Thermodynamics II Laboratory Instructions

HHV and LHV Measurements Junkers Gas Calorimeter

Exercise No 4

Theory
Definitions
The Higher Heating Value (HHV) or heat of combustion is the amount of energy which is released in the process of complete combustion of a weight/volume unit of certain fuel and cooling down all the combustion products to the ambient temperature. The Lower heating Value (LHV) is the HHV lowered by the heat of evaporation of all the water contained in the flue gas. Thus the LHV is roughly (although not exactly) equal to the amount of energy released in the process of complete combustion of a weight/volume unit of certain fuel and cooling down the combustion products to the flue gas dew point. It is utilised to determine energy potential of combusting fossil fuels, as in industrial practice it is usually impossible or impracticable to cool down flue gas below the dew point (due to corrosion risk). LHV is also popularly used to determine efficiency of combustion systems. It should be noted however, that if LHV is used to determine energy input into a system, which does cool down the exhaust gas below the dew point (like in case of heating boilers fired with de-sulphurised natural gas), the efficiency calculated as the energy output (water enthalpy increase divided by fuel energy input) may go beyond 100%. Such a value, while technically correct, has no physical meaning, yet it may be utilised to compare efficiencies of several different pieces of equipment.

Units
Typically fuel heating values are denominated in units of energy in reference to units of weight or normalised volume. Thus most popular heating value units (in Europe) are: For solid fuels: kJ/kg, MJ/kg, GJ/Mg For gaseous fuels MJ/Nm.

Please remember, that Nm normal cubic metre is a unit defining amount of gas, not its actual volume. A normal cubic metre is directly linked to certain mass of a gas or to certain amount of its molecules. Normal cubic metre of a gas is the amount of gas which will have a volume of exactly one cubic metre in normal conditions. Please note that reference conditions (pressure and temperature) used to define it may vary according to standards used in different countries. In Poland the reference conditions (called normal conditions) are: p = 101,325 Pa, T = 273.15 K.

2011 Division of Thermodynamics, Institute of Heat Engineering

Thermodynamics II Laboratory Instructions

The Junkers Calorimeter

Junkers calorimeter is a device used for measuring LHV and HHV of gaseous or liquid fuels. Its working principle is based on the First Law of Thermodynamics. The calorimeter consists of the following main parts: Fuel burner Cylindrical combustion chamber, located directly above the burner Water jacket surrounding the combustion chamber Cooling water inlet with a flow-control valve Cooling water outlet with a three way valve allowing the discharged water to be directed to sewerage or to a measurement tank Exhaust gas outlet Flue gas condensate outlet.

The calorimeter is equipped with three thermometers, measuring temperatures of: Exhaust gas Cooling water at inlet Cooling water at outlet.

During a measurement the burner is tuned to ensure complete combustion process and then fixed in the bottom part of the combustion chamber. Water delivered to the calorimeter is flowing through the external jacket and is subsequently discharged either to sewerage or to a measurement container. Exhaust gas, cooled down to the ambient temperature by the water flow, is exhausted to the environment. Water vapour contained in the flue gas is condensing in the process of cooling down flue gas and is discharged through a special pipe stub installed in the bottom part of the calorimeter. The energy released during the combustion process is therefore at first utilised to heat up the gases inside the combustion chamber (i.e. air and fuel). Then the gases are cooled by water and the energy is transferred to the cooling water, increasing its temperature. If the flue gas is cooled down to ambient temperature, then it may be assumed that 100% of released energy is transferred to the cooling water. The calorimeter seen as a separate thermodynamic system is an open flow-type system with following mass inlets and outlets: Fuel gas inlet Air inlet Exhaust gas outlet Cooling water inlet Cooling water outlet.

Additionally heat may be exchanged between the calorimeters interior and ambient air through the calorimeter walls. Therefore we may present the energy balance of the calorimeter as:

2011 Division of Thermodynamics, Institute of Heat Engineering

Thermodynamics II Laboratory Instructions

m f HHV m f h f ma ha miwhiw meg heg mowhow mc hc Q 0

where:

m mass flow h specific enthalpy

H enthalpy HHV higher heating value of the fuel gas Q 0 heat flux going OUT of calorimeter (heat exchange with environment)

and subscripts meaning is:

f fuel a air iw inlet cooling water ow outlet cooling water c condensate.

As there the water flow through the calorimeter is continuous and steady, miw mow mw

Moreover it may be assumed that the combined enthalpy of the fuel CALORIMETER Hc gas and air is approximately equal Hiw to the enthalpy of cooled down How exhaust gas, while the total enthalpy of condensate is close to zero. Also bearing in mind that Hf B enthalpy of water may be expressed as a product of water specific heat capacity c and its temperature expressed in degrees Celsius t, we may therefore simplify the equation to: Heg

m f HHV mwC tiw tow Q 0

Heat losses to the environment may be cooled by adjusting the water flow in a way ensuring that the temperature of calorimeter external walls will be equal to the ambient air temperature (as any potential heat transfer at this boundary is driven by a potential temperature difference). As the

2011 Division of Thermodynamics, Institute of Heat Engineering

Thermodynamics II Laboratory Instructions water does not have uniform temperature within the calorimeter, this condition is fulfilled by adjusting water flow in such a way that the average water temperature (i.e. mean temperature between the inlet and outlet) is equal to the ambient temperature. In such a case we may assume that Q 0 and therefore

m f HHV mwC tow tiw

If the equation is integrated over certain time during which the calorimeter operates at steady state, then it transforms into:

m f HHV mwC tow tiw

Thus the higher heating value is calculated as

HHV
where:

mwC tow tiw mf

mw mass of cooling water which has passed through the cooling jacket during the
measurement period C specific heat capacity of water

m f mass of fuel combusted in the burner during the measurement period

tiw water inlet temperature during the measurement period tow water outlet temperature during the measurement period.

As in practice water temperatures vary slightly, average values from the whole measurement period are used. The fuel LHV is determined according to the definition. This means that it is necessary to collect the condensate from the flue gas during the measurement period. Then the lower heating value may be calculated as:

LHV HHV mc r
where:

mc mass of condensate collected during the measurement period

r heat of evaporation of water.

Mass of the combusted fuel is determined according to indications of the gas flow meter, which indicates: Volume of consumed gas Supply gas pressure

2011 Division of Thermodynamics, Institute of Heat Engineering

Thermodynamics II Laboratory Instructions Supply gas temperature.

Please note that the volume of consumed gas is valid for measured parameters only! It may be converted to normalised volume (expressed in normal cubic metres) using Clapeyrons equation. Then a mass of consumed fuel gas may be calculated using its density.

Exercise instruction
During the exercise you will measure LHV and HHV of a 50/50 mixture of propane and butane. Preparation Record the ambient temperature Open the main cooling water valve (red handle) Check the water inlet temperature Calculate the desirable outlet water temperature Open the gas supply valve and ignite the burner WARNING! DO NOT OPEN THE GAS VALVE AND DO NOT IGNITE THE BURNER UNLESS SPECIFICALLY ORDERED TO DO SO BY YOUR INSTRUCTOR! FAILURE TO COMPLY WITH THIS REQUIREMENT IS CONSIDERED A SERIOUS VIOLATION OF HEALTH-AND-SAFETY RULES AND MAY RESULT WITH A FAILURE TO GET A POSITIVE FINAL GRAD FROM THE COURSE! Adjust the burner to obtain a smooth blue flame, proving that combustion is complete Put the burner under the calorimeter. Do not attach it yet Adjust the fine-control valve installed on the calorimeter to achieve desirable outlet water temperature CAUTION. The valve controls the water flow into the calorimeter. The thermometer shows the temperature of outgoing water flow. This means that the temperature response will be delayed. Take your time and allow the system to respond to even fine valve movements. CAUTION. If you set insufficient water flow, then the outgoing water temperature will rapidly increase. This might lead to destroying the thermometer. If you are unable to contain temperature increase (i.e. if the temperature exceeds approximately 35C and keeps growing) immediately remove the burner from the calorimeter and wait for the temperature to drop. Only afterwards you may try again. When the desired outgoing water temperature is achieved and stabilised, verify that the exhaust gas temperature is equal to the ambient temperature. If it is the case, you may start the main measurement.

Main measurement During the main measurement you need to record the following parameters at regular intervals (e.g. 30 seconds): Fuel gas pressure and temperature Fuel gas consumption (measured from time zero)

2011 Division of Thermodynamics, Institute of Heat Engineering

Thermodynamics II Laboratory Instructions Water inlet temperature Water outlet temperature.

At the time zero, except for recording those parameters, you need to perform two more actions: Switch a three-way valve on the outgoing water line, so the water is discharged by the stub pipe into your measurement container Put a wash-bottle under the drain of the exhaust gas condensate.

The measurement continues until the amount of collected condensate is sufficient to measure it with reasonable accuracy. Please note that it may be necessary to switch cooling water containers. You may measure amount of collected water using a scale available at the laboratory. Upon completion of the measurement: Switch the cooling water valve back to the sewerage discharge Remove the wash-bottle from the calorimeter and measure (weigh) the condensate Sum up entire cooling water consumption Remove the burner from the calorimeter Shut down the gas supply valve. Verify that the flame goes out Shut down the main water supply valve Wipe any spilled water.

In your report you should include: General description of the test equipment All measurement records Calculation of HHV and LHV values.

You will receive detailed report guidelines from your Instructor.

2011 Division of Thermodynamics, Institute of Heat Engineering