p.

- 1 -

Nicholas L. Frazer

(1)

n
n!
=
m
m!(n m)!
!
!
n!
n
n
n!
+
=
+
m1
m
(m 1)!(n m + 1)! m!(n m)!
n!(m!(n m)! + (m 1)!(n m + 1)!)
=
(m 1)!(n m + 1)!m!(n m)!
n!(m 1)!(m(n m)! + (n m + 1)!)
=
(m 1)!(n m + 1)!m!(n m)!
n!(m(n m)! + (n m + 1)!)
=
(n m + 1)!m!(n m)!
n!(n m)!(m + (n m + 1))
=
(n m + 1)!m!(n m)!
n!(m + (n m + 1))
=
(n m + 1)!m!
n!(n + 1)
=
(n m + 1)!m!
(n + 1)!
=
m!(n + 1 m)!
!
n+1
=
m

(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
(7)
(8)
(9)
(10)

(2) Induction on n.

(x + y)

n
X
n
i=0

xi y ni

(11)

n=1:

(12)

x+y = y+x

(13)

nn+1:

(14)

(x + y)(x + y)n = (x + y)

n
X
i=0

= x
=

n
X
n

i=0
n
X
i=0

i
!

n i ni
xy
i

!
i ni

xy

+y

(15)

n
X
n

i=0
n
X

xi y ni

(16)

n i+1 ni
n i n+1i
x y
+
xy
i
i=0 i

(17)

p. 5

- 2 -

=
=

n+1
X
i=1
n+1
X
i=1

Nicholas L. Frazer

n
X
n
n i n+1i
xi y ni+1 +
xy
i1
i=0 i

n
X
n
n i n+1i
n n+1
xi y ni+1 +
xy
+
y
i1
0
i=1 i

(19)

=
=

n
n n+1 X
x
+
n
i=1

n
n n+1
n n+1 X
n + 1 i n+1i
x
+
xy
+
y
n
i
0
i=1

n+1
X
i=0

n
n
+
i1
i

(x + y)

n
n
X
n n+1 X
n
n i n+1i
n n+1
i ni+1
xy
+
xy
+
y
(20)
x
+
n
0
i=1 i 1
i=1 i

n+1

(18)

!!

i n+1i

xy

n n+1
+
y
0

(21)

(22)

n + 1 i n+1i
xy
i

(23)

(3a)

n
X

2i 1 = n2

(24)

i=1

n=1:

(25)

211 = 1

(26)

1 = 1

(27)

nn+1:
n+1
X
i+1
n+1
X
i+1
n+1
X

(28)

2i 1 = n2 + 2(n + 1) 1

(29)

2i 1 = n2 + 2n + 1

(30)

2i 1 = (n + 1)2

(31)

i+1

(b)

n
X

i2 =

i=1

n(n + 1)(2n + 1)
6

n=1:
1 =

(32)
(33)

1(2)(3)
6

(34)

p. 5

- 3 -

Nicholas L. Frazer

1 = 1

(35)

nn+1:
n+1
X
i=1
n+1
X
i=1
n+1
X
i=1
n+1
X
i=1
n+1
X
i=1
n+1
X
i=1
n+1
X

(36)

i2 =

n(n + 1)(2n + 1)
+ (n + 1)2
6

(37)

n(n + 1)(2n + 1) + 6n2 + 12n + 6

=
6

(38)

(n2 + n)(2n + 1) + 6n2 + 12n + 6

=
6

(39)

(2n3 + 3n2 + n) + 6n2 + 12n + 6

=
6

(40)

2n3 + 9n2 + 13n + 6

=
6

(41)

(n2 + 3n + 2)(2n + 3)
=
6

(42)

i2 =

i=1

(n + 1)(n + 2)(2n + 3)
6

(43)

(c)
n
X

n(n + 1)
2

i=1

!2

(44)

n=1:

(45)
1(2)
2

1 =

!2

(46)

1 = 1

(47)

nn+1:
n+1
X
i=1
n+1
X
i=1
n+1
X
i=1
n+1
X
i=1
n+1
X
i=1

(48)
n(n + 1)
2

!2

!2

n(n + 1)
2

!2

n(n + 1)
2

i3 =
i

+ (n + 1)3

(49)

+ (n + 1)(n2 + 2n + 1)

(50)

+ (n3 + 3n2 + 3n + 1)

(51)

i3 =

n2 (n + 1)2
+ (n3 + 3n2 + 3n + 1)
4

(52)

i3 =

n2 (n2 + 2n + 1)
+ (n3 + 3n2 + 3n + 1)
4

(53)

p. 5

- 4 n+1
X
i=1
n+1
X
i=1
n+1
X
i=1
n+1
X
i=1
n+1
X
i=1
n+1
X

Nicholas L. Frazer

i3 =

(n4 + 2n3 + n2 )
+ (n3 + 3n2 + 3n + 1)
4

(54)

i3 =

(n4 + 2n3 + n2 ) + (4n3 + 12n2 + 12n + 4)

4

(55)

i3 =

n4 + 6n3 + 13n2 + 12n + 4

4

(56)

i3 =

(n2 + 2n + 1)(n2 + 4n + 4)
4

(57)

i3 =

(n + 1)2 (n + 2)2
4

(58)

i=1

(n + 1)(n + 2)
2

!2

(59)

(4)

n 
Y
i=2

1
1+
i1

i1

nn1
(n 1)!

(60)

n=2:


1+

1
1

(61)

1

2
1!

(62)

2 = 2

(63)

nn+1:
n+1
Y
i=2
n+1
Y
i=2
n+1
Y
i=2
n+1
Y
i=2
n+1
Y
i=2
n+1
Y
i=2

(5) Existence:

1
i1

i1

1
1+
i1

i1

1
1+
i1

i1

1
1+
i1

i1

1
1+
i1

i1

1
1+
i1

i1

1+

(64)
n1

!

n
(n 1)!

n
X
nn1
n 1

j
(n 1)!
j=0 j n

1+

1
n

n

n
X
j=0

n
X
j=0

n
X
j=0

(65)
!

(66)

n
nn1
j (n 1)!nj

(67)

n nn1j
j (n 1)!

(68)

n nnj
j n!

(69)

(n + 1)n
n!

(70)

p. 5

- 5 -

Nicholas L. Frazer

Let q be the greatest integer less than or equal to x.

bxc = q

(71)

xq = r

(72)

s < 1

(73)

s 0

(74)

Uniqueness:
Suppose there is some other integer q 0 and/or some other real s0 .

x = q 0 + s0

(75)

s0 < 1

(76)

s0 0

(77)

x s0 = q 0

(78)

bxc = q 0

(79)

Since the greatest integer function is a function, q, s are unique.

Euclidean Algorithm:
Assume the theorem is false. Let n be the smallest integer (by well ordering) for which
the Euclidean algorithm does not hold for some m. By well ordering there is a largest element
q Z satisfying

mq n

(80)

n mq = k 6 Z

(81)

p. 5

- 6 -

Nicholas L. Frazer

Consider three cases:

n 1 mq < 0 :

(82)

n 1 m(q 1) 0

(83)

n 1 m(q 1) < m

(84)

n 1 m(q 1) = k 0 6 Z

(85)

because addition is closed on Z.

n 1 qm = 0 :
k = 1
n 1 qm > 0 :
n 1 qm = k 1 6 Z

(86)
(87)
(88)
(89)

All three cases produce a contradiction; either there is a smaller integer for which the
Euclidean algorithm is false or else k is an integer and the Euclidean algorithm holds in the
smallest case.