throuh the mouth o$ the harbour.
%3- <arbour o#cillation# have a #"eci$ic $undamental mode, the 7elmholt@ mode, #imilar to
the $undamental tone o$ an acou#tic re#onator (c$. !urty, 1)44,. .hi# mode# i# ab#ent in
clo#ed ba#in#.
Becau#e harbour o#cillation# can "roduce damain surging %or range action- > ya' and
#'ayin o$ #hi"# at berth in a harbour > thi# "roblem ha# been exten#ively examined in the
#cienti$ic and enineerin literature (c$. 1)42* !iles and !unk, 1)+1* 0iegel, 1)+7* Raichlen,
1)++, 2002* 4ee, 1)41* !iles, 1)47* 1otes, 1)87* !ei, 1))2 Ra*inovich and 4evyant, 1))2*
Ra*inovich, 1))2, 1))3* Okihiro et al., 1))3* de Aong et al., 2003, de Aong and 1attBes, 2007,.
?ne o$ the e##ential "ro"ertie# o$ o#cillation# in harbour# i# that even relatively #mall vertical
motion# %#ea level o#cillation#- can be accom"anied by lare hori2ontal 'ater motion# %harbour
current#-* 'hen the "eriod o$ the#e motion# coincide# 'ith the natural "eriod o$ #'ay, or ya' o$ a
moored #hi", $urther re#onance occur#, 'hich can re#ult in con#iderable motion and "o##ible
damae o$ a moored #hi" (0iegel, 1)+7* Sa"aragi and <u*o, 1)82,. <arbour o#cillation# can
al#o brea& moorin line#, cau#e co#tly delay# in loadin and unloadin o"eration# at "ort
$acilitie#, and #eriou#ly a$$ect variou# harbour "rocedure# (Raichlen and 4ee, 1))2* Raichlen,
2002,.
.#unami# con#titute another im"ortant "roblem that have reatly #timulated inve#tiation# o$
harbour o#cillation#. @ro$e##or ?mori %Ja"an- 'a# li&ely the $ir#t to notice in 1)02 that the
dominant "eriod# o$ ob#erved t#unami 'ave# are normally identical to tho#e cau#ed by ordinary
lon 'ave# in the #ame coa#tal ba#in %#ee 7onda et al. (1)08,-. <i# ex"lanation 'a# that the bay
or "ortion o$ the #ea o#cillate# li&e a $luid "endulum 'ith it# o'n "eriod, i.e. the arrivin t#unami
'ave# enerate #imilar #eiche# a# tho#e enerated by atmo#"heric "roce##e# and other ty"e# o$
external $orcin %#ee al#o 7onda et al. (1)08,-. Aumerou# "a"er# on the #"ectral analy#i# o$
t#unami record# $or variou# reion# o$ the 'orld ocean have con$irmed thi# conclu#ion (c$.
!iller, 1)42* 3an ,orn, 1)87* ,Bumagaliev et al., 1))3* Ra*inovich, 1))4* Ra*inovich et al.,
200+* Ra*inovich and Chomson, 2004,. 6ata#tro"hic de#truction may occur 'hen the $re9uencie#
o$ arrivin t#unami 'ave# match the re#onant $re9uencie# o$ the harbour or bay. ?ne o$ the be#t
exam"le# o$ #tron t#unami am"li$ication due i# the re#onant re#"on#e o$ @ort Alberni %located at
the head o$ lon Alberni :nlet on the @aci$ic coa#t o$ Bancouver :#land, 6anada- to the 1)+7
Ala#&a t#unami (c$. !urty, 1)44* 7enry and !urty, 1))3,.
2. Hydrodynamic Theory
.he ba#ic theory o$ #eiche o#cillation# i# #imilar to the theory o$ $ree and $orced o#cillation#
o$ mechanical, electrical, and acou#tical #y#tem#. .he #y#tem# re#"ond to an external $orcin by
develo"in a re#torin $orce that re!e#tabli#he# e9uilibrium in the #y#tem. A "endulum i# a ty"ical
exam"le o$ #uch a #y#tem. 5ree o#cillation# occur at the natural $re9uency o$ the #y#tem i$ the
#y#tem di#turbed beyond it# e9uilibrium. Cithout additional $orcin, the#e $ree o#cillation# retain
the #ame $re9uencie# but their am"litude# decay ex"onentially due to $riction, until the #y#tem
eventually come# to re#t. :n the ca#e o$ a "eriodic continuou# $orcin, forced o#cillation# are
"roduced 'ith am"litude# de"endin on $riction and the "roximity o$ the $orcin $re9uency to the
natural $re9uency o$ the #y#tem (Sorensen and Chomson, 2002,
2.1. Long and narrow channel
Standin 'ave heiht# in a clo#ed, lon and narro' nonrotatin rectanular ba#in o$ lenth,
4, and uni$orm de"th, 7, have a #im"le trionometric $orm (4am*, 1)73* 0ilson, 1)42,:
, co# co# - * % t kD A t D
%1-
'here

i# the #ea level elevation, A i# the 'ave am"litude, D i# the alon!ba#in coordinate,
t i# time, D 2 k i# the 'ave number, i# the 'avelenth, C D 2 i# the anular 'ave
$re9uency and C i# the 'ave "eriod. .he anular $re9uency and 'avenumber %or the "eriod and
'avelenth- are lin&ed throuh the $ollo'in 'ell!&no'n relation#hi"#:
kc * %2a-
c C D , %2b-
'here
g7 c
i# the lon'ave "ha#e #"eed and g i# the ravitational acceleration.
.he condition o$ no!$lo' throuh the ba#in boundarie# %
- * 0 4 D D
yield# the
'avenumber#:
4
n
4 4 4
k

,...,
3
,
2
, , %3-
'hich are related to the #"eci$ic o#cillation mode# %5iure 1a-, i.e., to the variou# eien mode# o$
the 'ater ba#in. .he $undamental %n E 1- mode ha# a 'avelenth e9ual to t'ice the lenth o$ the
ba#in* a ba#in o#cillatin in thi# manner i# &no'n a# a half("ave oscillator (<orgen, 1))3,. ?ther
mode# %overtones o$ the main or $undamental FtoneG- have 'avelenth# e9ual to one hal$, one
third, one $orth and #o on, o$ the 'avelenth o$ the $undamental mode %5iure 1a, .able 1-.
.he $undamental mode i# anti#ymmetric: 'hen one #ide o$ the 'ater #ur$ace i# oin u", the
o""o#ite #ide i# oin do'n. Haximum #ea level o#cillation# are ob#erved near the ba#in border#
%
- * 0 4 D D
, 'hile maximum current# occur at the nodal lines, i.e. the line# 'here

E 0
$or all time. @o#ition# o$ the nodal line# are determined by
n m n m
n
4 m
D
m
n

,...* 2 , 1 , ,
2
- 1 2 %
. %7-
.hu#, $or n E 1, there i# one nodal line: 2 D
1
1
4 D located in the middle o$ the ba#in* $or n E 2,
there are t'o line#: 7 D
1
2
4 D and 7 D 3
2
2
4 D * $or n E 3: + D
1
3
4 D , 2 D + D 3
2
3
4 4 D and
+ D 3
3
3
4 D I. .he number o$ nodal line# e9ual# the mode number n %5iure 1a-, 'hich i# 'hy
the $ir#t mode i# called the uninodal mode, the #econd mode i# called *inodal mode, the third
mode the trinodal mode, etc. (<utchin#on, 1)34* Cil#on, 1)42,. .he antinode "o#ition# are tho#e
$or 'hich

attain# maximum value#, and are #"eci$ied a#

n B
n
B4
D
B
n
,..., 2 , 1 , 0 , . %3-
5or exam"le, $or n E 2 there are three antinodal line#: 4 D 4 D D
2
2
1
2
0
2
and 2 D , 0 .
Haximum current# occur at the nodal line#, 'hile minimum current# occur at the antinode#.
Cater motion# at the #eiche node# are entirely hori@ontal, 'hile at the antinode# they are entirely
vertical.
n = 1
n = 2
n = 3
n = 4
n = 0
n = 1
n = 2
n = 3
C l o s e d b a s i n O p e n - e n d e d b a s i n
0 . 0 0 0 . 0 0 1 . 0 0 1 . 0 0
L L
5iure 1. Sur$ace "ro$ile# $or the $ir#t $our #eiche mode# in clo#ed and o"en!ended
rectanular ba#in# o$ uni$orm de"th.
.he relation#hi"# %2- and %3- yield the 'ell &no'n !erian;s formula $or the "eriod# o$ eien
%natural- mode# in a rectanular ba#in o$ uni$orm de"th (Raichlen, 1)++* Ra*inovich, 1))3,:
g7 n
4
C
n
2

, %+-
'here n E 1, 2, 3,I Herian0# $ormula %+- #ho'# that the loner the ba#in lenth % 4- or the
#hallo'er the ba#in de"th %7-, the loner the #eiche "eriod. .he $undamental %n E 1- mode ha# the
maximum "eriod* other mode# > the overtones o$ the main $undamental ! FtoneG > have "eriod#
e9ual to one hal$, one third, one $orth and #o on, o$ the $undamental "eriod %5iure 1a, .able 1-.
.he $undamental mode and all other odd mode# are anti#ymmetric, 'hile even mode# are
#ymmetric* an antinode line i# located in the middle o$ the ba#in.
.he #tructure# and "arameter# o$ o"en!mouth ba#in# are 9uite di$$erent $rom tho#e o$ clo#ed
ba#in#. Standin o#cillation# in a rectanular bay %harbour- 'ith uni$orm de"th and o"en entrance
al#o have the $orm %1- but 'ith a nodal line located near the entrance %bay mouth-. :n eneral, the
a""roximate "o#ition# o$ nodal line# are determined by the $ollo'in ex"re##ion# %5iure 1b,
.able 1-:
n m n m
n
4 m
D
m
n

+
+
,...* 2 , 1 , 0 , ,
1 2
- 1 2 %
, %4-
'hile antinode# are located at
n B n B
n
B4
D
B
n

+
,...* 2 , 1 , 0 , ,
1 2
2
. %8-
:n "articular, $or n E 1 there are t'o nodal line#: 3 D
0
1
4 D and 4 D
1
1
and t'o antinodal line#:
0
0
1
D and 3 D 2
1
1
4 D * $or n E 2 there are three nodal line#: 3 D
0
2
4 D , 3 D 3
1
2
4 D and
.
2
2
4 D , and three antinodal: 0
0
2
D , 3 D 2
1
2
4 D and 3 D 7
2
2
4 D .
.he mo#t intere#tin and im"ortant mode i# the lo'e#t mode, $or 'hich n E 0. .hi# mode,
&no'n a# the 7elmholt@ mode, ha# a #inle nodal line at the mouth o$ the bay %D E 4- and a #inle
antinode on the o""o#ite #hore %D E 4-. .he 'avelenth o$ thi# mode i# e9ual to $our time# the
lenth o$ the bay* a ba#in o#cillatin in thi# manner i# &no'n a# a Euarter("ave oscillator
(<orgen, 1))3,. .he <elmholt2 mode, 'hich i# al#o called the @eroth mode
1
, the gravest mode
and the uming mode %becau#e it i# related to "eriodic ma## tran#"ort > "um"in > throuh the
1
:n many "a"er# and text boo&# (c$. 0iegel, 1)+7* 0ilson, 1)42* 2haman and ?iese, 2001, thi# mode i# con#idered
the F$ir#t modeG. <o'ever, it i# more common to count nodal line# only in#ide the ba#in %not at the entrance- and to
con#ider the $undamental harbour mode a# the F2eroth modeG (c$., Raichlen, 1)++* Raichlen and 4ee, 1))2* !ei, 1))2*
Ra*inovich, 1))3* Sorensen and Chomson, 2002,. .hi# a""roach i# "hy#ically more #ound becau#e thi# mode i# 9uite
#"eci$ic and mar&edly di$$erent $rom the $ir#t mode in a clo#ed ba#in.
o"en mouth (4ee, 1)41* !ei, 1))2,-, i# o$ "articular im"ortance $or any iven harbour. 5or
narro'!mouthed bay# and harbour#, a# 'ell a# $or narro' elonated inlet# and $;ord#, thi# mode
normally dominate#.
.he "eriod# o$ the <elmholt2 and other harbour mode# can be a""roximately e#timated a#
(0ilson, 1)42* Sorensen and Chomson, 2002,:
g7 n
4
C
n
- 1 2 %
7
+

, $or mode n E 0, 1, 2, 3, I %)-

J#in %)- and %+-, the $undamental %<elmholt2- mode in a rectanular o"en!mouth ba#in o$
uni$orm de"th 7 i# $ound to have a "eriod, g7 4 C D 7
0
, 'hich i# double the "eriod o$ the
rave#t mode in a #imilar but clo#ed ba#in, g7 4 C D 2
1
. Aormali2ed "eriod# o$ variou#
mode# %$or 7 n - are #ho'n in .able 1.
.able 1. Aormali2ed "eriod#, - 2 D%
K
4 g7 C C
n n
, $or a clo#ed and o"en!mouth rectanular
ba#in o$ uni$orm de"th.
Ba#in
Hode
n E 0 n E 1 n E 2 n E 3 n E 7
6lo#ed ! 1 1D2 1D3 1D7
?"en!mouthed 2 2D3 2D3 2D4 2D)
=x"re##ion# %7-!%)-, .able 1, and 5iure 1 are all related to the ideali2ed ca#e o$ a #im"le
rectanular ba#in o$ uni$orm de"th. .hi# model i# u#e$ul $or #ome "reliminary e#timate# o$ #eiche
"arameter# in clo#ed and #emiclo#ed natural and arti$icial ba#in#. Analytical #olution# can be
$ound $or #everal other ba#in# o$ #im"le eometric $orm and non!uni$orm de"th. 0ilson %1)42-
#ummari2e# re#ult# that involve common ba#in #ha"e# %.able# 2 and 3-, 'hich in many ca#e# are
9uite ood a""roximation# to rather irreular #ha"e# o$ natural la&e#, bay#, inlet# and harbour#.
.able 2. Hode# o$ $ree o#cillation# in clo#ed ba#in# o$ #im"le eometric #ha"e and con#tant 'idth
%a$ter 0ilson (1)42,-.
L e # c r i " t i o n L i m e n # i o n #
5 u n d a m e n t a l @ r o $ i l e
e 9 u a t i o n
H o d e r a t i o # D , v a l u e # $ o r C C n
@ e r i o d # o $ $ r e e o # c i l l a t i o n B a # i n t y " e
R e c t a n u l a r
M u a r t i c
6 o u " l e d ,
r e c t a n u l a r
. r i a n u l a r
% i # o # c e l e # -
. r i a n u l a r
% r i h t ! a n l e d -
@ a r a b o l i c
. r a " e 2 o i d a l
n #
1 2 3 7
1 . 0 0 0
1 . 0 0 0
1 . 0 0 0
1 . 0 0 0
1 . 0 0 0
1 . 0 0 0
1 . 0 0 0
1 . 0 0 0
1 . 0 0 0
1 . 0 0 0
0 . 3 0 0
0 . + 8 +
0 . 3 0 0
0 . + 2 8
0 . 3 7 +
0 . 3 3 )
0 . 3 4 )
0 . 3 4 4
0 . 3 7 +
0 . 3 2 3
0 . 3 3 3
0 . 3 0 0
0 . 2 3 0
0 . 7 3 +
0 . 3 4 4
0 . 3 7 7
0 . 3 + 4
0 . 7 0 8
0 . 3 4 4
0 . 3 4 1
0 . 2 3 0
0 . 3 8 8
0 . 1 2 3
0 . 3 7 3
0 . 2 8 8
0 . 2 1 4
0 . 2 3 2
0 . 3 1 +
0 . 2 8 8
0 . 2 4 )
h D h % - E
h D h D 4 % - E % 1 2 D -
h D h D 4 % - E D
h D h D 4 % - E % 1 D - 4
h D h F m D % - E
m h h 4 E % - D
2 D % - 4 g h
1 . 3 0 3 ( 2 D % - , 4 g h
1 . + 7 0 ( 2 D % - , 4 g h
1 . 1 1 0 ( 2 D % - , 4 g h
0
0
1
0
0
0 1
0
0
1
0
1 D 2
1 D 2
1 D 2
1 . 2 7 2 ( 2 D % - , 4 g h
4 4 D E 1 D 2 7 D % - 4 g h
4 4 D E 1 D 3 3 . 1 3 D % - 4 g h
4 4 D E 1 D 7
4 4 D E 1 D 8
2 . 4 3 D % - 4 g h
2 . 3 1 D % - 4 g h
0
1
1
1
1
2 2 2
2 2 2
2
2
2
2
2
2
1 D 2
1 D 2
1 D 2
1 D 2
1 D 2
1 D 2 2 2
h D h D 4 % - E % 1 D - 4
h D h D G % - E % 0 -
h D h D H % - E % 0 -
h I h E 1 D 7
0
1
2
2 1
2 2
2
1
C

h
h
h
h
h
h
h
h
h
h D % -
h D % -
h D % -
h D % -
h D % -
h D % -
h D % -
0
1
2
2 1
0
1
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
2
2
2
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
4
4
4
4
4
4
4 4
.able 3. Hode# o$ $ree o#cillation# in #emiclo#ed ba#in# o$ #im"le eometric #ha"e %modi$ied
a$ter 0ilson (1)42,-.
L e # c r i " t i o n L i m e n # i o n #
5 u n d a m e n t a l @ r o $ i l e
e 9 u a t i o n
H o d e r a t i o # D ( E % N 1 - D 2 , C C n s
@ e r i o d # o $ $ r e e o # c i l l a t i o n B a # i n t y " e
R e c t a n u l a r R e c t a n u l a r
R e c t a n u l a r
R e c t a n u l a r
. r i a n u l a r R e c t a n u l a r
. r i a n u l a r
S e m i " a r a b o l i c
S #
n E 0 1 2 3
1 . 0 0 0
1 . 0 0 0
1 . 0 0 0
1 . 0 0 0
1 . 0 0 0
1 . 0 0 0
1 . 0 0 0
0 . 3 3 3
0 . 7 3 3
0 . 3 7 1
0 . 7 3 3
0 . 7 0 )
0 . 4 0 4
0 . 4 0 4
0 . 7 7 4
0 . 3 3 7
0 . 3 1 4
0 . 2 0 0
0 . 2 4 8
0 . 3 4 7
0 . 2 4 8
0 . 2 3 )
0 . 3 4 8
0 . 3 4 8
0 . 7 + 8
0 . 7 ) 3
0 . 7 3 3
0 . 1 7 3
0 . 2 0 3
0 . 2 8 3
0 . 2 3 0
0 . 1 8 )
0 . 3 4 8
0 . 3 0 0
0 . 2 + 7
0 . 3 2 3
0 . 1 8 3
h D h % - E
h D h D 4 % - E D
* D * D 4 % - E D
* D * D 4 % - E D
h D h % - E
h D h D 4 % - E D
2 . 0 0 0 ( 2 D % - , 4 g h
2 . + 1 8 ( 2 D % - , 4 g h
1 . 3 0 8 ( 2 D % - , 4 g h
1 . + 3 3 ( 2 D % - , 4 g h
2 . 2 2 0 ( 2 D % - , 4 g h
2 . 2 2 0 ( 2 D % - , 4 g h
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1 D 2
1 D 2
1 D 2
1 D 2
1 D 2
1 D 2
2 . 2 2 0 ( 2 D % - , 4 g h
1
1 D 2
h D % - E
h D % - E
h D % -
h D 4 % 1 D -
h r 4 % 1 D -
* 4 D E 2
E 7 D 3
E 1
E 2 D 3
1
1
1
2
2
2
2
0
C
* D % -
h D % -
h D % -
h D % -
h D % -
* D % -
* D % -
* D % -
*
h
h
h
h
*
*
*
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
. r i a n u l a r . r i a n u l a r
S e m i e l l i " t i c
S e m i c i r c u l a r
S e m i " a r a b o l o i d a l
S e m i " a r a b o l o i d a l
h D % -
* D % -
h
h
h
*
*
*
1
1
1
1
1
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
D
D
r
r
D
D
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4 4
.he main concern $or "ort o"eration# and #hi"# and boat# in harbour# i# not $rom the #ea level
#eiche variation# but $rom the #tron current# a##ociated 'ith the #eiche. A# noted above,
maximum hori2ontal current velocitie# occur at the nodal line#. .here$ore, it i# location# in the
vicinity o$ the node# that are "otentially mo#t ri#&y and un#a$e. Haximum velocitie#,
max
3
, can
be rouhly e#timated a# (Sorensen and Chomson, 2002,:
7
g
A 3
n

max
,I %10-
'here
n
A
i# the am"litude o$ the #ea level o#cillation $or the mode. 5or exam"le, i$
n
A
E 0.3 m
and 7 E + m,
max
3 0.+7 mD#.
2.2. Rectangular and circular basins
:$ a ba#in i# not lon and narro', the one!dimen#ional a""roach u#ed above i# not
a""ro"riate. 5or #uch ba#in#, t'o!dimen#ional e$$ect# may bein to "lay an im"ortant role,
"roducin com"ound or cou"led #eiche# (0ilson, 1)42,. .'o elementary exam"le#, 'hich can be
u#ed to illu#trate the t'o!dimen#ional #tructure o$ #eiche motion#, are "rovided by rectanular
and circular ba#in# o$ uni$orm de"th %7-. 6on#ider a rectanular ba#in 'ith lenth 4 %D J 0, 4-
and 'idth l %y E 0, l-. Standin o#cillation# in the ba#in have the $orm (c$. 4am*, 1)73* !ei,
1))2,:
, co# co# co# - * , % t
l
y n
4
D m
A t y D
mn


%11-
'here m, n E 0, 1, 2, 3,I .he eien 'avenumber# %
mn
k
- are
2 D 1
2 2
1
1
]
1

,
_

+
,
_

l
n
4
m
k
mn

, %12-
and the corre#"ondin eien "eriod# are (Raichlen, 1)++,
2 D 1
2 2
2

1
1
]
1

,
_

+
,
_

l
n
4
m
gh
C
mn
. %13-
5or n E 0 ex"re##ion %13- become# e9uivalent to the !erian;s formula %+-* the lone#t "eriod
corre#"ond# to the fundamental mode %m E1, n E 0- 'hich ha# one nodal line in the middle o$ the
ba#in. :n eneral, the number# m and n denote the number o$ nodal line# acro## and alon the
ba#in, re#"ectively. .he normali2ed eien!"eriod#
10
K
D C C C
mn mn
and #"atial #tructure $or the
di$$erent mode# are #ho'n in .able 7.
.able 7. Hode "arameter# $or $ree o#cillation# in uni$orm de"th ba#in# o$ rectanular and circular
eometric #ha"e.
R e c t a n u l a r b a # i n % E 0 . 3 - l 4

6 i r c u l a r b a # i n
H o d e
n u m b e r #
H o d e
n u m b e r #
R e l a t i v e
" e r i o d

m s

n m

C
s m
I C
1 0


1 1

0 0

1 . 0 0 0


2 2 0 0 0 . + 0 3

0 0 1 1 0 . 7 8 0

1 1 1 1 0 . 3 7 3
2 2 1 1 0 . 2 4 3

0 0 2 2 0 . 2 + 2

1 1 2 2 0 . 2 1 +

+ +
+
+
+
+
+
+
+ +
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
H o d e $ o r m #
6 i r c u l a r
n o d a l l i n e #
r
1

!

!

0 . + 2 8
0 . 4 1 )

0 . 4 + +

0 . 3 7 3
0 . 7 7 )

A o r m a l i 2 e d
$ r e 9 u e n c y
r
2

!

1 . 8 7 1

!

3 . 0 3 7

! 3 . 8 3 2

!

3 . 3 3 1

!

+ . 4 0 +

0 . 4 8 4 4 . 0 1 +
0 . 8 2 0 8 . 3 3 +
a I c
H o d e $ o r m #
R e l a t i v e
" e r i o d
C
m n
I C
1 0
1 . 0 0 0
0 . 3 0 0
0 . 3 0 0
0 . 7 7 4
0 . 3 3 7
0 . 2 3 0
0 . 2 7 3
4
l
6 a
5or o#cillation# in a circular ba#in o$ radiu# a r , it i# convenient to u#e a "olar coordinate
#y#tem %
, r
- 'ith the oriin in the center:
#in , co# r y r D
,
'here i# the "olar anle. Standin o#cillation# in #uch ba#in# have the $orm

t s 1 s A kr A t y D
s s s
co# - #in co# -% % - * , % +
, %17-
'here
s
A
i# the Be##el $unction o$ an order s,
s
A
and
s
1
are arbitrary con#tant#, and s E 0, 1,
2, 3,I (4am*, 1)73* !ei, 1))2,. .he#e o#cillation# #ati#$y the boundary condition:
0 - % - %
O O

ka A kr A
s
a r
s . %13-
.he root# o$ thi# e9uation determine the eienvalue#
sm
k
%m, s E 0, 1, 2, 3,I-, 'ith
corre#"ondin eienmode# de#cribed by e9uation %17- $or variou#
sm
k k
. .able 7 "re#ent# the
modal "arameter# and the $ree #ur$ace di#"lacement# o$ "articular mode#.
A# illu#trated by .able 7, there are t'o cla##e# o$ nodal line#, /rin#0 and /#"o&e#0
%diameter#-. .he corre#"ondin mode number# m and s ive the re#"ective exact number o$ the#e
line#. Lue to ma## con#ervation, the mode %0, 0- doe# not exi#t in a com"letely clo#ed ba#in (!ei,
1))2,. 5or the ca#e s E 0, the mode# are #ymmetrical 'ith re#"ect to the oriin and have annular
cre#t an trouh# (4am*, 1)73,. :n "articular, the $ir#t #ymmetrical mode %s E 0, m E1- ha# one
nodal rin r E 0.+28a %.able 7-. Chen the central "art o$ the circular ba#in %located in#ide o$ thi#
rin- i# oin u", the marinal "art %located bet'een thi# rin and the ba#in border- i# oin
do'n, and vice versa. .he #econd #ymmetrical mode %s E 0, m E1- ha# t'o nodal rin#: r E
0.373a and r E 0.484a.
5or s P 0, there are s e9uidi#tant nodal diameter# located at an anle s D $rom each
other* i.e. 180Q $or s E1, )0Q $or s E2, +0Q $or s E 3, etc. @o#ition# o$ the#e diameter# are
indeterminate, #ince the oriin o$ i# arbitrary. .he indetermatability di#a""ear# i$ the
boundary deviate# even #lihtly $rom a circle. S"eci$ically, the $ir#t non#ymmetrical mode %s E1,
m E 0- ha# one nodal diameter % 2 D -, 'ho#e "o#ition i# unde$ined* but i$ the ba#in i# not
circular but elli"tical, the nodal line 'ould coincide 'ith either the ma;or or minor axi#, and the
corre#"ondin eien "eriod# 'ould be une9ual (4am*, 1)73,. .he $ir#t un#ymmetrical mode ha#
the lo'e#t $re9uency and the lare#t eien "eriod %.able 7-* in thi# ca#e the 'ater #'ay# $rom one
#ide to another relative to the nodal diameter. .hi# mode i# o$ten re$erred to a# the F#lo#hinG
mode (Raichlen, 1)++,.
Ho#t natural la&e# or 'ater re#ervoir# can #u""ort rather com"lex t'o!dimen#ional #eiche#.
<o'ever, the t'o elementary exam"le# o$ rectanular and circular ba#in# hel" to under#tand
#ome eneral "ro"ertie# o$ the corre#"ondin #tandin o#cillation# and to "rovide rouh e#timate#
o$ the $undamental "eriod# o$ the ba#in#.
2.3. Harbour resonance
1et u# return to harbour o#cillation# and con#ider #ome im"ortant re#onant "ro"ertie# o$
#emiclo#ed ba#in#. 5ir#t, it i# 'orthy to note that ex"re##ion# %4-!%)- and .able 3 $or o"en!mouth
ba#in# ive only a""roximate value# o$ the eien "eriod# and other "arameter# o$ harbour mode#.
Solution# o$ the 'ave e9uation $or ba#in# o$ #im"le eometric $orm# are ba#ed on the boundary
condition that a nodal line %2ero #ea level- i# al'ay# eDactly at the entrance o$ a #emiclo#ed ba#in
that o"en# onto a much larer 'ater body. :n thi# ca#e, the $ree harbour mode# are e9uivalent to
odd %anti#ymmetric- mode# in a clo#ed ba#in, $ormed by the o"en!mouth ba#in and it# mirror
imae relative to the mouth
2
. <o'ever, thi# condition i# not #trictly correct becau#e it doe# not
ta&e into account 'ave enery radiation throuh the mouth into the o"en #ea. .he exact #olution#
may be obtained ba#ed on the Sommerfeld radiation condition o$ $ree 'ave radiation throuh the
o"en boundary (c$. 4ee, 1)41* !ei, 1))2,. 5ollo'in a""lication o$ the a""ro"riate mouth
correction % -, the nodal line i# located clo#e to but outside the entrance. :n other 'ord#, the
e$$ect o$ thi# correction i# to increa#e the e$$ective lenth o$ the ba#in (0ilson, 1)42,. .he mouth
correction de"end# on t'o "arameter#: the ba#in a#"ect ratio
4 l E D
, 'hich relate# the 'idth o$
the ba#in %l- to it# lenth %4-* and the a"erture ratio l * D , in 'hich * i# the actual 'idth o$ the
mouth.
Hathematical determination o$ i# rather com"licated but, a# a rule, it increa#e# 'ith
increa#e# o$ E and . 5or exam"le, the $ractional correction to e9uation %)- $or the $undamental
mode in a rectanular ba#in o$ uni$orm de"th and o"en mouth % E 1.0- i# determined a#
(7onda et al., 1)08* 0ilson, 1)42,

-, 7 D ln% 2 D 3 -( D % E E
, %1+-
'here

E 0.3442I i# =uler0# con#tant. Rouhly #"ea&in, radiation into the external ba#in and
the mouth correction are im"ortant 'hen the #eminlo#ed ba#in i# broad and ha# a lare o"en
entrance, and neliible 'hen the ba#in i# lon and narro' %i.e. 'hen E i# #mall-* in the latter
ca#e, ex"re##ion# %4-!%)-, a# 'ell a# tho#e "re#ented in .able 3, are 9uite accurate.
.he character o$ natural o#cillation# in a bay or harbour i# #tronly controlled by the a"erture
ratio l * D , 'hich can vary $rom E 1.0 to E 0.0. .he#e t'o a#ym"totic ca#e# re"re#ent
a $ully o"en harbour and a clo#ed ba#in, re#"ectively. :t i# evident that the #maller i# %i.e. the
#maller the 'idth o$ the entrance- the #lo'er 'ater $rom the external ba#in %o"en #ea- "enetrate#
into the harbour. .hu#, a# decrea#e#, the "eriod# o$ all harbour mode# $or 1 n in .able 1
increa#e, tendin to the "eriod# o$ the corre#"ondin eien mode# $or a clo#ed ba#in, 'hile the
"eriod o$ the $undamental %<elmholt2- harbour mode tend# to in$inity
3
. .hi# i# one o$ the
im"ortant "ro"ertie# o$ harbour o#cillation#.
Another im"ortant "ro"erty i# harbour re#onance. .he am"li$ication $actor $or lon 'ave#
im"inin on a harbour $rom the o"en #ea i#
2
0
2 2
0
2
- D % - D 1 %
1
- %
f f K f f
f 7

+

, %14-
2
.hi# a""roach i# u#ed $or numerical com"utation o$ eien mode# in natural t'o!dimen#ional ba#in# (c$. Ra*inovich
and 4evyant, 1))2,.
3
.hi# i# the rea#on $or callin thi# the F2eroth modeG.
'here f i# the $re9uency o$ the lon incomin 'ave#,
0
f
i# the re#onant $re9uency o$ the
harbour, and K i# the 9uality $actor %FK($actorG-, 'hich i# a mea#ure o$ enery dam"in in the
#y#tem (!iles and !unk, 1)+1* 0ilson, 1)42,. S"eci$ically,

2
D
1

'
dt d'
K
, %18-
'here
t
e ' '
2
0

i# the enery o$ the #y#tem a# it decay# $rom an initial value
0
'
,

i# a
dimen#ionle## dam"in coe$$icient, and
f 2
i# the anular $re9uency. .he "o'er
am"li$ication $actor attain# the value
2
K at re#onance %
0
f f
-, decrea#e# to unity at f E0 and
oe# to 2ero a# f oe# to in$inity. .here$ore, K $or harbour o#cillation# "lay# a double role: a# a
mea#ure o$ the re#onant increa#e o$ 'ave heiht# $or 'ave# arrivin $rom the o"en ocean and a#
an index o$ the time decay rate o$ 'ave heiht# in#ide the harbour. .he hiher the K, the #troner
'ill be the am"li$ication o$ the incomin 'ave# and the #lo'er the enery decay, i.e. the loner
the FrininG o$ #eiche o#cillation# in#ide the harbour.
:n clo#ed ba#in#, li&e la&e#, bottom $riction i# the main $actor controllin enery decay.
Aormally, it i# 9uite #mall, #o in la&e# 'ith $airly reular to"ora"hic $eature# %lo' dam"in-, a
hih K!$actor may be ex"ected. 6on#e9uently, even a #mall amount o$ $orcin enery at the
re#onant $re9uency can "roduce #ini$icant #eiche o#cillation# that "er#i#t $or #everal day#
(7utchinson, 1)34* 0ilson, 1)42,. :n contra#t, the main $actor o$ enery decay in #emiclo#ed
'ater ba#in#, #uch a# ul$#, bay#, $;ord#, inlet# and harbour#, i# 'ave radiation throuh the
entrance. :n their "ioneerin 'or&, !iles and !unk (1)+1, concluded that narro'in the harbour
entrance 'ould increa#e the 9uality $actor K and, con#e9uently, the am"li$ication o$ the arrivin
'ave. .hi# mean# that the con#truction o$ dam#, di&e#, and 'all# to "rotect the harbour $rom
'ind 'ave# and #'ell could #o con#trict the entrance 'idth that it lead# to #tron am"li$ication o$
the re#onant #eiche o#cillation# in#ide the harbour. !iles and !unk (1)+1, named thi# har*our
aradoD.
A# "ointed out by !iles and !unk (1)+1,, there are t'o limitation# to the "reviou#
conclu#ion#:
%1- A time o$ order
D K
cycle# i# nece##ary $or the harbour o#cillation# to ad;u#t to the
external $orcin. .hi# mean# that harbour# 'ith hih K 'ould not re#"ond to a #tron but #hort!
lived incomin di#turbance. :n mo#t ca#e#, thi# limitation i# not o$ ma;or concern becau#e
atmo#"heric di#turbance# %the ma;or #ource o$ o"en!#ea lon 'ave# inducin harbour
o#cillation#- are li&ely to la#t at lea#t $or #everal hour#. =ven t#unami 'ave# $rom di#tant
location# FrinG $or many hour#, re#onantly F$eedinG harbour #eiche# and "roducin maximum
o#cillation# that have lon %12!30 hour#- duration# that "er#i#t 'ell a$ter the arrival o$ the $ir#t
'ave# (c$. Ra*inovich et al., 200+* Ra*inovich and Chomson, 2004,. .hi# contra#t# 'ith the ca#e
$or near!$ield #ite#, 'here t#unami# normally arrive a# #hort!duration im"ul#ive 'ave#. Such
t#unami# are much more danerou# at o"en coa#tal reion# than in bay# or harbour#, a# 'a#
ob#erved $or the coa#t o$ .hailand a$ter the 2007 Sumatra t#unami (c$. Citov et al., 2003,.
%2- A# the harbour mouth become# increa#inly narro'er, the internal harbour di##i"ation
eventually exceed# enery radiation throuh the mouth. At thi# #tae, $urther narro'in doe# not
lead to a $urther increa#e in the K!$actor. <o'ever, normally internal di##i"ation i# #mall
com"ared to the ty"ical radiative enery lo##e# throuh the entrance.
?riinally !iles and !unk (1)+1, believed that their Fharbour "aradoxG conce"t 'a# valid
$or every harbour mode "rovided the corre#"ondin #"ectral "ea& 'a# #har" and 'ell de$ined.
5urther thorouh examination o$ thi# e$$ect (c$. 4e !LhautL and 0ilson, 1)+2* Raichlen, 1)++*
and !iles, 1)47, indicated that the harbour "aradox i# only o$ ma;or im"ortance $or the
<elmholt2 mode, 'hile $or hiher mode# $rictional and nonlinear $actor#, not accounted $or in the
theory, dam"en thi# e$$ect (0ilson, 1)42,. <o'ever, the <elmholt2 mode i# the mo#t im"ortant
mode in natural ba#in# and i# normally ob#erved in bay#, inlet# and harbour# 'ith narro'
entrance, i.e. in #emiclo#ed ba#in# 'ith hih K!$actor. Sini$icant "roblem# 'ith the moorin and
doc&in o$ #hi"# %and the loadin and unloadin o$ their caro- in "ort# and harbour# are o$ten
a##ociated 'ith thi# $undamental mode and mo#t ty"ically occur in "ort# 'ith hih K (c$.
Raichlen, 1)++, 2002* Prandle, 1)47* 1o"ers, 1)82* 1otes, 1)87* Raichlen and 4ee, 1))2* Hei,
1))2* Okihiro et al., 1))3* Ra*inovich, 1))2, 1))3,.
Ra*inovich (1))2, #ue#ted reducin the#e neative e$$ect# in "ort# by arti$icially
increa#in the internal di##i"ation. .he idea i# the #ame a# that 'idely u#ed in roc&et technoloy
to dam" eien o#cillation# in $uel tan&# (c$. !iles, 1)38* !ikishev and Ra*inovich, 1)+8,. Radial
"ier# in "ort# and harbour# "lay the #ame role a# internal rin# and rib# in roc&et tan&#, e$$iciently
tran#$ormin 'ave enery into vortical motion# 'hich reduce the 'ave enery and there$ore the
inten#ity o$ the #eiche# and their a##ociated hori2ontal current#. A# #ho'n by Ra*inovich (1))2,,
the loarithmic attenuation $actor,
K D
0

, $or the <elmholt2 mode a##ociated 'ith the Bth
"ier, i# iven by

,
_

,
_

,
_

0
0
0
0
0 0
0
0
R
+
1
2

h r
*
2
'
'
B B
D
B
B
, %1)-
'here
0
'
i# the enery o$ the mode in#ide the harbour,
B
'
0
i# the enery di##i"ated at the "ier
over the mode "eriod %
0 0
D 2 C
-, B
*
i# the lenth o$ the "ier,
0
r
and
0
h
are the mean
radiu# and de"th o$ the harbour,
0
R
i# the mean am"litude o$ the <elmholt2 mode in the
harbour,
B
D
2 i# a dimen#ionle## re#i#tance coe$$icient, and - D% - %
0
2 D 1
0 0
r gh . .hu#, the rate
o$ dam"in o$ o#cillation# in a harbour de"end# on the number o$ "ier# %N- and a number o$
dimen#ionle## "arameter#: #"eci$ically, the relative am"litude# o$ the o#cillation#,
0 0 0
D
R
h *
the normali2ed harbour $re9uency,
0 0 0
D
* the relative lenth# o$ the "ier#, 0
D r * 1
B B

*
and the coe$$icient
B
D
2 . .he "arameter
0

de"end# on the inten#ity o$ the external $orcin

'hile the t'o other "arameter#
0

and B
1
do not de"end on $orcin but only on the
characteri#tic# o$ the harbour. .he coe$$icient
B
D
2 #tronly de"end# on the Seulean!6ar"enter
%S6- number 'hich relate# hydraulic re#i#tance in o#cillatin $lo'# to tho#e $or #tationary
current# (<eulegan and 2arenter, 1)38,. 5or ty"ical value# B
1
E0.3,
0

E 0.1,
0

E 1.0, N
E8, and
B
D
2 E 10, 'e $ind
0
0.7 and K 8.
Another im"ortant a#"ect o$ the harbour o#cillation "roblem i# that chane# in "ort eometry,
and the con#truction o$ additional "ier# and dam# can #ini$icantly chane the natural %eien-
"eriod# o$ the "ort, thereby modi$yin con#iderably the re#onant characteri#tic# o$ the ba#in (c$.
1o"ers, 1)82* 1otes, 1)87,. <elmholt2 re#onator# in acou#tic# are u#ed to attenuate #ound
di#turbance# o$ lon 'avelenth#, 'hich are di$$icult to reduce u#in ordinary method# o$
acou#tical enery di##i"ation. Similarly, #ide channel re#onator# are #ue#ted a# a method $or
attenuatin incident 'ave enery in harbour# (Raichlen, 1)++* Prandle, 1)47* 1o"ers, 1)82,.
:n eneral, e#timation o$ the K!$actor i# a crucial con#ideration $or "ort#, harbour#, bay and
inlet#. 5or a rectanular ba#in o$ uni$orm de"th and entirely o"en mouth % 0 . 1 D l * - thi#
$actor i# ea#ily e#timated a#:
l
4
K , %20-
'hich i# inver#ely "ro"ortional to the a#"ect ratio
4 l E D
. .hi# mean# that hih K!$actor# can
be ex"ected $or lon and narro' inlet#, $;ord# and 'ater'ay#. 7onda et al. (1)08, and Nakano
and &noki (1)+2, examined coa#tal #eiche# at more than 110 #ite# on the coa#t o$ Ja"an and
$ound that #tron and hihly reular #eiche o#cillation# are mo#t o$ten ob#erved in #uch elonated
ba#in# and that the "eriod# o$ the#e o#cillation# are in ood areement 'ith the a""roximate
"eriod %)- $or the <elmholt2 mode %n E 0-:
g7 4 C D 7
0
. %21-
:$ the a"erture ratio T 1.0, corre#"ondin to a. "artly clo#ed entrance, it i# more di$$icult
to e#timate the K value and the re#onant mode "eriod# analytically. :n "ractice, #"ecial diaram#
$or a rectanular ba#in 'ith variou# E and are u#ed $or the#e "ur"o#e# (Raichlen and 4ee,
1))2* Sorensen and Chomson, 2002,. 5or natural ba#in#, the#e "arameter# can be e#timated
numerically or $rom direct ob#ervation#. :$ the re#"ective #"ectral "ea& in ob#ervational data i#
i#olated, #har" and "ronounced enouh, then 'e can a##ume that
1 >> K
. :n thi# ca#e, it $ollo'#
$rom %14- that the hal$!"o'er $re9uency "oint# %
2 D 1
f
- are iven by the $ollo'in ex"re##ion
(!iles and !unk, 1)+1,:

,
_

t
t
K
f f
2
1
1
0 2 D 1
, %22-
and the relative $re9uency band'idth i# #im"ly
1
0

K
f
f
, %23-
'here
+

2 D 1 2 D 1
f f f and
0 0
D 1 C f
i# the re#onant $re9uency. .hi# a u#e$ul "ractical
method $or e#timatin the K!$actor and am"li$ication $or coa#tal ba#in# ba#ed on re#ult# o$
#"ectral analy#i# o$ ob#ervational data. <o'ever, the #"atial #tructure o$ di$$erent mode#, the
di#tribution o$ current#, and #ea level# in#ide a natural ba#in, in$luence harbour recon#truction
ba#ed on chane# in the#e characteri#tic#, and many other a#"ect# o$ harbour hydrodynamic#, are
di$$icult to e#timate 'ithout numerical com"utation#. Aumerical modellin ha# become a
common a""roach that i# no' 'idely u#ed to examine harbour o#cillation# (c$. 1otes et al., 1)87*
Ra*inovich and 4evyant, 1))2* ,Bumagaliev et al., 1))7* 4iu et al., 2003* 3ili*iM et al., 2007,
2.4. Harbour oscillations in a natural basin
Some ty"ical $eature# o$ harbour o#cillation# are made more under#tandable u#in a concrete
exam"le. 5iure# 2 and 3 illu#trate "ro"ertie# o$ ty"ical harbour o#cillation# and re#ult# o$ their
analy#i# and numerical modellin. Several tem"orary cable bottom "re##ure #tation# %B@S- 'ere
de"loyed in bay# on the northern coa#t o$ Shi&otan :#land, Suril :#land# in 1)8+!1))2
(Ra*inovich and 4evyant, 1))2* Ra*inovich, 1))3* ,Bumagaliev et al., 1))3, 1))7,. All B@S#
'ere diital in#trument# that recorded lon 'ave# 'ith 1!min #am"lin. ?ne o$ the#e #tation#
%B@S!1- 'a# #ituated at the entrance o$ 5al#e Bay, a #mall bay 'ith a broad o"en mouth %5iure
2a-. .he o#cillation# recorded at thi# #ite 'ere 'ea& and irreular* the re#"ective #"ectrum
%5iure 2b- 'a# F#moothG and did have any noticeable "ea&#, "robably becau#e o$ the clo#ene##
o$ the in#trument "o#ition to the "o#ition o$ the entrance nodal line. .'o more aue# %B@S!2 and
B@S!3- 'ere located in#ide Halo&uril#& Bay, a Fbottle!li&eG bay 'ith a maximum 'idth o$ about
1300 m and a narro' nec& o$ 330 m %5iure 2a-. .he o#cillation# recorded by the#e in#trument#
'ere #ini$icant, hihly reular and almo#t monochromatic* the corre#"ondin #"ectra %5iure#
2c and 2d- have a "rominent "ea& at a "eriod o$ 18.+ min. An analoue tide aue %U3 in 5iure
2a- #ituated on the coa#t o$ thi# bay "ermanently mea#ure o#cillation# 'ith exactly the #ame
"eriod (c$. Ra*inovich and 4evyant, 1))2,. :t i# clear that thi# "eriod i# related to the $undamental
mode o$ the bay. .he K($actor o$ the bay, a# e#timated by ex"re##ion %23- ba#ed on #"ectral
analy#i# o$ the tide aue data $or #ite# B@S!2 and B@S!3, 'a# 12!17 and )!10, re#"ectively. .he
hih K!$actor# are li&ely the main rea#on $or the re#onant am"li$ication o$ t#unami 'ave# that
arrive $rom the o"en ocean. Such t#unami o#cillation# are reularly ob#erved in thi# bay (c$.
,Bumagaliev et al., 1))3* Ra*inovich, 1))4,. :n "articular, the t'o recent Suril :#land# t#unami#
o$ Aovember 13, 200+ and January 13, 2004 enerated #ini$icant re#onant o#cillation# in
Halo&uril#& Bay o$ 133 cm and 42 cm, re#"ectively, at the #ame #tronly dominant "eriod o$ 18.+
min (Ra*inovich et al., 2008,.
5iure 3 #ho'# the $ir#t #ix eien mode# $or Halo&uril#& Bay (Ra*inovich and 4evyant,
1))2,. .he com"utation# 'ere ba#ed on numerical con$ormal ma""in o$ the initial mirror
re$lected domain on a circular annulu# %$or detail# #ee Rabinovich and .yurin (2000,- and the
$ollo'in a""lication o$ Rit20# variational method to #olve the eienvalue "roblem. .he
com"uted "eriod o$ the $undamental %<elmholt2- mode %18.) min- 'a# clo#e to the ob#erved
"eriod o$ 18.+ min. .he #"ectra at B@S!2 and B@S!2 indicate 'ea& #"ectral "ea&# %three order# o$
manitude le## than the main "ea&- 'ith "eriod# 7.1, 3.3 and 2.) min %the latter only at B@S!3-,
thouht to be related to mode# n E 2, 3 and 7. .he $ir#t mode %n E 1-, 'ith "eriod o$ +.3 min, 'a#
not ob#erved at the#e #ite# a""arently becau#e the nodal line $or thi# mode "a##e# throuh the
"o#ition# o$ B@S!2 and B@S!3.
1 4 0 1 4 5 1 5 0
4 0
P a c i f i c O c e a n
H o k k a i d o I .
I t u r u p I .
K u n a s h i r I .
S h i k o t a n I .
4 5
S e a o f
O k h o t s k
S h i k o t a n I .
M a l o k u r i l s k B a y
F a l s e B a y
1
2
3
5
4 K
u
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i l I s
l a
n
d
s
( d ) ( c ) ( b )
( a )
1 0 1 0 1 0
1 0
1 0
1 0
1 0
1 0
1 0
1 0
1 0
1 0 1 0
1 0
1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0
4 4 4
5
3
3
2
2
2
1
1
- 2 0
0
- 2 - 2 - 3 - 2 - 3 - 1 - 1 - 1
r e ! u e n c " ( c p # )
$ 5 % $ 5 %
3
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1 & . '
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2
-
1
0 . 5 ) #
5iure 2. %a- 1ocation o$ cable bottom "re##ure #tation# near the northern coa#t o$ Shi&otan
:#land %Suril :#land#- and #ea level #"ectra at %b- B@S!1, %c- B@S!2 %both in autumn 1)8+-
and %d- B@S!3 and B@S!7 %?ctober!Aovember 1))0-.
n * 0
1 & . $ # i n
n * 3
3 . 4 # i n
n * 1
' . 5 # i n
n * 4
2 . ' # i n
n * 2
3 . & # i n
n * 5
2 . 3 # i n
5iure 3. 6om"uted eien mode# and "eriod# o$ the $ir#t #ix mode# in Halo&uril#& Bay
%Shi&otan :#land-. Blac& trianle# indicate "o#ition# o$ the B@S!2 and B@S!3 aue#. %5rom
Ra*inovich and 4evyant (1))2,-.
.hu#, the com"uted "eriod# o$ the bay eien mode# are in ood areement 'ith ob#ervation*
"lot# in 5iure 3 ive the #"atial #tructure o$ the corre#"ondin mode#. <o'ever, thi# a""roach
doe# not "ermit direct e#timation o$ the bay re#"on#e to the external $orcin and the
corre#"ondin am"li$ication o$ 'ave# arrivin $rom the o"en ocean. :n actuality, the main
"ur"o#e o$ the #imultaneou# de"loyment# at #ite# B@S!3 and B@S!7 %5iure 2a- in the $all o$ 1))0
'a# to obtain ob#erved re#"on#e "arameter# that could be com"ared 'ith numerically evaluated
value# (,Bumagaliev et al., 1))7,. .he #"ectrum at B@S!7, the #tation located on the outer #hel$
o$ Shi&otan :#land near the entrance to Halo&uril#& Bay %5iure 2d-, contain# a noticeable "ea&
'ith "eriod o$ 18.+ min a##ociated 'ith enery radiation $rom the bay. .hi# "ea& i# about 1.3
order# o$ manitude lo'er than a #imilar "ea& at B@S!3 in#ide the bay. .he am"li$ication $actor
$or the 18.+ min "eriod o#cillation at B@S!7 relative to that at B@S!3 'a# $ound to be about 7.0.
Aumerical com"utation# o$ the re#"on#e characteri#tic# $or Halo&uril#& Bay u#in the <A!
method (,Bumagaliev et al., 1))7, ave re#onant "eriod# 'hich 'ere in clo#e areement 'ith the
em"irical %VV- re#ult# o$ Ra*inovich and 4evyant (1))2, %indicated in 5iure 3-. Re#onant
am"li$ication o$ t#unami 'ave# im"inin on the bay 'a# $ound to be 8!10.
2.. Seiches in cou!led bays
A 'ell &no'n "hy#ical "henomenon are the o#cillation# o$ t'o #im"le cou"led "endulum#
connected by a #"rin 'ith a #mall #"rin con#tant %'ea& cou"lin-. 5or #uch #y#tem#, the
o#cillation enery o$ the combined #y#tem #y#tematically move# $rom one "art o$ the #y#tem to
the other. =very time the $ir#t "endulum #'in#, it "ull# on the connectin #trin and ive# the
#econd "endulum a #mall tu, #o the #econd "endulum bein# to #'in. A# #oon a# the #econd
"endulum #tart# to #'in, it bein# "ullin bac& on the $ir#t "endulum. =ventually, the $ir#t
"endulum i# brouht to re#t a$ter it ha# tran#$erred all o$ it# enery to the #econd "endulum. But
no' the oriinal #ituation i# exactly rever#ed, and the $ir#t "endulum i# in a "o#ition to bein
F#tealinG enery bac& $rom the #econd. ?ver time, the enery re"eatedly #'itche# bac& and $orth
until $riction and air re#i#tance eventually remove all o$ the enery out o$ the "endulum #y#tem.
A #imilar e$$ect i# ob#erved in t'o ad;acent bay# that con#titute a cou"led #y#tem. Ha#ito
Aa&ano (Nakano, 1)32, 'a# "robably the $ir#t to inve#tiate thi# "henomenon ba#ed on
ob#ervation# $or Soa2iro and Horoi#o bay# located in the Hiura @enin#ula in the vicinity o$
.o&yo. .he t'o bay# have #imilar #ha"e# and nearly e9ual eien "eriod#. A# 'a# "ointed out by
Aa&ano, #eiche# in both bay# are very reular, but the variation# o$ their am"litude# are #uch that,
'hile the o#cillation# in one bay become hih, the o#cillation# in the other become lo', and vice
versa. Nakano %1)32- ex"lained the e$$ect theoretically a# a cou"lin bet'een the t'o bay#
throuh 'ater $lo'in acro## the mouth# o$ each bay. Hore than hal$ a century later Aa&ano
returned to thi# "roblem (Nakano and -uBimoto, 1)84, and, ba#ed on additional theoretical
#tudie# and hydraulic model ex"eriment#, demon#trated that t'o "o##ible reime# can exi#t in the
bay#: %1- co(hase o#cillation# 'hen #eiche# in the t'o bay# have the #ame initial "ha#e* and %2-
contra(hase 'hen they have the o""o#ite "ha#e. .he #u"er"o#ition o$ the#e t'o ty"e# o$
o#cillation# create *eat "henomenon o$ time!modulated #eiche#, 'ith the o""o#ite "ha#e
modulation, #uch that F'hile one bay o#cillate# viorou#ly, the other re#t#G. Aa&ano and 5u;imoto
#ue#ted the term FliEuid endulumsG $or the cou"led interaction o$ t'o ad;acent bay#.
A more com"licated #ituation occur# 'hen the t'o ad;acent bay# have #ini$icantly di$$erent
eien "eriod#. 5or exam"le, 6iutadella and @lat;a 8ran are t'o elonated inlet# located on the
'e#t coa#t o$ Henorca :#land, one o$ the Balearic :#land# in the Ce#tern Hediterranean %the
inlet# are #ho'n in the in#et o$ 5iure 3a-. .heir $undamental "eriod# %n E 0- are 10.3 min and 3.3
min, re#"ectively (Ra*inovich and !onserrat, 1))+, 1))8* !onserrat et al., 1))8* Ra*inovich et
al., 1))),. A# a re#ult o$ the interaction bet'een the#e t'o inlet#, their #"ectra and admittance
$unction# have, in addition to their Fo'nG #tron re#onant "ea&#, #econdary FalienG "ea&#
oriinatin $rom the other inlet (4iu et al., 2003,. .hi# mean# that that the mode $rom 6iutadella
F#"ill# overG into @lat;a 8ran and vice versa. .he t'o inlet# are reularly ob#erved to ex"erience
de#tructive #eiche#, locally &no'n a# =rissaga>, (c$. CintorL et al., 1)88* !onserrat et al., 1))1,
1))8, 200+* ?omis et al., 1))3* ?arcies et al., 1))+,. S"eci$ic a#"ect# o$ ri##aa 'ave# 'ill be
di#cu##ed later %in Section 7-, ho'ever, it i# 'orth notin here that the cou"lin bet'een the t'o
inlet# can a""arently am"li$y the de#tructive e$$ect# a##ociated 'ith each o$ the inlet# individually
(4iu et al., 2003,.
3. "eneration
Becau#e they are natural re#onant o#cillation#, #eiche# are enerated by a 'ide variety o$
mechani#m# %5iure 7-, includin t#unami# (c$. !urty, 1)44* ,Bumagaliev et al., 1))7* 7enry
and !urty, 1))3* Ra*inovich, 1))4,, #ei#mic round 'ave# (,onn, 1)+7* !c?arr, 1)+3*
<orgen, 1))3* 1ar*erooulou et al., 200+,, internal ocean 'ave# (c$. ?iese and 7ollander, 1)84,
1))0* ?iese and 2haman, 1))3* 2haman and ?iese, 2001,, and ;et!li&e current# (7onda et al.,
1)08, Nakano, 1)33* !urty, 1)44,. <o'ever, the t'o mo#t common $actor# initiatin the#e
o#cillation# in bay# and harbour# are atmo#"heric "roce##e# and non!linear interaction o$ 'ind
'ave# or #'ell %5iure 7- (c$. 0ilson, 1)42* Ra*inovich, 1))3* Okihiro et al., 1))3,. Seiche# in
la&e# and other enclo#ed 'ater bodie# are normally enerated by direct external $orcin on the #ea
#ur$ace, "rimary by atmo#"heric "re##ure variation# and 'ind (<utchin#on, 1)34* 0ilson, 1)42,.
:n contra#t, the eneration o$ harbour o#cillation# i# a t'o!#te" "roce## involvin the eneration
o$ lon 'ave# in the o"en ocean $ollo'ed by $orcin o$ the harbour o#cillation# a# the lon 'ave#
arrive at the harbour entrance 'here they lead to re#onant am"li$ication in the ba#in.
s e c
+ a , e l e n - t h ( # )
. e t e o r o l o - i c a l / a , e s
+ i n d / a , e s
( t o r #
s u r - e s ( c a t t e r i n -
n o n s t a t i o n a r i t " N o n l i n e a r i t y
I n 0 r a - r a , i t " / a , e s
1 s u n a # i / a , e s
( e i s # i c i t "
O C E A N
B O T T O M
1 0 1 0 1 0
1 0
1 0
1 0
1 0
1 0
1 0
1 0
1 0
1 0
' 0 1
1
2
2
3
3
4
4
5
5
2 e r i o d ( s e c )
( / e l l
A T M O S P H E R E
L o n g w a v e s
5iure 7. S&etch o$ the main $orcin mechani#m# eneratin lon ocean 'ave#.
Seiche o#cillation# "roduced by external "eriodic $orcin can be both $ree and $orced. .he
$ree o#cillation# are true #eiche# %i.e. eien o#cillation# o$ the corre#"ondin ba#in-. <o'ever, i$
the external $re9uency % - di$$er# $rom the eien $re9uencie# o$ the ba#in % -, the
o#cillation# can be con#idered forced seiches (0ilson, 1)42,. ?"en!ocean 'ave# arrivin at the
entrance o$ a #"eci$ic o"en!mouth 'ater body %#uch a# a bay, ul$, inlet, $;ord, or harbour-
normally con#i#t o$ a broad $re9uency #"ectrum that #"an# the re#"on#e characteri#tic# o$ the
'ater body $rom re#onantly enerated eien $ree mode# to nonre#onantly $orced o#cillation# at
other $re9uencie#. 5ollo'in ce##ation o$ the external $orcin, $orced #eiche# normally decay
ra"idly, 'hile $ree mode# can "er#i#t $or a con#iderable time.
!unk (1)+2, ;o&inly remar&ed that /the most consicuous thing a*out long "aves in the
oen ocean is their a*sence;. .hi# i# "artly true: the lon!'ave $re9uency band, 'hich i# #ituated
bet'een the hihly eneretic tidal $re9uencie# and #'ellD'ind 'ave $re9uencie#, i# relatively
em"ty %5iure 3-. 5or both #'ellD'ind 'ave# and tide#, the eneryi# o$ order 10
7
cm
2
, 'hile the
enery contained throuhout the entire intermediary rane o$ $re9uencie# i# o$ order 1!10 cm
2
.
<o'ever, thi# "articular $re9uency rane i# o$ "rimary #cienti$ic intere#t and a""lied im"ortance
%Calter Hun& him#el$ #"ent a""roximately 30 year# o$ hi# li$e 'or&in on the#e Fab#entG
'ave#W-. 1on 'ave# are re#"on#ible $or $ormation and modi$ication o$ the coa#tal 2one and
#hore mor"holoy (c$. 1o"en and 7untley, 1)87* Ra*inovich, 1))3,* they al#o can #tronly
a$$ect doc&in and loadinDunloadin o$ #hi"# and con#truction in harbour#, cau#in con#iderable
damae (c$. Raichlen, 1)++, 2002* 0u and 4iu, 1))0* !ei, 1))2,. 5inally, and "robably the mo#t
im"ortant, are t#unami# and other marine ha2ardou# lon 'ave#, 'hich are related to thi# #"eci$ic
$re9uency band. .he recent 2007 Sumatra t#unami in the :ndian ?cean &illed more than 22+,000
"eo"le, trierin the lare#t international relie$ e$$ort in hi#tory and inducin un"recedented
#cienti$ic and "ublic intere#t in thi# "henomenon and in lon 'ave# in eneral (Citov et al., 2003,.
1 0
1 0
1 0
1 0
1 0
1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0
1 0
1 0
3
1
- 2
- 2
-
2
- 1
2 1 0 - 1 - 2 - 3 - 4
0
- 3
h r # i n s e c
2 e r i o d
1 0 0 2 4 1 2 5 2 1 3 0 1 0 5 2 1 3 0 1 0 5 2 1
1 i d e s
( / e l l 3 / i n d / a , e s

( t o r # s u r - e s
. e t e o r o l o - i c a l
/ a , e s
I 4 - / a , e s

r e ! u e n c " ( c p # )

5
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i
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2
T s u n a m i
5iure 3. S"ectrum o$ #ur$ace ravity 'ave# in the ocean %modi$ied $rom Ra*inovich (1))3,-.
@eriod# %u""er #cale- are in hour# %hr-, minute# %min- and #econd# %#ec-.
Becau#e o$ their re#onant "ro"ertie#, #ini$icant harbour #eiche# can be "roduced by even
relatively 'ea& o"en ocean 'ave#. :n harbour# and bay# 'ith hih K!$actor#, #eiche# are
ob#erved almo#t continuou#ly. <o'ever, the mo#t de#tructive event# occur 'hen the incomin
'ave# have con#iderable enery at the re#onant $re9uencie#, e#"ecially at the $re9uency o$ the
$undamental mode. Such a #ituation too& "lace in @ort Alberni located in the head o$ lon Alberni
:nlet on Bancouver :#land %6anada- durin the 1)+7 Ala#&a t#unami, 'hen re#onantly enerated
#eiche o#cillation# in the inlet had trouh!to!cre#t 'ave heiht# o$ u" to 8 m, creatin total
economic lo##e# o$ about X10 million %1)+7 dollar#- (!urty, 1)44* 7enry and !urty, 1))3,.
3.1. #eteorological wa$es
1on 'ave# in the ocean are the "rimary $actor determinin the inten#ity o$ harbour
o#cillation#. :$ 'e inore t#unami# and internal 'ave#, the main #ource o$ bac&round lon 'ave#
in the ocean are atmo#"heric "roce##e# %5iure 7- (c$. ,efant, 1)+1* !unk, 1)+2,. .here are three
ma;or mechani#m# to tran#$er the enery o$ atmo#"heric "roce##e# into lon 'ave# in the ocean
(Ra*inovich, 1))3,:
%1- Lirect eneration o$ lon 'ave# by atmo#"heric $orcin %"re##ure and 'ind- on the #ea
#ur$ace.
%2- 8eneration o$ lo'!$re9uency motion# %$or exam"le, #torm #ure#- and #ub#e9uent
tran#$er o$ enery into hiher $re9uencie# due to non!linearity, to"ora"hic #catterin and
non!#tationarity o$ the re#ultin motion#.
%3- 8eneration o$ hih!$re9uency ravity 'ave# %'ind 'ave# and #'ell- and #ub#e9uent
tran#$er o$ enery into larer #cale, lo'er $re9uency motion# due to non!linearity.
1on 'ave# enerated by the $ir#t t'o mechani#m# are &no'n a# atmo#"herically induced or
meteorological "aves
7
. .y"ical "eriod# o$ the#e 'ave# are $rom a $e' minute# to #everal hour#,
ty"ical #cale# are $rom one to a $e' hundred# o$ &ilometre# .he $ir#t mechani#m i# the mo#t
im"ortant becau#e it i# thi# mechani#m that i# re#"on#ible $or the eneration o$ de#tructive #eiche
o#cillation# %meteorological tsunamis- in "articular bay# and inlet# o$ the Corld ?cean %Section
7-. FHeteoroloical 'ave#G can be "roduced by the "a##ae# o$ ty"hoon#, hurricane# or #tron
cyclone#. .hey al#o have been lin&ed to $rontal 2one#, atmo#"heric "re##ure ;um"#, #9uall#, ale#,
'ind u#t# and train# o$ atmo#"heric buoyancy 'ave# (,efant, 1)+1* Nakano and &noki, 1)+1*
0ilson, 1)42* Chomson et al., 1))2* Ra*inovich, 1))3* Ra*inovich and !onserrat, 1))+,. .he
7
.he Ru##ian name $or the#e 'ave# are /anemo*aric; (Rabinovich, 1))3, becau#e they are induced by atmo#"heric
"re##ure%F*aricG- and 'ind %FanemosG- #tre## $orcin on the ocean #ur$ace
mo#t $re9uent #ource# o$ #eiche# in la&e# are barometric $luctuation#. <o'ever they can al#o be
"roduced by heavy rain, #no', or hail over a "ortion o$ the la&e, or $lood di#chare $rom river# at
one end o$ the la&e (7arris, 1)34* 7utchinson, 1)34* 0ilson, 1)42,.
3.2. In%ragra$ity wa$es
1on 'ave# enerated throuh the nonlinear interaction o$ 'ind 'ave# or #'ell are called
infragravity "aves (c$. 1o"en and 7untley, 1)87* Oltman(Shay and ?u@a, 1)84,. .he#e 'ave#
have ty"ical "eriod# o$ 30 # to 300!+00 # and lenth #cale# $rom 100 m to 10 &m. .he occurrence
o$ relatively hih!$re9uency lon 'ave#, hihly correlated 'ith the modulation o$ rou"# o$ 'ind
or #'ell 'ave#, 'a# oriinally re"orted by !unk (1)7), and Cucker (1)30,. Becau#e the 'ave#
'ere ob#erved a# #ea level chane# in the near!#hore #ur$ 2one, they became &no'n a# surf *eats.
1ater, it 'a# $ound that the#e 'ave# occur any'here there are #tron non!linear interactin 'ind
'ave#. A# a re#ult, the more eneral term infragravity "aves %"ro"o#ed by <insman (1)+3,-
became acce"ted $or the#e 'ave#. Recent $ield mea#urement# have e#tabli#hed that in$raravity
'ave# %I?("aves- dominate the velocity $ield clo#e to the #hore and con#i#t o$ #u"er"o#ition o$
$ree edge 'ave# "ro"aatin alon the #hore, $ree leaky 'ave# "ro"aatin in the o$$#hore
direction, and $orced *ound 'ave# loc&ed to the rou"# o$ 'ind 'ave# or #'ell "ro"aatin
mainly on#hore (1o"en and 7untley, 1)87* 1attBes, 1)88* Ra*inovich, 1))3,. Bound :8 'ave#
$orm the #et!do'n that accom"anie# rou"# o$ incident 'ave#, havin trouh# that are beneath
the hih #hort 'ave# o$ the rou" and cre#t# in!bet'een the 'ave rou"# (4onguet(7iggins and
Ste"art, 1)+2,. .hey have the #ame "eriodicity and the #ame lenth# a# the 'ave rou"# and
travel 'ith the rou" velocity o$ 'ind 'ave#, 'hich i# #ini$icantly #maller than the "ha#e #"eed
o$ $ree lon 'ave# 'ith the #ame $re9uencie#. 5ree ede :8 'ave# ari#e $rom the tra""in o$
#'ellD'ind 'ave enerated o#cillation# over #lo"in coa#tal to"ora"hy, 'hile $ree lea&y 'ave#
are mainly cau#ed by the re$lection o$ bound 'ave# into dee"er 'ater (c$. 7olman et al., 1)48*
1o"en and 7untley, 1)87* Oltman(Shay, and ?u@a, 1)84,. .he eneral mechani#m# o$ the
$ormation o$ :8!'ave# are #ho'n in 5iure 3
3
.
:8!'ave# are $ound to be re#"on#ible $or many "henomena in the coa#tal 2one, includin
$ormation o$ ri currents, "ave set(u, crescentic *ars, *each cuss and other reular $orm# o$
coa#tal to"ora"hie#, a# 'ell a# tran#"ort o$ #ediment material#. Bein o$ hih!$re9uency relative
to meteoroloical 'ave#, :8!'ave# can induce #eiche# in com"aratively #mall!#cale #emiclo#ed
3
5iure 3 doe# not include all "o##ible ty"e# o$ :8!'ave# and mechani#m# o$ their eneration* a more detailed
de#cri"tion i# "re#ented by 1o"en and 7untley (1)87, and 1attBes (1)88,.
ba#in#, #uch a# "ort# and harbour#, 'hich have natural "eriod# o$ a $e' minute# and 'hich may
"o#e a #eriou# threat $or lare am"litude 'ave re#"on#e#.
M u n k
m e c h a n i s m
G a l l a g h e r m e c h a n i s m
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z o n e
5iure +. 8eneration mechani#m# $or in$raravity 'ave# in the coa#tal 2one.
6ertain harbour# and "ort# are &no'n to have $re9uent #tron "eriodic hori2ontal 'ater
motion#. .he#e include 6a"e .o'n %South A$rica-, 1o# Anele# %JSA-, La&ar %Seneal-, .oulon
and Har#eille# %5rance-, Aler %Aleria-, .ua"#e and Sochi %Ru##ia-, Batumi %8eoria- and
=#"erance %Au#tralia-. Seiche motion# in the#e ba#in# create unacce"table ve##el movement
'hich can, in turn, lead to the brea&in o$ moorin line#, $ender# and "ile#, and to the on#et o$
lare am"litude #hi" o#cillation# and damae (c$. 0ilson, 1)42* 0iegel, 1)+7* Sa"aragi and
<u*o, 1)82* 0u and 4iu, 1))0* Ra*inovich, 1))2, 1))3* Okihiro et al., 1))3,. Sno'n a#
surging or range action (Raichlen, 1)++, 2002,, thi# "henomenon ha# 'ell e#tabli#hed
correlation# 'ith %a- harbour o#cillation#, %b- natural o#cillation# o$ the #hi" it#el$, and %c-
inten#ive #'ell or 'ind 'ave# out#ide the harbour. .y"ical eien "eriod# o$ a harbour or a
moored #hi" are the order o$ minute#. .here$ore, they cannot be excited directly by 'ind 'ave#
or #'ell, havin ty"ical "eriod# on the order o$ #econd# (0u and 4iu, 1))0,. <o'ever, the#e
"eriod# exactly coincide 'ith the "eriod# o$ 'ave rou"# and :8!'ave#. So, it i# conventional
'i#dom that #urin in harbour# i# the re#ult o$ a tri"le re#onance o$ external o#cillation# out#ide
the harbour, natural o#cillation# 'ithin the harbour, and natural o#cillation# o$ a #hi". .he
"robability o$ #uch tri"le re#onance i# not very hih, thu# #urin occur# only in a limited number
o$ "ort#. @ort# and harbour# havin lare dimen#ion# and lon eien "eriod# %P 10 min- are not
a$$ected by #urin becau#e the#e "eriod# are much hiher than the "redominant "eriod# o$ the
:8!'ave# and the #urin "eriod# o$ the ve##el#. ?n the other hand, relatively #mall ve##el# are
not a$$ected becau#e their natural %eien- "eriod# are too #hort (Sa"aragi and <u*o, 1)82,. .he
recon#truction o$ harbour# and the creation o$ ne' harbour element#, can #ini$icantly chane the
harbour re#onant "eriod#, either enhancin or, conver#ely, reducin the #urin
+
. Another
im"ortant a#"ect o$ the "roblem i# that #hi" and moorin line# create an entirely #e"arate
o#cillation #y#tem (Raichlen, 2002,. 6hanin the material and the lenth o$ the line# and their
"o#ition, chane# the re#onant "ro"ertie# o$ the #y#tem %analoou# to chanin the material and
the lenth o$ a "endulum-.
:t i# im"ortant to &ee" in mind that each o#cillation mode ha# a #"eci$ic #"atial di#tribution o$
#ea level variability and a##ociated current %a# em"ha#i2ed in Section 2.1, maximum current# are
ob#erved near the nodal line#-. .he inten#ity o$ the current# varie# #ini$icantly $rom "lace to
"lace. Horeover, to"ora"hic irreularitie# 'ithin the harbour and the "re#ence o$ #tructure
element# %dam#, dy&e#, "ier# and brea&'ater#- can create inten#e local vortexe# that may
#ini$icantly a$$ect the #hi"# (Ra*inovich, 1))2,. So, the e$$ect o$ #urin on a #hi" #tronly
de"end# on the exact location o$ the #hi", and even on it# orientation, in the harbour.
:n #ummary, harbour o#cillation# ari#e throuh co!o#cillation o$ #ea #ur$ace elevation# and
current# in the harbour 'ith tho#e at the entrance to the harbour. Seiche!eneratin motion#
out#ide the harbour ty"ically have "eriod# o$ #everal minute# and mo#t commonly ari#e $rom
*ound and free long "aves that are incident on the harbour entrance.
3.3. Tsunami
.#unami 'ave# are the main $actor creatin de#tructive #eiche o#cillation# in bay#, inlet# and
harbour# (7onda et al., 1)08* !unk, 1)+2* 0ilson, 1)42* !urty, 1)44* !ei, 1))2,. .#unami# can
"roduce Fenerie#G o$ 10
3
!10
3
cm
2
, althouh #uch event# are relatively rare %de"endin on the
reion, $rom once every 1!2 year# to once every 100!200 year#-. .he main eneration
mechani#m# $or t#unami# are ma;or under'ater earth9ua&e#, #ubmarine land#lide# and volcanic
ex"lo#ion#. 8reat cata#tro"hic tran#!oceanic t#unami# 'ere enerated by the 1)7+ Aleutian
+
A $amou# exam"le o$ thi# &ind i# the 5rench "ort 1e <avre. Be$ore Corld Car :: it 'a# &no'n $or very common and
#tron #urin motion# that created #evere "roblem# $or #hi"#. Lurin the 'ar a 8erman #ubmarine tor"edoed by
mi#ta&e a ri"!ra" brea&'ater, creatin a #econd harbour o"enin o$ 20!23 m 'idth. A$ter thi#, the #urin in the "ort
di#a""eared (Ra*inovich, 1))3,.
%manitude !' E 4.8-, 1)32 Samchat&a %!' E ).0-, 1)+0 6hile %!' E ).3-, and 1)+7 Ala#&a %!'
E ).2- earth9ua&e#. .he event# induced #tron #eiche o#cillation# in bay#, inlet# and harbour#
throuhout the @aci$ic ?cean (c$. 3an ,orn, 1)87,.
.he manitude !' E ).3 earth9ua&e that occurred o$$#hore o$ Sumatra in the :ndian ?cean
on 2+ Lecember 2007 enerated the mo#t de#tructive t#unami in recorded hi#tory. Cave# $rom
thi# event 'ere recorded by tide aue# around the 'orld, includin near!#ource area# o$ the
:ndian ?cean %5iure 4-, and remote reion# o$ the Aorth @aci$ic and Aorth Atlantic, revealin
the unmatched lobal reach o$ the 2007 t#unami (Citov et al., 2003* !erriefield et al., 2003*
Ra*inovich et al., 200+* Chomson et al., 2004,. :n eneral, the duration o$ t#unami FrininG
increa#ed 'ith increa#in o$$!#ource di#tance and la#ted $rom 1.3 to 7 day# (Ra*inovich et al.,
200+* Ra*inovich and Chomson, 2004,. .he recorded o#cillation# 'ere clearly "olychromatic,
'ith di$$erent "eriod# $or di$$erent #ite#, but 'ith clear dominance o$ 70!30 min 'ave# at mo#t
#ite#. .he analy#i# o$ variou# eo"hy#ical data $rom thi# event indicate# that the initial t#unami
#ource had a broad $re9uency #"ectrum, but 'ith mo#t o$ the enery 'ithin the 70!30 min band.
.here$ore, althouh t#unami 'ave# at di$$erent #ite# induced local eien mode# 'ith a variety o$
"eriod#, the mo#t inten#e o#cillation# 'ere ob#erved at #ite# havin $undamental "eriod# clo#e to
70!30 min.
Li$$erence# in #"ectral "ea&# amon the variou# tide aue record# are indicative o$ the
in$luence o$ local to"ora"hy. 5or exam"le, $or the @aci$ic coa#t o$ Bancouver :#land %Briti#h
6olumbia-, the mo#t "rominent "ea&# in the t#unami #"ectra 'ere ob#erved $or Cinter <arbour
%"eriod Y 30!7+ min- and .o$ino %Y 30 min-. :n $act, the $re9uencie# o$ mo#t "ea&# in the t#unami
#"ectra invariably coincide 'ith corre#"ondin "ea& $re9uencie# in the bac&round #"ectra. .hi#
re#ult i# in ood areement 'ith the 'ell &no'n $act that "eriod# o$ ob#erved t#unami 'ave# are
mainly related to the re#onant "ro"ertie# o$ the localDreional to"ora"hy rather than to the
characteri#tic# o$ the #ource, and are almo#t the #ame a# tho#e o$ ordinary %bac&round- lon
'ave# $or the #ame #ite#. 5or thi# rea#on, the #"ectra o$ t#unami# $rom di$$erent earth9ua&e# are
u#ually #imilar at the #ame location %c$. <onda et al., 1)08* Hiller, 1)42* Rabinovich, 1))4-
4
. :t i#
there$ore di$$icult to recon#truct the #ource reion #"ectral characteri#tic# ba#ed on data $rom
coa#tal #tation#.
4
.he re#onant characteri#tic# o$ each location are al'ay# the #ame* ho'ever, di$$erent #ource# induce di$$erent
re#onant mode, #"eci$ically, lare #ei#mic #ource# enerate lo'!$re9uency mode# and #mall #ei#mic #ource# enerate
hih!$re9uency mode#.
6 e c e # b e r 2 0 0 4 ( 7 1 C )
2 ' 2 8 2 &
2
0
0

c
#
! e s t a n " C e n t r a l # n " i a n O $ e a n
(
e
a


l
e
,
e
l
H a n i m a a d h o o ( M d )
M a e ( M d )
! o o m " o ( S L )
S a a a h ( # m )
$ o i n t e L a % u e ( S )
$ o & t L o u i s ( M t )
'
5iure 4. .#unami record# in the :ndian ?cean $or the 2007 Sumatra t#unami $or #ix #elected
#ite#: 6olombo %Sri 1an&a-* Hale and 8an %both Haldive#-* Salalah %?man-* @ointe 1a Rue
%Seychelle#-* and @ort 1oui# %Hauritiu#-. Solid vertical line labelled F=G denote# the time o$ the
main earth9ua&e #hoc& %$rom Ra*inovich et al. (200+,-.
Ra*inovich (1))4, #ue#ted a method $or #e"aratin the e$$ect# o$ the local to"ora"hy and
the #ource on the re#ultin t#unami 'ave #"ectrum. .hi# method can be u#ed to recon#truct the
o"en!ocean #"ectral characteri#tic# o$ t#unami 'ave#. .he a""roach i# ba#ed on the a##um"tion
that the #"ectrum
- % S
o$ both the t#unami and bac&round #ea level o#cillation# near the coa#t
can be re"re#ented a#
- % - % - % ' 0 S
, %27-
'here, - % - %
2
7 0 ,
- % 7
i# the $re9uency admittance $unction de#cribin the
linear to"ora"hic tran#$ormation o$ lon 'ave# a""roachin the coa#t, and
- % '
i# the
#ource #"ectrum. :t i# a##umed that the #ite!#"eci$ic "ro"ertie# o$ the ob#erved #"ectrum
- %
B
S
at the Bth #ite are related to the to"ora"hic $unction
- %
B
7
$or that #ite, 'hile
all mutual "ro"ertie# o$ the #"ectra at all #ite# are a##ociated 'ith the #ource %a##umin that
the #ource i# the #ame $or all #tation#-. 5or ty"ical bac&round o#cillation# the #ource
#"ectrum ha# the $orm,
- % - %
0
S '
, 'here
2
0
- %

A S and A E 10
!3
!10
!7
cm
2
(c$.
Ra*inovich, 1))3, 1))4,. Lurin t#unami event#, #ea level o#cillation# ob#erved near the coa#t
can be re"re#ented a#
- % - % - %
ob#
t t t
* t
+
, %23-
'here
t

are the t#unami 'ave# enerated by an under'ater #ei#mic #ource and

*

are
the bac&round #ur$ace o#cillation#. :$ the #"ectra o$ both t#unami,
- %
t
S
, and bac&round
o#cillation#, - %
R

*
S and
- %
*
S
%durin and be$ore the t#unami event, re#"ectively- have
the $orm %27-, and the admittance $unction,
- % 0
, i# the #ame $or the ob#erved t#unami
and the bac&round lon 'ave#, then the #"ectral ratio
- % R
, i# e#timated a#
[ ]
0 . 1 - %
- %
- %
R
- %
- %
- %
R
- %
- %
2 1
0
0
+
+

' A
S
S '
S
S S
R
*
* t
, %2+-
.he $unction
- % R
, 'hich i# inde"endent o$ local to"ora"hic in$luence, i# determined
#olely by the external $orcin %i.e., by t#unami 'ave# in the o"en ocean near the #ource
area- and ive# the am"li$ication o$ the lon'ave #"ectrum durin the t#unami event
relative to the bac&round condition#. .he clo#e #imilarity o$
- %
B
R
$or variou# #ite#
con$irm# the validity o$ thi# a""roach (Ra*inovich, 1))4,.
.he to"ora"hic admittance $unction
- %
B
7
, 'hich i# characteri#tic o$ the re#onant
"ro"ertie# o$ individual #ite#, can be e#timated a#
2 D 1 2 D 1
0
2 D 1
- %
- %
- %
- %
- %
- %
1
]
1

1
]
1

1
]
1

A
S
S
S
'
S
7
B
B
*
B
B

. %24-
.he #ame characteri#tic can be al#o e#timated numerically.
3.4. Seismic wa$es
.here i# evidence that #ei#mic #ur$ace round 'ave# can enerate #eiche# in both clo#ed and
#emiclo#ed ba#in#. :n "articular, the reat 1433 1i#bon earth9ua&e triered remar&able #eiche# in
a number o$ Scotti#h loch#, and in river# and "ond# throuhout =nland, 'e#tern =uro"e and
Scandinavia (0ilson, 1)42,. Similarly, the Ala#&a earth9ua&e o$ Harch 24, 1)+7 %!' E ).2-
induced #ei#mic #ur$ace 'ave# that too& only 17 min to travel $rom @rince Cilliam# Sound,
Ala#&a, to the 8ul$ 6oa#t reion o$ 1oui#iana and .exa# 'here they triered innumerable
#eiche# in la&e#, river#, bay#, harbour# and bayou# (,onn, 1)+7* <orgen, 1))3,. Recently, the
Aovember 3, 2002 Lenali earth9ua&e %!' E 4.)- in Ala#&a enerarted "ronounced #eiche# in
Briti#h 6olumbia and Ca#hinton State (1ar*erooulou et al., 200+,. Slo#hin o#cillation# 'ere
al#o ob#erved in #'immin "ool# durin the#e event# (,onn, 1)+7* !c?arr, 1)+3*
1ar*erooulou et al., 200+,. .he mechani#m $or #eiche eneration by #ei#mic 'ave# $rom di#tant
earth9ua&e# i# not clear, e#"ecially con#iderin that #ei#mic 'ave# normally have much hiher
$re9uencie# than #eiche# in natural ba#in#. !c?arr (1)+3, conclude# that there are t'o ma;or
$actor# "romotin e$$icient conver#ion o$ the enery $rom di#tant lare!manitude earth9ua&e#
into #eiche#:
%1- A very thic& layer o$ #o$t #ediment# that am"li$y the hori2ontal #ei#mic round motion#.
%2- Lee"er de"th# o$ natural ba#in#, increa#in the $re9uencie# o$ eien "eriod# $or the
re#"ective 'ater o#cillation#.
:t #hould be noted, ho'ever, that #ei#mic oriin# $or #eiche# mu#t be con#idered a# very rare
in com"ari#on, $or exam"le, 'ith #eiche# enerated by meteoroloical di#turbance# 0ilson
(1)42,.
3.. Internal ocean wa$es
:n #ome reion# o$ the 'orld ocean, de$initive correlation ha# been $ound bet'een tidal
"eriodicity and the #tron #eiche# ob#erved in the#e reion#. 5or exam"le, at @ala'an :#land in
the @hili""ine#, "eriod# o$ maximum #eiche activity are a##ociated 'ith "eriod# o$ hih tide#
(?iese and 7ollander, 1)84,. Bur#t# o$ 43!min #eiche# in the harbour o$ @uerto @rince#a
%@ala'an :#land- are a##umed to be excited by the arrival at the harbour entrance o$ internal 'ave
train# "roduced by #tron tidal current $lo' acro## a #hallo' #ill located about 730 &m $rom the
harbour (?iese et al., 1))8* 2haman and ?iese, 2001,. :nternal 'ave# can have 9uite lare
am"litude#* $urthermore, they can travel over lon di#tance# 'ithout noticeable lo## o$ enery.
:nternal 'ave# re9uire 2.3 day# to travel $rom their #ource area in the Sulu Sea to the harbour o$
@uerto @rince##a, re#ultin in a modulation o$ the #eiche o#cillation# that are #imilar to tho#e o$
the oriinal tidal o#cillation#.
Similarly, lare am"litude #eiche# on the 6aribbean coa#t o$ @uerto Rico are al#o related to
tidal activity and are u#ually ob#erved a""roximately #even day# a$ter a ne' or $ull moon
%#y2yy-. <ihe#t #eiche# in thi# reion occur in late #ummer and early $all, 'hen thermal
#trati$ication o$ the 'ater column i# at it# annual maximum. .he #even!day interval bet'een
#y2yy and maximum #eiche activity could be accounted $or in term# o$ internal tidal #oliton
$ormation near the #outh'e#tern marin o$ the 6aribbean Sea (2haman and ?iese, 1))0*
Soren, 1))3,. A theoretical model o$ #eiche eneration by internal 'ave#, devi#ed by Lavid
6ha"man %Cood# <ole ?ceanora"hic :n#titution-, demon#trated that both "eriodic and #olitary
internal 'ave# can enerate coa#tal #eiche# (2haman and ?iese, 1))0,. .hu#, thi# mechani#m
can be re#"on#ible $or $ormation #eiche# in hihly #trati$ied reion#.
3.&. 'et(li)e currents
<arbour o#cillation# %coa#tal #eiche#- can al#o be "roduced by #tron barotro"ic tidal and
other current#. Such o#cillation# are ob#erved in Aaruto Strait, a narro' channel bet'een the
Shi&o&u and A'a;i i#land# %Ja"an-, connectin the @aci$ic ?cean and the :nland Sea. <ere, t he
#emidiurnal tidal current# move lare volume# o$ 'ater bac& and $orth bet'een the @aci$ic and
the :nland Sea t'ice "er day 'ith ty"ical #"eed o$ 13!13 &mDh. .hi# reion i# one o$ the reate#t
attraction# in Ja"an becau#e o$ the $amou# FAaruto 'hirl"oolG, occurrin t'ice a month durin
#"rin tide#, 'hen the #"eed o$ tidal $lo' reache# 20 &mDh. 7onda et al. (1)08, noticed that $lood
tidal current# enerate near both coa#t# #ini$icant #eiche o#cillation# 'ith a "eriod o$ 2.3 min,
'hich bein #oon a$ter lo' tide and cea#e near hih tide* the entire "icture re"eat# 'ith a ne'
tidal cycle. Ao #eiche# are ob#erved durin ebb tidal current# %i.e. bet'een hih and lo' 'ater-
'hen the 'ater i# movin in the o""o#ite direction.
Nakano (1)33, ex"lained thi# "henomenon by a##umin that a #tron current "a##in the
mouth o$ a bay could be the #ource o$ bay #eiche#, #imilar to the 'ay that a ;et o$ air "a##in the
mouth "iece o$ an oran "i"e "roduce# a #tandin o#cillation 'ithin the air column in the "i"e.
S"ecial laboratory ex"eriment# by Nakano and A*e (1)3), demon#trated that ;et!li&e $lo' 'ith a
#"eed exceedin a #"eci$ic critical number enerate# a chain o$ anti#ymmetric, counter!rotatin
von Sarman vortexe# on both #ide# o$ the channel. .he chec&er!board "attern o$ vortexe# induce
#tandin o#cillation# in nearby bay# and harbour# i$ their $undamental "eriod# match the ty"ical
vortex "eriod#,
u l C D
vor

, %28-
'here l i# the di#tance bet'een vortexe#, and u i# the #"eed o$ the vortexe# %
3 3 u + . 0 to 7 . 0 , 'here 3, i# the #"eed o$ the tidal current#-. 5or the "arameter# o$ the
Aaruto tidal current#, the laboratory #tudy revealed that value# o$
vor
C
areed 'ith the
ob#erved #eiche "eriod o$ 2.3 min. A""arently, the #ame mechani#m o$ #eiche eneration can
al#o 'or& in other reion# o$ #tron ;et current#.
3.*. Ice co$er and seiches
:t #eem# clear that ice cannot enerate #eiche# %exce"t $or the ca#e o$ calvin iceber# or
avalanche# that enerate t#unami!li&e 'ave#-. <o'ever, an ice cover can #ini$icantly im"act
#eiche motion#, #u""re##in them and im"edin their eneration. At the #ame time, #tron #eiche#
can e$$ectively brea& the ice cover and "romote "olynya creation.
1ittle i# &no'n on the #"eci$ic a#"ect# o$ ice cover interaction 'ith #eiche mode#. 7am*lin
(1)4+, #ue#ted that the ice cover in 1a&e Cinni"e in$luence# the character o$ #eiche activity.
Sch"a* and Rao (1)44, a##umed that ab#ence o$ certain "ea&# in the #ea level #"ectra $or
Saina' Bay %1a&e <uron- in 'inter may have been due to the "re#ence o$ ice cover. !urty
(1)83, examined the "o##ible e$$ect o$ ice cover on #eiche o#cillation# in Sumallit Bay and
.u&toya&tu& <arbour %Beau$ort Sea- and $ound that the ice cover reduce# the e$$ective 'ater
de"th in the bay and harbour and in thi# 'ay dimini#he# the $re9uency o$ the $undamental mode:
in Sumallit Bay $rom 0.12 c"h %ice!$ree "eriod- to 0.084 c"h %ice!covered-* and in .u&toya&tu&
<arbour $rom 1.0 c"h to 0.) c"h.
4. #eteorological tsunamis
A# di#cu##ed in Section 3.3, t#unami# are the main #ource o$ de#tructive #eiche# ob#erved in
variou# reion# o$ the Corld ?cean. <o'ever, 'ave# due to atmo#"heric $orcin %atmo#"heric
ravity 'ave#, "re##ure ;um"#, $rontal "a##ae#, #9uall#- can al#o be re#"on#ible $or #ini$icant,
even deva#tatin, lon 'ave#, 'hich have the #ame tem"oral and #"atial #cale# a# ty"ical t#unami
'ave#. .he#e 'ave# are #imilar to ordinary t#unami 'ave# and can a$$ect coa#t# in a #imilar
damain 'ay, althouh the cata#tro"hic e$$ect# are normally ob#erved only in #"eci$ic bay# and
inlet#. Nomitsu (1)33,, ,efant (1)+1, and Ra*inovich and !onserrat (1))+, 1))8, #ue#ted to
u#e the term 8meteorological tsunamis; %/meteotsunami0- $or thi# ty"e o$ 'ave#.
.able 3. =xtreme coa#tal #eiche# in variou# reion# o$ the Corld ?cean
Reion 1ocal name .y"ical
"eriod
Haximum
ob#erved
heiht
Re$erence#
Aaa#a&i Bay, Ja"an A*iki 33 min 7.48 m 7onda et al. (1)08,, Amano (1)34,,
Akamatsu (1)82,, 7i*iya and <aBiura
(1)82,
@ohan <arbour,
Sorea
( 23 min P 0.8 m 2hu (1)4+,, Park et al. (1)8+,
1on&ou <arbour,
6hina
( 2 h 2.)3 m 0ang et al. (1)84,
6iutadella <arbour,
Henorca :., S"ain
Rissaga 10.3
min
P 7.0 m -ontserL (1)37,, CintorL et al. (1)88,,
!onserrat et al. (1))1,, ?omis et al.
(1))3,, ?arcies et al. (1))+,,
Ra*inovich and !onserrat (1))+,
1))8,, !onserrat et al. (1))8* 200+,,
Ra*inovich et al. (1))),
8ul$ o$ .rie#te, :taly 3.2 h 1.+ m 2aloi (1)38,, ?reco et al. (1)34,,
,efant (1)+1,, 0ilson (1)42,
Ce#t Sicily, :taly !arru*io
9!arro**io-
Y13 min P 1.3 m Plattania (1)04,, Oddone (1)08,,
,efant (1)+1,, 2olucci and !ichelato
(1)4+,, 2andela et al. (1))),
Halta,
Hediterranean
!ilghu*a Y20 min Y1.0 m Airy (1848,, ,rago (1))),
Ce#t Baltic, 5inland
coa#t
See*Nr Y2.0 m ,oss (1)04,, !eissner (1)27,,
,efant (1)+1,, 2redner (1)88,,
Lalmatian coa#t,
6roatia, =a#t
Adriatic
( 10!30
min
Y +.0 m 7odOiM (1)4)D1)80,* OrliM (1)80,*
3ili*iM et al.(2007, 2003,* !onserrat
et al. (200+,
Ae'$oundland,
6anada
10!70
min
2.0!3.0 m !ercer et al. (2002,
Ce#tern :reland ,eath
0aves
V V 1erninghausen (1)+7,, <orgen (1))3,
A2ore# :# and
Hadeira :#, =a#t
Atlantic
Inchas,
4avadiads
V V 1erninghausen (1)+7,, <orgen (1))3,
Rotterdam <arbour,
Aetherland#
83!100
min
P 1.3 m de 4ooff and 3eldman (1))7,, de Aong
et al. (2003,, de Aong and 1attBes
(2007, 2003,
6omment: =xact re$erence# can be $ound in: Cieel (1)+7,, Soren (1))3,, Rabinovich and
Hon#errat (1))+,, de Jon et al. (2003, and Hon#errat et al. (200+,.
At certain "lace# in the Corld ?cean, the#e ha2ardou# atmo#"herically!induced 'ave# occur
reularly and have #"eci$ic local name#: 8rissaga; in the Balearic :#land#* 8maru**io;
%/marro*io;- in Sicily* 8milghu*a; in Halta, 8a*iki; and /yota0 in Ja"an, 8See*Nr; in the Baltic
Sea, /death "aves; in Ce#tern :reland, 8inchas; and 8lavadiads; in the A2ore# and Hadeira
i#land#. .he#e 'ave# are al#o documented in the Zello', Adriatic and Aeean #ea#, the 8reat
1a&e#, north'e#tern Atlantic, Arentina and Ae' [ealand coa#tal area# and @ort Rotterdam (c$.
7onda et al., 1)08* 7arris, 1)34* ,efant, 1)+1* 2olucci and !ichelato, 1)4+* OrliM, 1)80*
7i*iya and <aBiura, 1)82* Ra*inovich, 1))3* <orgen, 1))3* Ra*inovich and !onserrat, 1))+,
1))8* 2andella et al., 1)))* ,rago, 1)))* !et@ner et al., 2000* 3ili*iM and !ihanoviM, 2003* de
Aong et al., 2003* de Aong and 1attBes, 2007* 3ili*iM et al., 2007* !onserrat et al., 200+,. .able 3
ive# a li#t o$ de#tructive harbour o#cillation#, 'hich a""arently have the #ame atmo#"heric
oriin and #imilar re#onance# due to #imilaritie# in the characteri#tic# o$ the atmo#"heric
di#turbance# and local eometry and to"ora"hy o$ the corre#"ondin ba#in#. Becau#e o$ the
#tron li&ene## bet'een /meteot#unami#0 and #ei#mically enerated t#unami# (c$. !onserrat et
al., 200+* Chomson et al., 2004,, it i# 9uite di$$icult #ometime# to reconi2e one $rom another.
6ataloue# o$ t#unami# normally contain re$erence# to numerou# /t#unami!li&e0 event# o$
/un&no'n oriin0 that are, in $act, atmo#"herically enerated ocean 'ave#.
FRi##aaG %a local 6atalan 'ord that mean# /dryin0, #imilar to a S"ani#h 'ord /resaca0- i#
"robably the be#t &no'n exam"le o$ meteoroloical t#unami#
8
. .he#e #ini$icant #hort!"eriod #ea
level o#cillation# reularly occur in many bay# and harbour# o$ the 6atalan and Balencian coa#t#
o$ the :berian @enin#ula, and on the coa#t o$ the Balearic :#land#. .he 'ave# in 6iutadella
<arbour, Henorca :#land %5iure 8a- "articularly hih and occur more $re9uently than in any
other location (Ramis and AansP, 1)83* CintorL et al, 1)88* !ontserrat et al., 1))1* ?omis et al.,
1))3* ?arcies et al., 1))+* Ra*inovich and !onserrat, 1))+, 1))8* !onserrat et al., 1))8, 200+*
Ra*inovich et al., 1))),.
8
5or thi# rea#on a 'ave #"eciali#t in Ae' [ealand %Lere& 8orin- #ue#ted to a""ly the term Fri##aaG to all ri##aa!
li&e meteoroloical #eiche# in other area# o$ the Corld ?cean (?oring, 2003,. <o'ever, i$ 'e 'ere to ado"t thi# term,
then 'e 'ould loo#e in$ormation on the cau#e o$ the o#cillation# and the $act that they are "art o$ a $amily o$ event# that
include #ei#mically enerated t#unami#, land#lide t#unami#, volcanic t#unami# and meteot#unami#.
5iure 8. %a- A ma" o$ the Balearic :#land# and "o#ition# o$ $our tide aue# %H0, H1, H2 and
HC3- de"loyed in 6iutadella and @lat;a 8ran inlet# and on the #hel$ o$ Henorca :#land durin
the 1AS.!)4 ex"eriment (Hont#errat et al., 1))8,. .he arro' #ho'# the "redominant direction o$
"ro"aation o$ atmo#"heric 'ave# durin Fri##aaG event#. %b- .he #tron Fri##aaG event
recorded in 6iutadella :nlet on 31 July 1))8 by a tide aue located at "o#ition H0. %c- S"ectra
$or Fri##aaG o$ 27 July 1))4 %#olid line- and bac&round o#cillation# %da#hed line- $or $our tide
aue# indicated in %a-. .he actual $our!day record# durin thi# event are #ho'n in the in#et#.

6iutadella :nlet i# about 1 &m lon, 100 m 'ide and 3 m dee"* the harbour i# located at the
head o$ the inlet %5iure 8a-. .he $undamental "eriod o$ the inlet %<elmholt2 mode- i#
a""roximately 10.3 min %5iure 8b,c-. Lue to the "articular eometry o$ 6iutadella :nlet, it ha# a
lare K!$actor, 'hich re#ult# in #ini$icant re#onant am"li$ication o$ lon'ave o#cillation#
arrivin $rom the o"en #ea. Seiche o#cillation# o$ duration ranin $rom a $e' hour# to #everal
day# and 'ave heiht# exceedin 0.3 m recur in 6iutadella every #ummer. <o'ever, ri##aa
event# %lare!am"litude #eiche#- havin 'ave heiht# more than 3!7 m, 'ith dramatic
con#e9uence# $or the harbour, u#ually ta&e "lace once in 3!+ year#. Lurin the ri##aa o$ 21 June
1)87 %5iure )-, about 300 boat# 'ere de#troyed or #tronly damaed (Ra*inovich and
!onserrat, 1))+,. Hore recently, on 13 June 200+, 6iutadella <arbour 'a# a$$ected by the mo#t
dramatic ri##aa event o$ the la#t 20 year#, 'hen almo#t +!m 'ave# 'ere ob#erved in the harbour
and the total economic lo## 'a# o$ #everal ten# million# o$ euro# (!onserrat et al., 200+,.
5iure ). 6iutadella <arbour durin the ri##aa o$ June 21, 1)87. @hoto by
Jo#e" 8orne# %$rom (Ra*inovich and !onserrat, 1))+,-
-ontserL (1)37,, in the $ir#t #cienti$ic "a"er on extreme #eiche# $or the 6atalan coa#t, #ho'ed
that the#e #eiche# al'ay# occur $rom June to Se"tember and $ir#t #ue#ted their atmo#"heric
oriin. .hi# oriin o$ ri##aa 'ave# 'a# #u""orted by Ramis and AansP %1)83- ba#ed on ob#erved
o#cillation# on the Balearic :#land#. .he#e author# al#o de$ined a number o$ ty"ical #yno"tic
atmo#"heric condition# normally a##ociated 'ith ri##aa event#. .he atmo#"heric #ource o$
rissaga i# no' 'ell e#tabli#hed (c$. CintorL et al., 1)88* ?omis et al., 1))3* ?arcies et al., 1))+*
!onserrat et al., 1))1, 1))8,. Lurin late #"rin and #ummer, meteoroloical condition# in the
'e#tern Hediterranean are $avourable $or the $ormation o$ hih!$re9uency atmo#"heric "re##ure
di#turbance# 'ith "arameter# "romotin the eneration o$ ri##aa 'ave#. .he#e condition#
include the entrance o$ 'arm air $rom the Sahara at near!#ur$ace level#, and relatively #tron
middle level 'ind# $rom the #outh'e#t. Chen thi# #yno"tic meteoroloical #ituation exi#t#, train#
o$ atmo#"heric "re##ure ravity 'ave# %'ith "eriod# o$ minute#- are re"orted travellin $rom SC
to A= (!onserrat et al, 1))1,. :$ the#e atmo#"heric "re##ure di#turbance# "ro"aate $rom SC to
A= 'ith a "ha#e #"eed o$ about 22!30 mD#, re#onant condition# are #et u" $or the #outhea#tern
#hel$ o$ Hallorca :#land %FProudman resonanceG- and dynamic enery a##ociated 'ith the
atmo#"heric 'ave# i# e$$iciently tran#$erred into the ocean 'ave#. Chen the#e 'ave# reach the
coa#t o$ Henorca :#land, they can enerate #ini$icant %and #ometime# even ha2ardou#- #eiche
o#cillation# in#ide 6iutadella and other inlet# due to harbour re#onance.
.he K($actor $or the $undamental <elmholt2 mode in 6iutadella :nlet %10.3 min-, rouhly
e#timated by e9. %20-, i# about ). S"ectral e#timate# ba#ed on e9. %23- ive a #imilar value, K
10 (Ra*inovich et al., 1))),. A# #ho'n in 5iure 8b, ri##aa o#cillation# in 6iutadella :nlet have a
very reular monochromatic character. Haximum 'ave heiht# occur durin the 7
th
to +
th
o#cillation#, in ood areement 'ith the criterion by !iles and !unk (1)+1, that time o$ the order
o$
D K
cycle# i# nece##ary $or the harbour o#cillation# to ad;u#t them#elve# to external $orcin.
.he "ea& "eriod o$ 10.3 min $or the <elmholt2 mode #tronly dominate# the #"ectra $or the H0
and H2 aue# located in 6iutadella :nlet %5iure 8c- both $or ri##aa and bac&round #"ectra,
'hile in the ad;acent inlet @lat;a 8ran %H1-, 'here ri##aa 'ave# are al#o ob#erved but 'ea&er
than in 6iutadella, the dominant "ea& a##ociated 'ith the <elmholt2 mode i# 3.3 min. :n contra#t,
on the #hel$ %HC3- both "ea&# are ab#ent and o#cillation# are #ini$icantly 'ea&er.
S"ectral analy#i# re#ult# %5iure 8c- reveal that harbour re#onance i# a crucial $actor in the
$ormation o$ ri##aa 'ave#, a# 'ell a# Fmeteoroloical t#unami#G in other bay#, inlet# and
harbour# o$ the Corld ?cean. Barometric data $rom the Balearic :#land# (Ramis and AansP, 1)83*
!onserrat et al., 1))1, 1))8, 200+,, a# 'ell a# $rom Ja"an (7i*iya and <aBiura, 1)81,, and
=a#tern Adriatic Sea (OrliM, 1)80* 3ili*iM and !ihanoviM, 2003* 3ili*iM et al., 2007,, demon#trate
that eneration o$ the#e de#tructive 'ave# i# a##ociated 'ith #tron atmo#"heric di#turbance#, e..
train# o$ atmo#"heric ravity 'ave#, or i#olated "re##ure ;um"#. .he#e atmo#"heric di#turbance#
may have di$$erent oriin: dynamic in#tability, orora"hic in$luence, $rontal "a##ae#, ale#,
#9uall#, #torm#, tornado#, etc. (?ossard and 7ooke, 1)43,. <o'ever, even durin the #trone#t
event#, the atmo#"heric "re##ure o#cillation# at the meteot#unami #cale# %$rom a $e' minute# to a
$e' hour#- reach only 2!+ h@a, corre#"ondin to only a 2!+ cm chane in #ea level. 6on#e9uently,
the#e atmo#"heric $luctuation# may "roduce #ini$icant #ea level re#"on#e only 'hen re#onance
occur# bet'een the ocean and the atmo#"here. Lurin the re#onance "roce##, the atmo#"heric
di#turbance "ro"aatin above the ocean #ur$ace enerate# #ini$icant lon ocean 'ave# by
continuou#ly "um"in additional enery into the#e 'ave#.
@o##ible re#onance# that are re#"on#ible $or the $ormation o$ meteoroloical t#unami# are
(Ra*inovich, 1))3,:
Proudman resonance %@roudman, 1)2)-, 'hen c & , i.e. the atmo#"heric
di#turbance #"eed %& - e9ual# to the lon'ave #"eed o$ ocean 'ave#
gh c
*
/?reensan resonance; %8reen#"an, 1)3+-, 'hen B l
c &
, the alon#hore
com"onent %
l
&
- o$ the atmo#"heric di#turbance velocity e9ual# the "ha#e #"eed o$
the Bth mode o$ ede 'ave# % B
c
-*
/shelf resonance;, 'hen the atmo#"heric di#turbance and a##ociated atmo#"herically
enerated ocean 'ave have a "eriodD'avelenth e9ual to the re#onant
"eriodD'avelenth o$ the #hel$.
.he#e re#onant e$$ect# may #ini$icantly am"li$y ocean 'ave# a""roachin the coa#t.
Aeverthele##, even #tron re#onant am"li$ication o$ atmo#"herically enerated ocean 'ave#
normally cannot "roduce 'ave# 'ith #u$$icient enery to exten#ively a$$ect the o"en coa#t %$or
exam"le, a 3!7 h@a "re##ure ;um" and a $actor o$ 10 re#onant am"li$ication, 'ill only "roduce
ocean 'ave heiht# o$ 30!70 cm -. :t i# 'hen eneretic ocean 'ave# arrive at the entrance o$ a
#emi!clo#ed coa#tal ba#in %bay, inlet, $;ord or harbour- that they can induce ha2ardou# o#cillation#
in the ba#in due to harbour re#onance.
?n the other hand, inten#e o#cillation# in#ide a harbour %bay or inlet- can only be $ormed i$
the external $orcin %i.e. the 'ave# arrivin $rom the o"en!#ea- are eneretic enouh. Sei#mically
enerated t#unami 'ave# in the o"en ocean can be #u$$iciently eneretic even in the ab#ence o$
additional re#onant e$$ect# %thu#, accordin to #atellite altimetry mea#urement#, t#unami 'ave#
enerated by the 2007 Sumatra earth9ua&e in the o"en :ndian ?cean had trouh!to!cre#t 'ave
heiht# o$ a""roximately 1.0!1.2 m (c$. Citov et al., 2003,-, 'hile atmo#"herically enerated
t#unami!li&e can reach #uch "otentially danerou# level# only in the ca#e o$ #ome external
re#onance. .hi# i# an im"ortant di$$erence bet'een t#unami 'ave# and meteot#unami#.
:t $ollo'# $rom ex"re##ion %14- that a lare K!$actor i# critical but that anomalou#ly
"ronounced harbour o#cillation# can only be "roduced 'hen there i# re#onant matchin bet'een
the dominant $re9uency %f- o$ the arrivin %external- 'ave# and an eien$re9uency
0
f
o$ the
harbour %normally, the eien$re9uency o$ the $undamental > <elmholt2 > harbour mode-. .hi#
mean# that cata#tro"hic harbour o#cillation# are the re#ult o$ a dou*le resonance effect
(Ra*inovich, 1))3Q !onserrat et al., 200+,: %a- eDternal resonance bet'een the movin
atmo#"heric di#turbance# and o"en!ocean 'ave#* and %b- internal resonance bet'een the arrivin
o"en!ocean 'ave# and the $undamental eienmode o$ the harbour %bay, inlet-. An additional
$avourable $actor i# the #"eci$ic direction o$ the "ro"aatin atmo#"heric 'ave# %and
corre#"ondin o"en!ocean 'ave#- to'ard the entrance o$ the harbour %bay-.
Summari2in 'hat ha# been "re#ented above, 'e can $ormulate the "articular condition#
"romotin creation o$ extreme atmo#"herically induced o#cillation# near the coa#t
%meteot#unami#- a# $ollo'#:
A har*our %bay, inlet or $;ord- 'ith de$inite re#onant "ro"ertie# and hih K!$actor.
Che occurrence of strong small(scale atmosheric distur*ance %a "re##ure ;um" or a train
o$ internal atmo#"heric 'ave#-.
A roagation direction that i# head!on to'ard the entrance o$ the harbour.
Che occurrence of an eDternal resonance %@roudman, 8reen#"an or #hel$- bet'een the
atmo#"heric di#turbance and ocean 'ave#.
Che occurrence of internal resonance bet'een the dominant $re9uency o$ the incomin
o"en!ocean 'ave# and the $undamental harbour mode $re9uency.
Lue to the#e nece##ary level# o$ matchin bet'een the atmo#"heric di#turbance, the o"en
ocean bathymetry and the #hel$!harbour eometrie#, the direction and #"eed o$ the atmo#"heric
di#turbance "robably are even more im"ortant than the actual enery content o$ the incomin
'ave#. :n any ca#e, the nece##ary coincidence o$ #everal $actor# #ini$icantly dimini#he# the
"o##ibility o$ the#e event# occurrin, and i# the main rea#on 'hy thi# "henomenon i# relatively
rare and re#tricted to #"eci$ic location# (Ra*inovich, 1))3,.
7onda et al. (1)08, and Nakano and &noki (1)+2, inve#tiated more than 113 ul$#, bay#,
inlet#, and harbour# o$ the Ja"ane#e coa#t and $ound that hihly de#tructive #eiche# %not
a##ociated 'ith t#unami 'ave#- occur only in a $e' o$ them. =xtremely #tron #eiche o#cillation#
%#o called 8a*iki; 'ave#- are "eriodically excited in Aaa#a&i Bay. :n "articular, the a*iki 'ave#
o$ 31 Harch 1)4) 'ith "eriod# o$ about 33 min reached 'ave heiht# o$ 748 cm at the northern
end o$ the bay and &illed three "eo"le (Akamatsu, 1)82* 7i*iya and <aBiura, 1)82,.
<ih meteot#unami ri#& in certain exce"tional location# mainly ari#e# $rom a combination o$
#hel$ to"ora"hy and coa#tline eometry comin toether to create a multi"le re#onance e$$ect.
.he $actor# %internal and external- o$ critical im"ortance are: %1- 'ell!de$ined re#onant
characteri#tic# o$ the harbour %bay, inlet, etc.-* and %2- #"eci$ic "ro"ertie# o$ the #hel$ $avourable
$or external re#onance %bet'een atmo#"heric and o"en!ocean 'ave#- and internal re#onance
%bet'een arrivin o"en!ocean 'ave# and harbour o#cillation#-. .he combination o$ the#e $actor#
$or #ome "articular #ite# i# li&e a Ftime!bombG: #ooner or later it 'ill ex"lode %'hen the
atmo#"heric di#turbance i# #tron enouh and the "arameter# o$ di#turbance coincide 'ith the
re#onant "arameter# o$ the corre#"ondin to"ora"hyDeometry-. 1ocation# 'ith &no'n reular
extreme #eiche# are ;u#t the "lace# $or the#e Ftime!bomb#G (!onserrat et al., 200+,.
.he cata#tro"hic a*iki 'ave event o$ 31 Harch 1)4) be#t illu#trate# the "hy#ical mechani#m#
re#"on#ible $or the eneration o$ meteot#unami# %5iure 10a-. 7i*iya and <aBiura (1)82, %<S in
the $ollo'in text- examined thi# event in detail and con#tructed an e$$ective numerical model
that aree# 'ell 'ith ob#ervational data. Aaa#a&i Bay i# a narro', elonated bay located on the
'e#tern coa#t o$ Syu#hu :#land, Ja"an %5iure 10b-* the lenth o$ the bay i# about + &m, the
'idth i# 1 &m and the mean de"th i# 20 m. .he $undamental "eriod o$ the bay %<elmholt2 mode-
i# 33 min, and thi# "eriod "revail# in #eiche o#cillation# in#ide the bay %)3\ o$ all ob#erved
event#- and it 'a# #"eci$ically thi# "eriod that 'a# ob#erved on 31 Harch 1)4) (Akamatsu, 1)82,.
<S noticed that almo#t all &no'n ca#e# o$ #ini$icant a*iki 'ave# are a##ociated 'ith "re##ure
;um"#. :n the ca#e o$ the 1)4) event, there 'a# an abru"t "re##ure ;um" %
a
P
- o$ 2 to + h@a
%accordin to ob#ervation# at #everal #ite#- that "ro"aated ea#t'ard %more "reci#ely, 3.+Q north
o$ ea#t- over the =a#t 6hina Sea 'ith an a""roximate mean #"eed & 31 mD# %5i.3-. <S
a""roximated thi# ;um" a#
a
P
E 3 h@a over a linear increa#e di#tance
1
4 28 &m and a
linear decrea#e di#tance
2
4 1+) &m. So, the corre#"ondin #tatic inverted barometer re#"on#e
o$ #ea level 'a#

!3 cm %5i.10a-. Horeover, the de"th o$ the =a#t 6hina Sea bet'een
mainland 6hina and Syu#hu :#land i# bet'een 30 and 130 m, and the corre#"ondin lon'ave
#"eed
c
22!3) mD#. .hu#, it 'a# a cla##ical exam"le o$ @roudman re#onance. <S "re#ented a
#im"le ex"re##ion de#cribin re#onant am"li$ication o$ $orced o"en!ocean lon 'ave# a#:
2
1
f
D
4

, %2)-
'here
&t D
f

i# the di#tance travelled by the "re##ure ;um" durin time t . :$
1
4 28 &m and

f
D
300 &m %$rom the #ource area to the 8oto :#land# > #ee 5iure 10b- then 1+ cm.
Hore "reci#e numerical com"utation 'ith reali#tic t'o!dimen#ional bathymetry ive# the
re#onant $actor D 7.3 and 12.) cm in ood areement 'ith ob#ervation.
.here$ore, due to the re#onance, the initial di#turbance o$ 3 cm increa#ed in the o"en #ea by 7!3
time# %5i.10a-. :t i# intere#tin to note that the re#onant am"li$ication i# inver#ely "ro"ortional to
1
4 %#ee e9n %2)--,, #o the $a#ter the chane in atmo#"heric "re##ure %the more abru"t i# the
"re##ure ;um"-, the #troner i# the am"li$ication o$ the enerated 'ave# %<S-.
Accordin to the <S com"utation#, the outer #hel$ reion bet'een the 8oto :#land# and the
mainland o$ Syu#hu %F8oto AadaG- ha# re#onant "eriod# o$ +7, 3+ and 27 min. .he #econd "eriod
%3+ min- almo#t coincide# 'ith the $undamental "eriod o$ Aaa#a&i Bay %33 min-. .he 8oto
Aada #hel$ did not #ini$icantly am"li$y the incomin 'ave %the $ir#t cre#t heiht 'a# 1+ cm at
the #hel$ de"th o$ +0 m- but it #elected and am"li$ied 'ave# 'ith #"eci$ic "eriod#, in "articular
tho#e 'ith a "eriod o$ 3+ min. Bet'een the outer #ea %de"th +0 m- and the head o$ Aaa#a&i Bay,
the arrivin 'ave# 'ere am"li$ied by a $actor o$ 2.7 due to the combined e$$ect# o$ to"ora"hic
converence, "artial re$lection and #hoalin in#ide the bay. 5inally, re#onant am"li$ication in
Aaa#a&i o$ incomin 'ave train 'ith a "eriod o$ about 33 min $ormed cata#tro"hic o#cillation#
'ithin the bay 'ith a maximum recorded 'ave heiht o$ 248 cm %a# mea#ured by a tide aue
located in the middle o$ the bay > #ee 5i.10c- and an e#timated 'ave heiht in the head o$ the
bay o$ 748 cm (Akamatsu, 1)82,.







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4 o t o I s
5iure 10. %a- A #&etch illu#tratin the "hy#ical mechani#m $or $ormation o$ the cata#tro"hic
meteot#unami at Aaa#a&i Bay %Ja"an- on 31 Harch 1)4). Aumber# F1G, F2G, and F3G
corre#"ond to location# #ho'n in %b-. %b- Ha" o$ Aaa#a&i Bay and the initial atmo#"heric
"re##ure di#turbance %#haded rectanular reion-. %c- .ide record# o$ the cata#tro"hic Fabi&i
'ave#G o$ 31 Harch 1)4) at Ae2umi %1- and Aaa#a&i %2-* "o#ition# o$ the tide aue# are
#ho'n in the in#et in "anel %b-.
.hu#, $or thi# extreme event, 'e ob#erve the $ull combination o$ Fha2ardou#G condition#
%$actor#- re#"on#ible $or $ormation cata#tro"hic o#cillation# in#ide Aaa#a&i Bay: %1- A
"ronounced atmo#"heric di#turbance %"re##ure ;um" o$ 2 to + h@a-, %2- "ro"aatin to'ard the
bay 'ith %3- near!re#onant "ha#e #"eed o$ 31 mD#* thi# di#turbance re#onantly enerated o"en!#ea
lon 'ave# 'ith #elected %over the #hel$- 3+ min "eriod that matched %7- the $undamental 33!min
"eriod o$ the bay that ha# %3- hih K!$actor and 'ell!de$ined re#onant "ro"ertie#. A# a re#ult, 3
cm ocean 'ave# in the #ource area re#ulted in 748 cm 'ave# at the head o$ the bay %5iure 7-.
Analy#i# o$ de#tructive meteot#unami event# in the Hediterranean (OrliM, 1)80* ?omis et al.,
1))3* ?arcies et al., 1))+* Ra*inovich and !onserrat, 1))+, 1))8* !onserrat et al., 1))8, 200+*
3ili*iM and !ihanoviM, 2003* 3ili*iM et al., 2007, indicate that the "hy#ical mechani#m# o$ the#e
event# 'ere #imilar to tho#e $or Aaa#a&i Bay event. .ide# in the Hediterranean are #mall*
con#e9uently, harbour# are not de#ined to accommodate lare am"litude #ea level chane#
a##ociated 'ith occa#ional meteot#unami#. 6on#e9uently, it i# atmo#"herically enerated
"henomena %not ordinary t#unami#- that are normally re#"on#ible $or #ini$icant $loodin and
damae in thi# reion. <o'ever, the main rea#on $or the damain nature o$ meteot#unami# i#
li&ely due to the #tron current# in the harbour that accom"any the #ea level o#cillation#. Seiche#
'ith a 10 min "eriod ive rai#e to current# that are 40 time# #troner than #emidiurnal tide#
havin the #ame am"litude.
+c)nowledgements
.hi# 'or& 'a# initiated @ro$e##or 5red Raichlen %6al.ech, @a#adena, 6A-* the author
#incerely a""reciate# hi# hel" and $riendly #u""ort. <e i# al#o very rate$ul to @ro$e##or Zoun
Sim %6ali$ornia State Jniver#ity, 1o# Anele#-, the =ditor o$ thi# <andboo&, $or hi# "atience and
u#e$ul comment# and to Lr#. Seba#tian Hon#errat %Jniver#itat de le# :lle# Balear#, @alma de
Hallorca, S"ain- and :vica Bilibi] %:n#titute o$ ?ceanora"hy and 5i#herie#, S"lit, 6roatia- $or
their a##i#tance and "rovidin variou# ob#ervational data. Lr. Richard .hom#on %:n#titute o$
?cean Science#, Sidney, B6, 6anada- did tremendou# 'or& editin thi# cha"ter and encourain
the author, @atricia Simber %Sidney, B6- hel"ed to dra$t the $iure#. @artial $inancial #u""ort 'a#
"rovided by the Ru##ian 5oundation on Ba#ic Re#earch, rant# 03!03!+7383, 0+!03!08108 and
0+!03!+3210.
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