Principles and Applications of Variable Frequency Drives

Presented by Randall L. Foulke, P.E., BCEE NC AWWA-WEA Spring Conference April 6, 2009 New Bern, North Carolina

What is a variable-frequency drive?

A variable-frequency drive (VFD) is a system for controlling the rotational speed or torque of an alternating current (AC) electric motor by controlling the frequency of the electric power supplied to the motor. By extension, a VFD also controls horsepower. A VFD is a type of an adjustable-speed drive (ASD).
NC AWWA-WEA Spring Conference April 6, 2009

Types of Adjustable Speed Drives

Mechanical Adjustable Speed Drives

Variable pitch drives Traction drives

Hydraulic Adjustable Speed Drives

Hydrostatic drives Hydrodynamic drives Hydroviscous drives

Continuously Variable Transmission (CVT)

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Types of Adjustable Speed Drives

Electric adjustable speed drives

DC motor drives Eddy current drives AC motor drives Slip controlled drives Multiple speed motors Adjustable-frequency drives (AFD)
Also known as variable-frequency drives

NC AWWA-WEA Spring Conference April 6, 2009

Why Use Adjustable Speed Drives

Saving energy Process control
Smoother operation Acceleration/deceleration control Different operating speed for each process mode Compensate for changing process variables Allow slow operation for setup purposes Adjust rate of process parameters Allow accurate positioning Control torque or tension
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Why use VFDs

Assumes the need for adjustable speed

Adjustable output Steady state condition

Reduced capital expenditure

Solid state electronic power conversion devices

Reduced maintenance
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Alternate Terms for VFD

Adjustable-frequency drive (AFD) Variable-speed drive (VSD) Microdrive Inverter drive Variable voltage variable frequency
(VVVF)

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Saving Energy with VFDs Affinity Laws

Law 1. With impeller diameter (D) held constant:
Law 1a. Flow is proportional to shaft speed: Q1/Q2 = (N1/N2) Law 1b. Pressure or Head is proportional to the square of shaft speed: H1/H2 = (N1/N2)2 Law 1c. Power is proportional to the cube of shaft speed: P1/P2 = (N1/N2)3
where Q is the volumetric flow rate (e.g. CFM or GPM), D is the impeller diameter (e.g. in), N is the shaft rotational speed (e.g. rpm), H is the pressure or head developed by the fan/pump, and P is the shaft power. These laws assume that the pump/fan efficiency remains constant. In other words, 1 = 2 .

Reducing pump speed by 50% results in a power consumption drop to 12.5%

NC AWWA-WEA Spring Conference April 6, 2009

Saving Energy with VFDs Motor Starting

Start motors Resistance of motor, equipment, and
process
Simple switching at full load

Requires additional energy inrush current VFD can start motor at low frequency and avoid
Typical inrush current is at least 300% of rated current of motor produces less than 50% of rated torque of motor

high inrush current Constant-speed motor starts significantly increase energy usage
Each motor start increases energy usage at least 300%
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Operating Principles of AC Motors

Synchronous speed of an AC motor determined by frequency of AC supply and number of poles in stator winding. RPM = (120 x f) / p RPM = revolutions per minute, f = AC power frequency (hertz), p = number of poles (120 x 60) / 4 = 1800 RPM Induction motor at full load = 1750 RPM Speed controller with input of 50 hertz (Hz) (120 x 50) / 4 = 1500 RPM

NC AWWA-WEA Spring Conference April 6, 2009

VFD Types

All VFDs use output devices only as

switches, turning them only on or off

Using linear output devices impractical, since dissipated power = power delivered to load

Drive types
Constant current Cycloconverter Constant voltage Most Common Pulse width modulation to control frequency and
voltage
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VFD System

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VFD System Description

Motors VFD controller
3 induction motor Most economical Synchronous motors may offer some advantages Solid state electronic power conversion Use of rectifiers and inverters to convert AC to DC to quasisinusoidal AC Will accept 1 power, but must derate system Embedded microprocessor governs operation Limited ability for configuration programming and parameter

Allowable spacing between motors and controllers can

vary by factor of 2.5:1
Higher carrier switching frequencies (CSF) dictate short distances
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adjustment

VFD Diagram

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Types of Switches

Transistors Thyristors Insulated-gate bipolar transistor (IGBT)

Introduced in 1980s Most used device in VFDs for inverter circuits in first decade of 21st century

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Drive Output Waveform

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Common Torque
If torque is
maintained, then applied voltage must be decreased in same ratio to frequency Usual method for adjusting motor voltage is pulsewidth modulation (PWM)
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Selection of VFDs
PWM type of IGBT is newest and best
performing
6 pulse and 18 pulse available, with 6 pulse most common no difference in control performance 18 controls harmonics for motor and facility electrical system 18 pulse only used for 100 hp and above

Small VFDs (<20hp) most manufacturers same,

>20 hp best to select from well known manfacturers
Allen-Bradley, Danfoss, Robicon (Siemens)
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Selection of VFDs
Fully rated NEMA bypass expensive option
Includes across the line starter in parallel with VFD Failure of VFD removes circuit from system and NEMA bypass operates motor at full speed

Use one or more constant speed process units

in parallel with VFD process units in multiple unit applications
Also reduces capital cost May cause unbalanced wear unless provided with selector switches for VFD controlled units
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VFD Operator Interface

Commonly known as human machine

interface (HMI) Operator controls
Start/stop Adjust Speed Switch between manual and automatic Receive external process control Displays of indication and meters Keypad can be remote from controller
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VFD Examples

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How VFDs Are Controlled

Manually Automatically
Adjust frequency by set point locally or remotely Adjust frequency based on maintaining process parameter level, flow, DO, density Adjust frequency based on relationship to another process parameter flow, nitrogen

Control input adjusts the frequency output from the VFD

to motor changing the RPM of the motor and process unit.
Normally from 60 Hz down, but can be operated above 60 Hz, but will reduce available torque from motor (sometimes call field weakening). Example operation at 75 Hz reduces torque to 80%.
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How VFDs Operate

Starting
Initial application of low frequency and voltage (2 Hz or less) avoids high inrush current Applied frequency and voltage increased at controlled rate without drawing excessive current Develop 150% of torque
with only 50% of rated current

As load accelerates, available torque drops somewhat, then rises to peak at motor full load
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How VFDs Operate

Stopping
Frequency and voltage are ramped down at a controlled rate, approaching zero, motor shuts off Small amount of braking torque available to decelerate load faster than if allowed to coast Braking circuit can be added to obtain additional braking torque turning the motor into a generator

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Maintaining VFDs
VFD Basically a computer
and a power supply Maintenance requirements
Keep it clean Keep it dry Keep the connections tight Keep it cool
Fan injecting dust

Arcing caused by loose contacts Corrosion caused by moisture

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Available VFD Power Ratings

Low voltage
110 v to 690 v hp to 1000 hp

Medium voltage
Up to 2400/4160 v @ 60 Hz and 3000 v @ 50 Hz Up to 5000 hp Some applications use a transformer between low voltage drive and medium voltage load
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Limitations of VFDs
Reprogramming
May require factory technician

May have limited operating range

Generally with pumps 50% turndown

Location of drive units

Different transmission-line impedance of the cable and motor result in reflection of pulses, which can put high stress on cable and eventual insulation failure long runs of 480 volts and frequent concern for motors of 600 volts and above.
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Disadvantages of VFDs
Additional point of failure Increased risk
Equipment failure Misinterpret communication signals Process Control

Additional cost of equipment

Microelectronics have mitigated this disadvantage

Complexity of control circuitry Additional operator and maintenance training,

skill and knowledge

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Disadvantages of VFDs
Harmonics
Potential for development in process unit destructive stress Electrical system if VFD >25% of load, must take steps to mitigate

Requires clean conditioned space or AC cooler

on panel
Sensitive to heat

Frequent/constant running at full speed

decreases efficiency and life of VFD
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Alternative/Innovative Uses of VFDs

Use to control surge during start-up/shutdown of process units (pumps) Use to adapt to varying head conditions, manually or automatically, while maintaining flow rate Use braking circuit to return power to source Use of single VFD to control more than one process unit (additional pumps)

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Useful Application Information

Single phase to three phase common trick
when site does not have 3 power to supply 3 pumps
Used for larger lift stations in rural and remote locations Issue VFD size usually doubled to accept higher current on input side of electric supply

Generator sizing VFD motor requires smaller

generator than across the line starting
VFDs limit inrush current by up to 50% VFD cost can be offset by reduced generator size
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Is a VFD Right for You

Varying process conditions

Better control Fine tuning of process

Control surges Frequent start-stops of equipment Need to control energy costs Automatic control
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Questions
Randall L. Foulke, P.E., BCEE URS Corporation North Carolina 919-637-3344 Randy_Foulke@urscorp.com