COMO USAR O VOLTMETRO Material: Multmetro digital ou analgico Pilhas LED Motor Fios de ligao e crocodilos

Objecti os de a!rendi"agem: #omo medir a dd!$ #aracterisiticas da dd! entre % !ontos$ &eleco da escala a!ro!riada'

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(nstru)es: (n all the e*!eriments in this boo+, -ou .ill be using some sort o/ test e0ui!ment to measure as!ects o/ electricit- -ou cannot directl- see, /eel, hear, taste, or smell' Electricit- 11 at least in small, sa/e 0uantities 11 is insensible b- our human bodies' 2our most /undamental 3e-es3 in the .orld o/ electricit- and electronics .ill be a de ice called a multimeter' Multimeters indicate the !resence o/, and measure the 0uantit- o/, electrical !ro!erties such as oltage, current, and resistance' (n this e*!eriment, -ou .ill /amiliari"e -oursel/ .ith the measurement o/ oltage' 4oltage is the measure o/ electrical 3!ush3 read- to moti ate electrons to mo e through a conductor' (n scienti/ic terms, it is the s!eci/ic energ- !er unit charge, mathematicall- de/ined as joules !er coulomb' (t is analogous to !ressure in a /luid s-stem: the /orce that mo es /luid through a !i!e, and is measured in the unit o/ the 4olt 546' 2our multimeter should come .ith some basic instructions' 7ead them .ell8 (/ -our multimeter is digital, it .ill re0uire a small batter- to o!erate' (/ it is analog, it does not need a batter- to measure oltage' &ome digital multimeters are autoranging' 9n autoranging meter has onl- a /e. selector s.itch 5dial6 !ositions' Manual1ranging meters ha e se eral di//erent selector !ositions /or each basic 0uantit-: se eral /or oltage, se eral /or current, and se eral /or resistance' 9utoranging is usuall- /ound on onl- the more

e*!ensi e digital meters, and is to manual ranging as an automatic transmission is to a manual transmission in a car' 9n autoranging meter 3shi/ts gears3 automaticall- to /ind the best measurement range to dis!la- the !articular 0uantit- being measured' &et -our multimeter:s selector s.itch to the highest1 alue 3D# olt3 !osition a ailable' 9utoranging multimeters ma- onl- ha e a single !osition /or D# oltage, in .hich case -ou need to set the s.itch to that one !osition' ;ouch the red test !robe to the !ositi e 5<6 side o/ a batter-, and the blac+ test !robe to the negati e 516 side o/ the same batter-' ;he meter should no. !ro ide -ou .ith some sort o/ indication' 7e erse the test !robe connections to the batter- i/ the meter:s indication is negati e 5on an analog meter, a negati e alue is indicated b- the !ointer de/lecting le/t instead o/ right6' (/ -our meter is a manual1range t-!e, and the selector s.itch has been set to a high1range !osition, the indication .ill be small' Mo e the selector s.itch to the ne*t lo.er D# oltage range setting and reconnect to the batter-' ;he indication should be stronger no., as indicated b- a greater de/lection o/ the analog meter !ointer 5needle6, or more acti e digits on the digital meter dis!la-' For the best results, mo e the selector s.itch to the lo.est1range setting that does not 3o er1range3 the meter' 9n o er1ranged analog meter is said to be 3!egged,3 as the needle .ill be /orced all the .a- to the right1hand side o/ the scale, !ast the /ull1range scale alue' 9n o er1ranged digital meter sometimes dis!la-s the letters 3OL3, or a series o/ dashed lines' ;his indication is manu/acturer1s!eci/ic' =hat ha!!ens i/ -ou onl- touch one meter test !robe to one end o/ a batter-> ?o. does the meter ha e to connect to the batter- in order to !ro ide an indication> =hat does this tell us about oltmeter use and the nature o/ oltage> (s there such a thing as oltage 3at3 a single !oint> @e sure to measure more than one si"e o/ batter-, and learn ho. to select the best oltage range on the multimeter to gi e -ou ma*imum indication .ithout o er1ranging' Ao. s.itch -our multimeter to the lo.est D# oltage range a ailable, and touch the meter:s test !robes to the terminals 5.ire leads6 o/ the light1emitting diode 5LED6' 9n LED is designed to !roduce light .hen !o.ered b- a small amount o/ electricit-, but LEDs also ha!!en to generate D# oltage .hen e*!osed to light, some.hat li+e a solar cell' Point the LED to.ard a bright source o/ light .ith -our multimeter connected to it, and note the meter:s indication:

@atteries de elo! electrical generate

oltage through chemical reactions' =hen a batter- 3dies,3 it has

e*hausted its original store o/ chemical 3/uel'3 ;he LED, ho.e er, does not rel- on an internal 3/uel3 to oltage$ rather, it con erts o!tical energ- into electrical energ-' &o long as there is light to illuminate the LED, it .ill !roduce oltage' 9nother source o/ oltage through energ- con ersion a generator' ;he small electric motor s!eci/ied in the 3Parts and Materials3 list /unctions as an electrical generator i/ its sha/t is turned b- a mechanical /orce' #onnect -our oltmeter 5-our multimeter, set to the 3 olt3 /unction6 to the motor:s terminals just as -ou

connected it to the LED:s terminals, and s!in the sha/t .ith -our /ingers' ;he meter should indicate oltage b- means o/ needle de/lection 5analog6 or numerical readout 5digital6' (/ -ou /ind it di//icult to maintain both meter test !robes in connection .ith the motor:s terminals .hile simultaneousl- s!inning the sha/t .ith -our /ingers, -ou ma- use alligator cli! 3jum!er3 .ires li+e this:

Determine the relationshi! bet.een oltage and generator sha/t s!eed> 7e erse the generator:s direction o/ rotation and note the change in meter indication' =hen -ou re erse sha/t rotation, -ou change the !olarit- o/ the oltage created b- the generator' ;he oltmeter indicates !olarit- b- direction o/ needle direction 5analog6 or sign o/ numerical indication 5digital6' =hen the red test lead is !ositi e 5<6 and the blac+ test lead negati e 516, the meter .ill register oltage in the normal direction' (/ the a!!lied oltage is o/ the re erse !olarit- 5negati e on red and !ositi e on blac+6, the meter .ill indicate 3bac+.ards'3 OHMMETER USAGE Material Multimeter, digital or analog 9ssorted resistors 7ecti/-ing diode #admium &ul!hide !hotocell @readboard Bum!er .ires Pa!er Pencil Class o/ .ater ;able salt ;his e*!eriment describes ho. to measure the electrical resistance o/ se eral objects' 2ou need not !ossess all items listed abo e in order to e//ecti el- learn about resistance' #on ersel-, -ou need not limit -our e*!eriments to these items' ?o.e er, be sure to ne er measure the resistance o/ an- electricall- 3li e3 object or circuit' (n other .ords, do not attem!t to measure the resistance o/ a batter- or an- other source o/ substantial oltage using a multimeter set to the resistance 53ohms36 /unction' Failing to heed this .arning .ill li+el- result in meter damage and e en !ersonal injur-' LE97A(AC O@BE#;(4E& Determination and com!rehension o/ 3electrical continuit-3 Determination and com!rehension o/ 3electricall- common !oints3 ?o. to measure resistance #haracteristics o/ resistance: e*isting bet.een t.o !oints

&election o/ !ro!er meter range 7elati e conducti it- o/ arious com!onents and materials

(LLD&;79;(OA (A&;7D#;(OA& 7esistance is the measure o/ electrical 3/riction3 as electrons mo e through a conductor' (t is measured in the unit o/ the 3Ohm,3 that unit s-mboli"ed b- the ca!ital Cree+ letter omega 5E6' &et -our multimeter to the highest resistance range a ailable' ;he resistance /unction is usualldenoted b- the unit s-mbol /or resistance: the Cree+ letter omega 5E6, or sometimes b- the .ord 3ohms'3 ;ouch the t.o test !robes o/ -our meter together' =hen -ou do, the meter should register F ohms o/ resistance' (/ -ou are using an analog meter, -ou .ill notice the needle de/lect /ull1scale .hen the !robes are touched together, and return to its resting !osition .hen the !robes are !ulled a!art' ;he resistance scale on an analog multimeter is re erse1!rinted /rom the other scales: "ero resistance in indicated at the /ar right1 hand side o/ the scale, and in/inite resistance is indicated at the /ar le/t1hand side' ;here should also be a small adjustment +nob or 3.heel3 on the analog multimeter to calibrate it /or 3"ero3 ohms o/ resistance' ;ouch the test !robes together and mo e this adjustment until the needle e*actl- !oints to "ero at the right1 hand end o/ the scale' 9lthough -our multimeter is ca!able o/ !ro iding 0uantitati e alues o/ measured resistance, it is also use/ul /or 0ualitati e tests o/ continuit-: .hether or not there is a continuous electrical connection /rom one !oint to another' 2ou can, /or instance, test the continuit- o/ a !iece o/ .ire b- connecting the meter !robes to o!!osite ends o/ the .ire and chec+ing to see the the needle mo es /ull1scale' =hat .ould .e saabout a !iece o/ .ire i/ the ohmmeter needle didn:t mo e at all .hen the !robes .ere connected to o!!osite ends> Digital multimeters set to the 3resistance3 mode indicate non1continuit- b- dis!la-ing some non1 numerical indication on the dis!la-' &ome models sa- 3OL3 5O!en1Loo!6, .hile others dis!la- dashed lines' Dse -our meter to determine continuit- bet.een the holes on a breadboard: a de ice used /or tem!orarconstruction o/ circuits, .here com!onent terminals are inserted into holes on a !lastic grid, metal s!ring cli!s underneath each hole connecting certain holes to others' Dse small !ieces o/ %%1gauge solid co!!er .ire, inserted into the holes o/ the breadboard, to connect the meter to these s!ring cli!s so that -ou can test /or continuit-:

9n im!ortant conce!t in electricit-, closel- related to electrical continuit-, is that o/ !oints being electricall- common to each other' Electricall- common !oints are !oints o/ contact on a de ice or in a circuit that ha e negligible 5e*tremel- small6 resistance bet.een them' =e could sa-, then, that !oints .ithin a breadboard column 5 ertical in the illustrations6 are electricall- common to each other, because there is electrical continuit- bet.een them' #on ersel-, breadboard !oints .ithin a ro. 5hori"ontal in the illustrations6 are not electricall- common, because there is no continuit- bet.een them' #ontinuit- describes .hat is bet.een !oints o/ contact, .hile commonalit- describes ho. the !oints themsel es relate to each other' Li+e continuit-, commonalit- is a 0ualitati e assessment, based on a relati e com!arison o/ resistance bet.een other !oints in a circuit' (t is an im!ortant conce!t to gras!, because there are certain /acts regarding oltage in relation to electricall- common !oints that are aluable in circuit anal-sis and troubleshooting, the /irst one being that there .ill ne er be substantial oltage dro!!ed bet.een !oints that are electricall- common to each other' &elect a GF,FFF ohm 5GF +E6 resistor /rom -our !arts assortment' ;his resistance alue is indicated b- a series o/ color bands: @ro.n, @lac+, Orange, and then another color re!resenting the !recision o/ the resistor, Cold 5<H1 IJ6 or &il er 5<H1 GFJ6' &ome resistors ha e no color /or !recision, .hich mar+s them as <H1 %FJ' Other resistors use /i e color bands to denote their alue and !recision, in .hich case the colors /or a GF +E resistor .ill be @ro.n, @lac+, @lac+, 7ed, and a /i/th color /or !recision' #onnect the meter:s test !robes across the resistor as such, and note its indication on the resistance scale:

(/ the needle !oints er- close to "ero, -ou need to select a lo.er resistance range on the meter, just as -ou needed to select an a!!ro!riate oltage range .hen reading the oltage o/ a batter-' (/ -ou are using a digital multimeter, -ou should see a numerical /igure close to GF sho.n on the dis!la-, .ith a small 3+3 s-mbol on the right1hand side denoting the metric !re/i* /or 3+ilo3 5thousand6' &ome digital meters are manuall-1ranged, and re0uire a!!ro!riate range selection just as the analog meter' (/ -ours is li+e this, e*!eriment .ith di//erent range s.itch !ositions and see .hich one gi es -ou the best indication' ;r- re ersing the test !robe connections on the resistor' Does this change the meter:s indication at all> =hat does this tell us about the resistance o/ a resistor> =hat ha!!ens .hen -ou onl- touch one !robe to the resistor> =hat does this tell us about the nature o/ resistance, and ho. it is measured> ?o. does this com!are .ith oltage measurement, and .hat ha!!ened .hen .e tried to measure batter- oltage btouching onl- one !robe to the batter-> =hen -ou touch the meter !robes to the resistor terminals, tr- not to touch both !robe ti!s to -our /ingers' (/ -ou do, -ou .ill be measuring the !arallel combination o/ the resistor and -our o.n bod-, .hich .ill tend to ma+e the meter indication lo.er than it should be8 =hen measuring a GF +E resistor, this error .ill be minimal, but it ma- be more se ere .hen measuring other alues o/ resistor' 2ou ma- sa/el- measure the resistance o/ -our o.n bod- b- holding one !robe ti! .ith the /ingers o/ one hand, and the other !robe ti! .ith the /ingers o/ the other hand' Aote: be er- care/ul .ith the !robes, as the- are o/ten shar!ened to a needle1!oint' ?old the !robe ti!s along their length, not at the er- !oints8 2ou ma- need to adjust the meter range again a/ter measuring the GF +E resistor, as -our bod- resistance tends to be greater than GF,FFF ohms hand1to1hand' ;r- .etting -our /ingers .ith .ater and re1measuring resistance .ith the meter' =hat im!act does this ha e on the indication> ;r- .etting -our /ingers .ith salt.ater !re!ared using the glass o/ .ater and table salt, and re1measuring resistance' =hat im!act does this ha e on -our bod-:s resistance as measured b- the meter> 7esistance is the measure o/ /riction to electron /lo. through an object' ;he less resistance there is bet.een t.o !oints, the harder it is /or electrons to mo e 5/lo.6 bet.een those t.o !oints' Ci en that electric shoc+ is caused b- a large /lo. o/ electrons through a !erson:s bod-, and increased bod- resistance acts as a sa/eguard b- ma+ing it more di//icult /or electrons to /lo. through us, .hat can .e ascertain about electrical sa/et- /rom the resistance readings obtained .ith .et /ingers> Does .ater increase or decrease shoc+ ha"ard to !eo!le> Measure the resistance o/ a recti/-ing diode .ith an analog meter' ;r- re ersing the test !robe connections to the diode and re1measure resistance' =hat stri+es -ou as being remar+able about the diode, es!eciall- in contrast to the resistor> ;a+e a !iece o/ !a!er and dra. a er- hea - blac+ mar+ on it .ith a !encil 5not a !en86' Measure resistance on the blac+ stri! .ith -our meter, !lacing the !robe ti!s at each end o/ the mar+ li+e this:

Mo e the !robe ti!s closer together on the blac+ mar+ and note the change in resistance alue' Does it increase or decrease .ith decreased !robe s!acing> (/ the results are inconsistent, -ou need to redra. the mar+ .ith more and hea ier !encil stro+es, so that it is consistent in its densit-' =hat does this teach -ou about resistance ersus length o/ a conducti e material> #onnect -our meter to the terminals o/ a cadmium1sul!hide 5#d&6 !hotocell and measure the change in resistance created b- di//erences in light e*!osure' Bust as .ith the light1emitting diode 5LED6 o/ the oltmeter e*!eriment, -ou ma- .ant to use alligator1cli! jum!er .ires to ma+e connection .ith the com!onent, lea ing -our hands /ree to hold the !hotocell to a light source andHor change meter ranges:

E*!eriment .ith measuring the resistance o/ se eral di//erent t-!es o/ materials, just be sure not to tr- measure an-thing that !roduces substantial oltage, li+e a batter-' &uggestions /or materials to measure are: /abric, !lastic, .ood, metal, clean .ater, dirt- .ater, salt .ater, glass, diamond 5on a diamond ring or other !iece o/ je.elr-6, !a!er, rubber, and oil' A VERY SIMPLE CIRCUIT P97;& 9AD M9;E7(9L& K1 olt batterK1 olt incandescent lam! Bum!er .ires @readboard ;erminal stri! From this e*!eriment on, a multimeter is assumed to be necessar- and .ill not be included in the re0uired list o/ !arts and materials' (n all subse0uent illustrations, a digital multimeter .ill be sho.n instead

o/ an analog meter unless there is some !articular reason to use an analog meter' 2ou are encouraged to use both t-!es o/ meters to gain /amiliarit- .ith the o!eration o/ each in these e*!eriments' LE97A(AC O@BE#;(4E& Essential con/iguration needed to ma+e a circuit Aormal oltage dro!s in an o!erating circuit (m!ortance o/ continuit- to a circuit =or+ing de/initions o/ 3o!en3 and 3short3 circuits @readboard usage ;erminal stri! usage

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(LLD&;79;(OA

(A&;7D#;(OA& ;his is the sim!lest com!lete circuit in this collection o/ e*!eriments: a batter- and an incandescent lam!' #onnect the lam! to the batter- as sho.n in the illustration, and the lam! should light, assuming the batter- and lam! are both in good condition and the- are matched to one another in terms o/ oltage' (/ there is a 3brea+3 5discontinuit-6 an-.here in the circuit, the lam! .ill /ail to light' (t does not matter .here such a brea+ occurs8 Man- students assume that because electrons lea e the negati e 516 side o/ the batterand continue through the circuit to the !ositi e 5<6 side, that the .ire connecting the negati e terminal o/ the batter- to the lam! is more im!ortant to circuit o!eration than the other .ire !ro iding a return !ath /or electrons bac+ to the batter-' ;his is not true8

Dsing -our multimeter set to the a!!ro!riate 3D# olt3 range, measure oltage across the batter-, across the lam!, and across each jum!er .ire' Familiari"e -oursel/ .ith the normal oltages in a /unctioning circuit' Ao., 3brea+3 the circuit at one !oint and re1measure oltage bet.een the same sets o/ !oints, additionall- measuring oltage across the brea+ li+e this:

=hat oltages measure the same as be/ore> =hat oltages are di//erent since introducing the brea+> ?o. much oltage is mani/est, or dro!!ed across the brea+> =hat is the !olarit- o/ the oltage dro! across the brea+, as indicated b- the meter> 7e1connect the jum!er .ire to the lam!, and brea+ the circuit in another !lace' Measure all oltage 3dro!s3 again, /amiliari"ing -oursel/ .ith the oltages o/ an 3o!en3 circuit' #onstruct the same circuit on a breadboard, ta+ing care to !lace the lam! and .ires into the breadboard in such a .a- that continuit- .ill be maintained' ;he e*am!le sho.n here is onl- that: an e*am!le, not the onl.a- to build a circuit on a breadboard:

E*!eriment .ith di//erent con/igurations on the breadboard, !lugging the lam! into di//erent holes' (/ -ou encounter a situation .here the lam! re/uses to light u! and the connecting .ires are getting .arm, -ou !robabl- ha e a situation +no.n as a short circuit, .here a lo.er1resistance !ath than the lam! b-!asses current around the lam!, !re enting enough oltage /rom being dro!!ed across the lam! to light it u!' ?ere is an e*am!le o/ a short circuit made on a breadboard:

?ere is an e*am!le o/ an accidental short circuit o/ the t-!e t-!icall- made b- students un/amiliar .ith breadboard usage:

?ere there is no 3shorting3 .ire !resent on the breadboard, -et there is a short circuit, and the lam! re/uses to light' @ased on -our understanding o/ breadboard hole connections, can -ou determine .here the 3short3 is in this circuit> &hort circuits are generall- to be a oided, as the- result in er- high rates o/ electron /lo., causing .ires to heat u! and batter- !o.er sources to de!lete' (/ the !o.er source is substantial enough, a short circuit ma- cause heat o/ e*!losi e !ro!ortions to mani/est, causing e0ui!ment damage and ha"ard to nearb!ersonnel' ;his is .hat ha!!ens .hen a tree limb 3shorts3 across .ires on a !o.er line: the limb 11 being com!osed o/ .et .ood 11 acts as a lo.1resistance !ath to electric current, resulting in heat and s!ar+s' 2ou ma- also build the batter-Hlam! circuit on a terminal stri!: a length o/ insulating material .ith metal bars and scre.s to attach .ires and com!onent terminals to' ?ere is an e*am!le o/ ho. this circuit might be constructed on a terminal stri!: 9mmeter usage

P97;& 9AD M9;E7(9L& K1 olt batterK1 olt incandescent lam!

LE97A(AC O@BE#;(4E& ?o. to measure current .ith a multimeter ?o. to chec+ a multimeter:s internal /use &election o/ !ro!er meter range

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(A&;7D#;(OA& #urrent is the measure o/ the rate o/ electron 3/lo.3 in a circuit' (t is measured in the unit o/ the 9m!ere, sim!l- called 39m!,3 596' ;he most common .a- to measure current in a circuit is to brea+ the circuit o!en and insert an 3ammeter3 in series 5in1line6 .ith the circuit so that all electrons /lo.ing through the circuit also ha e to go through the meter' @ecause measuring current in this manner re0uires the meter be made !art o/ the circuit, it is a more di//icult t-!e o/ measurement to ma+e than either oltage or resistance' &ome digital meters, li+e the unit sho.n in the illustration, ha e a se!arate jac+ to insert the red test lead !lug .hen measuring current' Other meters, li+e most ine*!ensi e analog meters, use the same jac+s /or measuring oltage, resistance, and current' #onsult -our o.ner:s manual on the !articular model o/ meter -ou o.n /or details on measuring current' =hen an ammeter is !laced in series .ith a circuit, it ideall- dro!s no oltage as current goes through it' (n other .ords, it acts er- much li+e a !iece o/ .ire, .ith er- little resistance /rom one test !robe to the other' #onse0uentl-, an ammeter .ill act as a short circuit i/ !laced in !arallel 5across the terminals o/6 a substantial source o/ oltage' (/ this is done, a surge in current .ill result, !otentiall- damaging the meter:

9mmeters are generall- !rotected /rom e*cessi e current b- means o/ a small /use located inside the meter housing' (/ the ammeter is accidentl- connected across a substantial oltage source, the resultant surge in current .ill 3blo.3 the /use and render the meter inca!able o/ measuring current until the /use is re!laced' @e er- care/ul to a oid this scenario8 2ou ma- test the condition o/ a multimeter:s /use b- s.itching it to the resistance mode and measuring continuit- through the test leads 5and through the /use6' On a meter .here the same test lead jac+s are used /or both resistance and current measurement, sim!l- lea e the test lead !lugs .here the- are and touch the t.o !robes together' On a meter .here di//erent jac+s are used, this is ho. -ou insert the test lead !lugs to chec+ the /use:

@uild the one1batter-, one1lam! circuit using jum!er .ires to connect the batter- to the lam!, and eri/- that the lam! lights u! be/ore connecting the meter in series .ith it' ;hen, brea+ the circuit o!en at an!oint and connect the meter:s test !robes to the t.o !oints o/ the brea+ to measure current' 9s usual, i/ -our meter is manuall-1ranged, begin b- selecting the highest range /or current, then mo e the selector s.itch to lo.er range !ositions until the strongest indication is obtained on the meter dis!la- .ithout o er1ranging it' (/ the meter indication is 3bac+.ards,3 5le/t motion on analog needle, or negati e reading on a digital dis!la-6, then re erse the test !robe connections and tr- again' =hen the ammeter indicates a normal reading 5not 3bac+.ards36, electrons are entering the blac+ test lead and e*iting the red' ;his is ho. -ou determine direction o/ current using a meter' For a K1 olt batter- and a small lam!, the circuit current .ill be in the range o/ thousandths o/ an am!, or milliam!s' Digital meters o/ten sho. a small letter 3m3 in the right1hand side o/ the dis!la- to indicate this metric !re/i*' ;r- brea+ing the circuit at some other !oint and inserting the meter there instead' =hat do -ou notice about the amount o/ current measured> =h- do -ou thin+ this is> 7e1construct the circuit on a breadboard li+e this:

&tudents o/ten get con/used .hen connecting an ammeter to a breadboard circuit' ?o. can the meter be connected so as to interce!t all the circuit:s current and not create a short circuit> One easmethod that guarantees success is this: (denti/- .hat .ire or com!onent terminal -ou .ish to measure current through' Pull that .ire or terminal out o/ the breadboard hole' Lea e it hanging in mid1air' (nsert a s!are !iece o/ .ire into the hole -ou just !ulled the other .ire or terminal out o/' Lea e the other end o/ this .ire hanging in mid1air' #onnect the ammeter bet.een the t.o unconnected .ire ends 5the t.o that .ere hanging in mid1 air6' 2ou are no. assured o/ measuring current through the .ire or terminal initiall- identi/ied'

9gain, measure current through di//erent .ires in this circuit, /ollo.ing the same connection !rocedure outlined abo e' =hat do -ou notice about these current measurements> ;he results in the breadboard circuit should be the same as the results in the /ree1/orm 5no breadboard6 circuit' @uilding the same circuit on a terminal stri! should also -ield similar results:

;he current /igure o/ %L'MF milliam!s 5%L'MF m96 sho.n in the illustrations is an arbitrar- 0uantit-, reasonable /or a small incandescent lam!' (/ the current /or -our circuit is a di//erent alue, that is o+a-, so

long as the lam! is /unctioning .hen the meter is connected' (/ the lam! re/uses to light .hen the meter is connected to the circuit, and the meter registers a much greater reading, -ou !robabl- ha e a short1circuit condition through the meter' (/ -our lam! re/uses to light .hen the meter is connected in the circuit, and the meter registers "ero current, -ou: e !robabl- blo.n the /use inside the meter' #hec+ the condition o/ -our meter:s /use as described !re iousl- in this section and re!lace the /use i/ necessar-' OHM'S LAW P97;& 9AD M9;E7(9L& #alculator 5or !encil and !a!er /or doing arithmetic6 K1 olt batter9ssortment o/ resistors bet.een G NE and GFF +E in alue (:m !ur!osel- restricting the resistance alues bet.een G +E and GFF +E /or the sa+e o/ obtaining accurate oltage and current readings .ith -our meter' =ith er- lo. resistance alues, the internal resistance o/ the ammeter has a signi/icant im!act on measurement accurac-' 4er- high resistance alues can cause !roblems /or oltage measurement, the internal resistance o/ the oltmeter substantiall- changing circuit resistance .hen it is connected in !arallel .ith a high1 alue resistor' LE97A(AC O@BE#;(4E& 4oltmeter use 9mmeter use Ohmmeter use Dse o/ Ohm:s La.

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(A&;7D#;(OA& &elect a resistor /rom the assortment, and measure its resistance .ith -our multimeter set to the a!!ro!riate resistance range' @e sure not to hold the resistor terminals .hen measuring resistance, or else -our hand1to1hand bod- resistance .ill in/luence the measurement8 7ecord this resistance alue /or /uture use' @uild a one1batter-, one1resistor circuit' 9 terminal stri! is sho.n in the illustration, but an- /orm o/ circuit construction is o+a-' &et -our multimeter to the a!!ro!riate oltage range and measure oltage across the resistor as it is being !o.ered b- the batter-' 7ecord this oltage alue along .ith the resistance alue !re iousl- measured' &et -our multimeter to the highest current range a ailable' @rea+ the circuit and connect the ammeter .ithin that brea+, so it becomes a !art o/ the circuit, in series .ith the batter- and resistor' &elect the best current range: .hiche er one gi es the strongest meter indication .ithout o er1ranging the meter' (/ -our multimeter is autoranging, o/ course, -ou need not bother .ith setting ranges' 7ecord this current alue along .ith the resistance and oltage alues !re iousl- recorded' ;a+ing the measured /igures /or oltage and resistance, use the Ohm:s La. e0uation to calculate circuit current' #om!are this calculated /igure .ith the measured /igure /or circuit current:

;a+ing the measured /igures /or oltage and current, use the Ohm:s La. e0uation to calculate circuit resistance' #om!are this calculated /igure .ith the measured /igure /or circuit resistance:

Finall-, ta+ing the measured /igures /or resistance and current, use the Ohm:s La. e0uation to calculate circuit oltage' #om!are this calculated /igure .ith the measured /igure /or circuit oltage:

;here should be close agreement bet.een all measured and all calculated /igures' 9n- di//erences in res!ecti e 0uantities o/ oltage, current, or resistance are most li+el- due to meter inaccuracies' ;hese di//erences should be rather small, no more than se eral !ercent' &ome meters, o/ course, are more accurate than others8 &ubstitute di//erent resistors in the circuit and re1ta+e all resistance, oltage, and current measurements' 7e1calculate these /igures and chec+ /or agreement .ith the e*!erimental data 5measured 0uantities6' 9lso note the sim!le mathematical relationshi! bet.een changes in resistor alue and changes

in circuit current' 4oltage should remain a!!ro*imatel- the same /or an- resistor si"e inserted into the circuit, because it is the nature o/ a batter- to maintain oltage at a constant le el' NONLINEAR RESISTANCE P97;& 9AD M9;E7(9L& #alculator 5or !encil and !a!er /or doing arithmetic6 K1 olt batterLo.1 oltage incandescent lam! 57adio &hac+ catalog O %M%1GGPF or e0ui alent6

LE97A(AC O@BE#;(4E& 4oltmeter use 9mmeter use Ohmmeter use Dse o/ Ohm:s La. 7eali"ation that some resistances are unstable8 &cienti/ic method

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(A&;7D#;(OA& Measure the resistance o/ the lam! .ith -our multimeter' ;his resistance /igure is due to the thin metal 3/ilament3 inside the lam!' (t has substantiall- more resistance than a jum!er .ire, but less than an- o/ the resistors /rom the last e*!eriment' 7ecord this resistance alue /or /uture use' @uild a one1batter-, one1lam! circuit' &et -our multimeter to the a!!ro!riate alue !re iousl- measured' &et -our multimeter to the highest current range a ailable' @rea+ the circuit and connect the ammeter .ithin that brea+, so it becomes a !art o/ the circuit, in series .ith the batter- and lam!' &elect the best current range: .hiche er one gi es the strongest meter indication .ithout o er1ranging the meter' (/ -our multimeter is autoranging, o/ course, -ou need not bother .ith setting ranges' 7ecord this current alue along .ith the resistance and oltage alues !re iousl- recorded' ;a+ing the measured /igures /or oltage and resistance, use the Ohm:s La. e0uation to calculate circuit current' #om!are this calculated /igure .ith the measured /igure /or circuit current: oltage range and measure oltage across the lam! as it is energi"ed 5lit6' 7ecord this oltage alue along .ith the resistance

=hat -ou should /ind is a mar+ed di//erence bet.een measured current and calculated current: the calculated /igure is much greater' =h- is this> ;o ma+e things more interesting, tr- measuring the lam!:s resistance again, this time using a di//erent model o/ meter' 2ou .ill need to disconnect the lam! /rom the batter- circuit in order to obtain a resistance reading, because oltages outside o/ the meter inter/ere .ith resistance measurement' ;his is a general rule that should be remembered: measure resistance onl- on an un!o.ered com!onent8 Dsing a di//erent ohmmeter, the lam! .ill !robabl- register as a di//erent alue o/ resistance' Dsuall-, analog meters gi e higher lam! resistance readings than digital meters' ;his beha ior is er- di//erent /rom that o/ the resistors in the last e*!eriment' =h-> =hat /actor5s6 might in/luence the resistance o/ the lam! /ilament, and ho. might those /actors be di//erent bet.een conditions o/ lit and unlit, or bet.een resistance measurements ta+en .ith di//erent t-!es o/ meters> ;his !roblem is a good test case /or the a!!lication o/ scienti/ic method' Once -ou: e thought o/ a !ossible reason /or the lam!:s resistance changing bet.een lit and unlit conditions, tr- to du!licate that cause b- some other means' For e*am!le, i/ -ou thin+ the lam! resistance might change as it is e*!osed to light 5its o.n light, .hen lit6, and that this accounts /or the di//erence bet.een the measured and calculated circuit currents, tr- e*!osing the lam! to an e*ternal source o/ light .hile measuring its resistance' (/ -ou measure substantial resistance change as a result o/ light e*!osure, then -our h-!othesis has some e idential su!!ort' (/ not, then -our h-!othesis has been /alsi/ied, and another cause must be res!onsible /or the change in circuit current'

POWER DISSIPATION P97;& 9AD M9;E7(9L& #alculator 5or !encil and !a!er /or doing arithmetic6 K olt batter;.o GHL .att resistors: GF E and PPF E' &mall thermometer ;he resistor alues need not be e*act, but .ithin /i e !ercent o/ the /igures s!eci/ied 5<H1 F'I E /or the GF E resistor$ <H1 GK'I E /or the PPF E resistor6' #olor codes /or IJ tolerance GF E and PPF E resistors are as /ollo.s: @ro.n, @lac+, @lac+, Cold 5GF, <H1 IJ6, and Orange, Orange, @ro.n, Cold 5PPF, <H1 IJ6' Do not use an- batter- si"e other than K olts /or this e*!eriment' ;he thermometer should be as small as !ossible, to /acilitate ra!id detection o/ heat !roduced b- the resistor' ( recommend a medical thermometer, the t-!e used to ta+e bod- tem!erature' LE97A(AC O@BE#;(4E& 4oltmeter use 9mmeter use Ohmmeter use Dse o/ Boule:s La. (m!ortance o/ com!onent !o.er ratings &igni/icance o/ electricall- common !oints

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(A&;7D#;(OA& Measure each resistor:s resistance .ith -our ohmmeter, noting the e*act alues on a !iece o/ !a!er /or later re/erence' #onnect the PPF E resistor to the K olt batter- using a !air o/ jum!er .ires as sho.n in the illustration' #onnect the jum!er .ires to the resistor terminals be/ore connecting the other ends to the batter-' ;his .ill ensure -our /ingers are not touching the resistor .hen batter- !o.er is a!!lied'

2ou might be .ondering .h- ( ad ise no bodil- contact .ith the !o.ered resistor' ;his is because it .ill become hot .hen !o.ered b- the batter-' 2ou .ill use the thermometer to measure the tem!erature o/ each resistor .hen !o.ered' =ith the PPF E resistor connected to the batter-, measure oltage .ith a oltmeter' (n measuring oltage, there is more than one .a- to obtain a !ro!er reading' 4oltage ma- be measured directl- across the batter-, or directl- across the resistor' @atter- oltage is the same as resistor oltage in this circuit, since those t.o com!onents share the same set o/ electricall- common !oints: one side o/ the resistor is directlconnected to one side o/ the batter-, and the other side o/ the resistor is directl- connected to the other side o/ the batter-'

9ll !oints o/ contact along the u!!er .ire in the illustration 5colored red6 are electricall- common to each other' 9ll !oints o/ contact along the lo.er .ire 5colored blac+6 are li+e.ise electricall- common to each other' 4oltage measured bet.een an- !oint on the u!!er .ire and an- !oint on the lo.er .ire should be the same' 4oltage measured bet.een an- t.o common !oints, ho.e er, should be "ero' Dsing an ammeter, measure current through the circuit' 9gain, there is no one 3correct3 .a- to measure current, so long as the ammeter is !laced .ithin the /lo.1!ath o/ electrons through the resistor and not across a source o/ oltage' ;o do this, ma+e a brea+ in the circuit, and !lace the ammeter .ithin that brea+: connect the t.o test !robes to the t.o .ire or terminal ends le/t o!en /rom the brea+' One iable o!tion is sho.n in the /ollo.ing illustration:

Ao. that -ou: e measured and recorded resistor resistance, circuit oltage, and circuit current, -ou are read- to calculate !o.er dissi!ation' =hereas oltage is the measure o/ electrical 3!ush3 moti ating electrons to mo e through a circuit, and current is the measure o/ electron /lo. rate, !o.er is the measure o/

.or+1rate: ho. /ast .or+ is being done in the circuit' (t ta+es a certain amount o/ .or+ to !ush electrons through a resistance, and !o.er is a descri!tion o/ ho. ra!idl- that .or+ is ta+ing !lace' (n mathematical e0uations, !o.er is s-mboli"ed b- the letter 3P3 and measured in the unit o/ the =att 5=6' Po.er ma- be calculated b- an- one o/ three e0uations 11 collecti el- re/erred to as Boule:s La. 11 gi en an- t.o out o/ three 0uantities o/ oltage, current, and resistance:

;r- calculating !o.er in this circuit, using the three measured

alues o/

oltage, current, and

resistance' 9n- .a- -ou calculate it, the !o.er dissi!ation /igure should be roughl- the same' 9ssuming a batter- .ith K'FFF olts and a resistor o/ e*actl- PPF E, the !o.er dissi!ation .ill be F'GFQFQFQ .atts, or GFQ'FQFQ milli1.atts 5m=6, to use a metric !re/i*' &ince the resistor has a !o.er rating o/ GHL .att 5F'%I .atts, or %IF m=6, it is more than ca!able o/ sustaining this le el o/ !o.er dissi!ation' @ecause the actual !o.er le el is almost hal/ the rated !o.er, the resistor should become noticeabl- .arm but it should not o erheat' ;ouch the thermometer end to the middle o/ the resistor and see ho. .arm it gets' ;he !o.er rating o/ an- electrical com!onent does not tell us ho. much !o.er it .ill dissi!ate, but sim!l- ho. much !o.er it ma- dissi!ate .ithout sustaining damage' (/ the actual amount o/ dissi!ated !o.er e*ceeds a com!onent:s !o.er rating, that com!onent .ill increase tem!erature to the !oint o/ damage' ;o illustrate, disconnect the PPF E resistor and re!lace it .ith the GF E resistor' 9gain, a oid touching the resistor once the circuit is com!lete, as it .ill heat u! ra!idl-' ;he sa/est .a- to do this is to disconnect one jum!er .ire /rom a batter- terminal, then disconnect the PPF E resistor /rom the t.o alligator cli!s, then connect the GF E resistor bet.een the t.o cli!s, and /inall- reconnect the jum!er .ire bac+ to the batter- terminal' #aution: +ee! the GF E resistor a.a- /rom an- /lammable materials .hen it is !o.ered b- the batter-8 2ou ma- not ha e enough time to ta+e oltage and current measurements be/ore the resistor begins to smo+e' 9t the /irst sign o/ distress, disconnect one o/ the jum!er .ires /rom a batter- terminal to interru!t circuit current, and gi e the resistor a /e. moments to cool do.n' =ith !o.er still disconnected, measure the resistor:s resistance .ith an ohmmeter and note an- substantial de iation /rom its original alue' (/ the resistor still measures .ithin <H1 IJ o/ its ad ertised alue 5bet.een Q'I and GF'I E6, re1connect the jum!er .ire and let it smo+e a bit more' =hat trend do -ou notice .ith the resistor:s alue as it is damaged more and more b- o er!o.ering> (t is t-!ical o/ resistors to /ail .ith a greater1than1normal resistance .hen o erheated' ;his is o/ten a sel/1 !rotecti e mode o/ /ailure, as an increased resistance results in less current and 5generall-6 less !o.er dissi!ation, cooling it do.n again' ?o.e er, the resistor:s normal resistance alue .ill not return i/ su//icientldamaged' Per/orming some Boule:s La. calculations /or resistor !o.er again, .e /ind that a GF E resistor connected to a K olt batter- dissi!ates about P'K .atts o/ !o.er, about GL'L times its rated !o.er dissi!ation' Little .onder it smo+es so 0uic+l- a/ter connection to the batter-8

CIRCUIT WITH A SWITCH P97;& 9AD M9;E7(9L& K1 olt batterLo.1 oltage incandescent lam! Long lengths o/ .ire, %%1gauge or larger ?ousehold light s.itch 5these are readil- a ailable at an- hard.are store6 ?ousehold light s.itches are a bargain /or students o/ basic electricit-' ;he- are readil- a ailable, er- ine*!ensi e, and almost im!ossible to damage .ith batter- !o.er' Do not get 3dimmer3 s.itches, just the sim!le on1o// 3toggle3 ariet- used /or ordinar- household .all1mounted light controls' LE97A(AC O@BE#;(4E& &.itch beha ior Dsing an ohmmeter to chec+ s.itch action

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(A&;7D#;(OA& @uild a one1batter-, one1s.itch, one1lam! circuit as sho.n in the schematic diagram and in the illustration' ;his circuit is most im!ressi e .hen the .ires are long, as it sho.s ho. the s.itch is able to control circuit current no matter ho. !h-sicall- large the circuit ma- be' Measure oltage across the batter-, across the s.itch 5measure /rom one scre. terminal to another .ith the oltmeter6, and across the lam! .ith the s.itch in both !ositions' =hen the s.itch is turned o//, it is said to be o!en, and the lam! .ill go out just the same as i/ a .ire .ere !ulled loose /rom a terminal' 9s be/ore, an- brea+ in the circuit at an- location causes the lam! to immediatel- de1energi"e 5dar+en6' ELECTROMAGNETISM

P97;& 9AD M9;E7(9L& K1 olt batterMagnetic com!ass &mall !ermanent magnet &!ool o/ %R1gauge magnet .ire Large bolt, nail, or steel rod Electrical ta!e Magnet .ire is a term /or thin1gauge co!!er .ire .ith enamel insulation instead o/ rubber or !lastic insulation' (ts small si"e and er- thin insulation allo. /or man- 3turns3 to be .ound in a com!act coil' 2ou .ill need enough magnet .ire to .ra! hundreds o/ turns around the bolt, nail, or other rod1sha!ed steel /orm' @e sure to select a bolt, nail, or rod that is magnetic' &tainless steel, /or e*am!le, is non1magnetic and .ill not /unction /or the !ur!ose o/ an electromagnet coil8 ;he ideal material /or this e*!eriment is so/t iron, but an- commonl- a ailable steel .ill su//ice' LE97A(AC O@BE#;(4E& 9!!lication o/ the le/t1hand rule Electromagnet construction

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(A&;7D#;(OA& =ra! a single la-er o/ electrical ta!e around the steel bar 5or bolt, or mail6 to !rotect the .ire /rom abrasion' Proceed to .ra! se eral hundred turns o/ .ire around the steel bar, ma+ing the coil as e en as !ossible' (t is o+a- to o erla! .ire, and it is o+a- to .ra! in the same st-le that a /ishing reel .ra!s line around the s!ool' ;he onl- rule -ou must /ollo. is that all turns must be .ra!!ed around the bar in the same direction 5no re ersing /rom cloc+.ise to counter1cloc+.ise86' ( /ind that a drill !ress .or+s as a great tool /or coil .inding: clam! the rod in the drill:s chuc+ as i/ it .ere a drill bit, then turn the drill motor on at a slo. s!eed and let it do the .ra!!ing8 ;his allo.s -ou to /eed .ire onto the rod in a er- stead-, e en manner'

9/ter -ou: e .ra!!ed se eral hundred turns o/ .ire around the rod, .ra! a la-er or t.o o/ electrical ta!e o er the .ire coil to secure the .ire in !lace' &cra!e the enamel insulation o// the ends o/ the coil .ires /or connection to jum!er leads, then connect the coil to a batter-' =hen electric current goes through the coil, it .ill !roduce a strong magnetic /ield: one 3!ole3 at each end o/ the rod' ;his !henomenon is +no.n as electromagnetism' ;he magnetic com!ass is used to identi/the 3Aorth3 and 3&outh3 !oles o/ the electromagnet' =ith the electromagnet energi"ed 5connected to the batter-6, !lace a !ermanent magnet near one !ole and note .hether there is an attracti e or re!ulsi e /orce' 7e erse the orientation o/ the !ermanent magnet and note the di//erence in /orce' Electromagnetism has man- a!!lications, including rela-s, electric motors, solenoids, doorbells, bu""ers, com!uter !rinter mechanisms, and magnetic media 3.rite3 heads 5ta!e recorders, dis+ dri es6' 2ou might notice a signi/icant s!ar+ .hene er the batter- is disconnected /rom the electromagnet coil: much greater than the s!ar+ !roduced i/ the batter- is sim!l- short1circuited' ;his s!ar+ is the result o/ a high1 oltage surge created .hene er current is suddenl- interru!ted through the coil' ;he e//ect is +no.n as inducti e 3+ic+bac+3 and is ca!able o/ deli ering a small but harmless electric shoc+8 ;o a oid recei ing this shoc+, do not !lace -our bod- across the brea+ in the circuit .hen de1energi"ing8 Dse one hand at a time .hen un1!o.ering the coil and -ou:ll be !er/ectl- sa/e' ;his !henomenon .ill be e*!lored in greater detail in the ne*t cha!ter 5D# #ircuits6' ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION P97;& 9AD M9;E7(9L& Electromagnet /rom !re ious e*!eriment Permanent magnet &ee !re ious e*!eriment /or instructions on electromagnet construction'

LE97A(AC O@BE#;(4E& 7elationshi! bet.een magnetic /ield strength and induced oltage

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(A&;7D#;(OA& Electromagnetic induction is the com!lementar- !henomenon to electromagnetism' (nstead o/ !roducing a magnetic /ield /rom electricit-, .e !roduce electricit- /rom a magnetic /ield' ;here is one im!ortant di//erence, though: .hereas electromagnetism !roduces a stead- magnetic /ield /rom a steadelectric current, electromagnetic induction re0uires motion bet.een the magnet and the coil to !roduce a oltage' #onnect the multimeter to the coil, and set it to the most sensiti e D# oltage range a ailable' Mo e the magnet slo.l- to and /rom one end o/ the electromagnet, noting the !olarit- and magnitude o/ the induced oltage' E*!eriment .ith mo ing the magnet, and disco er /or -oursel/ .hat /actor5s6 determine the amount o/ oltage induced' ;r- the other end o/ the coil and com!are results' ;r- the other end o/ the !ermanent magnet and com!are' (/ using an analog multimeter, be sure to use long jum!er .ires and locate the meter /ar a.a- /rom the coil, as the magnetic /ield /rom the !ermanent magnet ma- a//ect the meter:s o!eration and !roduce /alse readings' Digital meters are una//ected b- magnetic /ields'