Linux

Linux - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linux
Linux
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Linux ( i /lnks/ [6][7] LIN -ks or /links/ LEE-nuuks) [8][9][10] is a Unix-like and POSIXcompliant computer operating system assembled under the model of free and open source software development and distribution. The dening component of Linux is the Linux kernel,[11] an operating system kernel rst released on 5 October 1991 by Linus Torvalds.[12][13] Linux was originally developed as a free operating system for Intel x86-based personal computers. It has since been ported to more
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Linux
Tux the penguin, mascot of Linux [1]
Linux is ubiquitously found on various types of hardware Company / developer Programmed in OS family Working state Source model Initial release Various (Notably C and Assembly) Unix-like Current mainly Free and open source software, Proprietary software also available 1991
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Community
Latest stable release 3.13.4
Latest unstable release
3.14-rc3
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[3] /Linux&action=edit)
computer hardware platforms than any other operating system. It is a leading operating system on servers and other big iron systems such as mainframe computers and
Marketing target
Personal computers, mobile devices, embedded devices, servers, mainframes, supercomputers
Available language(s) Available programming languages(s)
Multilingual Many
Supported platforms Alpha, ARC, ARM, AVR32, Blackn, C6x, ETRAX CRIS, FR-V, H8/300, Hexagon, Itanium, M32R, m68k, META, Microblaze, MIPS, MN103, OpenRISC, PA-RISC, PowerPC, s390, S+core, SuperH, SPARC, TILE64, Unicore32, x86, Xtensa Kernel type Userland Default user interface License Many[4] ("Linux" trademark owned by Linus Torvalds[5] and administered by the Linux Mark Institute) Monolithic (Linux kernel) Various Many
supercomputers:[14][15][16] as of June 2013, more than 95% of the world's 500 fastest supercomputers run some variant of Linux,[17] including all the 44 fastest.[18] Linux also runs on embedded systems (devices where the operating system is typically built into the rmware and highly tailored to the system) such as mobile phones,[19] tablet computers, network routers, building automation controls, televisions[20][21] and video game consoles; the Android system in wide use on mobile devices is built on the Linux kernel. The development of Linux is one of the most prominent examples of free and open source software collaboration: the underlying source code may be used, modied, and distributedcommercially or non-commerciallyby anyone under licenses such as the GNU General Public License. Typically, Linux is packaged in a format known as a Linux distribution for desktop and server use. Some popular mainstream Linux distributions include Debian (and its derivatives such as Ubuntu and Linux Mint), Fedora (and its derivatives such as the commercial Red Hat Enterprise Linux and its open equivalent CentOS), Mandriva/Mageia, openSUSE (and its commercial derivative SUSE Linux Enterprise Server), and Arch Linux.
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Linux distributions include the Linux kernel, supporting utilities and libraries and usually a large amount of application software to fulll the distribution's intended use. A distribution oriented toward desktop use will typically include X11 or Wayland as the windowing system, and an accompanying desktop environment such as GNOME or the KDE Software Compilation. Some such distributions may include a less resource intensive desktop such as LXDE or Xfce, for use on older or less powerful computers. A distribution intended to run as a server may omit all graphical environments from the standard install, and instead include other software to set up and operate a LAMP or a LYCE solution stack. Because Linux is freely redistributable, anyone may create a distribution for any intended use.
Contents
1 History 1.1 Antecedents 1.1.1 Unix 1.1.2 GNU 1.1.3 BSD 1.1.4 MINIX 1.2 Creation 1.3 Commercial and popular uptake 1.4 Current development 2 Design 2.1 User interface 2.2 Video input infrastructure 3 Development 3.1 Community 3.2 Programming on Linux 4 Uses 4.1 Desktop 4.1.1 Performance and applications 4.1.2 Components and installation 4.2 Servers, mainframes and supercomputers 4.3 Embedded devices 4.4 Market share and uptake 5 Copyright, trademark, and naming 6 See also 7 References 8 External links
History
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Main article: History of Linux
Antecedents
Unix Main article: Unix The Unix operating system was conceived and implemented in 1969 at AT&T's Bell Laboratories in the United States by Ken Thompson, Dennis Ritchie, Douglas McIlroy, and Joe Ossanna. It was rst released in 1971, and initially, was written entirely in assembly language, a common practice at the time. Later, in a key Andrew S. Tanenbaum (left), author of pioneering approach in 1973, Unix was the MINIX operating system, and Linus re-written in the programming language C Torvalds (right), principal author of the by Dennis Ritchie (with exceptions to the Linux kernel kernel and I/O). The availability of an operating system written in a high-level language allowed easier portability to dierent computer platforms. With AT&T being required to license the operating system's source code to anyone who asked (due to an earlier antitrust case forbidding them from entering the computer business),[22] Unix grew quickly and became widely adopted by academic institutions and businesses. In 1984, AT&T divested itself of Bell Labs. Free of the legal obligation requiring free licensing, Bell Labs began selling Unix as a proprietary product. GNU Main article: GNU See also: GNU/Linux naming controversy The GNU Project, started in 1983 by Richard Stallman, had the goal of creating a "complete Unix-compatible software system" composed entirely of free software. Work began in 1984.[23] Later, in 1985, Stallman started the Free Software Foundation and wrote the GNU General Public License (GNU GPL) in 1989. By the early 1990s, many of the programs required in an operating system (such as libraries, compilers, text editors, a Unix shell, and a windowing system) were completed, although low-level elements such as device drivers, daemons, and the kernel were stalled and incomplete.[24] Linus Torvalds has said that if the GNU kernel had been available at the time
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(1991), he would not have decided to write his own. [25] The Free Software Foundation prefers GNU/Linux as the name when referring to the operating system as a whole, because it considers Linux to be a variant of the GNU operating system, initiated in 1983 by Richard Stallman (president of the Free Software Foundation).[26][27][28][29] Some distributions, notably Debian which had been sponsored by the Free Software Foundation,[30] use GNU/Linux when referring to the operating system as a whole.[31] The media and common usage, however, refers to this family of operating systems simply as Linux, as do many large Linux distributions (for example, SUSE Linux and Red Hat).
Richard Stallman, founder of the GNU Project
As of May 2011, about 8% of a modern Linux distribution is made of GNU components, as determined by counting lines of source code making up Ubuntu's "Natty" release; meanwhile, about 9% is taken by the Linux kernel.[32] BSD Main article: BSD Although not released until 1992 due to legal complications, development of 386BSD, from which NetBSD, OpenBSD and FreeBSD descended, predated that of Linux. Linus Torvalds has said that if 386BSD had been available at the time, he probably would not have created Linux.[33] MINIX Main article: MINIX MINIX, initially released in 1987, is an inexpensive minimal Unix-like operating system, designed for education in computer science, written by Andrew S. Tanenbaum. Starting with version 3 in 2005, MINIX became free and was redesigned for "serious" use.
Creation
In 1991, while attending the University of Helsinki, Torvalds became curious about operating systems[34] and frustrated by the licensing of MINIX, which limited it to educational use only. He began to work on his own operating system which eventually became the Linux kernel.
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Torvalds began the development of the Linux kernel on MINIX, and applications written for MINIX were also used on Linux. Later, Linux matured and further Linux kernel development took place on Linux systems.[35] GNU applications also replaced all MINIX components, because it was advantageous to use the freely available code from the GNU Project with the edgling operating system; code licensed under the GNU GPL can be reused in other projects as long as they also are released under the same or a compatible license. Torvalds initiated a switch from his original license, which prohibited commercial redistribution, to the GNU GPL.[36] Developers worked to integrate GNU components with the Linux kernel, making a fully functional and free operating system. [24]
Commercial and popular uptake

Main article: Linux adoption Today, Linux systems are used in every domain, from embedded systems to supercomputers,[16][37] and have secured a place in server installations often using the popular LAMP application stack.[38] Use of Linux distributions in home and enterprise desktops has been growing.[39][40][41][42][43][44][45]
Linux distributions have also gained popularity with various local and national governments. The federal government of Brazil is well known for its support for Linux. [46][47] News of the Russian military creating its own Linux distribution has also surfaced, and has come to fruition as the G.H.ost Project.[48] The Indian state of Kerala has gone to the extent of mandating that all state high schools run Linux on their computers. [49][50] China uses Linux exclusively as the operating system for its Loongson processor family to achieve technology independence. [51] In Spain, some regions have developed their own Linux distributions, which are widely used in education and ocial institutions, like gnuLinEx in Extremadura and Guadalinex in Andalusia. Portugal is also using its own Linux distribution Caixa Mgica, used in the Magalhes netbook[52] and the e-escola government program.[53] France and Germany have also taken steps toward the adoption of Linux. [54] Linux distributions have also become popular in the netbook market, with many devices such as the ASUS Eee PC and Acer Aspire One shipping with customized Linux distributions installed.[55]
Ubuntu, a popular Linux distribution
Current development
Torvalds continues to direct the development of the kernel. [56] Stallman heads the
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Free Software Foundation,[57] which in turn supports the GNU components.[58] Finally, individuals and corporations develop third-party non-GNU components. These third-party components comprise a vast body of work and may include both kernel modules and user applications and libraries. Linux vendors and communities combine and distribute the kernel, GNU components, and non-GNU components, with additional package management software in the form of Linux distributions.
Design
A
Application software (bash, LibreOce, Blender, 0 A.D.) Complex Libraries (GLib, GTK+, Qt, SDL, EFL) Simple Libraries sin, opendbm open, exec, sbrk, socket, fopen, calloc C standard library: glibc (1,187,911 lines of code) / uClibc (342,842 lines of code) System calls: TRAP, CALL, BRK, INT, IOCTL (depends on the hardware) Linux kernel (16,223,920 lines of code) (device drivers, process-scheduler, networking stack, le systems) ALSA, DRI, evdev, LVM, device mapper, Linux Process Scheduler, Linux Network Scheduler, Netlter Linux Security Modules: SELinux, TOMOYO, AppArmor, Smack Kernel Mode
User Mode
Hardware (CPU(s), Memory, other Microprocessors, Devices, ) Various layers within Linux, also showing separation between the userland and kernel space.
Linux-based system is a modular Unix-like operating system. It derives much of its basic design from principles established in Unix during the 1970s and 1980s. Such a system uses a monolithic kernel, the Linux kernel, which handles process control, networking, and peripheral and le system access. Device drivers are either integrated directly with the kernel or added as modules loaded while the system is [59] running. Separate projects that interface with the kernel provide much of the system's higher-level functionality. The GNU userland is an important part of most Linux-based systems, providing the most common implementation of the C library, a popular shell, and many of the common Unix tools which carry out many basic operating system tasks. The graphical user interface (or GUI) used by most Linux systems is built on top of an implementation of the X Window System. [60] Some components of an installed Linux system are: [60][61] A bootloader, for example GNU GRUB or LILO. This is a program which is executed by the computer when it is rst turned on, and loads the Linux kernel into memory. An init program. This is the rst process launched by the Linux kernel, and is
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at the root of the process tree: in other terms, all processes are launched through init. It starts processes such as system services and login prompts (whether graphical or in terminal mode). Software libraries which contain code which can be used by running processes. On Linux systems using ELF-format executable les, the dynamic linker which manages use of dynamic libraries is "ld-linux.so". The most commonly used software library on Linux systems is the GNU C Library. If the system is set up for the user to compile software themselves, header les will also be included to describe the interface of installed libraries. User interface programs such as command shells or windowing environments.
User interface
Main article: Desktop Linux The user interface, also known as the shell, is either a command-line interface (CLI), a graphical user interface (GUI), or through controls attached to the associated hardware, which is common for embedded systems. For desktop systems, the default mode is usually a graphical user interface, although the CLI is available through terminal emulator windows or on a separate virtual console. Most low-level Linux components, including the GNU userland, use the CLI exclusively. The CLI is particularly suited for automation of repetitive or delayed tasks, and provides very simple inter-process communication. On desktop systems, the most popular user interfaces are the extensive desktop environments KDE Plasma Desktop, GNOME, Cinnamon, Unity, LXDE, Pantheon and Xfce,[62] though a variety of additional user interfaces exist. Most popular user interfaces are based on the X Window System, often simply called "X". It provides network transparency and permits a graphical application running on one system to be displayed on another where a user may interact with the application. [63] Other GUIs may be classied as simple X window managers, such as FVWM, Enlightenment, and Window Maker, which provide a minimalist functionality with respect to the desktop environments. A window manager provides a means to control the placement and appearance of individual application windows, and interacts with the X Window System. The desktop environments include window managers as part of their standard installations (Mutter for GNOME, [64] KWin for KDE,[65] Xfwm for Xfce as of January 2012[66]) although users may choose to use a dierent window manager if preferred.
Video input infrastructure

Main article: Video4Linux Linux currently has two modern kernel-userspace APIs for handing video input
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devices: V4L2 API for video streams and radio, and DVB API for digital TV reception.[67] Due to the complexity and diversity of dierent devices, and due to the large amount of formats and standards handled by those APIs, this infrastructure needs to evolve to better t other devices. Also, a good userspace device library is the key of the success for having userspace applications to be able to work with all formats supported by those devices.[68][69]
Development
Main article: Linux distribution The primary dierence between Linux and many other popular contemporary operating systems is that the Linux kernel and other components are free and open source software. Linux is not the only such operating Simplied history of Unix-like operating systems. Linux shares system, although similar architecture and concepts (as part of the POSIX standard) it is by far the but does not share non-free source code with the original Unix or most widely [70] MINIX. used. Some free and open source software licenses are based on the principle of copyleft, a kind of reciprocity: any work derived from a copyleft piece of software must also be copyleft itself. The most common free software license, the GNU General Public License (GPL), is a form of copyleft, and is used for the Linux kernel and many of the components from the GNU Project. Linux based distributions are intended by developers for interoperability with other operating systems and established computing standards. Linux systems adhere to POSIX,[71] SUS,[72] LSB, ISO, and ANSI standards where possible, although to date
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only one Linux distribution has been POSIX.1 certied, Linux-FT. [73][74] Free software projects, although developed in a collaborative fashion, are often produced independently of each other. The fact that the software licenses explicitly permit redistribution, however, provides a basis for larger scale projects that collect the software produced by stand-alone projects and make it available all at once in the form of a Linux distribution. Many Linux distributions, or "distros", manage a remote collection of system software and application software packages available for download and installation through a network connection. This allows users to adapt the operating system to their specic needs. Distributions are maintained by individuals, loose-knit teams, volunteer organizations, and commercial entities. A distribution is responsible for the default conguration of the installed Linux kernel, general system security, and more generally integration of the dierent software packages into a coherent whole. Distributions typically use a package manager such as dpkg, Synaptic, YAST, yum, or Portage to install, remove and update all of a system's software from one central location.
Community
See also: Free software community and Linux User Group A distribution is largely driven by its developer and user communities. Some vendors develop and fund their distributions on a volunteer basis, Debian being a well-known example. Others maintain a community version of their commercial distributions, as Red Hat does with Fedora and SUSE does with openSUSE. In many cities and regions, local associations known as Linux User Groups (LUGs) seek to promote their preferred distribution and by extension free software. They hold meetings and provide free demonstrations, training, technical support, and operating system installation to new users. Many Internet communities also provide support to Linux users and developers. Most distributions and free software / open source projects have IRC chatrooms or newsgroups. Online forums are another means for support, with notable examples being LinuxQuestions.org and the various distribution specic support and community forums, such as ones for Ubuntu, Fedora, and Gentoo. Linux distributions host mailing lists; commonly there will be a specic topic such as usage or development for a given list. There are several technology websites with a Linux focus. Print magazines on Linux often include cover disks including software or even complete Linux distributions.
[75][76]
Although Linux distributions are generally available without charge, several large corporations sell, support, and contribute to the development of the components of the system and of free software. An analysis of the Linux kernel showed 75 percent
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of the code from December 2008 to January 2010 was developed by programmers working for corporations, leaving about 18 percent to volunteers and 7% unclassied.[77] Some of the major corporations that contribute include Dell, IBM, HP, Oracle, Sun Microsystems (now part of Oracle), SUSE, and Nokia. A number of corporations, notably Red Hat, Canonical, and SUSE, have built a signicant business around Linux distributions. The free software licenses, on which the various software packages of a distribution built on the Linux kernel are based, explicitly accommodate and encourage commercialization; the relationship between a Linux distribution as a whole and individual vendors may be seen as symbiotic. One common business model of commercial suppliers is charging for support, especially for business users. A number of companies also oer a specialized business version of their distribution, which adds proprietary support packages and tools to administer higher numbers of installations or to simplify administrative tasks. Another business model is to give away the software in order to sell hardware. This used to be the norm in the computer industry, with operating systems such as CP/M, Apple DOS and versions of Mac OS prior to 7.6 freely copyable (but not modiable). As computer hardware standardized throughout the 1980s, it became more dicult for hardware manufacturers to prot from this tactic, as the OS would run on any manufacturer's computer that shared the same architecture.
Programming on Linux
Most Linux distributions support dozens of programming languages. The original development tools used for building both Linux applications and operating system programs are found within the GNU toolchain, which includes the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC) and the GNU build system. Amongst others, GCC provides compilers for Ada, C, C++, Java, and Fortran. First released in 2003, the LLVM project provides an alternative open-source compiler for many languages. Proprietary compilers for Linux include the Intel C++ Compiler, Sun Studio, and IBM XL C/C++ Compiler. BASIC in the form of Visual Basic is supported in such forms as Gambas, FreeBASIC, and XBasic, and in terms of terminal programming or QuickBASIC or Turbo BASIC programming in the form of QB64. A common feature of Unix-like systems, Linux includes traditional specic-purpose programming languages targeted at scripting, text processing and system conguration and management in general. Linux distributions support shell scripts, awk, sed and make. Many programs also have an embedded programming language to support conguring or programming themselves. For example, regular expressions are supported in programs like grep, or locate, while advanced text editors, like GNU Emacs have a complete Lisp interpreter built-in. Most distributions also include support for PHP, Perl, Ruby, Python and other dynamic languages. While not as common, Linux also supports C# (via Mono),
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Vala, and Scheme. A number of Java Virtual Machines and development kits run on Linux, including the original Sun Microsystems JVM (HotSpot), and IBM's J2SE RE, as well as many open-source projects like Kae and JikesRVM. GNOME and KDE are popular desktop environments and provide a framework for developing applications. These projects are based on the GTK+ and Qt widget toolkits, respectively, which can also be used independently of the larger framework. Both support a wide variety of languages. There are a number of Integrated development environments available including Anjuta, Code::Blocks, CodeLite, Eclipse, Geany, ActiveState Komodo, KDevelop, Lazarus, MonoDevelop, NetBeans, and Qt Creator, while the long-established editors Vim, nano and Emacs remain popular.[78]
Uses
See also: Linux range of use As well as those designed for general purpose use on desktops and servers, distributions may be specialized for dierent purposes including: computer architecture support, embedded systems, stability, security, localization to a specic region or language, targeting of specic user groups, support for real-time applications, or commitment to a given desktop environment. Furthermore, some distributions deliberately include only free software. Currently, over three hundred distributions are actively developed, with about a dozen distributions being most popular for general-purpose use.[79] Linux is a widely ported operating system kernel. The Linux kernel runs on a highly diverse range of computer architectures: in the hand-held ARM-based iPAQ and the mainframe IBM System z9, System z10; in devices ranging from mobile phones to supercomputers.[80] Specialized distributions exist for less mainstream architectures. The ELKS kernel fork can run on Intel 8086 or Intel 80286 16-bit microprocessors, while the Clinux kernel fork may run on systems without a memory management unit. The kernel also runs on architectures that were only ever intended to use a manufacturer-created operating system, such as Macintosh computers (with both PowerPC and Intel processors), PDAs, video game consoles, portable music players, and mobile phones. See List of Linux supported architectures. There are several industry associations and hardware conferences devoted to maintaining and improving support for diverse hardware under Linux, such as FreedomHEC.
Desktop
See also: Desktop environment and Linux adoption: Measuring desktop
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adoption The popularity of Linux on standard desktop computers and laptops has been increasing over the years.[81] Currently most Visible software components of the Linux desktop stack are distributions including the display server, widget engines, and some of the include a more widespread widget toolkits. There are also invisible graphical user components, including D-Bus and PulseAudio. environment, with the two most popular environments being GNOME (which can utilize additional shells such as the default GNOME Shell and Ubuntu Unity), and the KDE Plasma Desktop.
[citation needed]
There is no "one" Linux desktop, but rather there is a pool of free and open-source software from which desktop environments and Linux distributions select components with which they construct a GUI implementing some more or less strict design guide. GNOME, for example, has its human interface guidelines as a design guide, which gives the human-machine interface an important role, not just when doing the graphical design, but also when looking at people with disabilities, and even when looking at security.[82] The collaborative nature of free software development allows distributed teams to perform language localization of some Linux distributions for use in locales where localizing proprietary systems would not be cost-eective. For example the Sinhalese language version of the Knoppix distribution was available signicantly before Microsoft Windows XP was translated to Sinhalese. [citation needed] In this case the Lanka Linux User Group played a major part in developing the localized system by combining the knowledge of university professors, linguists, and local developers. Performance and applications The performance of Linux on the desktop has been a controversial topic; [citation needed] for example in 2007 Con Kolivas accused the Linux community of favoring performance on servers. He quit Linux kernel development because he was frustrated with this lack of focus on the desktop, and then gave a "tell all" interview on the topic.[83] Since then a signicant amount of development has
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been undertaken in an eort to improve the desktop experience. Projects such as Upstart and systemd aim for a faster boot time; Wayland and Mir projects aim at replacing X11, while bringing enhanced desktop performance, security and appearance.[84] Many popular applications are available for a wide variety of operating systems. For example Mozilla Firefox, OpenOce.org/LibreOce and Blender have downloadable versions for all major operating systems. Furthermore, some applications were initially developed for Linux, such as Pidgin, and GIMP, and were ported to other operating systems including Windows and Mac OS X due to their popularity. In addition, a growing number of proprietary desktop applications are also supported on Linux,[85] such as Autodesk Maya, Softimage XSI and Apple Shake in the high-end eld of animation and visual eects; see the List of proprietary software for Linux for more details. There are also several companies that have ported their own or other companies' games to Linux, with Linux also being a supported platform on both the popular Steam and Desura digital distribution services.[86] Many other types of applications available for Microsoft Windows and Mac OS X are also available for Linux. Commonly, either a free software application will exist which does the functions of an application found on another operating system, or that application will have a version that works on Linux, such as with Skype and some video games such as Dota 2 and Team Fortress 2. Furthermore, the Wine project provides a Windows compatibility layer to run unmodied Windows applications on Linux. CrossOver is a proprietary solution based on the open source Wine project that supports running Windows versions of Microsoft Oce, Intuit applications such as Quicken and QuickBooks, Adobe Photoshop versions through CS2, and many popular games such as World of Warcraft. In other cases, where there is no Linux port of some software in areas such as desktop publishing [87] and professional audio,[88][89][90] there is equivalent software available on Linux. Components and installation Besides externally visible components, such as X window managers, a non-obvious but quite central role have the programs hosted by freedesktop.org, such as D-Bus or PulseAudio; both big desktop environments (GNOME and KDE) include them, each oering graphical front-ends written using the corresponding toolkit (GTK+ or Qt). A display server is another component, which for the longest time has been communicating in the X11 display server protocol with its clients; prominent software talking X11 includes the X.Org Server and Xlib. Frustration over the cumbersome X11 core protocol, and especially over its numerous extensions, has led to the creation of a new display server protocol, Wayland. Installing, updating and removing software in Linux is typically done through the use of package managers such as the Synaptic Package Manager, PackageKit, and
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Yum Extender. While most major Linux distributions have extensive repositories, often containing tens of thousands of packages, not all the software that can run on Linux is available from the ocial repositories. Alternatively, users can install packages from unocial repositories, download pre-compiled packages directly from websites, or compile the source code by themselves. All these methods come with dierent degrees of diculty; compiling the source code is in general considered a challenging process for new Linux users, but it is hardly needed in modern distributions and is not a method specic to Linux. Sample Graphical Desktop Environments
Cinnamon
Common Desktop Environment (CDE)
Enlightenment
GNOME Shell (GNOME 3)
KDE Plasma (KDE 4)
LXDE
MATE (GNOME 2)
Pantheon
Sugar
Trinity (KDE 3)
Unity
Xfce
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Servers, mainframes and supercomputers

Linux distributions have long been used as server operating systems, and have risen to prominence in that area; Netcraft reported in September 2006 that eight of the ten most reliable internet hosting companies ran Broad overview of the LAMP software bundle, displayed here Linux together with Squid. A high-performance and high-availability web distributions on server solution providing security in a hostile environment. their web servers.[91] Since June 2008, Linux distributions represented ve of the top ten, FreeBSD three of ten, and Microsoft two of ten;[92] since February 2010, Linux distributions represented six of the top ten, FreeBSD two of ten, and Microsoft one of ten. [93] Linux distributions are the cornerstone of the LAMP server-software combination (Linux, Apache, MariaDB/MySQL, Perl/PHP/Python) which has achieved popularity among developers, and which is one of the more common platforms for website hosting.[94] Linux distributions have become increasingly popular on mainframes in the last decade partly due to pricing and the open-source model. [16][citation needed] In December 2009, computer giant IBM reported that it would predominantly market and sell mainframe-based Enterprise Linux Server.[95] Linux distributions are also commonly used as operating systems for supercomputers: as of June 2013, more than 95% of the world's 500 fastest supercomputers run some variant of Linux,[17] including all the 44 fastest.[18] Linux was also selected as the operating system for the world's most powerful supercomputer,[96] IBM's Sequoia, which became operational in 2011. [97]
Embedded devices
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See also: Embedded Linux and Linux devices Due to its low cost and ease of customization, Linux is often used in embedded systems. In the mobile sub-sector of the telecommunications equipment sector there are three major platforms based on a more or less modied version of the Linux kernel: mer, Tizen, and Android. Android has become the dominant mobile operating system for smartphones, during the second quarter of 2013, 79.3% of smartphones sold worldwide used Android.[98] Cell phones and PDAs running Linux on open-source platforms became more common from 2007; examples include the Nokia N810, Openmoko's Neo1973, and the Motorola ROKR E8. Continuing the trend, Palm (later acquired by HP) produced a new Linux-derived operating system, webOS, which is built into its new line of Palm Pre smartphones. In the non-mobile telecommunications equipment sector, the majority of customer-premises equipment (CPE) hardware runs some Linux-based operating system. OpenWrt is a community driven example upon which many of the OEM rmwares are based.
The Galaxy Nexus running Android
The popular TiVo digital video recorder also uses a customized Linux,[99] as do several network rewalls and routers from such makers as Cisco/Linksys. The Korg OASYS, The Nokia N900 the Korg KRONOS, the Yamaha Motif XS/Motif XF music has the Linux workstations,[100] Yamaha S90XS/S70XS, Yamaha based Maemo 5 OS MOX6/MOX8 synthesizers, Yamaha Motif-Rack XS tone generator module, and Roland RD-700GX digital piano also run Linux. Linux is also used in stage lighting control systems, such as the WholeHogIII console.[101] Please note: Embedded and real time segments are very vast categories with dierent subcategories like Automotive (e.g. IVI, Engine control unit, GENIVI Alliance), Avionics, Health, Medical Equipment, Consumer Electronics, Intelligent Homes, Telecommunications, and a couple more. The aggregated information above could be very dierent for each subcategory taken separately. The embedded segment is the largest segment in term of numbers of units.
Market share and uptake

Main article: Linux adoption
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See also: Usage share of operating systems Many quantitative studies of free / open source software focus on topics including market share and reliability, with numerous studies specically examining Linux.[102] The Linux market is growing rapidly, and the revenue of servers, desktops, and packaged software running Linux was expected to exceed $35.7 billion by 2008.[103] IDC's Q1 2007 report indicated that Linux held 12.7% of the overall server market at that time.[104] This estimate was based on the number of Linux servers sold by various companies, and did not include server hardware purchased separately which had Linux installed on it later. In September 2008 Microsoft CEO Steve Ballmer admitted that 60% of web-servers run Linux versus 40% that run Windows Server.[105] Primarily based on web server statistics, the estimated market share of Linux on desktop is 1.61%.[106] In comparison, Microsoft operating systems hold more than 85%.[39][40][41][42][43][44][45][107][108] Analysts and proponents attribute the relative success of Linux to its security, reliability, low cost, and freedom from vendor lock-in. [109][110] The Wine compatibility layer allows users to run many programs designed for Windows under Linux.[111] About half of Wine's code has been contributed by volunteers and half sponsored by commercial interests including CodeWeavers, which produces a commercial version of the software. Since 2009, Google has also provided funding to the Wine project.[112][113] The XO laptop project of One Laptop Per Child is creating a new and potentially much larger Linux community which is planned to reach millions of schoolchildren and their families in the developing world.[114] Major supporters of the project include Google, Red Hat, and eBay.[115] Although the XO will have a Windows option, it will be primarily deployed with Fedora Linux while using Sugar as the desktop environment. For years Linux has been the platform of choice in the lm industry. The rst major lm produced on Linux servers was 1997's Titanic. [116][117] Since then major studios including DreamWorks Animation, Pixar, Weta Digital, and Industrial Light & Magic have migrated to Linux.[118][119][120] According to the Linux Movies Group, more than 95% of the servers and desktops at large animation and visual eects companies use Linux.[121]
Copyright, trademark, and naming

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See also: SCO-Linux controversies Linux kernel is licensed under the GNU General Public License (GPL), version 2. The GPL requires that anyone who distributes a software product based on GPL-licensed source code, must make the originating source code (and any modications) available to the recipient under the same terms. [122] Other key components of a typical Linux distribution are also mainly licensed under the GPL, but they may use other licenses; many libraries use the GNU Lesser General Public License (LGPL), a more permissive variant of the GPL, and the X.org implementation of the X Window System uses the MIT License. Torvalds states that the Linux kernel will not move from version 2 of the GPL to version 3.[123][124] He specically dislikes some provisions in the new license which prohibit the use of the software in digital rights management. [125] It would also be impractical to obtain permission from all the copyright holders, who number in the thousands.[126] A 2001 study of Red Hat Linux 7.1 found that this distribution contained 30 million source lines of code.[127] Using the Constructive Cost Model, the study estimated that this distribution required about eight thousand man-years of development time. According to the study, if all this software had been developed by conventional proprietary means, it would have cost about $1.46 billion (2014 US dollars) to develop in the United States.[127] Most of the source code (71%) was written in the C programming language, but many other languages were used, including C++, Lisp, assembly language, Perl, Python, Fortran, and various shell scripting languages. Slightly over half of all lines of code were licensed under the GPL. The Linux kernel itself was 2.4 million lines of code, or 8% of the total. [127] In a later study, the same analysis was performed for Debian version 4.0 (etch, which was released in 2007).[128] This distribution contained close to 283 million source lines of code, and the study estimated that it would have required about seventy three thousand man-years and cost US$8.07 billion (in 2014 dollars) to develop by conventional means. In the United States, the name Linux is a trademark registered to Linus Torvalds. [5] Initially, nobody registered it, but on 15 August 1994, William R. Della Croce, Jr. led for the trademark Linux, and then demanded royalties from Linux distributors. In 1996, Torvalds and some aected organizations sued him to have the trademark assigned to Torvalds, and, in 1997, the case was settled. [129] The licensing of the trademark has since been handled by the Linux Mark Institute. Torvalds has stated that he trademarked the name only to prevent someone else from using it. LMI originally charged a nominal sublicensing fee for use of the Linux name as part of trademarks,[130] but later changed this in favor of oering a free, perpetual worldwide sublicense.[131]
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See also
9885 Linux Linux Foundation GNU Hurd List of Linux distributions List of operating systems Comparison of Linux distributions Comparison of open source and closed source Comparison of operating systems Linux Documentation Project Linux Mark Institute Linux.com Usage share of operating systems
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External links
Linux (http://www.dmoz.org/Computers/Software/Operating_Systems/Linux) on the Open Directory Project Graphical map of GNU/Linux OS Internals (http://www.makelinux.net /system/new) Linux kernel website and archives (http://www.kernel.org/) Linux.org (http://www.linux.org/) The History of Linux in GIT Repository Format 19922010 (http://www.archive.org/details/git-history-of-linux) Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Linux& oldid=596437897" Categories: 1991 software Linux Computing platforms Cross-platform software Unix variants Finnish inventions This page was last modied on 21 February 2014 at 03:22. Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy.
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