54 Oileld Review

The Cutting Edge in Drilling-Waste Management

Thomas Geehan
Alan Gilmour
Quan Guo
M-I SWACO
Houston, Texas, USA
For help in preparation of this article, thanks to Jim Redden,
M-I SWACO, Houston, Texas.
FracCADE is a mark of Schlumberger. Brookeld is a mark of
Brookeld Engineering Laboratories. Fann 35 and Marsh are
trademarks of Fann Instrument Company. RECLAIM is a mark
of M-I LLC.
1. For more on multilateral wells: Fraija J, Ohmer H,
Pulick T, Jardon M, Kaja M, Paez R, Sotomayor GPG
and Umudjoro K: New Aspects of Multilateral
Well Construction, Oilfield Review 14, no. 3
(Autumn 2002): 5269.
As borehole complexity increases, operators struggle to comply with stringent waste-
discharge guidelines while meeting drilling-performance demands. Today, advances
in drilling uids and cuttings-management techniques are allowing operators to use
the most efcient drilling-uid systems while effectively removing drilling waste from
the environment.
An unfortunate side effect of the quest for
hydrocarbons is an accumulation of debris that
was removed to access those resources. Modern
drilling operations generate several waste
streams varying from contaminated runoff water
to material packaging; however, the majority of
the waste is associated with the excavated
material, or cuttings, from the borehole. Until
the 1980s, little thought was given to the disposal
of cuttings and excess drilling fluids. Typically,
these materials were discharged overboard in
offshore operations or buried when drilling in
land-based locations. In the 1980s and 1990s,
global environmental awareness increased and
the oil and gas industry, along with its regulators,
began to understand and appreciate the
potential environmental impact of drilling waste.
During this same period, advances in
directional-drilling technology ushered in a new
age in wellbore construction. Although previous
generations of drillers often found it difficult to
drill vertical wellbores, by the 1990s, the trend in
well trajectories had changed from vertical to
horizontal. Rapid technological improvements
soon brought horizontal drilling to the forefront.
Operators realized significant improvement in
well economics by drilling multiple directional
wells from a single platform or by drilling
complex multilateral wells from one borehole.
1
These advances reduced surface footprints,
improved well construction economics, consumed
fewer materials, and increased production from
each well.
The combination of increasing environmental
awareness, new discharge regulations and
challenging drilling situations led the oil and gas
industry to develop new drilling-fluid and waste-
management technologies to support these
advanced wellbore designs, while at the same
time promoting environmental stewardship. In
this article, we explore technologies developed
to remove drilling wastes from the environment
by placing them in hydraulically generated
fractures deep beneath the Earths surface. We
also describe new technologies that are helping
to reduce waste by recovering costly nonaqueous
drilling fluids.
Oil MudsMore Common Than Ever Before
Oil-base muds (OBMs) came into general use in
the oil field in 1942. Early oil-external fluids were
composed primarily of asphalt and diesel fuel.
These muds helped drillers stabilize water-
sensitive shales, provided lubricity for coring
operations and minimized reservoir damage.
As the directional-drilling era took hold in
the late 1980s, OBMs demonstrated a superior
ability to reduce friction between drillpipe and
formation. Rotary torque and drag were
significantly reduced from levels commonly
observed when using water-base muds, allowing
drillers to reach farther and drill trajectories
with greater tortuosity.
Winter 2006/2007 55
The inhibitive quality of OBMs also helped
drillers reduce the risk of borehole failure
associated with long horizontal boreholes. An
OBM owes its inhibitive quality to its oil-wetting
naturewater contact with formation clays is
eliminated in an oil-wet environment. As such,
formations drilled with oil-base drilling fluid
tend to experience less chemical dispersion than
those drilled with water-base muds. Just as
important, this inhibitive quality minimizes the
dissolution of cuttings as they are being pumped
from the bit to the surface. Providing that hole
cleaning capacity is adequate, in oil mud, or
nonaqueous environments, cuttings typically
arrive at the surface in much the same condition
as they left the bit. Surface solids-control
equipment is more efficient with larger cuttings,
and the dilution volume required to reduce fine
solids content in the drilling fluid is minimized.
Ultimately, the total project waste volume is
significantly reduced.
The advantages of OBMs came at a price. As
mentioned previously, the 1980s and 1990s were
a time of environmental awakening for the oil
and gas industry. Regulators began to discourage
discharge of mud and cuttings, while many
countries prohibited the discharge of oil-wet
cuttings and waste-oil mud altogether.
From the 1990s to the present, the drilling
industry has witnessed a revolution in OBM and
oily-waste management. Less toxic and more
environmentally acceptable synthetic-base muds
(SBMs) have replaced diesel and mineral-oil
muds in many areas. Operators now have the
benefits of nonaqueous drilling fluids coupled
with technologies that help to manage cuttings
and excess oil- and synthetic-base muds. Modern
SBMs offer the nonaqueous qualities of tradi -
tional OBMs but with less toxicity and higher
degrees of biodegradability. In some areas,
depending on environmental regulations, cut -
tings coated with SBMs are buried, discharged to
the sea or made environmentally benign through
bioremediation processes.
2
However, not all areas
are suitable for this type of waste management,
and more advanced processes are required to
protect the environment while drilling (left).
Putting Oily Waste in Its Place
On any drilling project, operators must achieve a
balance between minimizing environmental
impact, maintaining borehole stability and
maximizing drilling efficiency. Since 2001, the
use of nonaqueous drilling fluids, both oil- and
synthetic-base, has increased on average by 2%
per year, a trend that is likely to continue (next
page, top). Some formations are more easily
drilled using nonaqueous drilling fluids,
hereafter referred to as oil-base fluids, owing
primarily to the inherent inhibitive and
lubricative qualities of these fluids.
When oil-base drilling fluids are used in the
drilling process, rock cuttings carried by the
drilling fluid through the borehole become
coated with a residual layer of the oil. Even when
drilling with water-base mud, cuttings from oil-
rich shales and sands are transported to the
surface for proper disposal. In many areas,
stricter environmental legislation and increases
in the cost of cuttings-cleaning techniques have
eliminated the option of discharging oil-wet or
oil-containing cuttings and related drilling waste
to the sea.
56 Oileld Review
2. Young S and Rabke S: Novel Fluid Design Can Eliminate
OBM-Cuttings Waste, paper SPE 100292, presented at
the SPE Europec/EAGE Annual Conference and
Exhibition, Vienna, Austria, June 1215, 2006.
3. Moschovidis ZA, Gardner DC, Sund GV and Veatch RW:
Disposal of Oily Cuttings by Downhole Periodic
Fracturing Injections, Valhall, North Sea: Case Study and
Modeling Concepts, paper SPE 25757-PA, presented at
the SPE/IADC Drilling Conference, Amsterdam,
February 2225, 1993; also in SPE Drilling & Completion 9,
no. 4 (December 1994): 256262.
>
Philosophy of cuttings reinjection (CRI). The modern oil field is rapidly moving away from the
traditional methods for disposing of drilling waste. In a more cradle to grave approach, many
operators are choosing to return drilled cuttings back to their origin deep beneath the Earths surface.
Although various placement methods are available, many inject cuttings and other drilling waste into
nonproductive or depleted reservoirs. Injection zones are most often located above the producing
reservoir as shown here.
Caprock formation
Injection zone
Reservoir
50-in. conductor
Riser
Wellhead
Riser
Wellhead
Platform
Cuttings separated, slurrified
and injected from the surface
Impermeable caprock
(salt, chalk or sandstone)
prevents fractures from
propagating to the seabed
30-in. conductor
New well
being drilled
13
3
8-in. casing
13
3
8-in. casing
9
3
8-in. casing
9
3
8-in. casing
7-in. liner Drill bit
Production and
reinjection well
9
0
0

m
Cuttings slurry
Produced oil
Drilling fluid
Winter 2006/2007 57
An example of stricter environmental
discharge regulation occurred in the North Sea
in late 1990. Two years prior to regulatory
changes, the Norwegian State Pollution Control
Agency announced a tightening of regulations for
offshore disposal of drilled cuttings. Effective
January 1, 1993, the allowable oil on cuttings
disposed by discharge to the sea was reduced
from 6 to 1 percent by volume. Technology
available at the time could not reduce oil on
cuttings to such a low level.
3
BP, then Amoco Production Company, began
preparing for this regulatory change in the
Valhall field by first evaluating the options.
Engineers considered transporting oil-wet
cuttings to shore for processing, drilling with
water-base rather than OBM, processing the
cuttings offshore and disposing of cuttings by
subsurface injection.
Initial studies indicated that cuttings
reinjection (CRI) would have the least impact on
the environment while providing an economical
solution to cuttings and oily-waste disposal. In a
typical CRI operation, cuttings are mixed with
seawater, processed by grinding or other
mechan ical action to form a stable viscous slurry,
pumped down a dedicated disposal well or
through the annulus between casing strings on
an active well, and forced under pressure into
formations (below). This process creates a
hydraulic fracture in the formation that
effectively contains the slurry. At the end of the
injection program, the well or annulus is typically
sealed with cement.
Before investing in this new technology,
Amoco initiated an extensive testing program
to assure that periodic injections would be
possible and to gather pressure-response data
during and after injection for modeling and
model calibration.
Cuttings were prepared for injection by first
mixing with water in a 50-bbl [8-m
3
] tank, then
recirculating the slurry through a centrifugal
pump modified with carbide-tipped impellers to
grind the cuttings at a rate of 5 to 10 bbl/min
[0.8 to 1.6 m
3
/min]. Cuttings were added to a
seawater-base slurry to achieve a density of
>
Options for CRI. Cuttings (red) can be injected into wells of many configurations. Shown are injection into a 20 x 13
3
8-in. annulus; a 13
3
8 x 9
5
8-in. annulus;
reinjection above the reservoir, then drilling to TD and producing; injection inside a 6-in. redundant well; and injection into a dedicated well. In each of
these examples, the wells have been cased, cemented and in some cases perforated, to facilitate cuttings injection and isolate other parts of the
borehole from the injection process.
Annular Injection Into
Existing Production Well
Annular Injection Into
Existing Production Well
Annular Injection Drill and
Reinject Simultaneously
Tubing Injection Inside
Existing Redundant Well
Tubing Injection Inside
Dedicated Reinjection Well
20 in.
13
3
8 in.
9
3
8 in.
20 in.
13
3
8 in.
Injection
zone
Injection
zone
9
5
8 in.
20 in.
13
3
8 in.
Injection
zone
9
5
8 in.
7 in.
Reservoir
20 in.
13
3
8 in.
Injection
zone
9
5
8 in.
6 in.
Reservoir
Injection
zone
9
5
8 in.
6 in. Cement
20 in.
>
Increasing use of nonaqueous fluid. Statistics provided by M-I SWACO
indicate an increased use of nonaqueous fluids since 2001. These fluids
include both conventional and synthetic muds.
20
22
24
26
28
30
32
34
36
N
o
n
a
q
u
e
o
u
s

f
l
u
i
d
s
,

%
Year
2003 2002 2001 2004 2005
10 lbm/galUS [1,198 kg/m
3
]. Mixing continued
until the slurry was homogeneous and the slurry
had a Marsh funnel viscosity of 45 to 60 s/qt
[approximately 45 to 60 s/L].
4
This process was
repeated until a total of 1,000 bbl [159 m
3
] had
been prepared. The total volume was then
injected into a formation at a depth of almost
8,000 ft [2,438 m] TVD.
Data gathered during multiple injections into
a shale-capped sandstone formation showed
stable pressure behavior with each injection
sequence, indicating that the periodic injections
had created multiple or branched fractures in
the same region of the reservoir rather than one
continuous fracture. The data also indicated that
periodic fracturing injections changed the in-situ
closure stress of the formation. Engineers
theorized that the cuttings introduced into the
formation created a local volume. Because the
cuttings remain localized in what became known
as the disposal domain, changes in closure stress
could be expected to be permanent and repeat -
able.
5
Stress changes resulting from thermo -
poroelastic stress effects were also noted. These
concepts will be discussed in more detail later.
Data gathered during these tests supported
the theory that misfit strains caused by the
periodic placement of cuttings in fractures
introduced into an elastic field, such as reservoir
rock, can be calculated using basic elastic-theory
equations. This helped Amoco engineers develop
models to better understand and predict fracture
and disposal-domain behavior related to cuttings-
injection processes.
During the multiyear evaluation program,
engineers injected fluids ranging from water and
sand in early tests to actual cuttings in later
tests. By the end of the evaluation project, more
than 340,000 bbl [54,000 m
3
] of injection slurry
containing more than 76,000 bbl [12,000 m
3
] of
cuttings were pumped into injection wells.
In these early tests, Amoco demonstrated
that the injection of cuttings can be a cost-
effective means of oily-waste disposal when
compared with onshore disposal.
At the time, engineers estimated a
US$550,000 cost-savings per Valhall well using
cuttings-injection processes compared with land-
based or other cuttings-disposal techniques.
6
Disposal cost is not always the driver behind
the use of CRI technology. In remote or
environmentally sensitive areas, drilling-waste
management can be challenging. Treatment
facilities are often either unavailable or logisti -
cally inaccessible and costly. In these situations,
the injection of cuttings and other associated
waste streams into underground formations may
offer the only environmentally acceptable
58 Oileld Review
4. Marsh funnel viscosity is the time in seconds for one
quart of fluid to flow through a Marsh funnel. This is not
a true viscosity, but serves as a qualitative measure of
how thick a sample of fluid is. The funnel viscosity is
useful only for relative comparisons.
5. For more on the disposal domain: Peterson RE,
Warpinski NR, Lorenz JC, Garber M, Wolhart SL and
Steiger RP: Assessment of the Mounds Drill Cuttings
Injection Disposal Domain, paper SPE 71378, presented
at the SPE Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition,
New Orleans, September 30October 3, 2001.
6. Moschovidis et al, reference 3.
7. Guo Q, Geehan T and Pincock M: Managing
Uncertainties and Risks in Drill-Cuttings Reinjection in
Challenging EnvironmentsField Experience from
Sakhalin, paper SPE 93781, presented at the
SPE/EPA/DOE Exploration and Production Environmental
Conference, Galveston, Texas, March 79, 2005.
8. Minton RC: The Pneumatic Collection, Handling and
Transportation of Oily CuttingsTwo Years of Field
Experience, paper SPE 83727, presented at the
SPE/EPA/DOE E&P Environmental Conference,
San Antonio, Texas, March 1012, 2003.
>
Containing injected fluids. Poorly designed reinjection projects risk waste materials leaking back to the surface through natural fractures, along fault
planes or following a poorly cemented path up the borehole (left). Depending on the specific gravity of the injected waste, some material may rise to the
surface. With proper engineering and a suitable caprock formation, waste is contained within the injection zone (right).
Suitable caprock prevents natural
or induced fractures
from propagating to seabed
Shale Shale Chalk
Fault
Hydraulically induced
fractures
Natural
fractures
Fractures Fractures
Fractures
Winter 2006/2007 59
method of disposal. For example, in extreme
northern and southern climates, where harsh
winter weather can virtually eliminate onshore
treatment options and year-round drilling
operations, CRI may offer the only practical
solution for cuttings and drilling-waste disposal.
7
The Risks of Reinjection
As with all E&P operations, CRI has risks. Most
often, injection programs proceed without
serious mishap. However, particularly in the early
days of this technology, there were instances
where the path to the disposal formation, down
either casing or an annulus, became blocked,
effectively shutting down CRI operations. On
rare occasions, injection slurries have migrated
through natural fractures, hydraulically induced
fractures or poorly cemented sections of the well,
then back to the seabed. This event results in a
release of injection slurry to the seafloor
(previous page).
Failures such as these not only are costly in
environmental terms, but also pose serious
economic risks such as operational downtime,
injection-well remediation, or in the worst-case
scenario, a need to drill a new injection well. CRI
operations can be jeopardized by many factors
such as mechanical failures at the surface or
undercapacity of the disposal system, causing
costly delays to the drilling project. To minimize
these risks, engineers use advanced pneumatic
collection, transportation and storage systems
like those developed by M-I SWACO to decouple
drilling and CRI operations (above left).
During times of CRI equipment failure or
when cuttings are generated faster than they can
be processed, these pneumatic systems can
rapidly move waste and oily cuttings discharged
by solids-removal equipment to storage tanks for
later processing.
8
The pneumatic system can
transfer the cuttings over distances greater than
100 m [328 ft] and vertically between decks of a
platform, so storage tanks can be sited at a
distance from the drilling package. This avoids
the crowding problems associated with addi -
tional equipment on the drilling platform.
Downhole risks are less obvious and often
more complicated. Plugging of the tubing,
annulus or perforations can threaten the success
of a CRI operation. Solids in suspension naturally
settle during stagnant periods between injection
phases. The rate of settling is a function of time,
particle size and the low shear-rate viscosity of
the fluid. Larger particles, typically greater than
300 microns, are screened out at surface to help
reduce settling potential.
However, in CRI operations, problems with
settling are often complicated by borehole
deviation and the loss of carrier-fluid viscosity at
elevated downhole temperatures. Under these
circumstances, particles settle on the low side of
the wellbore, forming a bed that ultimately
becomes unstable and slides downhole (above).
As injection is initiated, solids in the bed are
compacted and form a solid plug, preventing
>
Cuttings on the move. The flow of drilling mud helps move cuttings from the bit to the
surface. At surface, they must be removed from the mud system before the fluid is pumped
back downhole. Various solids-control equipment such as shale shakers (top left) help
separate solids from liquid. Once captured, cuttings are typically moved around the rig by
auger or pneumatic cuttings transport systems. In some cases, cuttings are stored in cuttings
boxes or storage tanks (top right) for later processing and injection. Processing equipment
sizes, grinds and slurrifies the cuttings that are then pumped into the cuttings-injection well
under high pressures, creating storage fractures deep beneath the surface (bottom right).
Cuttings-
reinjection
zone
Cuttings
blower
Cuttings
storage
tanks
Injection
wellhead
Slurrification
unit
Strainer
Cuttings
classifying
shaker
High-
pressure
injection
pumps
Flow-
control
valve
Flow-
control
valve
Shale shaker
Cuttings box handler
>
Cuttings bed slides. At angles between about
35 and 70 degrees, solids (gray) that settle to the
lower side of the wellbore may slide down under
static conditions, resulting in the plugging of
injection perforations.
C
u
t
t
i
n
g
s

b
e
d

s
l
i
d
i
n
g
further injection. Clearing blockages, reper fo -
rating the tubing at a shallower depth or moving
to another injection well are costly steps that
threaten the efficiency of the drilling operation.
Cognizant of these reinjection risks, Sakhalin
Energy Investment Company (SEIC) nonetheless
chose CRI technology for drilling-waste
management in the harsh offshore Sakhalin
Island drilling environment. CRI was selected as
the most effective drilling-waste management
approach offshore Sakhalin Island for several
reasons. First, the discharge of drilling wastes is
no longer allowed and second, shore-based
drilling-waste management facilities are not
available.
9
Further, the area is ice-free only about
six months of the year; even if onshore options
existed, shipping to shore would limit the drilling
operational window. By contrast, drilling-waste
management using CRI would allow year-round
drilling operations.
Although CRI presented the only practical
solution for drilling-waste disposal, a previous
annular injection well had become plugged,
requiring a new well to be drilled for cuttings
injection. In addition to the loss of this first well,
the operator faced significant risks related to the
lack of historical operational data and experi -
ence, and the potential for solids dropout and
subsequent injector plugging in the newly drilled
directional well.
The new injection well served two purposes;
it would be the primary injection well during
drilling operations, and would later be used as a
field-development well. As such, it was signifi -
cantly deviated and had a much larger diameter
than the typical disposal well. Both the wellbore
diameter and its deviation increased the risk of
cuttings settling on the low side of the injection
tubing, a situation that could potentially plug the
disposal well.
Risk management was a crucial factor for
success, so monitoring and quality-assurance
efforts focused on slurry design and optimization,
pumping procedure design and optimization,
solids-transport modeling and assurance of
appropriate shut-in intervals between batches.
Engineers selected the primary through-
perforations injection point at 2,062 to 2,072 m
[6,765 to 6,798 ft] MD with a backup injection
point of 1,756 to 1,766 m [5,761 to 5,794 ft] MD.
The injection tubing was 5
1
2-in. tubing from
surface to 1,756 m MD, and 4
1
2-in. tubing from
1,756 m MD to the injection zone. Wellbore
inclination varied from approximately 55 over a
major portion of the borehole to around 33
across the primary injection zone.
The injection-tubing volume of approximately
150 bbl [24 m
3
] took three slurry batches to
displace. Limitations in slurrification tank
capacity limited the amount of slurry volume
that could be mixed at one time to around
80 bbl [13 m
3
]. Since the tubing volume could
not be displaced with one batch of slurry,
cuttings in suspension could remain in the
injection string for some time. Engineers were
concerned that the long residence time and the
deviated nature of the wellbore might cause the
cuttings-laden slurry to settle and form beds of
waste material along the low side of the injection
tubing. These cuttings beds might slide down and
plug the well during the shut-in intervals
between batches. Because of the high risk of
plugging, quality-control requirements for slurry
rheology were critical.
Marsh funnel viscosity is a key indicator of
CRI slurry quality. For this well, engineers were
concerned that the normal injection-slurry
viscosity range of 60 to 90 s/qt [60 to 90 s/L]
might not be adequate. Since gel strength and
low shear-rate viscosity (LSRV) contribute to
rheology characteristics that affect static
suspension, further tests were performed on the
slurry using a Fann Model 35 viscometer and
LSRV analysis using a Brookfield low-shear-rate
viscometer. Solids-settling tests, at a room
60 Oileld Review
>
Preinjection simulations to help predict fracture growth. This example (top) shows fracture or waste
containment due to a stress barrier that occurs when the overlying rock is stronger or stiffer than the
injection zone. The varying color represents the fracture width in inches. In this simulation, at a
fracture height of around 150 ft, fracture up-growth is contained by a stress barrier, in this case, a
shale with a fracture propagation pressure that is 200 psi [1.38 MPa] higher than the stress in the
injection zone. The simulator generates a probability graph (bottom) that indicates the most likely
fracture length taking into account known and unknown variables. In this case using 1,000 simulations,
the probability of a fracture length less than 504 ft is no more than 5%, and the probability of a fracture
length greater than 635 ft is less than 5%. The data indicate a 50% probability that the fracture length
will be 570 ft.
0
50
25
75
100
0
250
750
500
1,000
1,000 trials994 displayed
P
r
o
b
a
b
i
l
i
t
y
,

%
F
r
e
q
u
e
n
c
y
Certainty is 90% from 504 to 635 ft
Forecast: Fracture Length (One Wing)Cumulative Chart
466 519 573 626 679
0
200
100
0
100
200
300
100 200 300
Fracture half-length, ft
F
r
a
c
t
u
r
e

h
e
i
g
h
t
,

f
t
400 500 600
0.1
Width, in.
0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.2 0.8
Winter 2006/2007 61
temperature of l7C [63F] and at the estimated
downhole temperature of 60C [140F] were also
performed. Based on these data, an initial Marsh
funnel minimum viscosity requirement was set at
120 s/qt [approximately 120 s/L]. Engineers later
reduced the requirement to 90 s/qt after
experience was gained with the injection system.
Critical to a successful operation was
determining how long slurry could be left in the
injection tubing without solids dropping out and
potentially plugging the disposal well. Engineers
used gel-strength and LSRV data and a numerical
model to predict cuttings transport, settling
velocity and the maximum allowable residence
time. Simulation software was also used to
ensure optimization of operational procedures
and of the slurry rheology and solids-suspension
characteristicsboth for periodic injection and
for shut-in stability between batches.
The simulator divided the injection-well
configuration into small segments. Then, funda -
mental physical relationships helped numerically
determine local solids concentrations, cuttings-
settling rate, bed formation, bed sliding and
erosion, and solids accumulation at the bottom of
the well.
Engineers assumed that 80-bbl slurry batches
would be pumped at a rate of 4 bbl/min
[0.64 m
3
/min] and that the shut-in time between
batches would be four hours. The numerical
simulations demonstrated that injection at a rate
of 4 bbl/min would erode any solids bed that
might have formed in the 4
1
2-in. tubing.
Simulations also showed that after four hours of
shut-in between batches, the upper solids bed
(above the 5
1
2-in. tubing) would slide from 1,756
to 1,935 m [5,761 to 6,348 ft] along the tubing.
Since this is still approximately 125 m [410 ft]
above the top of the perforations, a shut-in
interval of four hours was allowed.
CRI proved to be the most effective drilling-
waste management option for SEICs drilling
operations offshore Sakhalin Island. Optimization
and risk-management procedures were successful
in reducing the uncertainties associated with this
critical cuttings-injection well. The drilling
window was extended to year-round operations,
and logistical constraints associated with ship-to-
shore disposal were resolved. By achieving a zero-
discharge operation, this project demonstrated
that cuttings reinjection is an economically sound,
environmentally friendly, long-term solution for
cuttings disposal in remote and environmentally
sensitive areas.
Advances in CRI Modeling
Once surface procedures and plugging risk have
been properly assessed and managed, engineers
turn their attention to fracture propagation. The
planning phase of most CRI projects uses
numerical models to predict the propagation
behavior of the fracture relative to the injected
volume (previous page). For production
engineers, modeling fractures is a key process to
optimize hydrocarbon recovery in low-
permeability reservoirs. Today, CRI engi neers use
similar processes to design waste-injection
programs, reducing risk to the operator and
assuring a smooth, efficient drilling process.
In CRI operations, safe containment of the
injected waste must be ensured. The extent and
propagation properties of the fracture network
created during fracturing operations must be
predicted with confidence; this is often
accomplished with three-dimensional hydraulic
fracturing simulators.
10
Typically, large volumes
of waste are injected, creating large fracture
networks. Waste-containment mechanisms
must be evaluated during feasibility studies to
identify possible disposal zones and fracture-
contain ment zones (below).
Three fracture-containment mechanisms are
particularly important in selecting a disposal
formation. Formations with fracture gradients
larger than those in the target injection zone can
often prevent the fracture from propagating
beyond the design bounds. Overlying formations
with increased fracture gradients, such as salt
forma tions, are also ideal containment or sealing
forma tions. A fracture may also be contained by a
high-permeability formation even though its frac -
ture gradient is lower. As carrier fluid leaks off
into the high-permeability formation, solid
parti cles are left behind, preventing the fracture
from growing in the high-permeability zone.
Lastly, a fracture may be contained by a
harder or stiffer formation with a higher elastic
modulus. Once the fracture approaches or enters
the harder or stronger formation, the width of
the fracture in and near the stiffer formation is
reduced; thus, the frictional pressure is
increased, preventing or slowing fracture growth
into the formation. Since these fracture
containment formations are not difficult to
recognize, appropriate injection and contain -
ment zones can easily be identified.
9. Guo et al, reference 7.
10. Guo Q, Geehan T and Ovalle A: Increased Assurance
of Drill Cuttings Re-InjectionChallenges, Recent
Advances and Case Studies, paper IADC/SPE 87972,
presented at the IADC/SPE Asia Pacific Drilling
Technology Conference and Exhibition, Kuala Lumpur,
September 1315, 2004.
>
Modeling fracture confinement. Advanced fracture simulators help
engineers visualize the extent and orientation of induced fractures. Injection
zones are most often capped at the top, and sometimes on the bottom, by
shales or evaporite formations; this helps in containing the vertical growth
of the fracture network.
Shale
Sand
Understanding the storage mechanisms in
cuttings-injection operations is another key
process for predicting the disposal capacity of an
injection well. Experts in the field tend to agree
that multiple fractures are created from
intermittent cuttings-slurry injections. In a recent
laboratory evaluation, a series of color-coded
slurries was injected into several 1-m
3
blocks of
different types of rocks.
11
Afterwards, the blocks
were split and the fractures were analyzed.
Results showed that slurry injection created
subparallel fractures. Field-pilot drill-cuttings
injections with real-time seismic and tiltmeter
monitoring and subsequent coring into the
predicted fracture networks also proved that CRI
processes created multiple fractures. A consistent
finding of these programs is that repeated slurry
injections create multiple or branched fractures;
these fractures character istically occupy an
evolving region, or disposal domain.
The reason that new fractures are created
from repeated slurry injections is that shut-in
periods between injections allow the disposal
fractures to close onto the cuttings and dissipate
any pressure buildup in the disposal formation.
The presence of the injected cuttings causes a
redistribution of the local stresses, resulting in
the creation of new fractures with subsequent
injections. The new branch fracture will not be
aligned with the azimuths of previous existing
fractures; instead, a network of fractures is
created from periodic slurry injections.
On CRI projects, the drilling-waste manage -
ment plan is generally in place before drilling
commences, so modeling of uncertainties and
risks is particularly important for CRI design and
engineering. Risks can be reduced by using
numerical simulators to model uncertainties. For
example, on a well in South America, little
information was available on formation proper -
ties such as permeability and Youngs modulus.
At the time of the disposal-well design, the
drilling program had not yet been finalized.
Therefore, the cuttings generation and required
slurry-injection volume and rates were undefined.
Because of these uncertainties, the extent of
the fractures created from CRI operations
was predicted as a range rather than a single
value (above).
Since each uncertainty has a different
distribution and impact on CRI operations, a
probabilistic approach helped engineers
generate a risk-based result. For example, risk-
analysis results based on fracture simulations
and ranges of uncertainties helped develop
probabilistic predictions of fracture extent from
the wellbore. Simulations indicated that there
was a 90% chance that the fracture extent from
the wellbore would be larger than 230 ft [70 m]
and smaller than 270 ft [82 m], while the 50%
probability value of the fracture extent would be
250 ft [76 m]. Based on this result, engineers
determined that a well spacing of 300 ft [91 m]
would be adequate to avoid drilling a live well
into a disposal fracture.
This risk-based approach can be applied to
modeling of other important CRI parameters
such as disposal capacity. Simulations indicated
62 Oileld Review
11. Guo et al, reference 10.
12. G-function analysis is a technique to describe fracture
pressure-decline behavior. It is a nondimensional
function of postshut-in time normalized by the pumping
time. Variance in fracture shape can be identified by
changes in pressure decline after shut-in that is
identified by this specialized time function. For more
on the G-function: Gulrajani SN and Nolte KG:
Fracture Evaluation Using Pressure Diagnostics, in
Economides MJ and Nolte KG: Reservoir Stimulation,
3rd Edition. Chichester, England: John Wiley & Sons Ltd
(2000): 3446.
>
Fracture-length sensitivity analysis to help predict fracture length. A fracture sensitivity study can
identify which uncertainty has the greatest impact on results. With this knowledge, plans can be
made to obtain data during drilling or logging operations to help reduce risk and improve modeling
accuracy. High (H), low (L) and baseline values (top) offer a starting point for the simulations,
providing the operator with a general idea of how much waste material might be injected into the
proposed zone. In this case, risk-based modeling indicates an 80% certainty that the fracture length
will be between 226 and 272 feet (bottom).
H
L
L
L
Leakoff
Fracture-Length Sensitivity
Batch size
Injection rate
Youngs modulus
L
H
H
H
Baseline
0
50
25
75
100
0
250
750
500
1,000
1,000 trials996 displayed
P
r
o
b
a
b
i
l
i
t
y
,

%
F
r
e
q
u
e
n
c
y
Certainty is 80.30%
from 225.62 to 271.93 ft
Forecast: Fracture Length (One Wing)Cumulative Chart
202.61 224.46 246.30 268.14 289.98
Winter 2006/2007 63
that there was a 90% chance that at least
31,000 bbl [4,929 m
3
] of cuttings could be safely
injected into this well. Assuming 20% cuttings by
volume in the slurry, this means that the disposal
capacity of this well is at least 155,000 bbl
[23,849 m
3
] of slurry. Since the injection zone
was a permeable sandstone formation from
which fluid could readily leak off, the impact of
fluid volume on disposal capacity was ignored.
Analysis of the operational data also helps
validate modeling results and provides early
warning of potential downhole problems. On a
well in the Sakhalin area, a dedicated CRI well
was drilled, and 5
1
2-in. injection tubing was
installed. The injection zone was a low-
permeability shale formation with interbedded
sandstone layers, both above and below the
perforated interval. Hydraulic fracturing simula -
tions demonstrated that fractures created from
slurry injection would grow upward from the
shale formation and into multiple zones.
As operations began, step-rate pump-in and
falloff tests were performed. Analysis of slurry
properties and injection-pressure data showed
the signature of fracture-height growth during
the injections (right). More detailed analyses on
the pressure-decline data after slurry injections
also showed fracture-height recession over
multiple zones during the shut-in periods.
Pressure and pressure-derivative plots versus a
specialized time function, often referred to as
the G-function, indicated the signatures of
fracture-height recession over multiple zones.
12
These results were consistent with preinjection
fracture-modeling results.
Integration of the geologic evaluation,
numerical modeling and pressure signature
yielded a full picture of fracture development
downhole. Analysis of the pressure data in this
case allowed engineers to avoid rapid injection-
pressure increases and the potential for loss of
injectivity by adjusting the injection-rate and
slurry-viscosity specifications as part of the
ongoing quality-control process.
Pressure Monitoring During CRI Operations
Pressure monitoring forms the foundation for
understanding how an injection well is
performing. Pressure trends over time provide a
key indictor of operations performance. If the
pressure rises slowly over time, this might
suggest a normal filling of the injection zone.
However, a rapid pressure rise suggests near-
wellbore plugging that requires immediate
attention. Conversely, a rapid drop in pressure
might indicate a leak in the system, either at the
surface or downhole. Finally, pressure data are a
key input parameter for hydraulic fracture
models, which are used both for initial system
design and model validation throughout the life
of the injection operation.
Early in a project, rock properties are not
always clearly understood, and the exact litho -
logical sequence is not always known, so
engineers make assumptions for a wide variety of
model-input parameters. This initial feasibility
study determines the range and potential storage
capacity of a hydraulically induced subsurface
fracture complex, the lateral and vertical growth
of the fractures, and the anticipated pressure
changes during CRI operations (bottom). These
simulations provide guidance for injection-well
design, the number of injection wells required,
the pressure regime for the tubing design, and
surface-equipment specifications.
>
Monitoring injection cycles. CRI engineers monitor injection-cycle pressure
data to identify trends such as fracture-height growth. The slight increase in
fracture initiation pressure (red) may indicate fracture-height growth,
although further analysis is required for confirmation.
0
800
400
1,200
1,600
600
200
1,000
1,400
S
u
r
f
a
c
e

i
n
j
e
c
t
i
o
n

p
r
e
s
s
u
r
e
,

p
s
i
05/12/04
11:02
05/12/04
15:50
05/12/04
20:38
05/13/04
1:26
Date/time
05/13/04
6:14
05/13/04
11:02
>
Typical injection pressure and pressure falloff signatures during a single injection episode in CRI
operations. Shown here is a typical injection-pressure recording over an entire injection cycle that
includes a pumping or injection period and a shut-in period. After pumping stops, the fracture will
close and pressure will decline, eventually reaching that of the formation. Variances or abnormalities
in these curves help engineers identify problems in the injection system.
520
500
480
460
440
420
400
380
360
340
320
S
u
r
f
a
c
e

p
r
e
s
s
u
r
e
,

p
s
i
Time, h
Last pumping pressure
Fracture closure
Instantaneous shut-in pressure
Injection period Shut-in period
Fracture
closure Formation transient response
1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5
Formation pressure
Formation pressure
Once the injection well has been drilled and
logged, the rock properties and lithology
sequence are input into the model, improving its
accuracy. Then, after the first injection
sequence, injection pressures at specific
pumping rates, slurry densities and viscosity data
provide further information for model validation
and adjustment. This cycle of monitoring, model
update and validation is repeated at intervals
during the slurry-injection project, so the model
is continually refined, and the projected ranges
for slurry-injection capacity, fracture growth and
pressure development are narrowed.
Technicians at the wellsite closely monitor
injection-pressure data to ensure that the
pressure response is developing as predicted.
Deviations from the modeled pressure trends
during the injection phases can provide early
warning signs of unexpected fracture develop -
ment and extension, or other problems.
13
M-I
SWACO has developed a CRI monitoring and
diagnostic system for real-time CRI quality
control and assurance. The portable system
monitors real-time slurry rheology, density,
pumping rate and injection pressures.
Engineers use the monitoring system data to
ensure that operational parameters are within
the ranges specified and simulated in the prewell
planning phase. During injection operations, a
monitoring and diagnostic software package
ensures that the injection well is performing as
expected and alerts CRI operators to any
developing risks (above). A cuttings-transport
simulator is also available to forecast slurry
stability and help maintain injec tivity. If the real-
time monitoring system signals potential risks,
M-I SWACO CRI assurance engineers at the
wellsite then use FracCADE fracturing design
and evaluation software or other diagnostic tools
to provide a more detailed pressure analysis.
In the North Sea, one operator used CRI
techniques to inject cuttings below the 13
3
8-in.
casing shoe of the main wellbore. The injection
formation was located in a geologically complex
environment close to a major fault. This
location significantly increased the risk level
associated with CRI operations and disposal
fracture containment.
To minimize these risks, a group of M-I
SWACO geomechanics experts specializing in
injection monitoring and pressure-trend analysis
identified subsurface risks and geological
hazards during injection operations and fracture-
geometry evolution. The team monitored and
evaluated all injection parameters on a daily
basis and performed in-depth analysis of
injection pressure.
Pressure analysis during one injection
sequence resulted in abnormal postshut-
in-pressure decline, represented by a straight-
line pressure-decline pattern. This unusual
pattern had not been observed during earlier
injections. Analysis of the event showed no
significant variations in injection parameters or
slurry rheology.
The main objectives of pressure-decline
analysis are to identify the reasons for unusual
pressure patterns, to predict the impact on
fracture behavior and the CRI system, and to
evaluate any associated risks. Data from other
CRI projects had demonstrated that a straight-
line pressure-decline pattern may have several
causes, one being the development of abnormal
restrictions at the injection point.
The engineering team analyzed pressure
derivatives with respect to nondimensional
G-function data after a specific shut-in time to
detect changes that occurred during the pressure-
decline process. Analysis of the derivatives
indicated linear behavior during the pressure
decline. Based on the initial information from
the straight-line pressure-decline interpretation
and indirect factors such as behavior of pressure
derivatives, the most likely cause of this unusual
pressure-decline behavior was a restriction in
the injection point.
To confirm the diagnosis, a cement bond log
(CBL) was run to verify the condition and level of
cement at the injection point and to determine
whether a restriction had developed at that
injection point. CBL data confirmed that the
level of cement in the 9
5
8-in. annular section was
higher than designed and had bridged part of the
openhole section, introducing a restriction at the
injection point.
From the pressure-analysis results and a
review of the CBL data, engineers were able to
define the problem and implement mitigation
procedures to minimize the restriction impact
64 Oileld Review
>
Monitoring the injection process. A system of sensors and intelligent software combined with a
quick-look screen help MI-SWACOs engineers monitor and control the CRI process. Minimal user
input is required, and all data are available on one screen. Quick diagnostic evaluations help detect
potential problems and reduce risks.
Winter 2006/2007 65
and the risks to further injection operations.
Changing the volume of the displacement stage
and reduced residence time for cuttings in the
static well annulus allowed operations to
continue despite the annular restriction. More
than 46,000 bbl [7,300 m
3
] of injection slurry
were safely injected into the CRI well.
In another North Sea case, an operator was
using annular injection processes between the
13
3
8-in. and 9
5
8-in. casings in a production well to
dispose of oil-base cuttings generated by primary
drilling operations. After five months of normal
injection procedures, a pressure spike of 600 psi
[4,137 kPa] was noted during annular injection.
Sudden injection-pressure increases may be
related to a number of factors, including well
obstruction or well plugging, fracture plugging,
particle settlement and operational errors such
as closed valves. Some problems are relatively
easy to identify through adequate analysis of
pressure signatures, but others are more elusive.
Onsite engineers and technicians checked
the well for potential leaks and confirmed the
integrity of the CRI system. During evaluation,
routine CRI operations continued with the
knowledge that the injection pressures were
spiking higher than normal. While carefully
monitoring the annular pressures during
injection, technicians noted that annular
pressure spikes seemed to coincide with high
levels of production caused by artificial lift.
Since there were no other practical
alternatives for cuttings management, it was
critical to understand the reasons for the
consistent increase in surface pressure during
the postshut-in period after CRI injection and its
relationship to production activity. Following a
careful and extensive evaluation, engineers found
that the CRI pressure spikes were related to
fracture-gradient increase resulting from thermal
expansion of the formation during production.
Analysis of CRI pressure behavior showed
that a considerable pressure difference occurred
when the well was flowing and when it was static.
Engineers discovered that the 600-psi variation
observed between the two situations coincided
with a theoretical fracture-gradient increase
associated with a 23C [41F] change in rock
temperature. The effect of the rise in tempera -
ture resulting from production operations was
greatest near the wellbore, increasing formation
stress by about 600 psi. The CRI injection
pressure had to overcome this effect to open the
fracture, causing a sudden increase in the
injection pressure.
Daily monitoring of injection parameters and
regular in-depth pressure analysis can signifi -
cantly reduce risk and increase the level of
injection quality assurance. Monitoring also helps
to ensure environmentally safe and seamless CRI
operations in spite of the significant uncertain -
ties of data availability and quality. Regular in-
depth pressure analysis allows engineers to
monitor the progression of injection fractures,
validate and update geomechanical models and
extend the life of the injection well.
Reducing Oil Waste
The amount of waste-oil mud pumped down
injection wells along with cuttings is consid -
erable. Although OBMs generally have a much
longer life than water-base muds, their life is not
indefinite. During the course of drilling, solids-
removal equipment extracts cuttings and fine
solids from muds as they return to the surface.
However, even with highly efficient equipment,
not all of the solids can be removed. The small
amount left in the mud is continuously subjected
to the grinding action of pumps and other
mechanical equipment. Over time, the particles
become smaller and smaller, eventually reaching
sizes less than one micron and exponentially
increasing their surface area (above).
As the ultrafine solids content in the mud
increases, the fluids performance and general
stability decreases; eventually the mud is
considered worn out and is disposed of. Since
much of the economic value of an oil mud lies in
the oil itself, generations of drillers and service
companies have searched for methods to recover
base oil from these worn-out muds.
>
Increasing surface area. The mechanical action of drilling and circulating deteriorates cuttings. If
not removed from the circulating system, with time they become smaller, similar to a cube being
divided, and increase in surface area (top). Drilling performance and cost suffer as more chemicals
and fresh volume are required to manage this increased surface area. Eventually, cuttings may
reduce in size (bottom) to a point that makes removal from the drilling fluids difficult, if not impossible.
13. Fragachn F, Ovalle A and Shokanov T: Pressure
Monitoring: Key for Waste Management Injection
Assurance, paper SPE 103999, presented at the First
International Oil Conference and Exhibition in Mexico,
Cancun, August 31September 2, 2006.
The M-I SWACO RECLAIM technology is a
chemically enhanced solids-removal process,
capable of eliminating the majority of the fine
solids from nonaqueous fluids. The fine solids, or
low-gravity solids (LGS), that accumulate in a
mud system during the drilling process hinder
efficient drilling in several ways: pipe-sticking
potential is increased, rotary-torque levels may
rise, the penetration rate may decrease, and the
mud may experience other problems related to
its increased viscosity.
Solids-control equipment typically removes
LGS particles greater than 5 to 7 microns, while
smaller particles remain in the mud system. As
the concentration of these fine solids continues
to build, the only conventional recourse is to
dilute the mud system to reduce the LGS
concentration or to build new mud. Dilution
and building of more mud increase waste,
disposal volumes and the overall cost of the
drilling project.
The RECLAIM system is designed to remove
the bulk of fine colloidal particles and may also
be used to increase the oil-to-water ratio (OWR)
of the drilling fluid. The technology comprises
flocculants, surfactants and a RECLAIM unit skid
containing all the components required to
effectively flocculate fine solids in a nonaqueous
fluid (below).
Flocculation of oil-wet solids in suspension is
not a trivial task. Surfactants developed by M-I
SWACO and their research partners weaken the
muds emulsion so that proprietary flocculating
polymers can agglomerate the fine solids. Once
flocculated, the LGS can be removed with
conventional centrifuge techniques. The polymer
also promotes the demulsification of the brine
droplets in the mud. Therefore, a secondary
effect of this process is that water is removed
along with the solids, concentrating the base-oil
and increasing the OWR.
RECLAIM technology may be used on active
drilling projects to improve solids-control
equipment efficiency, in postwell mud recondi -
tioning of inventory and for the recovery of base
oil from worn-out mud systems. In the process,
fluids from the active drilling operations or
storage location are transferred to the RECLAIM
unit feed pump (next page). Before the fluid
reaches the pump, a surfactant is injected into
the fluid at predetermined concentrations. The
surfactant reduces the emulsion stability of the
mud allowing the flocculating polymer to adhere
to the fine solids.
As the fluid is transferred to the centrifuge,
flocculating polymer is added to the fluid stream
by an injection pump. The fluid is then routed
through a mixing system for blending. Afterwards,
high-speed centrifuges separate LGS and water
from the base fluid. Reclaimed fluid is returned to
the active system or tanks for storage. The waste
66 Oileld Review
>
A self-contained system for reclaiming fluid. The RECLAIM skid-mounted treatment unit contains all the equipment necessary to facilitate the RECLAIM
process including polymer and surfactant tanks, water and oil tanks, pumps, mixers, control systems, and feed and return lines.
Winter 2006/2007 67
stream is discarded from the centrifuge for
disposal. This waste material contains not only
the flocculated solids but also a portion of the
water phase. If required, the bulk of the water
phase can be removed by adjusting the polymer-
treatment level. Excess polymer is also removed,
ensuring the generation of a virtually solids-free,
reusable, nondegraded base-fluid.
In one case, while drilling in the foothills of
the Rocky Mountains northwest of Calgary, an
operator was left with 1,258 bbl [200 m
3
] of
1.20-sg [10-lbm/galUS] low-toxicity mineral oil-
base mud after drilling each well, most of which
was stored for reuse on the next drilling project.
14
As mentioned previously, as oil-muds wear out
through reuse, performance parameters suffer,
particularly the rate of penetration. In this case,
the operator needed to improve rate of
penetration (ROP) to reduce well costs. One way
of improving ROP is to drill with a low-density mud
of 0.95 sg [7.91 lbm/galUS] or less. However, the
density of the oil-base fluid in use could not be
reduced from 1.20 to 0.95 sg by conventional
means and would have to be disposed of,
increasing the cost of both the drilling fluid and
disposal. RECLAIM technology was used on
location to reduce the existing mud density from
1.20 to 0.95 sg, eliminating the need to replace
and dispose of 1,258 bbl of mud per well.
In another case, mud returned from the field
to an M-I SWACO mud plant in the Middle East
contained 16 to 20% LGS, had an OWR ranging
from 70:30 to 80:20, and an average density of
1.20 sg. The operators specification for mud to
be returned to the field was a 90:10 OWR with a
density of less than 1.08 sg [9.0 lbm/galUS].
At the mud plant, engineers had another
problem. Standard treatment to bring the used
mud back into condition required high levels of
dilution with diesel, which would take a
significant amount of time and stress the limits
of plant capacity. The dilution process would also
produce large volumes of waste fluids that would
require disposal.
Using RECLAIM technology, engineers
achieved an OWR of 90:10 with no significant
change in the volume of fluid being treated. The
technology allowed the dilution volume to be
significantly reduced from 160 to 30%, which in
turn reduced mud-treatment costs. OWRs up to
98:2 were achieved with increased doses of
flocculent, and recovered fluid was used for
dilution in place of new diesel.
RECLAIM technology effectively eliminated
the high dilution required to recondition mud
returns from the rig, and significantly reduced
disposal costs for excess fluids. Costs to bring the
treated-mud properties back to specification
were a fraction of those likely to be incurred
during dilution or when building new mud.
Managing Waste and Resources
Unearthing terrestrial resources is an age-old
process. Regardless of the method used, the
generated wastes must be properly managed.
Through generations of drillers, the E&P industry
has sought the perfect solution for drilling-waste
disposal. While current solutions to the problem
are not perfect, they are far better than those
available just a few decades ago.
Up-to-date practices, including fracturing
underground formations, help recover hard-to-
access reserves and, at the same time, provide a
suitable resting place for millions of tons of
drilling waste. By returning rock and debris
excavated from the Earth back to their origin,
operators have taken a significant step toward
environmental stewardship. Similarly, methods
such as RECLAIM technology are improving the
utilization of available resources, and reducing
waste products and the costs of recovering
hydrocarbon reserves.
CRI and RECLAIM technologies are among a
host of other methods either in use or under
development that promise to facilitate move ment
toward minimizing environmental impact while
improving reserve recovery. In the years to come,
the continued development and deploy ment of
clean and green technologies will help the oil and
gas industry extract the Earths resources with
minimal environmental impact. DW
>
Processing fluids to be reclaimed. Typically, drilling fluid is moved from the active system or from storage to the processing unit. Additive stations and
mixers process the fluid and prepare it for solids separation by a high-speed centrifuge. From a single feed stream, the system returns three phases; base
oil to be returned to the active system or to storage, a waste solids stream, and the oil-muds water phase.
Mud from
storage or active
mud system
RECLAIM
unit
feed pump
Discarded
solids and
waste water
Mixing
system
Flocculating
polymer
Surfactant
1
2 4 5 6
3 7
M-I SWACO
centrifuge
Reclaimed fluid
to active mud
system or storage
14. Fluid density is often given as specific gravity, or sg,
representing density in grams per cubic centimeter.