Nasa Apollo Emc

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APOLLO PROGRAM

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OCTOBER 1965 ~.'

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E~LECTROMAGNETIC COMPATIBILITY PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICES

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2 .-

ATIONAL AERONAUTICS AND SPACE ADMINISTRATION

WASHINGTON, D.C. 20546

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NASA Issuance No. NHB 5320.3

Apollo Documentation No. RA-016~OOl-1

PREFACE

This document, though an official release of the Apollo Program Office, is furnished for information purposes only. Its purpose is to stimulate interest and further promote understanding in the art and science of interference control throughout the Apollo Program.

The manual is primarily intended for those in the Apollo Program who are responsible for the administration, design, development, manufacture, and test of the Apollo Systems. The text emphasizes the importance of EMC awareness and presents material of vital interest to all levels of management as well as technical personnel.

This is the main text of an Apollo Design Reliability series of documents through which the Apollo Program will disseminate Electromagnetic compatibility information.

The Electromagnetic Compatibility Principles and Practices text is intended to be a constructive aid to the NASA Apollo team in assisting them in the EMC responsibilities.

Samuel C. Phillips Major General, USAF Director, Apollo Program

for salt" h~ the Superintendent of Documents. U .S. Government Prinnng Office \X·ashington, D.C .. 20402 - PrICe' S).-r~

INDEX FINDER

CHAPTER 1: ELECTROMAGNETIC COMPATIBIliTY HISTORY AND BACKGROUND

D

CHAPTErt 2: E.t\1C ORGANIZATION

CHAPTER 3: EMC PROGRAM EVALUATION

II

CH.t.PTER 4: ELEMENTS OF EMI

D

CHAPTER 5: THEORETICAL ASPECTS OF EMC ANALYSIS

CHAPTER 6: ELECTROMAGNETIC CHARACTERISTICS OF ELECTRONIC PARTS

II

CHAPTER 7: ELECTROMAGNETIC CHARACTERISTICS OF FUNCTIONAL CIRCtnTS AND COMPONENTS

CHAPTER 8: GROUNDING

II·

I

CHAPTER 9: BONDING

INDEX FINDER

CHAPTER 10: SHIELDING

CHAPTER 11: PACKAGING AND EQUIPMENT INTERFACING

01

CHAPTER 12: FILTER DESIGN AND APPIlCATION

lEI

CHAPTER 13: DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS FOR MINIMIZING INTERFERENCE

CHAPTER 14: EMI SPECIFICATIONS

CHAPTER 15: CONTROL AND TEST PL~NS

CHAPTER 16: INTERFERENCE MEASUREMENTS, TEST EQUIPMENT, AND CONDITIONS

D

CHAPTER 17: SUSCEPTIBILITY

(

<; CHAPTER 18: MEASUREMENT TECHNIQUES

., ... ,- .... ,',~---,"

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Paragraph

Title

CHAPTER 1 - ELECTROMAGNETIC COMPATIBILITY HISTORY AND BACKGROUND

1. 1 INTRODUCTION

1. 2 BROAD ASPECTS OF EMC IN SPACE PROGRAMS

1.2.3.1

General

Vehicle and Stage Problems

1-1 1-8 1-8 1-8 1-9 1-9

1-10 1-10 1-12 1-12 1-13 1-15 1-15 1-15 1-17 1-17 1-18 1-20

1. 2.1 1.2.1.1

1.2.1.2

GENERAL

Extent of Problem Physiological Damage Equipment Damage

CAUSES AND EFFECTS General

Vehicle and Stage Problems Facility and Environment Problems Equipment Problems

DOCUMENTED CASE HISTORIES

1.2.1.3

, l) <) J.. • .;;,..~

1.2.2.1

1.2.2.2 1.2.2.3

1.2.2.4

1. 2. 3

1.2.3.2

1.2.3.3 Facility and Environment Problems 1. 2. 3. 4 Equipment Problems

1.3 EMC PROGRAM

REFERENCES

CHAPTER 2 - EMC ORGANIZATION

2.1 EMC PROGRAM OBJECTIVES AND ORGANIZATION 2.2 THE ROLE OF ELECTROMAGNETIC COMPATIBILITY 2.3 THE EMC FUNCTIONS

2.4 EMC ORGANIZATION STRUCTURE 2.5 RESPONSIBILITIES

2.6 EMC PERSONNEL

REFERENCES

2-1 2-5 2-8

2-11 2-16 2-19 2-22

v

TABLE OF CONTENTS (CONT.)

/

Paragraph

Title

CHAPTER 3 - EMC PROGRAM EVALUATION

3.1 EMC PROGRAM COST CONSIDERATIONS 3.2 MANAGEMENT CONSIDERATIONS

3.2.1 GENERAL

3.2.2 ELECTROMAGNETIC COMPATIBIUTY CONTROLS

3.3 SUMMARY

REFERENCES

3-1 3-10 3-10

3-15

3-21 3-28

CHAPTER 4 - ELEMENTS OF EM!

4.1 TYPES OF ELECTROMAGNETIC INTERFERENCE 4-1
4.1.1 INTRODUCTION 4-1
4.1. 2 FUNCTIONAL ELECTROMAGNETIC SOURCES 4-2
4.1.3 INCIDENTAL SIGNAL SOURCES 4":12
4.1. 4 INTERFERENCE TRANSMISSION 4-15
4.1. 5 SUSCEPTIBLE EQlJIPMENTS AND INTERFERENCE EFFECTS 4-18
4.2 EMI AT SYSTEM AND SUBSYSTEM LEVELS 4-20
4.2.1 GENERAL 4-20
4.2.2 CASE HISTORIES 4-21
4.2.3 SPACE SYSTEM COMPATIBIUTY PROBLEMS 4-25
4.2.4 TECHNIQUES TO ENSURE SYSTEMS COMPATIBIUTY 4-31
4.2.5 INTRODUCTION TO MIL-E-6051C 4-36
REFERENCES 4-40 CHAPTER 5 - THEORETICAL ASPECTS OF EMC ANALYSIS

5.1 COMPATIBIUTY - THE BASIC PROBLEM

5. 1. 1 GENERAL

5.1.2 INTERFERENCE GENERATION

5. 1. 3 TRANSMISSION

5.1.4 RECEPTION

5.2 INTERFERENCE SOURCES

5.2. 1 GENERAL

5.2.2 FUNCTIONAL SOURCES

5-1 5-1 5-3 5-7

5-15

5-19 5-19 5-19

vi


Paragraph

Title

5.2.3 INCIDENTAL SOURCES

5.3 NONLINEAR FREQUENCY COl\TVERSION 5.3.1 GENERAL

5.3.2 NONLINEAR DEVICES

5.3.3 THEORY OF NONLINEAR CONVERSION 5.3.4 EFFECTS OF NONLINEAR DEVICES 5.4 INTERFERENCE PREDICTION

5.4.1 BASIC INPUT FUNCTIONS

5.4.2 PREDICTION METHOD

5.5 INTERFERENCE SUPPRESSION 5.5.1 GENERAL

5.5.2 BASIC INTERFERENCE-REDUCTION TEHCNIQUES 5.5.3 SUPPRESSION COMPONENTS

REFERENCES

5-24 5-33 5-33 5-33 5-34 5-37 5-41 5-42 5-50 5~54 5-54 5-54 5-57 5-60

CHAPTER 6 - ELECTROMAGNETIC CHARACTERISTICS OF ELECTRONIC PARTS

6.1 GENERAL 6-1
6.2 RESISTORS 6-2
6.2.2 CONSTRUCTION 6-2
6.2.3 HIGH-FREQUENCY PROPERTIES 6-4
6.2.4 INTERFERENCE GENERATION 6-10
6.2.5 SUSCE PTIBILITY 6-15
6.3 CAPACITORS 6-15
6.3.2 PROPERTIES 6-16
6.3.3 INTERFERENC E GENERATION 6-18
6.3.4 SUSCEPTIBILITY 6-19
6.4 INDUCTORS 6-20
6.4.2 PROPERTIES 6-20
6.4.3 INTERFERENCE GENERATION 6-21
}'
l
-.._. vii Paragraph


Title

6.4.4 SUSCEPTIBIUTY

6.5 RELAYS


6.7 CONDUCTORS

6.7.1 INTRODUCTION

6.7. 2 INTERFERENC E GENERATION

6.7.3 SUSCE PTIBIUTY

6.8 TRANSISTORS

6.8.1 INTRODUCTION


6.8.3 SUSCEPTIBIUTY

6.9 DIODES

6.5.1 6.5.2 6.5.3 6.5.4 6.5.5

6.6

6.6.1

6.9.1 6.9.2 6.9.3

6-22

6-22

INTRODUCTION

INTERFERENCE GENERATION INTERFERENCE SUPPRESSION APPLICATION OF PROTECTIVE DEVICES SUSCE PTIBIUTY

6-22 6-22 6-24

6-27

6-28

- 6-28 6-28 6-29 6-30 6-30 6-31 6-34 6-36

INSULATORS

INTRODUC TION

6-36

6-:39

INTRODUCTION INTERFERENCE GENERATION SUSCE PTIBIUTY

6-40 6-40 6-40 6-42 6-42 6-42 6-43 6-46 6-47 6-47 6-47 6-48 6-49 6-49

6.10 ELECTRON TUBES 6.10.1 INTRODUCTION

6.10.2 INTERFERENCE GENERATION 6.10.3 SUSCEPTIBIUTY

6.11 SWITCHES

6.11.1 INTRODUCTION

6.11.2 INTERFERENCE GENERATION 6.11.3 SUSCEPTIBIUTY

6.12 CONNECTORS


viii


Paragraoh

Title

-

6.12.2

INTERFERENCE SUPPRESSION

6-49 6-49 6-53

6.12.3 SUSCEPTIBILITY

REFERENCES

CHAPTER 7 - ELECTROMAGNETIC CHARACTERISTICS OF FUNCTIONAL CmCUITS AND COMPONENTS

7.1 GENERAL 7-1
7.1. 1 LINKING OF MAGNETIC FLtJX LINES 7-1
7.1. 2 ELECTROSTATIC COUPLING 7-3
7.1.3 RADIATION 7-4
7.1. 4 OTHER FORMS OF ENERGY TRANSFER 7-4
7.1. 5 VOLTAGES OR CURRENTS GENERATED BY
COMPONENT DEFECTS 7-5
~ C') CIRCUIT CONFIGURATIONS AND CHARACTERISTICS 7-7
1 • .-
7.2.1 FLUX LINKA.GES 7-7
7.2.2 SENSITIVITY 7-10
7.2.3 DECOUPLING TRANSISTOR STAGES 7-11
7.2.4 SELECTED CIRCUITS AND EMC DESIGN TREATMENT 7-16
REFERJ1:NCE SOURCES FOR ADDITIONAL READING 7-23 8.1 8.2 8.3 8.4

8.5

8.6

8.6.1 8.6.2 8.6.3 8.6.4

8.6.5

8.7

CHAPTER 8 - GROUNDING

INTRODUC TION

EARTH CHARACTERISTICS

EARTH-GROUND RESISTANCE MEASUREMENTS CONDUCTOR CONSIDERATIONS

THE GROUND PLANE

THE GROUNDING SYSTEM DESIGN OBJECTIVES

8-1 8-2 8-9

8-10 8-19 8-21 8-21

GENERAL

STATIC AND STRUCTURAL GROUNDS AC POWER GROUND PRIME POWER

DC POWER GROUND, SIGNAL GROUND, OR CmCUIT GROUND SHIELD GROUNDING

8-22

8-23 8-23 8-25 8-27 8-29

ix

REFERENCES

CORROSION OF GROUNDING MATERIALS


Paragraph

Title

CHAPTER 9 - BONDING

9.1 THEORY OF BONDIN"G

9.2 EXPLANATION OF MIL-B-5087A 9.3 BONDIN"G TECHNIQUES

9.4 CLEANLrnESS

9. 5 BONDIN"G TESTS REFERENCES

CHAPTER 10 - SHIELDIN"G

10.1 BASIC SHIELDIN"G PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICES 10.2 ELECTROMAGNETIC SHIELDIN"G THEORY 10.2.1 GENERAL

10.2.2 ATTENUATION LOSSES 10.2.3 REFLECTION LOSSES 10.3 PROPAGATING MEDIUM 10.3.1 GENERAL .

10.3.2 IN"DUCTION FIELD 10.3.3 RADIATION FIELD 10.3.4 CORRECTION FACTOR 10.3.5 TYPICAL VALUES

10.4 PERFORATED SHIELDS 10.4.1 GENERAL

10.4.2 COMPARISONS WITH MEASUREMENTS 10.5 SHIELDING DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS 10.5.1 GENERAL

10.5.2 MULTIPLE SHIELDS

10.5.3 TRENDS IN" MODERN SHIELDIN"G ENC LOSURES 10.6 SHIELDIN"G MATERIALS

REFERENCES

CHAPTER 11 - PACKAGIN"G AND EQUIPMENT IN"TERFACIN"G

11. 1 DESIGN OBJECTIVES

x

)

9-1 9-6 9-10 9-18 9-22 9-25

10-1 10-3 10-3 10-4 10-5

10-7

10-7 10-10 10-12 10-13 10-13 10-17 10-17 10-19 10-23 10-23 10-28 10-29 10-30 10-35

11-1


Paragraph

11. 1. 1 PHILOSOPHY

11. 1. 2 ECONOMIC CONSIDERATIONS

11.1. 3 METHODS OF APPROACH TO DESIGN OBJECTIVES 11. 1. 4 CHECKING THE PERFORMANCE AGAINST THE

DESIGN OBJECTIVES

11. 2 CIRCUIT LA YO {JT S

11.2.1 GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS 11. 2.2 CIRCUIT CLASSIFICATION

11. 2. 3 CIRCUIT SELECTION AND PLACEMENT 11.3. MECHANICAL CONSIDERATIONS

11. 3.1 GENERAL

1l-1 11-2 1l-2

11. 3. 2 BONDING 11. 3. 3 SHIELDING

11. 3. 4 ROTATING ELECTRICAL EQUIPMENT 11. 3. 5 MOVlNG MECHANICAL ELEMENTS

11. 4 HOlll'ING AND HARNESSING OF INTERCONNECTING WmING 11.4.1 GENERAL

11. 4.. 2 PREREQUISITES TO CABLE ROUTING AND HARNESSING 11. 4. 3 GROUNDING OF SPECIFIC CIRCUITS

11. 4. 4. CABLE SEGREGATION AND HARNESSING 11.4.5 USE OF SHIELDED CABLES

11. 4. 6 USE OF TWISTED SHIELDED PAIR REFERENCES

1l-4 1l-5 11-5 1l-5 1l-6 1l-8 1l-8 11-8 1l-9

11-10 11-12 11-12 11-12 11-13 11-14 11-14 11-16 11-17 11-18

CHAPTER 12 - FILTER DESIGN AND APPLICATION

12. 1 INTRODUCTION 12.1.1 SCOPE

12.1.2 EARLY DESIGN STAGE CONSIDERATIONS 12.1.3 NEED FOR FILTERS

12.1.4 FILTER APPLICATIONS

12.1.5 FILTER TYPES

12.1.6 FILTER INSERTION LOSS 12.2 FILTER DESIGN

12-1 12-1 12-1 12-1 12-2 12-2 12-5 12-8

xi


)

Paragraph

Title

12.2.1 INTRODUCTION

12.2.2 "L" SECTION LUlVIPED CONSTANT FILTERS 12.2.3 "PI" SECTION LUMPED CONSTANT FILTERS

12.2.4 MULTIPLE !ILl! SECTION LUMPED CONSTANT FILTERS

12.2.5 MULTIPLE "PI" SECTION LUMPED CONSTANT FILTERS 12.2.6 THE ABSORPTIVE FILTER

12.3 FILTER SELECTION AND PLACEMENT

12-8 12-13 12-15 12-15

12-16 12-17 12-20

CHAPTER 13 - DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS FOR MINIMIZING INTERFERENCE

13.1 INTERFERENCE - REDUCTION METHODS 13. 1. 1 INTRODUCTION

13.1.2 SYSTEM ANALYSIS

13.1. 3 SYSTEM DESIGN CONTROL AND REDUCTION METHODS 13.2- DESIGN TRADE-OFFS FOR INTERFERENCE REDUCTION 13.2.1 INTRODUCTION

13.2.2 TRADE-OFF PHILOSOPHY 13.2.3 TRADE-OFF RELATIONSHIPS 13.2.4 TRADE-OFF EX..'\MPLES

13.3 CASE HISTORY

13-1 13-1

13-1

13-9 13-11 13-11

13-11 13-15·

13-19

13-25

CHAPTER 14 - EMI SPECIFICATIONS 14.1 GEN:ERAL DESCRIPTION OF 'EMI SPECIFICATIONS

14. 1. 1 INTRODUCTION

14.1. 2 SHORT HISTORY OF EMI SPECIFICATIONS

14.1. 3 SPACE AS A NEWCOMER TO EMI SPECIFICATIONS 14. 1. 4 MANAGEMENT ASPECTS OF EMI SPECIFICATIONS 14.1.5 CURRENT AND FUTURE EMI SPECIFICATIONS

14.2 MIL-I-6181D AND MSFC-SPEC-279 ELECTROMAGNETIC

INTERFERENCE SPECIFICATIONS

14.2. 1 GENERAL

14.2.2 INTRODUCTION TO MIL-I-6181D 14.2.3- INTRODUCTION TO MSFC-SPEC-279

14-1
14-1
14-1
14-3
14-4
14-6
14-8
14-8
14-9
14-11
\
--~/ xii


Paragraph

14.2.4 REQUffiED MEASUREMENTS 14.2.5 INTRODUCTION TO MIL-I-26600

14.2.6 INTRODUCTION TO MSC-ASPO-EMI-10A

14.3 COMPARISON OF EMI SPECIFICATIONS MIL-I-6181D AND MSFC-SPEC-279

14.3.1 INTRODUCTION

14.3.2 COMPARISON OF TEST REQUffiEMENTS IN MIL-I-6181D AND MSFC-SPEC-279

14.4 GENERAL SPECIFICATION DIFFERENCES FOR MIL-I-6181D AND MSFC-SPEC-279

14.5 SUMMARY

REFERENCES

14-15 14-26 14-28

14-28 14-28

14-31

14-34 14-36 14-37

CHAPTER 15 - CONTROL AND TEST PLANS

15.1 CONTROL PLAN REQUIREMENTS 15.1.1 GENERAL

15.1. 2 MANAGEMENT OF THE EMC CONTROL PROGRAM 15.1.3 SPECIFICATION INTERPRETATION

15.1.4 'DESIGN CONSIDERATION

15. 1. 5 DEFINITIONS

15.1. 69~ER INFORMATION CONSIDERED PERTINENT 15.2 SAMPLE CONTROL PLAN

15.3 TEST PLAN REQUffiEMENTS

15.3.1 GENERAL

15.3.2 TEST DESCRIPTION

15.3.3 OBJECTIVES AND COMPLIANCE PHILOSOPHY 15.3.4 GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF TESTS

15.3.5 TEST POINT DESCRIPTION

15.3.6 MEASUREMENT INSTRUMENTATION AND TECHNIQUES 15.3.7 DATA ANALYSIS

15.4 TEST REPORTING

15.4.1 PURPOSE

15.4.2 SPECIFIC INFORIvlATION

15.4.3 REPORT SIZE AND REPRODUCTION METHODS

15-1 . 15-1 15-2 15-4 15-7 15-8 15-9 15-9

15-27 15-27 15-28 15-28 15-28 15-28 15-29 15-30 15-30 15-30 15-31 15-31

xiii


Paragraph

Title

--
Page ')
._i
15-32
15-41
TEST
16-1
16-1
16-3
16-15
16-16
16-16
16-17
16-33
16-35
16-35
16-35
16-38
16-41 15.4.4 REPORT FORMAT

15.4.5 ADDITIONAL REPORT CONSIDERATIONS

CHAPTER 16 - INTERFERENCE MEASUREMENTS, EQUIPMENT, AND CONDITIONS

16.1 INTERFERENCE MEASUREMENTS 16.1.1 INTRODUCTION

16.1.2 MEASUREMENT TECHNIQUES 16.1.3 CONCLUSION

16.2 INTERFERENCE TEST EQUIPMENT 16.2.1 INTRODUCTION

16.2.2 EQUIPMENT CHARACTERISTICS 16.2.3 CALIBRATION AND CERTIFICATION 16.3 TEST ENVIRONMENTS AND CONDITIONS 16.3.1 INTRODUCTION

16.3.2 ON-SITE MEASUREMENTS

16. 3. 3 LA B ORA TORY MEASUREMENTS

16.3.4 SHIELDED ENCLOSURE CONSTRUCTION AND FEATURES

CHAPTER 17 - SUSCEPTIBILITY

17. 1 INTRODUCTION 17.1.1 SCOPE 17.1.2 DEFINITIONS

17.1.3 GENERAL CONCEPTS

17.1.4 SYSTEM SUSCEPTIBILITY CRITERIA 17.2 SUSCEPTIBILITY MECHANISMS

17.2.1 INTRODUCTION

17.2.2 INTRUSION MECHANISMS

17.2.3 ANALYSIS OF SUSCEPTIBILITY MECHANISMS L.~ RECEIVERS 17.3 SUSCEPTIBILITY CRITERIA

17.3.1 INTRODUCTION

17.3.2 ACCEPTANCE RATIOS

17 -1

17 -1 17-1 17-2 17-4 17-6 17 -6

17 -6

17 -10

17 -34

17-34 17 -35

xiv

\

.. ...:./


Paragraph

Title

-

17.4 SUSCEPTIBILITY EVALUATION 17.4.1 INTRODUCTION

17.4.2 COMPONENT EVALUATION 17.4.3 SYSTEMS SUSCEPTIBILITY REFERENCES

17-46 17-46 17-47 17-52 17-54

CHAPTER 18 - MEASUREMENT TECHNIQUES 18.1 ACCURACY AND TOLERANCES

18.2 ADV ANC ED MEASUREMENT TECHNIQUES 18.2.1 ACCESSORY ITEMS

18.2.1.1 Signal Samplers

18.2.1. 2 Dummy Loads

18.2.1.3 Attenuators

18.2.1.4 Switches

18.2.1. 5 Isolators

18. 2. 1. 6 Transmission Line Adapters 18.2.1. 7 Filters

18.2.2 INTERFERENCE MEASUREMENT SYSTEMS REFERENCES

18-1 18-6 18-6 18-6

18-11 18-13 18-14 18-15 18-16 18-17 18-18 18-29

xv

)

AC~~OWLEDGEMENTS

In order to provide this book with the impact it requires to spread the awareness of electromagnetic compatibility, known authorities in electromagnetic interference research from the industrial and educational fields were invited to contribute to the material for this publication. Acknowledgement and appreciation is hereby given to the following authors and their affiliations for the contribution they made in supplying manuscripts for the various chapters:

Rexford Daniels (1) Interference Consultants. Inc.

, Kenneth G. Heisler, Jr. (4, 5, 13) .

Jansky & Bailey Research and Engineering Divrsron Atlantic Research Corporation

Hugh W. Denny (18) Engineering Experiment Station Georgia Institute of Technology

Henry M. Hoffart (8, 12) Apollo Support Department General Electric Company

John E. Dodge (14, 16)

Jansky & Bailey Research and Engineering Division Atlantic Research Corporation

Fred W. Kloiber (2, 3, 8) Apollo Support Department General Electric Company

Harry E. Doutt (I, 2, 3) Apollo Support Department General Electric Company

Saul F. Moore, Jr. (6) Apollo Support Department General Electric Company

William G. Duff (4, 13)


David P. Norton (10) Apollo Support Department General 'Electric Company

Frank E. Ferrante (5)


William A. Petty (14)

Jansky & Bailey Research and Engineering Dtvistoa Atlantic Research Corporation

Rocco F. Ficchi (9)

Author of Electrical Interference

Harold A. Gauper (7, 11)

Advanced Technology Laboratories General Electric Company

Dr. R. F. Schwartz (17)

The Moore School of Electrical Engineering University of Pennsylvania

Leon G. Goldberg (6, 7)

Advanced Technology Laboratories General Electric Company

Dr. Ralph M. Showers (17)


Dr. Fred Haber (17)


James C. Toler (15) .

Chief, Electromagnetic Interference Section George C. Marshall Space Flight Center

XVi

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
Figure Title Page
-
2-1 EMC Functional Interrelation 2-9
2-2 EMC Control Related to a Developmental Project Sequence 2-13
3-1 EMC Task in Relation to Project Activity 3-7
4-1 Basic Elements of the Interference Problem 4-3
4-2 Amplitude Modulation 4-5
4-3 Frequency Modulation 4-5
4-4 Spectra of Frequency Modulated Waves (Constant
Modulating Frequency) 4-6
4-5 Typical Output Spectra 4-10
4-6 Typical Incidental Interference Levels 4-13
4-7 Flow Diagram of Space System Program 4-26
4-8 Summary of Interference-Reduction Techniques 4-34
5-1 Spectral Analysis of Rectangular Pulse Train 5-5
5-2 Frequency Spectra for Several Signal Waveforms 5-7
5-3 Generation of Plane Waves from Sperical Waves in the Far Field 5-10
5-4 Null-Filling Effect of Near Field 5-11
5-5 Field Division Dependence on Distance from Antenna 5-12
5-6 Selectivity Curve 5-17
5-7 Divisions of Typical Communication or Radar Receiver 5-18
5-8 Power Output of Some Presently Available Tubes 5-21
5-9 Typical Voltage Waveform Across Automobile Spark-Plug Gap 5-26
5-10 Measured Field Intensities for Automobile Ignition System 5-27
5-11 Rotating Machinery Interference Levels 5-28
5-12 Comparison of Interference Levels for Electrical Switching Devices 5-29
5-13 Radiated Interference Limits for Overhead Power Lines 5-30
5-14 Nonlinear Effect on Sine Wave Input 5-34
5-15 Interference Prediction Process 5-44
5-16 Representation of Output Power Level that is not Exceeded
90 Percent of the Time 5-46
5-17 Envelope of Primary Responses for Sample Communication
Receiving Set 5-49
C 5-18 Frequency Regions 5-52
xvii ...._;
LIST OF ILLUSTRA.TIONS (CONT.) "\
j
Figure Title Page

5-19 Determination of Interference-Free Frequency Range 5-53
6-1 Equivalent Circuit for Resistor 6-5
6-2 Equivalent Htgh-F'requency Resistor Circuit 6-5
6-3 Equivalent Resistor Circuit Showing Negligible Leakage
Resistance and Inductance 6-5
6-4 Realistic High-Frequency Equivalent Circuit for
Composition Resistors 6-6
6-5 Equivalent Circuit for Resistor Placed Close to the Return Circuit 6-6
6-6 Equivalent Circuit for Wirewound Resistor 6-7
6-7 Noise Voltage for 10 k Composition Resistor at 20 vdc 6-12
<:»
6,..8 Comparison of Relative Noise for Various Types of Resistors 6-13
6-9 Notse -Measurtng Circuit 6-14
6-10 Equivalent Circuit of a Capacitor 6-16
6-11 Typical Effect of Lead Length on Capacitor Terminal Impedance 6-17
6-12 Use of Capacitor for Interference Suppression 6-24
6-13 Use of Capacitor and Resistor for Interference Suppression 6-24
6-14 Use of Resistor for Interference Suppression 6-25
6-15 Use of Single Diodes for ID.terference Suppression 6-~5
6-16 Use of Back-to-Back Diodes for Interference Suppression 6-26
6-17 Application of Protective Devices 6-27
. 6-18 Effect of the Electrostatic Field 6-31
6-19 Magnetic Field from Cables at 1 kc as a Function of
Distance from the Cables 6-33
6-20 Relative Susceptibility of Circuits to Magnetic Interference 6-35
6-21 Equivalent Circuit of Thermal Noise Source 6-37
6-22 Equivalent Circuit of Shot Noise Source 6-38
6-23 Transistor Noise versus Frequency 6-38
6-24 Equivalent Noise Circuit of a Transistor 6-39
6-25 Recovery Periods and Spikes 6-41
6-26 Equivalent Circuit Representing Plate-Current Noise by a
Generator in Series with Tube Grid 6-45
6-27 Attenuation Characteristics 6-51
6-28 Connector Grounding 6-52
7-1 Cable Cross Section 7-9
7-2 Circuit Sensitivity 7-11 \
<:>
xviii LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS (CONT.)

Figure ~

7 -3 Output Stage Decoupling

7 -4 Tuned Output Stage Decoupling

7 -5 Emitter-Follower Decoupling

7 -6 Interstage Decoupling

7-7 Audio Amplifier Block Diagram

7 -8 Power Supply Converter Waveshapes

7 -.9 Typical Final Power Supply Configuration

. 7 -10 Transmitter Block Diagram 7 -11 Filter Configurations

8-1 Current Distribution About a Ground Rod in Earth

8-2 Variation of Soil Resistivity as a Function of Moisture Content

8-3 Seasonal Variations of Ground Resistance as a Function

of Precipitation

8-4 Variation of Soil Resistivity versus Temperature

8-5 Ground Rod Depth versus Resistance

6-6 Ground Rod Diameter versus Resistance Change

&-7 Comparative Resistance of Multiple Rods

8 ... 8 Physical Layout of Radial Ground System

5-9 Ground Rod Resistance to Earth

8-10 Flux Lines and Current Distribution in Various Conductor Cross-Sections at a High Frequency Showing How Skin Effect Causes the Current to Concentrate at the Edges. The Density of the Dots Indicates Current Density

8-11
8-12
8-13
8-14
8-15
8-16
8-17
8-18
8-19
(
'-- 7-12 7-14 7-14 7-15 7-17 7-18 7-18 7-20 7-21

8-4 8-4

8-5

8-5

8-6 8-7 8-8 8-9

8-10

8-12

Skin Depth versus Frequency in Copper 8-13

Proximity Effect of Current in Two Parallel Wires 8-14

Self Inductance versus Lenth for Size 4/0 Straight Round

Copper Wire 8-16

DC Resistance versus Length for Various Sizes of Copper Tubing 8-16

AC Inductance (Lad versus Frequency for Various Sizes of

Copper Tubing 8-17

AC Resistance (Rad per Foot versus Frequency for Copper

Tubing of Various Sizes 8-18

The System Ground Plane 8-19

Flux Linking a Ground Loop 8-25

Coupling as a Function of Termination Length of Shield 8-26

xix

'-./
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS (CONT .).
)
Figure Title Page

9-1 Current Movement in Conducting Materials 9-2
9-2 Voltage and Current Considerations in Grounding Wire 9-3
9-3 Exothermic Connections - A Good Bond to a Bus Bar 9-5
9-4 Exothermic Connections - A Good Bond to a Building Column 9-5
9-5 Exothermic Connections - A Good Bond at a Cable Tray 9-5
9-6 Equivalent Circuit for Bonding Strap 9-14
9-7 Bonding Strap Impedance 9-14
9-8 Bonding Strap Resonant Frequencies 9-15
9-9 Impedance of Flat and Round Bonding Jumpers 9-16
10-1 Electromagnetic Shielding Theory 10-4
s-.
10-2 Calculated Shielding Efficiency of Copper and Iron 10-17
10-3 Graphic Representation of Shielding Correction Factors 10-20
10-4 C opper Screen Shielding Efficiency, 16-Mesh, 1S-Mil, Wire· 10-21
10-5 Copper Screen Shielding Efficiency, 60-Mesh, 7-Mil Wire 10-22
10-6 Copper Screen Shielding Efficiency, 2-Mesh, 41-Mil Wire 10-22
-"
10-7 'Penetr-ation Loss versus Barrier Thickness for Copper _)
(J1. :;:: 1. 0, G:;:: 1. 0) 10-26
10-8 Penetration Loss versus Barrier Thickness for Aluminum
(J1.:;:: 1.0, G:;:: 0.69) 10-26
10-9 Typical Shield Enclosure Discontinuities 10-27
10-10 Metal-to-Metal Contact Pressure versus Insertion Loss 10-27
10-11 High-Frequency Cutoff in Metal Honeycomb Shield 10-31
10-12 Predicted Minimum Attenuation 10-32
10-13 Shielding Effectiveness of Various Materials to High-
Impedance Waves 10-33
10-14 Shielding Effectiveness of Various Materials to High-
Impedance Waves 10-34
11-1 DC Machine Suppression 11-11
11-2 Transmission Line Relationships 11-15
11-3 Voltage Drop per Foot of Conductor Path versus Conductor
Cross-Sectional Area for Copper at 20°C 11-17
12-1 Interference Reduction Filter Attenuation Test per
MIL-STD";220A 12-5
12-2 Interference Reduction Filter Admittance Transfer Test 12-6
12-3 Series Resistance of a Typical Absorptive Filter 12-6
.c:>
xx .......

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS (CONT.)

Figure

Title

-

12-4

Typical Bypass Capacitor Frequency Characteristics Metallized Capacitor Equivalent Circuit

Wound Aluminum Foil Capacitor Equivalent Circuit Ceramic Capacitor Construction Details Three-Terminal Capacitor Construction

12-5 12-6

12-7 12-8

12-9 Attenuation of Typical Three-Terminal Capacitors 12-10 Capacitor Lead Lengths

12-11 RF Bypass Capacitor Construction

12-12 Typical L Section Filter Attenuation Curve 12-13 Typical Pi Section Filter Attenuation Curve 12-14 Dielectric Absorptive Material

12-15 Typical Combined Lumped Constant Absorptive Filter Network 12-16 Typical Power Supply Circuit

12-17 Typical Load Reflected Back to Interference Filter Network

Because of Power Supply Operation

12-18 Interference-Reduction Filter Assembly

13-1 Areas of Influence for a Typical Vehicle Checkout Complex 13-2 Elements of Electromagnetic Compatibility Analysis

13-3 Summary of Interference Reduction and Control Techniques

A vailable to the System Designer

13-4 Trade-offs for Interference Reduction 13-5 Transmitter and Antenna Trade-offs

13-6 Transmitter, Antenna, and Compatibility Trade-offs 13-7 Suppression Alternatives

13-8 Minimum Cost Using Methods 1 and 2 lS-9 Minimum Cost Using Methods 1, 2, and 3

13-10 Project Organization for Command Communication System 13-11 Command Communication System Block Diagram

13-12 Generation of Spurious Command Communication Signal 14-1 Typical Test Setup for Radiated Interference Measurements

Using Dipole Antenna

14-2 Sample Narrowband Radiated Interference Limits 14-3 Narrowband Conducted Interference Limits Using a Current Probe

12-9 12-9 12-10 12-10 12-11 12-11 12-12 12-13 12-14 12-16 12-18 12-20 12_:22

12-22 1~-25 13-2 13-8

13-10 13-15 13-20 13-21 13-23 13-24 13-25 13-27 13-28 13-38

14-16 14-17

14-19

xxi

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS (CONT.) --
Figure . Title Page )
-
14-4 Typical Test Setup for Conducted Interference Measurements
Using Line Impedance Stabilization Networks (LISN) l4-20
15-1 Typical Cover Page 15-33
15-2 Typical Abstract 15-34
15-3 Typical Title Page 15-35
15-4 Typical Table of Contents and List of Illustrations 15-36
15-5 Typical Summary 15-37
15-6 Typical Review of Previous Tests 15-39
15-7 Typical Approval Sheet 15-40
15-8 Typical Appendix Title Page 15-42
Plan View of Missile Guidance Equipment Test Setup --
16-1 16-6
16-2 Near-Field Region Boundary 16-7
16-3 Block Diagram of Key-Down Antenna - Conducted Measurement 16-14
16-4 Block Diagram of a Typical Frequency - Selective Voltmeter 16-17
16-5 Methods of Joining Sandwich-Type Panels 16-43
16-6 Double-Shielded Enclosure Employing Sandwich-Type Panels 16-44
17-1 Noise Intrusion Paths 17-8
17-2 Block Diagram of Basic Receiver Elements 17-10
17-3 Adjacent-Channel Interference 17 -15 .
17-4 Spectrum Distribution Resulting from .AM Modulation 17 -16
17-5 Envelope of Spectrum of Carrier Frequency Modulated
with Sine Wave 17 -17
17-6 Transmitter Noise 17-18
17 -7 Some Receiver Spurious Responses
fif = 30 Mc Below ft 17-23
17-8 Relative Response Signal to Interference for Equal Outputs 17-24
17-9 Probability of Error with Equal-Energy Orthogonal Signals 17-33
17 -10 Acceptance Ratios for Interference to AM by FM for
Isochronous Carriers 17-41
17-11 Acceptance Ratio on Peak Basis for Interference to Pulse
Radar by an AM Signal 17-45
17-12 Audio Susceptibility Test on Power Line 17-48
17-13 RF Susceptibility Test on Power Line 17-49
17-14 Typical Test Setup for Radiated Susceptibility Measurements 17-50
18-1 Some Interpretations of "1 db Accuracy" 18-3
xxii 18-10 Intermodulation Test

18-11 An Expanded System to Incorporate Additional Measuring Instruments

18-12 A Basic, Integrated System which Permits the Primary Tests of MSFC -SPEC -279 to be Performed without Separate Setups

18-13 A Possible Receiver Front-end Rejection Characteristic

Figure

18-2 18-3 18-4

18-5 18-6

18-7

18-8

18-9

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS (CONT.)

Operational Diagram of the Directional Coupler Use of the Directional Coupler

Two Types of Probes for Sampling a Field Inside a Transmission Line

Construction of Coaxial Attenuators

Use of Various Filters Types to Minimize Generator Intermodula tion

Simplified Block Diagram of the Line-Conducted Interference and Susceptibility Tests

Simplified Block Diagram of the Antenna-Conducted Interference and Susceptibility Tests

Block Diagram of the Radiated Tests

18-7 18-9

18-10 18-13

18-19

18-21

18-22 18-22 18-23

18-24

18-24 18-26

xxiii

LIST OF TABLES
Table Title Page
4-1 Typical Bandwidth Requirements 4-8
4-2 Summary of Propagation Characteristics 4-17
6-1 Noise Voltage 6-14
8-1 Resistance of Different Types of-Soil 8-3
9-1 Acceptable Bonding Methods 9-8
9-2 Electrochemical Series for Selected Metals 9-12 <:»
10-1 Distance of Radiation and Induction Fields from a Source at
Different Frequencies 10-9
10-2 Absorption or Penetration Loss for a Solid Metal Shield 10-14
10-3 Total Reflection Loss for Both Surfaces of a Solid Metal Shield
for an Electric Field 10-14
10-4 Reflection Loss for Both Surfaces of a Solid Metal Shield for
Plane Waves 10-15
10-5 Reflection Loss for Both Surfaces of a Solid Metal Shield for a
Magnetic Field 10-15
10-6 B Correction Factor for a Solid Metal Shield 10-16
10-7 Comparison with Measurements Reported in AFM 100-35 10-23
10-8 Conductivity and Permeability, Relative to Copper, at 150 kc 10-25
12-1 Typical Values for the Constants of a Carbonyl Iron Material 12-19
13-1 EM Environment Resulting from Onboard Equipments 13-30
13-2 EM Environment Resulting from Ground Equipments 13-32
13-3 Outline of Interference Control Plan 13-34
14-~ Current EM! Specifications 14-7
14-2 Antenna Distances from Specimen in Feet 14-16
,
14-3 Comparison of E~U Interference Tests for MIL-I-6181D
and MSFC-SPEC-279 14-29
14-4 Comparison of EMI Susceptibility Tests for MIL-I-6181D
and MSFC-SPEC-279 14-30
16-1 Antennas Used as Pickup Devices 16-19
16-2 Frequency-Selective Voltmeters 16-29
17-1 Output SusceptibilityCriteria for Various Systems 17-5
17-2 Cochannel Acceptance Ratios 17-38
xxiv CHAPTER 1 ELECTROMAGNETIC COMPATIBILITY

D

CHAPTER 1

ELECTROMAGNETIC COMPATIBILITY HISTORY AND BACKGROUND

1. 1 INTRODUC nON

Electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) is an all-inclusive technical term to describe design objectives for all the elements of a compatible system, not only with each other, but with all elements of every other systemin the same environment. To accomplish this, an EMC program has to determine and delineate the compatible parameters and thresholds, for each element of the electromagnetic spectrum. Since new phenomena and reactions are being discovered in many branches of science, the horizons of electromagnetic compatibility are not fixed, but are dependent on the state of the art in all a pplicable disciplines.

Unfortunately, in engineering and administrative decisions, the changing parameters and thresholds are being exceeded, or triggered. It is the responsibility of qualified individuals in both technical and managerial capacities to try to keep abreast of all changes, to foresee dangers, and to avoid or corre.ct them. Paralleling this effort is a growi!;1g wave of legal, labor, and legislative awareness that is providing increasing technical checks on their successes or failures as well as defining managerial responsibilities.

Rear :Admiral Joseph E. Rice, USN, in his keynote address before the Tenth TriService Conference on Electromagnetic Compatibility, held in Chicago In November 1964, described these parameters and reactions in the following manner: 1

"EMC has sneaked up on the military and it is now sneaking up on the nation. The problem is for all of us. Electromagnetic incompatibility is the enemy of the electronic age. If we cannot control the enemy, we cannot control the electronic age. "

The "electronic age" is also an expanding, all-inclusive, non-technical, term which covers the basic discovery that everything in nature, or made by man, has a resonance in the electromagnetic spectrum which, when activated beyond its threshold, will cause malfunctioning, mutation, a change in chemical structure, or an explosion. For

1-1

,. '.:

example, a building is no longer an inert mass of metal and mortar but is an active <:»

component of the environment in which it is situated, "because the metal in it can be- -).

come resonant if of critical length and configuration. W The human body, as another J

example, can help generate a static spark strong enough to trigger an explosion,

and a portable radio in a plane can interfere with navigational equipment and cause

a plane to crash. Thus, in an electronic age, the millivolt can be the enemy of the

threshold microvolt. The military has already faced this situation and estab-

lished, for its own protection, what is known as the tri-service Radiation Hazards

(RAD HA Z) program 3 to determine what is incompatible, and also the Electromag-

netic Compatibility Analysis Center, 4 at Annapolis, Maryland, for operational infor-

mation and to educate its contractors.

But electromagnetic compatibility is no longer merely an engineering responsibility because, as the sources of electromagnetic incompatibility are indiscriminately placed in the hands of the public, they become potential hazards to all branches of science

and industry. Sources 5 of incompatibility need not be electronic themselves but can

be improper welds in a grounding system. a resonant length of wire in an instrument cabinet, a nail driven in the wrong place through shielding matertal.. a truck parked too close to a transformer causing intelligence to be erased from magnetic tape, or a dog scratching fleas too close to the licenses around its neck and interfering with a family's TV set. 6 EMC thus becomes an Interdisctpltnar y cooperative effort with social and legal responsibilities beginning to crystallize out of empirical occurrences. How this has come about, and what can be expected in the future, can only be appreciated by tracing its history.

When electr ictty first was discovered, - it was used in the form of direct current, was

"

conducted along wires, and any interference was known as electrical interference (E1).

In the early 20t.~ centucy, - alternating current of various frequencies was used

for two-wire circuits and later for radio communication. This energy could not only be conducted along wires but it could be forced to leave these wires and be radiated through the air. This interference, therefore, had to be identified by a new name, radio frequency interference or RFI. As communication systems became more complex, more powerful, and more sophisticated, and the spectrum was extended at both ends, this energy again took on new characteristics and new interference problems arose. Radio frequency interference, or RFI, became too confining a term and a broader term, electromagnetic energy (EME), was adopted and, from this, electromagnetic interference (EM!) crept into the technical language.

1-2

" ..

. ','

.~,:;:,~~~::..".;,;;~"')._' ~_-;.;-." ' ... ~ .. -_.,' ....... , .. '.

These terms were usually adequate to describe far-field interference but as it became necessary to increase component density in equipment, such as in ships, planes, missiles, and satellites, consideration for near-field and environmental interference had to be included and, again, new general terms had to be originated. The first term originated was "electromagnetic susceptibility" (EMS) which was to include the susceptibility of equipments and systems to all sources and types of external electromagnetic energy which could interfere with, or degrade, their performance. The second term was "spectrum signature" (SS) which was intended to describe the exact electromagnetic "fingerprint" of each completed unit or system as it appeared throughout the spectrum and to include all parameters of radiated, conducted, far-field, and near-field energy as well as its own susceptibility. Then, as a final, all-inclusive term, "electromagnetic compatibility" (EMC) was coined to describe the interaction of everything in the electromagnetic spectrum, such as individual systems or groups of systems (which might take in whole continents ~r armies or fleets) as well as operations in space and the "side-effects" which electromagnetic energy might create in other disciplines. This has turned into a tremendous concept and one which will increasingly come to affect practically everything in nature.

As broader terms were invented, there still remained a need for more restricted terms to identify different types of so-called interference. High-tension transmission eniineers p:referred to call their troubles "radio influence" (RI) and "radio influence voltage" (RIV). Other engineers wanted to retain a sharper distinction between types of interference and, thus, RFI is still being used but it is gradually coming to mean "that interference which is external to systems, " while EM! is being used to describe "that which is internal, " with EMC referring to the entire discipline.

While all this expansion was taking place in the field of electronics, researchers in other disciplines began to notice that other capabilities of electromagnetic energy existed and that certain electromagnetic waves" could penetrate the body and be used for medical purposes while other waves, when used to excess, could cause cataracts on the eyes or damage to body cells. 7 Further research discovered a phenomenon known as the "pearl-chain" reaction which lined up particles, parallel to electric fields, in substances such as blood, polystyrene, certain chemicals, and graphite. 8 Other research and experience showed that blasting caps and squibs could be inadvertently detonated,9 intelligence erased from magnetic tape, 10 flash bulbs activated, 11 and even the movement of electronically controlled artificial arms and legs interfered with by power lines. 12 At present, there is world-wide research being stimulated into the

(

1-3

substitution of electromagnetic energy for chemicals in the control of pests which, in turn, is opening up new fields for the use of electromagnetic energy in the ultrasonic, infrared, and nuclear regions of the spectrum. 13 Unfortunately, in an increasing number of instances, it is also being found that these new uses for ElVIE can cause side-effects which again create new hazards in other disciplines. It is these hazards which are causing what is probably of the most important concern to management, namely, legislation for the control of harmful electromagnetic emissions.

Besides legislative involvement, the legal side of the interference problem is presently manifested in interference control clauses being written into sales or rental agreements and the ever present possibility of legal responsibility in cases of injury or damage to others.

Labor is becoming increasingly conscious of the harmful possibilities of ElVI radiation and will soon be inserting protective clauses in contracts. Certainly no management would desire a union walkout because of ElVII problems.

"Our lack of knowledge of the mechanism of this new resource" is probably the best excuse for why science, engineering, and industry are faced with such serious problems today and why there is such mental inertia in the acceptance of them. These

problems will not fade away, as so many hope, but will probably exhibit new incompatibilities as environments, not yet known or anttctpated, are created. Satisfactory compatibility probably cannot be achieved until the smallest child is taught that an electric spark can be as hazardous as an incendiary spark.

"The ever-growing requirements of a growing world population" are creating basic scientific and engineering trends which are accelerating ElVIC awareness, such as the Increasing need for international compatibility of electronic products, the decreasing human participation in their operation and maintenance, bio-electronic compatibility in confined areas, and the use of brain signals for control of instrumentation. Somehow, close intercommunication between these trends will have to be established to minimize duplication and to provide compatible design parameters.

As air travel, shipping. and military operations expand on a world-wide basis and, as each new country demands its own communications and its share of the spectrum, new

1-4

)

1-5

concepts in circuitry design and compatibility are being called for. These are currently taking the form of elimination of EM! at the source and improved containment for residual energy. Elimination at the source requires the use of circuitry and components which create a minimum of, or no, electromagnetic emissions, and also will not create EMI when degraded; while containment requires the" suppression of EMI at its source and not on a system basis. To accomplish these two objectives will require international standards and specifications and the international availability of technical data.

The decreasing human participation in the operation and maintenance of electronic products will also tend to accelerate these new concepts, not only on the earth, but also in space. As automation replaces human participation, the ability to improvise and repair is lessened and the need for reliability is increased. "Reliability, in the case of EMC, requires an increased margin of safety to provide against unknown types of "emissions at unknown frequencies and amplitudes. Where human participation is entirely eliminated or not readily available, 'worst case" requirements then become standard.

The comparatively new fields of bio-electronics and medical electronics are introducing new eonsiderations into electromagnetic compatibility. Research is discovering that the human being needs physical exposure to, or protection from, the different

types of cosmic and galactic energy, which are constantly playing upon him, in order to maintain a proper mental and physical balance. 14 Added interest is, therefore, being-taken in man's reactions to lengthy confinement in areas which exclude many of these sources of energy, such as in nuclear submarines", underground and underwater activities, and in the increasing use of air conditioning. As speed and sadden changes in direction are added to man's environment, the need for clear mental signals increases as man will have to bypass manual operation of controls and establish direct thought control. 15 This opens tremendous new fields of study and research as EMC has to be considered as man's partner.

An increasing number of foreign countries are conducting research into the properties of the brain, not only for communication purposes, but to obtain instantaneous control reactions. As many of the brain signals have been found to be down in the lower end

12

of the spectrum, power frequencies are taking on new importance. In Italy. it has

been found that power lines can have an effect on the mental control of artificial limbs.

In the United States, it has been shown that the low-frequency alpha rhythm brain 16

waves can be used to accomplish thought transference at a rate of one word about

every 15 seconds by the use of binary digits in a Morse code method.

And, finally, consideration will have to be given to the application of space travel discoveries to military ends. Both offensive and defensive systems will have to be developed for compatibility between active and passive satellites and those in high and low orbits. Military instrumentation will have to be made compatible with space instrumentation and both of these made compatible with human participation. As

. 17

James M. Brtdges , of the Department of Defense, stated to those attending an E::VIC

meeting in the Boston area: "If management acquires a clear understanding of the problems involved in the EMC Program, our ability to develop and introduce contractural and technical reforms, that wtll gain our program objectives with minimum disturbance, will surely be improved. tI And as J. J. Krstansky, 18 of the lIT Research Institute and chairman of the 10th Tri-Service Chicago Conference, said to those present, "There is an educational responsibility to pass on the Conference's technical discussion to associates." A responsibility for so doing was thereby presented to engtneering. Thus is the challenge of EMC handed to management, by those out in the field, and a way pointed out to engineering as to how this challenge can be met at management levels. Several documented case histories of past E::.vn problems are presented in paragraph 1. 2. 3, starting on page 1-15.

The study of electromagnetic compatibility is a relatively new field and there- are many terms that will be unfamilrar to personnel new to this area. Therefore, at this point some of the more common terms used throughout this document will be defined. First, electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) describes the successful operation of one or more items of equipment in the same electromagnetic environment. A closely related term, electromagnetic interference (EM!), can be defined as the radiated or conducted interference generated by electric or electronic equipment. In an equipment or test connotation, however, EMC and EM! take on slightly different meanings. In this case, an EMC test is performed on the system level, whereas an EMI test is performed on a "black-box" level.

Interference also has a more general definition, i. e., an unwanted electromagnetic signal or disturbance, natural or man-made, that potentially can have a degrading effect on the operation of an electronic equipment. There are essentially two types of interference, narrowband and broadband.

1-6

. ._.

"' j

Narrowband (or continuous wave) interference consists of interference signals that are present at only one frequency or over a narrow range of frequencies. The average value of these frequencies is representative of their amplitude. This type of interference is normally produced by radio-type devices operating at discrete frequencies.

Broadband interference involves interference signals that are present over a wide range of frequencies (noise or impulse). These signals typically have much higher peak values than average values. Broadband interference can be further subdivided into random and impulse noise. Random noise is electromagnetic energy that is not confined to a narrow frequency range and is characterized by disturbance having no regular frequency or phase. On the other hand, impulse noise is distinguished by the phase regularity of successive impulses and the lack of pulse overlapping; this noise may be periodic or consist of a single pulse.

Broadband noise may be produced by any device producing an abruptly changing current, such as an electric spark or arc discharge; relays and automotive ignition systems are examples of broadband interference. This type of interference is also produced by rotating electrical equipment from arcing between slip-rings, commutators, and brushes associated therewith. CW or pulsed CW may also produce interference due to the presence of harmonics, parasitic oscillations, etc.

Radiated and conducted interference and susceptibility are also terms often encountered. Radiated interference is that electromagnetic energy that is radiated from any unit, cable, or interconnecting wiring. Conversely, conducted interference involves electromagnetic energy that is introduced into equipment through external connections. Electromagnetic susceptibility (EMS) is the ability of an electronic equipment to be

4

degraded by unwanted electromagnetic disturbances. Conducted susceptibility is a measure of the interference signal voltage required on power leads to cause an undesirable response or degradation of performance, while radiated susceptibility is a measure of the radiated interference field required to cause equipment malfunction.

Radio frequency interference is a term long familiar to most engineers but one that is now becoming obsolete because the much broader term EM! covers the complete electromagnetic spectrum, not only the RFportion.

1-7

The above sources are all directly or indirectly man-made; natural sources may include:

a. Atmospheric noise which consists of short, randomly occurring pulses superimposed on a background of random noise, such as lightning.

b. Corona discharge.

c. Galactic and solar noise.

1.2 BROAD ASPECTS OF EMC IN SPACE PROGRAMS

1.2. 1 GENERAL

1.2.1. 1 Extent of Problem

Management must begin to realize that a new condition has come into being which rapidly promises to add considerably to the costs, physical hazards, and legal complexity of modern bustness • This condition, termed electromagnetic compatibility, or EMC,

is being forced on American industry by the ever increasing use of the frequency spectrum by both commercial and military communications, radar, energy emitting industrial and medical equipment, and the vastly more complex electronic equipment being designed to fulfill the needs of expanding aerospace programs. The enormity of the problem to management has been pointed out in a leading electronics magazine where an estimate was made that interference problems are presently costing as much as five percent of industry's annual sales. By eliminating or stgnificancly reducing this one problem, industry could apply millions of dollars to increasing company

profit percentages, increasing R&D funds, replacing outdated equipment, adding new facilities, or any number of projects presently limited by a shortage of funds.

The whole problem is closely related to the emphasis on Reliability of a decade ago: again the problem is a real one, but management is not wholly sure that a problem presently exists. However, in the very near future, the Government will certainly require that a strong effort be initiated to eliminate or reduce the effects of interference in critical aerospace equipment so thit man's chances of successfully carrying out programs will be further improved in the hostile space environment. The solution to the problem involves both Government and industry: the Government, as the customer, will impose severe specifications on compatibility of equipment in an EMI environment, and Industry will be held responsible to supply equipment to meet these specifications.

1-8

\ i . __

1.2.1.2 Physiological Damage

It has been discovered that actual physiological damage can occur to human tissue under certain electromagnetic environments. Beside the obvious possibility of injury from inadvertant detonation of explosive devices, frequencies have been discovered

that can cause effects on reproductive tissues, anaesthetize brain tissue, cause opacity of the viscous material within the eye, or even increase the mass of a tumor. Although the signals that cause these physiological effects must be fairly sophisticated, the frequencies involved are common. Eventually, the responsibility for reimbursement in case of injury will be assigned by the courts, and industry may become liable •.

1 .2 .1 .3 Equipment Damage

Damage to, or malfunction of, equipment because of an interference environment is . still another area of concern to management. As the instances of EMC problems increase, the philosophy of correcting the problem at the source, rather than trying to correct it as an afterthought, will surely prevail. More legal responsibility will be placed on the manufacturer to reduce the interference output of his product to protect both personnel and other equipment from damage or injury. "Damage" to equipment can be ·defined in several ways , from temporary degradation of output until the interfering S,OOl'ce is removed tototal physical destruction of the unit such as might occur When a Jnissile is destroyed. In either case, both time and money will be lost because of the. affects of interference; a comparison of the small amount of time and money involved in shutting down an offending arc welder may be practically negligible when measured against the losses involved in the destruction of a Saturn missile, but the point can be made that either problem could be eliminated by proper planning.

The damage that can occur to equipment from EMI sources is rarely cauSed by the operating frequency itself; this is rather closely controlled by Government regulations. The real source of trouble is from the side-effects which will be around as long as the frequencies are. Some of the side-effects are detonation of blasting caps, accidental rocket firings, triggering of sensitive circuits even with equipment turned off, etc.

In the aerospace program, equipment problems can essentially be divided into two areas: airborne and ground based. Although EM! problems exist in both areas, the ground-based EMC is generally easier to achieve because there are rarely any

f

\-.

1-9

limitations on weight of shielding, antenna location, equipment form factor, cable routing, or equipment location. Conversely, aerodynamic considerations may strongly affect equipment and antenna locations , cable routing, and weight limitations for airborne installations.

1.2.2 CAUSES AND EFFECTS

1.2.2.1 General

The causes and effects of EMI are almost as numerous as the types of electrical/ electronic equipment in use. Problems can arise that seem to defy resolution but,

with persistance, many of them can be pinpointed to interference sources. For example, some time ago a blackout of all radar and communications occurred at Fort Huachuca. Because of the nature of the work carried out there, espionage could not be eliminated as a possibility, therefore not only the FCC and regular Army EM! personnel, but also the CIA and various military intelligence agencies, were called in to investigate. The entire area was thoroughly checked, but not until three weeks later was the problem solved. Several miles away an abandoned silver mine had filled with water and was being pumped out. The pipe down into the mine was acting as an antenna and radiating noise into the ground. Propagation conditions were such that this one interference source effectively blanked out a large installation of electronic equipment.

Numerous other examples can be cited of a seemingly insignificant interference source causing serious complications. A naval officer, against orders, took a portable ac/dc radio aboard ship. The reception was poor in his quarters, therefore he connected the antenna leads to long lengths of wire and hung these over the side of the ship. This caused radical interference, problems with shipboard radar and communication equipment. Another instance involving electromagnetic energy resulted in the destruction of an Atlas missile and extensive damage to the launch pad. In this case, corrosion occurred between a grounding strap and its mating surface which was a result of insufficient torquing of the fastening devices: The corroded surface acted as a rectifying junction and caused a spurious signal to be received at the command destruct receiver. This resulted in the missile detonating a few seconds after liftoff.

1-10

,)

1-11

The above examples aptly illustrate the fact that EM! can be a very serious and elusive problem. The next paragraphs relate interference to specific aerospace program areas, as follows:

a. Vehicle and stage problems where EM! affects space booster and/or vehicle operation causing undesirable response or degradation of performance.

b. Facility and environment problems where EM! affects manufacturing, assembly, checkout, operation, and testing.

c. Equipment problems where EMI can adversely affect individual equipments during manufacture, checkout, or operation.

Interference can have many forms in each of the above areas, from the common static heard in communications headsets to serious, and possibly fatal, degradation of the operation of a guidance system. Besides the breakdown of EM! into the three general areas shown above, it can be further defined in terms of equipment or operator

response:

a. Aggravating interference which primarily causes only operator annoyance. This type of interference is generally in the nature of static in a headset or minor spirals on a radar scope and may cause .operator fatigue and inefficiency.

b. Degenerative interference which is sufficiently severe to produce output errors or reduce sensitivity (e. g., a desensitized radar or communications receiver).

c. Critical interference which would be severe enough to affect crew safety.

Examples of this type of interference would be complete loss of telemetry data during the launch of a manned vehicle or the appearance of large errors in a guidance system.

By applying the above parameters to the particular problem encountered, management can readily determine the degree of tradeoff necessary to meet operational requirements. The following paragraphs discuss, in general, the EMI causes and effects most often found in launch vehicles and stages, facilities and environments, and in individual equipments. Case histories of specific failures due to EMI are discussed in paragraph 1. 2. 3.

1. 2. 2. 2 Vehicle and Stage Problems

With the great public interest and the stated national goals in our aerospace program, management is probably most sensitive about corporate image in this area. No company wants a reputation for producing equipment that causes delays or endangers life in the space program. The problem is accentuated in launch vehicles and booster stages because the very nature of most prelaunch and launch operations couples strong interference generating sources in close proximity to extremely sensitive missile circuitry. Radiation from interference sources such as radar, telemetry, and communications transmitters is not an ideal environment for sensitive telemetry receivers, pyrotechnic devices, and guidance systems. Explosive squib detonations, degradation of telemetry data, and errors in measuring equipment have all been encountered and traced back to an interference source. For example, a spurious command destruct signal was detected on the SA-5 vehicle. The cause was discovered to be the mixing

of a transponder output and two telemetry channel carriers occurring in the metallic service structure surrounding the vehicle.

Other F;MI problems encountered in vehicles and booster stages cover the entire range of interference problems: mechanical problems appear such as poor bonding of antenna feed to the antenna, deficiencies caused by poor bonding of surface sheets to structural honeycomb material, and the mating of anodized surfaces that are poor conductors; interference causedbyadjacent equipment such as spurious signals caused by telemetry circuits found in television test cables, command destruct receiver circuits, digital checkout equipment, and in "cabling during an automatic launch sequence; and interference from nearby radar and communications and" television broadcasting stations.

1. 2. 2. 3 Facility and Environment Problems

The major facility and environmental EM! problem is the possibility of a high ambient interference level that can reduce checkout confidence by masking latent equipment defects and that tends to degrade or obscure checkout data.

Many interference sources lead to high ambient ElVII environments in facilities. Any nearby high-intensity broadcasting station, either commercial or military, or radar installation can cause untenable EMI environments. For example, the high peak power levels of pulsed radar can result in impulse-type interference in television and digital systems and in other radars located in the facility. Arc-welding equipment, particularly the portable units, can cause serious interference problems in a building because

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they can be operated in any location, shielded or unshielded, and are infrequently considered when interference degrades equipment operation.

Ignition systems, both automotive and aircraft types, can raise ambient environments above acceptable levels particularly when the affected facility is adjacent to heavily traveled highways or within airport approach paths. Inplant material-handling equipment using internal combustion engines is another source of ignition interference.

A source of facility-type interference that has not been considered until very recently is that of the metal in the building structure itself. This can act as a fairly efficient antenna, picking up radiation from outside sources, and conducting this energy throughout the building. The remainder of this energy is shunted to ground. Usually, the building ground is connected to city utility pipes underground and the utility companies are experiencing so much trouble with corroded pipes and electrical controls being damaged that they are now inserting nonconducting piping in the systems, for-cing management to install their own safety grounding. Installation of mono-metallic grounding systems can reduce corrosion problems, but management frequently will balk at the cost of replacing presently installed systems.

If the •• geounding systems are installed in facilities remote from other buildings, no particujar problem exists. If, however, the installation is made close to other buildingsor~facilities, indiscriminate placement of the grounding system could result in struc.al damage to neighboring metal services and foundations, possibly leading to Iegalaesten. A copper rod grounding system just would not be compatible with iron or steel-foundation structures, and the installation of underground grounding systems leads toanother interference problem - that of resonance of critical lengths of buried metal. This problem will be of concern to management when new grounding systems are

being considered.

1. 2.2.4 Equipment Problems - --

Some problems appear in a system as a result of deficiencies in design or operation of specific equipment items. There is concern for both interference generation which can cause erratic operation in other equipments, and for susceptibility limitations which can make an equipment erratic for external and possibly unavoidable spurious signals. The types of equipment EMI problems encountered are almost as numerous as the types of equipment, and these problems are the most difficult to diagnose once fabrication has been completed. Such supposedly minor modifications as a change in

the number of rivets used to join panels or an increase in the number of cooling vents

can seriously impair electromagnetic shielding. A coat of paint or grease, dirt, cor- )

rosion, etc., effectively leaves an open seam in the shielding. Particular equipments,

such as pyrotechnic devices and low noise amplifiers, are extremely sensitive to EM!;

the most rigorous suppression techniques are required to sufficiently eliminate this

problem. A digital computer is extremely sensitive to interference because of the

very low signal levels involved in its operation.

Although EM! is a two-way problem, that is, equipment tending to produce interference is inherently susceptible to interference, because of normal use, location, etc., equipment problems can reasonably be listed under either generating or susceptible head-

ings, such as:
a. EM! generating:
Fluorescent lamps. ~ ~
•
• Heady duty motors.
• Arc welders.
• Electric furnaces.
• Relay solenoids.
• Switches. • Transmitters (TV, communications, and radar).

b. Susceptible to EM!:

• Cathode-ray-tube displays.

• Low-noise amplifiers.

• Cables.

• Pyrotechnic devices.

• Digital equipment.

The above lists are by no means complete; they will serve, however, to indicate the extent and variety of EM! problems existing today.

With the increased demand for more sophisticated payloads imposed by present-day aerospace programs, microminiature circuits will be used more and more. A determined effort will have to be made to thoroughly study microcircuits to determine their EM! characteristics. Early inclusion of EMC techniques will result in increased reliability and a substantial reduction of checkout difficulties.

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1. 2. 3

DOCUMENTED CASE HISTORIES

.~. 1.2.3.1 General

The following case histories have been selected to show some of the past EM! problems. Each case details the specific problem and the mamfestation of that problem, the determined cause, degrading effect, a solution to the problem, and how the problem could have been avoided.

Again, these histories have been broken down into the areas of vehicle. and stage, facility and environment, and equipment problems.

1.2.3.2 Vehicle an'd Stage Problems

Electromagnetic interference problems of one sort or another have been encountered in every part of the aerospace program. Some problems have been relatively minor in nature, while others have been complex and required that much time and effort be expended to provide a working solution. The following paragraphs will describe some of the specific problems encountered in the Saturn booster program.

On the St-I-3 stage, high Interference levels were encountered on power buses and high transien1lf3 were generated in the cabling during the automatic launch sequence. The interference levels present were sufficient to prevent a valid vehicle checkout. An investigation into the causes for these problems was initiated and it was discovered that the interference signals were generated by network functions and demodulated RF energyfrom onboard transmitters. As a result, interference suppression devices were installed on telemetry equipment and rotary inverters. The problem could have been avoided by knowledgeable routing of cabling. shielding, and transient suppression techniques. Inverters again presented problems during checkout of the S-I-4 stage. The problem here was that transient-type interference seriously degraded the reliability of the totally transistorized digital automatic checkout equipment installed in the Control Room. The problem became apparent in several areas: high interference levels appeared on dc power buses in the propulsion relay rack, conducted EMI appeared on the ac power line from the digital event recorder in the console room, and interference from an undetermined source appeared on one of the engine yaw movement measurement lines. In this case, both rotary and static inverters were determined to be the cause of interference on the power lines. To resolve these problems, a concentrated effort was made to suppress interference and transient signals generated by facility equipments, systems, and subsystems. This effort cons isted of

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1-16

continued interference testing and suppression activity directed toward facility equip-

ments considered potential sources of detrimental interference and containment of in- )

terference signals emanating from unsuppressed equipments in RF-shielded equipment enclosures. Adequate E::vII specifications and test procedures during procurement and installation could have prevented this problem.

Problems encountered during checkout of the SA-1 vehicle caused unreliable measurement data and electromagnetic interference to other equipments. Telemetry antennas had a structural deficiency in the bonding of the antenna feed point co~ector to the antenna feed point. This caused intermittent connections under vibration or a rectifying junction that resulted in malfunction of the telemetry equipment. This problem was resolved by modifying the telemetry antennas, but could have been prevented by an awareness of the causes and prevention of EMI. An awareness is required that poor bonding can cause noise interference, equipment malfunction, and mechanical bonds develop an oxide film causing rectifying junctions that produce harmonic and intermodulation products. Another problem encountered was a high ambient EM! level principally caused by truck ignition noise and switching transients. To reduce unreliability in measurement data, signal levels were increased to override the effects induced by the ambient interference. The problem could have been avoided by an early prediction of ambient EMI levels at the site and the elimination of motor vehicle traffic from the site during tests.

A vehicle interference problem apperared during checkout of the SA-5 that could have had catastrophic results but, fortunately, did not. A command destruct signal developed at the command destruct receiver (CDR) during prelaunch testing when no signal had been transmitted to that vehicle. Fortunately, the destruct mechanism was not connected during this test phase. Performance of the CDR was not accurately meas - ureable with the interference signal present. Checkout time and effort was increased, delaying the launch. Upon investigation, it was discovered that the destruct signal at another vehicle had been detected by a Saturn transponder and rebroadcast. This rebroadcast signal, mixed with two telemetry channel carriers plus the UDOP transponder output frequency, ultimately appeared on the CDR frequency. The frequency mixing was caused by high-intensity signals impinging on a metal shell surrounding the vehicle and on the service structures. The problem was resolved by removing the "clamshell" surrounding the vehicle and service tower during test, reducing signal levels of the offending signals involved. The problem could have been avoided by a redistribution of frequency assignments to avoid the critical mixing combinations,

(

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construction of the "clamshell" to avoid confinement of transmitted RF energy within

rr: a metallic structure (perhaps by the use of plastic sheets covering the "clamshell"), avoidance by AMR of common frequency operation of different equipments (CDR on one missile and UDOP on another), and reliable bonding between members of the service tower structure and grounding of the entire structure.

1. 2. 3. 3 Facilitv and Environment Problems

A general survey of the EMI environment before the final decision is made to relocate to or construct checkout facilities on a new site should be made. The survey should define the exact interference levels that will be encountered. Effective suppression techniques must be employed to reduce the ambient EMI levels. Two surveys, (1) the Michoud Operations Plant and (2) the Mississippi Test Site, will be discussed.

Both surveys uncovered high ambient EMI levels existing that degraded instrumentation data during vehicle test and checkout. At Michoud, broadband transients resulted from ignition neise, office equipment, and other extraneous sources, while narrowband interference ,was caused by radio, teletype, television, and code transmissions. Narrowband interference was also noted at the Mississippi Test Site. Solutions were

(1) instUliltg suppression devices on office equipment, motor vehicles, and other extraneous s~ces; (2) adding power line filters and resistive coatings on lamp covers to improve ¢he lighting system; and (3) enforcing standard interference suppression requirements.

1. 2. 3. 4 Equipment Problems

Electrical or electronic equipment, operating in conjunction with or adjacent to other electrical or electronic equipment, is conducive to EM! problems.

A particular computer system conducted interference levels that exceeded applicable MIL-I-6181D limits. This resulted from inadequate cabinet shielding and filtering of cabinet interconnecting signal and power circuits. There was no degrading effect on the computer system caused by its own interference levels. However, the exit paths are also entrance paths for external interference, therefore this computer may malfunction when exposed to high ambient interference levels. Adequate shielding and bonding techniques were recommended for the cabinet and interconnecting signal and power circuits. The problem could have been avoided by the imposition of suitable EM! specifications during design and development of the system.

Another problem encountered was a malfunction of digital magnetic tape recorders on a ground station telemetry data handling system. The problem appeared when telemetry data was found to have missing and extraneous bit pulses during recording and playback. The problem was traced to a ground loop that introduced crosstalk and transients from other signal sources. The problem was solved by eliminating the ground loop. Greater emphasis on EM! grounding philosophy would have avoided the problem.

J

The generation of EM! transients from actuating pushbutton switch contacts caused malfunction of a super-speed page printer logic. This trouble appeared when the system control logic was randomly triggered into unwanted modes upon activation of various control switches. The problem was resolved by adding filters to each control switch. This problem could have been avoided if the control panelhad been designed for greater immunity to EM! and had included provisions for EM! suppression.

1.3 EMC PROGRAM

The preceding sections present a brief~ but comprehensive, review of some of the sources and effects of electromagnetic interference. Huge human and financial resources are continually being expended for the development of complex electrical/ electronic equipment and systems, only to have them rendered, in many instances, completely ineffectual because of the failure to apply what ,,!ould have been a small portion of the over-all effort to the problem of interference reduction. Today, the folly of this oversight is becoming clearly evident.

...... ,

The need for aerospace "equipment to perform reliably and be compatible through mission environments involving orbital injection, space rendezvous, and ultimately blter-

"

planetary maneuvers, poses a formidable problem to aerospace engineers today. The

electromagnetic compatibility engineer can contribute much in the resolution of these problems. This means that the EMC engineer must do more than perform spectrum signature analyses and prediction services during the design, development, production, and field use of parts, equipment, and systems.

Companies, having realized the importance of these factors and recognizing the deSirability of designing electromagnetic capability into the vehicle, have formed EMC control groups. These groups review basic designs from an interference control

1-18

standpoint and make recommendations to basic design organizations. In some instances, the EMC groups were given complete authority in all matters relative to electromagnetic interference control. Their duties were to implement procedures, set guidelines, and prepare lists of tested components to be used by the design engineers during the design phase.

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REFERENCES

)

1. RADM Joseph E. Rice, USN, keynote address before Tenth Tri-Service Conference on EMC, Chicago, 17 - 19 November 1964.

2. "Electromagnetic Compatibility Engineer, The New Breed," IEEE Student Journal, March 1963.

3. ''HAD HAZ Program, US Navy," BuShips Journal, September 1959.

4. "ECAC: Meeting the RFI Problem," AFCEA Signal, February 1965.

5. Interference and Its Elimination, Research Report, Naval Medical Research Institute, l.\1R/005. 09-1401. 04, June 1962.

6. Burlington, Vt., Free Press, 26 December 1963.

7. Biological Effects of Electromagnetic Radiation Encountered in High Power Communication Svstems. 3rd Aero-Communication Symposium, IRE,

Utica, N. Y., 7 November 1957.

8. "Electromagnetism and Its Effect on the Organism," New York State Journal of Medicine, 1 July 1963.

9. Radio Frequency Energy, A Potential Hazard in the Use and Transportation of Electric Blasting Caps, Institute of Makers of Explosives, New York, N. Y., 1956.

10. "Protecting Magnetic Tape Against Accidental Erasure, " Space/Aeronautics, October 1962.

11. Radar Fires Flash Bulbs, AP Dispatch, 5 October 1954.

12. "Muscle V<;>ltage Moves Artificial Hand," Electronics, 11 October 1963.

13. S.O. Nelson and J.L. Seubert, Electromagnetic Energy afldSound for Use in Control of Certain Pests, 131st Annual Meeting of the American Association for the Advancement of SCience, Montreal,· Canada, 26 - 31 December 1964.

14. "Control of Air Ion Density in Rooms, " Journal of the Franklin Institute, November 1953.

15. "Living Neuro-Electronic Systems," Space/Aeronautics. September 1964.

16. Communication by Brain Waves, Research Review, Office of Aerospace Research, November 1964.

17. James M. Bridges, Electromagnetic Interference, Hanscom Field, Bedford, Mass., 16 January 1963.

18. "EMC Conference Report, 10th Tri-Service Conference on Electromagnetic Compatibility, November 1964," Frequency. January/February 1965.

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CHAPTER 2

EMC ORGANIZATION

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CHAPTER 2

EMC ORGANIZATION

2.1 EMC PROGRAM OBJECTIVES AND ORGANIZATION

To be truly effective, an EMC organization must be well integrated into the over-all project organization which it is intended to serve. Its duties and its goals must be well defined, and these definitions must be clearly understood by management and all the related engineering groups within the project. In this chapter, a functional EMC organization will be developed which will be based on the following five principal objectives:

1. The EMC organization will facilitate the establishment of electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) information sources that will provide the engineering. manufacturing, and testing organizations with a complete definition of the EMC environment in which the system, subsystem, or component will be required to operate.

2. The EMC organization will provide the Interpretation and application of specifications, engineering methods, and testing procedures that will make it possible and feasible to initially design the equipment or system so that it win operate compatibly with other electronic/electrical devices in its operating environment.

3. The EMC organization will develop and apply the necessary methods to predict quantitatively the amount of operational degradation resulting from mutual EM interference that will be encountered in currently envisioned operational situations and it will develop means through improved operational doctrine, frequency reassignment, and sound design techniques that will permit the effective operation of all essential electronic/electrical systems.

4. The EMC organization will develop an EMC control plan that will assure the eventual achievement of a compatible system by placing into effect the methods and procedures required throughout the various phases of the program

to meet contractual commitments, and that will communicate to all responsible personnel and subcontractors the emphasts and design guides to be utilized to avoid practices that may cause interference problems.

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,,_.)

5. The EMC organization will establish and implement an educational program ----

that will inform personnel at all levels of operations and management concerning all aspects of the electromagnetic compatibility problem, its nature, its importance in the Apollo program, and the management, engineering, and operational factors involved in its solution.

In short, the five objectives encompass the project requirements for the gathering of EMC information, the interpretation, dissemination, and application of the information, the prediction of interference problems and suggested methods for their remedies, the development of an over-all EMC control document, and the instruction of personnel in EMC/EMI techniques.

The information-gathering process of the first objective is divided into a "what" and

a "where" problem. What EMC information does the project require? Basically, it needs the information necessary to satisfy the other four objectives. This includes data on the environment in which the system under design will operate, engineering data, specifications, test philosophies, customer requirements, and tutorial material. The second problem, where to get the necessary information, often turns out to be the major headache. The information about environment should come from the customer, including information about systems built by other subcontractors. Various Government agencies, such as the armed services, maintain large EMC data banks where information about specific equipments and types of equipment can be obtained. One of these, the Electronic Compatibility Analysis Center (ECAC) at Annapolis, Maryland, collects interference information on every type of transmitter and receiver in the United States.

The second objective concerns the efficient interpretation and diss~mination of the acquired information. ' Necessary data must be furnished to design and development engineering personnel to ensure that the EMC requirements are included in the initial design. Applicable specifications in the EM! area must be interpreted and applied specifically to the project at hand. The results from this effort appear in the EMC Control Plan of objective four. Once the signal characteristics of the particular environment have been identified and the signal parameters for the system under design have been specified, a simulation program will be devised and used to test the performance of the system with respect to its electromagnetic compatibility.

.;'

The heart of any simulation program is its prediction capability. This is the third objective in the EMC program, and is potentially a most effective one. Accurate and objective prediction must insure that most design deficiencies, weaknesses, or pitfalls be uncovered before they reach the hardware stage.

Assume that a mission profile (that is, a detailed, logically interrelated, step-bystep description of the sequence of critical events defining the mission) is available. Also assume that a preliminary design of all systems required to participate in this mission is available and to any level of detail that might be requested. From this information, it is possible to produce an estimate of the system operational characteristics through the various mission phases and to determine quantitatively the amount of operational degradation that will result during worst-condition mission events.

EMC anadysts can begin once a mission profile and the designs of participating systemshave been specified since the inherent electromagnetic compatibility of a system is merely one of the parameters determined by its design. This fact illustrates the nature of EMC engineering as a service-oriented discipline; it can help the designer (or the manager) measure one of the important characteristics of a givendeaign and, occasionally, provide insight of how particular designs or mission procedures might be altered to improve the electromagnetic compatibility characteristics of the systems used.

The procedures suggested herein are merely to illustrate those elements that are required to arrive at an accurate prediction. The principal elements of these approaches are the matters of defining the spectrum signatures, of developing a mathematical electromagnetic compatibility model for the over-all operation, and systematically linking these elements to the world of real equipment and available test data. Methods are developed and application techniques are discussed in Chapters 5 and 13.

The controlling element and the guiding document of the EMC program is the EMC control plan of the fourth objective. The electromagnetic compatibility control plan is a well-documented set of EMC management poltcies that communicate to each department head, each engineer, each subcontractor, and the procuring agency the work effort, the emphasis, and the design guides that are utilized in avoiding practices that may cause serious interference problems at a time when delays and increased costs can ill be afforded. Such aspects are important to state because the technical content of a program depends on them.

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Since this technical content measures the potential of the program to cope with the difficulties of the engineer's conflicts with natural phenomena, it transcends the implications of management considerations alone. It is important that an organization's policies will ensure a program that produces:

a. A consistent structure of quantitative electromagnetic compatibility analyses of all critical components, subsystems, and operational sequences involved in the over-all system and mission. These analyses and estimates should be systematically updated throughout all stages of a system's development, and be based on the technically best-founded design, engineering, and test

, data available at the time the analyses and, estimates are made. In particular, over-all system EMC estimates, including supporting confidence level data, should be a formal product of such a process.

b. Clear definitions of specific destgn, engineering, testing, and R&D problems that need to be solved in order to meet the .electromagnetic compatibility goals for the system and mission as required by policy, economic, or other considerations; and, conversely, clear definitions of the EMC goal tradeoffs which might be required by changes in economic, scheduling, or other constraints on the program.

c. A structure of managerial controls and procedures, at all organizational levels, that wi·ll tend to minimize mission, organizational, or other bias in attaining the goals set forth in the control plan.

Realistically, EMC engineering and management is an accessory and service function. It develops data and operational patterns for assisting the organizationally responsible elements in determining what is technically attainable, and what needs to be done to assure such attainment, in systems and mission electromagnetic compatibility. Details of an EMC control plan are presented in Chapter 15.

The compatibility problem is especially severe in space-related equipment. By ade - quate care in the initial design and development, coupled with enforcement of an integrated interference control plan and a well-oriented educational program that will insure complete indoctrination of all responsible personnel with the pohcies, methods, philosophies, procedures, responsibilities, and channels of communications, a compatible space vehicle system can be achieved. Good basic understanding of the policies, directives, problems, and solutions that can most effectively be accomplished through an over-all training program starting with management aspects and continuing

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:-." _ .. -.,. ~'.":'

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through the technical phases is the best insurance that the EMC program will be properly interpreted and implemented. The expected return from this fifth and last objective is an educational program and the introduction which !t provides that can be effective toward reducing the total development time and costs of electrical! electronic equipment and systems.

The basic goal of any EMC educational program is to reduce the mystery surrounding such concepts as RFI, EMI, susceptibility, or compatibility. If it can be made clear that basic electrical! electronic theory as used daily by the design or development engineer is the same theory used for electromagnetic interference control, the training program can be considered a success. The only difference is that the EM! engineer looks at the undesirable side effects of an electronic phenomenon, whereas the designer looks for the useful portion of this same phenomenon.

The scope of the training program may range from a comprehensive introduction of

all responsible management and operational personnel regarding policies, procedures, milestones, and goals to a formal EMC educational endeavor. The important considerations are that all appropriate organizational elements parttcipate in the program, that sufficient time be allotted, and that qualified personnel are available to present the subject matter in understandable terms with the necessary breadth and depth to ensure complete coverage.

Some topics for suggested EMC courses can be taken from the chapters of this book. Chapters 6 through 12 represent the basic EM! building blocks. Other chapters approach the EMC problem on the system level including requirements and testing philosophy. Many courses on special subjects are available from the military. A NASA course on interference testing is currently being prepared at the Marshal! Space Flight Center.

2.2 THE ROLE OF ELECTROMAGNETIC COMPATIBILITY

The need for electromagnetic compatibility seems to be intuitively accepted by everyone. But EMC doesn't just happen, it must be achieved. The normal course of a wellorganized development project will not automatically produce an electromagnetically compatible design, unless management takes the initiative. This means the need for a firm and knowledgeable program of EMC management, design, development, and test for the enforcement of EMI control from the system down to the component levels, starting at the conceptual stage through all phases of the development to the user stage.

Many arguments have been heard that in the past many systems were developed that did not have an EMC program and are still operating today, but this is only partially true. In the past, several conditions were different from the presently larger and more complex space systems. One difference is the complexity of a system; for a less complex system, an elaborate EMC program is generally not necessary. The most important difference, however, is the fact that almost all systems built in the past had a fairly extensive production run following the development. During the run of the early production models, the design was "debugged" for any interference problems and a retrofix was applied. This was a commonly accepted standard practice by both the contractor and customer. In the "one-shot" nature of today's space vehicle development models however, the first model must be fully compatible with its electromagnetic environment.

)

If such an EMC program can produce an equipment that is designed to be compatible with its electromagnetic environment, the question arises regarding what time and money could have been saved on the debugging of the systems built years ago.

Most members of the electronics industry have had unfortunate experiences due to electromagnetic incompatibility but few were willing to accept the responsibility for

the resolution of the many problems involved. Until just recently, the attitude of placing the problem in the other fellow's lap, usually the customer's, was a common approach. Today, the customer, particularly where the Government is involved,is insisting on and soon will contractually require that the system be compatible thzougnout its environment, much the same as reliability and quality assurance are now a

part of these contracts.

This past reluctance to accept and cope with the problem only when" forced to has caused the EMC effort to remain more or less in a static state. Now, with the need firmly established, it is obvious that industry must tool up to meet these requirements by properly organizing for EMC.

In many discussions, the argument appears where the EMC organization belongs within an engineering organization. Obviously, there is no one answer except that the E:NIC group belongs organizationally where it can best perform its many duties and be effective.

One good argument places the EMC/EMI organization with or into a similar category as reliability engineering. These two groups have many common functions, the most

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c_

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important of these are the reduction of equipment failures before the failures occur and the long-range cost improvement to the contractor and customer through the

a voidance of major fixes and/or lost missions. In addition, both groups are service organizations in the sense that they do not perform main line design, development, or manufacturing functions, but are effective in an advisory capacity. The design responsibility remains with the designer at all times. Reliability engineering, as well as the EMC group, develop and implement design ground rules and requirements; each group allocates allowable design limits and assesses design compliance with the requirements, but the only recourse in not agreeing with a design is nonconcurrence and a report to this effect to the top project management.

Another reasoning places the EMC/EMI function into the system design organization. The obvious advantage to this arrangement is the early consideration of electromagnetic compatibility during the conceptual and preliminary design stages. EMC design philosophy requirements and allowable limits become part of the system design specifications. EMC is then one of a number of design considerations taken into account by the main line design function.

- A number of questions immediately arise on the validity of this reasoning. Is EMC really just one of many design considerations? The answer is both yes and no. Yes, EMC, as vibration, temperature, humidity, weight, form factor, or reliability, is a deisgn- consideration. Yet, similar to reliability, EMC is not just on the same level as some of the other considerations but is in addition to what may be called a mission success level. Temperature or humidity problems can be circumvented by practical desrgn, but El'4C and reliability considerations are not so simple. If a designer says that all these parameters can be designed into the system, how can this be assured? Weight or form factor can be measured, system or unit performance can be assessed under temperature or vibration, but it is not so easy to assess reliability or electromagnetic compatibility.

Assessment is one of the reasons why reliability engineering was separated from the main line design organizations. Project management needed an independent staff function that could determine if the product under development would meet its reliability requirements. Now, management has realized that it also needs independent assessment in the EMC area.

If EMC should be a separate staff function or if it should be grouped unrler a related staff function such as reliability depends on the size and type of development project

)

considered. In order to be effective, the EMC/EMI organization must have direct access to the top project management, and therefore it should be independent of the design organization. A well-operating EMC/EMI group represents the interference surveillance for the project management, and the consultant and advisor for the design, development, or manufacturing engineer. Obviously, such a position and such confidence must be earned. It takes a certain combination of tact and high technical ability to convince project management that the EMC group will not only pay its own way, but will actually save the project money, and to assure the design or development engineer that the seemingly ridiculous request that no stranded wire be used is a necessary and valid requirement.

-

The usefulness of EMI personnel can be proven, but mainly in the negative source, i. e., when something malfunctions. The reports usually don't express the reasons

for failures in terms of EMC or RFI, but they mention such things as spurious signals, arc discharges, static discharges, false triggers, etc. In a certain space system, about one out of every three failures was EMI connected as indicated in the failure reports.

As shown by these considerattons, a good EMC group can readily pay for itself. The main reason for the existence of this group is to reduce failures due to EMI. If this alone is accomplished, the EM! group has paid for its existence. In addition, interference control integrated into the design of the equipment will save time, material, and weight. The cost considerations associated with an EMC program will be discussed in greater detail in Chapter 3 and the following sections of this chapter will present a representative EMC organization, including its duties, responsibilities, and personnel.

2.3 THE EMC FUNCTIONS

The effective electromagnetic compatibility control program is a management program, as opposed to an interference test program which is an after-the-fact retr o-fix program. These retro-fix programs cannot be scheduled for time and cost, and they are seldom brought to a completely satisfactory conclusion. Usually, without a wellorganized EMC program, a decision must be reached if the retro-fix shall continue or if the system should be redesigned.

Figure 2-1 shows the functional blocks of a complete EMC control program and their interrelations. The heart of the program is the interference control plan. The plan

2-8

establishes the terms of the EMC control philosophy for the entire project. It determines the interference suppression techniques that will be used, and it provides the ground rules for the detailed EMI design specification. The control plan is based on three sets of inputs, the customer and environmental data, the applicable NASA. or military specifications, and the preliminary design and prediction data.

~ CUSTOMER DATA I I NASA AND MILITAR", I PRELIMINARY DESIGN DATA
ENVIRONMENTAL DATAj 1 SPECIFICATIONS I PREDICTION DATA
~
INTERI'ERENCE CONTROL PLAN TE~~I~:~;S
,
I GROUNDING I II BONDING I I SHIELDING I •
SPECI FICATIONS SPECIFICATIONS SPECIFICATIONS I EMI AND rMC J
, SPECIFICATIONS • . t

I WIllE AND CABLE I l FILTEII AND I !
SUPPRESSION r CONTRIBUTIONS TO CONTRIBUTIONS
SPECIFICATIONS SPECIFICATIONS SYSTEM PERFORMANCE TO
J I OUleN REVIEWS I IIELIA8ILITY MANUFACTURING
QUALITY REO'MTS SPECIFICATIONS
,
I COIIPONENT/UNIT
IMI TESTS
• •
rUiSYSTEII/ IYSTEII( .
EMC TESTS Figure 2-1. EMC Functional Interrelation

Most of the electromagnetic environmental 'data should be furnished by the customer, but this ts not always possible. The environment in which the equipment under development must work often depends on other equipment under development by other contractors. Hence this input must be continuously updated. The customer information contains not only data on frequency allocations, site layouts, and power levels, but also contractual requirements and waivers.

The NASA and military specifications applied to the contract are usually well known, but they must be interpreted for the specific job at hand. The interference control plan will, in general terms, interpret these specifications in light of contractual requirements or waivers and special situations or deficiencies relating to the equipment under development or to subcontractor requirements.

The prehrninary design and prediction data depends on educated guesses and analytical modeling techniques. This does by no means imply that this data is not accurate or not useful. As an example, in a given radar system the shape, amplitude, duration, and repetion rate of the modulator pulse can be estimated within a few percent of its final values. This can be done for most other high-powered Signals. Usually, most

2-9

importantwave shapes in a system have been defined in the proposal stage. The preliminary design information, supplemented by the prediction techniques, will produce data on transients, impedance, cable coupling, frequency responses, and generations and sensitivities.

The specific inputs to the interference control plan produce a plan peculiarly adapted to the system under development. The control plan, in turn, then provides the inputs necessary for the detailed specifications to be used on the system, such as the specifications for grounding, bonding, shielding, wiring and cabling, filtering and suppression, and the interference limits and compatibility requirements for the EMI/EMC specifications. In addition, the interference control plan contributes inputs for other requirements such as system performance, reliability, quality control, or the manufacturing spectfications and procedures.

Performance monitoring for all these specifications is done continuously during the design and development of the system, but the formal management control is exercised during periodic design review and manufacturing review sessions held under the direction of the project management. Design reviews are not restricted to EMC but are held for system review by the design and development groups, reliability, quality control, mechanical design, etc., and are usually contractual requirements under the reliability or quality control plans.

The EMI/EMC test plan, as well as the control plan, is written by the EMC control group and represents the formal demonstration of system electromagnetic compatibility. The tests begin as interference tests at the component and unit levels to predetermine allocated interference limits, and then progress to electromagnetic compatibility tests on the subsystem and system levels to specified threshold safety margins. These formal tests have a tightly controlled procedure to insure the absolute trust-worthiness of the test results.

In order for these formalized EMC functions to be of full value, an informal liaison between the design engineers and the EM! engineers is imperative. Before and between design reviews, the development engineer performs informal development tests. The EM! engineer must be available, if requested, to assist during these tests.

The results of the various design reviews are then fed back to the interference control plan, thereby keeping this plan an ever-changing dynamic function for the benefit of

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2-11

the system under development. Information is also fed back to the prediction function to allow the updating of the prediction model which, in turn, will present the new interference projections to the interference control function.

2.4 EMC ORGANIZATION STRUCTURE

The organization required to implement the EMC program is developed in a basic building-block concept to maintain flexibility, thereby allowing the program to be used for either simple or complex systems. Only in this manner can the program be implemented to suit individual management policies and procedures.

The EMC organization is, like the reliability function, a service group. It is in no way designed to replace or supersede the basic deSign/development/manufacturing flow, but to assist them to the end result of a quality product.

To establish a common ground in terms of organization and nomenclature, a description of a typical aerospace contractor project organization is in order. The usual flow from system design through equipment development, manufacturing and test, installation, and use is described as follows:

a. Svstem design - For simplicity, the conceptual and proposal stages are included here. This is where the over-all concept of the' entire system is developed from customer requirements. Block functions are laid out and from these, individual subsystems and physical units are defined, interconnections are developed, and interface requirements are formulated. Also, over-all system mechanical considerations are developed, such as system form factor, installation, and configuration requirements.

b. Equipment development - Here, the over-all system operational block con-

~

cept is developed into actual hardware. Individual circuit configurations

are designed, circuits are breadboarded and tested, and component packaging is designed and built. Hardware trade-offs between optimum circuit functions and packaging limitations must be made and cable routing details are specified.

c. Manufacturing, test, and checkout - The prototype equipment evolving from the above step is given final engineering tests and then proceeds to the preproduction and manufacturing steps. Manufacturing processes are developed, system interfaces are resolved, and final acceptance tests are made. The system is then ready for shipment to the customer.

d. ~ - The system is delivered, installed, checked out, and turned over to the customer. Any last-minute problems are resolved and, unless field operation by contractor personnel is required, responsibility passes to the customer.

The EMC program, therefore, must be implemented in each of the above areas. Each step of the design/development/manufacturing/use process must be examined for EMI trouble spots and these trouble spots must be eliminated prior to the hardware phase. The hardware must have proper interference suppression designed in and all interface areas must be safeguarded against interference problems. These objectives can only be met with a well-organized EMC program.

In the previous section, the EMC functional interrelations were developed; in this section, these functions will be integrated into a typical project now. Figure 2-2 illustrates in a Simplified version the EMC control functions in a project time sequence. For this time-flow presentation, the functions are divided into five categories:

a. EM! analysis and prediction.

b. E:MI data acquisition and dissemination.

c. Design consultation.

d. Specifications and procedures.

e. Training.

The horizontal time axis is divided into the four general project stages.

All five functions contribute to the generation of the interference control plan, which then becomes the guiding document for achieving electromagnetic compatibility in the particular development project. It must be understood that this document is the basic plan and it is the responsibility of the EM! group to make this plan a dynamic function within and for the project organization. What the interference control plan should contain will be discussed in greater detail in Chapter 15, but it suffices to indicate here that the plan delineates the ground rules for each of the contributing functions.

The main and formal control vehicle is the design reviews held throughout the project. In the illustration, one representative design review for each project stage is depicted. Each one of these reviews represents a series of formal reviews that are held throughout the design and development stages and are replaced by component or system level

2-12

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testing in the manufacturing and installation phases. During each design review, all known information about the system development is considered for possible problem areasor system degradation.

During the systems design stage, the design reviews are concerned with the over-all effectiveness of the system design. The EMC system specifications that were prepared following the control plan are closely inspected, especially in relation to the system performance and reliability specifications: The system level consulting function, in conjunction with the known external data and the projected problem areas, will indicate weak points in the electromagnetic compatibility of the system and will, if possible, suggest remedies.

As the project phases into the hardware development stage, both the design consultation and the specification and procedure functions will take over the increased duties of component development consultation. This is the phase where detailed scrutiny of the circuitry under development pays off. The interference consultant must be able to interpret the EMI specifications down to the smallest detail in a circuit module. The design reviews in this stage become tedious and more and more involved in detail, but

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this is time well spent. Once a printed circuit board has been fabricated, it is almost as difficult to make a change as it is to correct a mistake on the system level.

At the manufacturing stage, the reviews change to tests. Now finished hardware is available and test results replace the design review information. The EMI group prepares for the formal tests by observing or conducting informal development tests during the prototype phase and at the beginning of the manufacturing period. Another function is to firm-up the manufacturing procedures that affect electromagnetic compatibility.

Finally, during delivery of the system to the customer, the EMC engineers may be required to oversee or monitor the installation and to perform the system checkout. This phase of the EMC function is becoming more and more a contractual item.

Referring again to Figure 2-2, in the system design stage, the prediction and the data acquisition functions combine to prepare a system interference prediction as soon as possible.

The environmental or system ambient data available and the inputs from the customer, together with the early knowledge of the system under development, allow a reasonably accurate preview of the most critical interference areas. This is the time when basic changes to the system configuration· are the least costly in time, material, weight, or money. ,Therefore, the projections must be carefully considered in t.l;e next design review by the entire project staff.

As the project time phase moves into the equipment development stage, the analysis and predictions will advance to the individual components and units of the system. Obviously, it would be to costly and unnecessary to analyze or simulate every component. Engineering judgment must indicate the critical units that should be analyzed in the order of their approximate criticality. Here the data acquisition and dissemination function must supply internal system data from in-house and subcontractor sources. This data updates and supplements real-time data of the system obtained during the last design review. The updating of the system data and the prediction model of the system is a continuous process and does not stop when a working prototype model is completed. At this time, the latest site and installation data, combined with the updated system data, will yield site integration predictions and possible problem areas. The prediction model can be used to great advantage for system optimization projections even during the user stage. But, the most important role that the analysis

and prediction function fulfills is the indication of the costly problems ahead before they occur.

The training function must keep in step with the system progress. New equipment information must be incorporated into the indoctrination and training sessions as soon as it becomes available. In many cases, the training courses, as blocked out in Fig-

ure 2-2, would be given in conjunction with other system courses. The specific material to be covered in any courses must be timely and directly applicable to the current system phase.

The complexity of education and indoctrination is totally dependent upon the size of the organization supporting it. A large company that has a large dollar-value contract may require a formal training program complete with classroom lectures, while a smaller company serving as a subcontractor may only have informal meetings in available office or conference room locations. The important thing, however , is that all cognizant technical personnel be at least made aware that serious EM! problems can exist and that these problems can be circumvented by careful design practices. The information covered should include at least:

a. Basic electromagnetic theory as applied to interference.

b. Proper interpretation of EM! specifications.

c. Interference sources.

d. Proper testing methods.

e. Basic EM! control, such as:

• Grounding, bonding, and shielding techniques.

• Packaging.

• Filtering.

• Cable design.

• EM! characteristics of electronic parts and circuits.

The five functions developed in this section are representative of the various duties performed by the EMC group. Depending on the size of the development project, the functions can be expanded or combined. For example, the analysis and prediction and the data acquisition and dissemination groups could be combined, so could the design consultation and specifications and procedures groups. The grouping into functional areas also allows for a maximum amount of flexibility to better adapt the EMC program to any project organization.

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· -:;

2.5 RES PONSIBIUTIE S

Electromagnetic interference control responsibilities on the various levels generally lie with three widely different groups. These are the Government, with its law-making and enforcing powers; management of both customer and contractor, with its financial and directive powers; and the EMC organization assigned to the particular development project with its technical capabilities and powers of design rejection backed by

the first two groups.

The Government, as the primary customer in aerospace programs, has assumed many responsibilities in the field of EMC formerly reserved to supplier organizations. Because of the ever-increasing frequency requirements generated by the growing use of communications and other EMI-emitting devices by both commercial and military sources, the federal Government has necessarily assumed firm control of frequency allocation in this country. Furthermore, the Government is working with the International Telecommunications Union in an attempt to resolve allocation problems on a world-wide basis. The objectives of this world-wide program are:

a. Full and efficient employment of telecommunications resources.

b. To permit maximum-use of these resources through better frequency management.

c. Development of plans, policies, and procedures to take full advantage of technological developments.

d. Development and use of space satellites for international communicacions services.

Internally, the Government employs such agencies as the FC C, IRAC, and portions of the military services in an attempt to obtain optimum spectrum utilization. This is

4

implemented by the FCC through Area Frequency Coordinators, who are responsible

to perform joint radio-frequency coordination, and a group of monitoring stations dis -, tributed around the country.

Because the Government has become more aware of EMI problems and the need for tighter frequency allocation, more stringent EMI specifications will be placed on future contracts for electronic equipment. Therefore, management would be well advised to investigate their own organization to effectively implement an EMC control organization to effectively reduce the time and costs for producing equipment that will successfully comply with all interference requirements.

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. Management support is the basic requirement for a successful EMC control program. It is the responsibility of management to insure that the program is staffed, equipped, and educated to meet the objectives enumerated in Section 2. 1. Management support is also necessary at the policy level to prevent later production or field changes from adversely affecting designed EM! integrity.

It is the responsibility of the EMC organization team to actively participate in all levels of the design effort, from the proposal stage to equipment installation, and to integrate its efforts with those of the design and development groups. There should be a continual flow of information between the EMC organization and the design groups at all levels of effort. Management must provide the necessary communication and reporting channels to assure this.

Finally, within the customer's or the contractor's organization, management must exercise absolute control in support of the EMC program in order for the program to be effective. The difficulty in maintaining such control is apparent from the history of failures caused by interference. The lack of complete control is seldom evident at the management level until the failures begin to occur. Even then, the failure reports will seldom mention the cause as interference. They report the failure in terms of the effect.

The over-all EMC organization responsibility is a review of the entire program to validate predictions made, examine suppression techniques used, and to disseminate interference information to all design and development groups so that similar future interference problems and solutions to these problems can be more readily resolved. The EMC organizational responsibilities are .repreeented by the EMC program and the program manager. The primary responsibility of the EMC program manager is, of course, the efficient management of the EMC organization. He must review and approve all interference and susceptibility predictions and allocations; interface between customer and subcontractor EM! requirements; approve all estimates of EMC manpower loading and equipment requirements; approve all interference-control documentation and the dissemination of these documents; and approve all test specificati ons , the EMC control and test plans, and educational or indoctrination programs.

The EMC program management reports directly to a system or project manager and is responsible to top management through him for the efficient operation of his organization. The system or project manager will supply customer EM! requirements to the

)

EMC organization, approve all EMC organization requirements, and will be kept informed of all problem areas and the current status of the compatibility control progress.

It is the responsibility of the EMC program manager to maintain knowledge of state-ofthe-art techniques and to disseminate these techniques throughout his group. He should maintain an EM! reference library and subscribe to applicable technical journals as well and he must insure that all personnel in his group are properly educated and indoctrinated in all phases of EM! control. He should maintain a file of complete test reports from previous projects so that an up-to-date reference source is available covering problem areas and their solutions encountered prior to the current project.

The relationship between the EMC program manager and customer and subcontractor personnel should be one of free communication. It is his responsibility to fully understand customer EMC requirements and to communicate these requirements to the subcontractor so that no compatibility problems will be encountered in final subsystem or system mating. He must acquaint the customer with any possible interference problem areas and coordinate the solution with subcontractor and his own personnel.

The EMC program manager must either generate or review and approve the EMC control and test plans. Through the control plan, he will establish the specific engineering techniques that will be used to control EM interference and susceptibility levels, the specific shielding, bonding, and filtering philosophies to be implemented, indicate mechanical interference control techniques, evaluate and predict interference and susceptibility levels, and define test requirements, procedures, schedules, and reports. The. EMC control plan uses inputs from the customer and subcontractor organizations and serves as the basis for the generation of the EMC test plan.

The EMC test plan, another responsibility of the EMC program manager, defines the test parameters to be measured, required test facilities and personnel, and test procedures.

Finally, the EMC program manager has the responsibility for examining the entire program, from the EM! standpoint, to determine the validity of the EM! predictions made and the suppression techniques developed. The work done on each phase of the program should be carefully studied and information should be compiled on particular interference trouble areas encountered, the type of filtering or suppression device selected to correct the problem, mechanical considerations developed and used to

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reduce interference, any optimization of previously built suppression devices to fit new needs, and recommendations made to better resolve future EMI problems. When this information has been compiled, it is the responsibility of the EMC program manager to disseminate the data to the various pertinent electronic and mechanical design groups. In this manner, all engineering personnel will become acutely aware of interference problems and their solutions and will better be able to design future systems to meet EMC requirements.

2.6 EMC PERSONNEL

The EMC organization, as any other functional group, cannot come to life without people. Up to this point, the discussion has ranged from the EMC program objectives, through the various functions, responsibilities, and organizational structures, to an examination of the role and place of the EMC group within an engineering organization. From these discussions, it must be obvious that technically highly competent professional personnel must make up the EMC group in order to be effective. But, when all the qualifications and experience prerequisites for the ideal EMC man are combined, the proverbial twenty-four-year-old Ph. D. with twenty years of experience emerges as the destrable man to look for. Since such a man does not exist, what qualifications should a good EMC engineer possess?

As a general requirement, each member of the EMC group should bring with him extensive and thorough technical experience in one or more of the general engineering project phases such as destgn, development, packaging, or manufacturing engineering. In addition, ~ must be thoroughly familiar with the typical project flow within his company, and be must be able to relate particular engineering problems to the over-all system t"equirements.

Within the framework of the general background requirements, the specific capabilities of the EMC group members must run from grounding, bonding, shielding, and filtering, to parts and circuits, specifications and requirements, and to interface control, analysis, mathematical Simulation, and prediction. These are the particular EMI techniques that the EMC group as a whole must be able to handle. Obviously, not every member of the group can be an expert in all these areas.

In earlier sections of this chapter, EMC control was broken down into various functions. Now it is desirable to connect these functions with specific personnel requirements. In Figure 2-2, five functional groups were distinguished. The first group,

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EM1 analysis and prediction, represents the interference theoretician or mathematician

who performs a system analysis from the interference control point of view. This

group can take on many forms, anywhere from a single system analyst to an integrated )

group of analog or digital computer system simulators. The size of the group depends

entirely on the size and complexity of the project under development.

The data acquisition and dissemination group can be one and the same man as the system analyst above on a small project, or this function can be served by one or two people on a large system development. Seldom should this function call for a large number of people; on a large project, a special data group is usually formed that handles most of the project data, including the EMC data.

The next two functional groups, design consultation and specifications and procedures, are really one function with a two-fold task.

The detailed EMI/EMC specifications and procedures for the project must be prepared, and then the conformance to the specifications and procedures must be assured by consultations and design reviews. This is the main EMC control function and the selection of the personnel in this area is most critical.

The requir-ed personnel should have a strong system design and development background in addition to a balanced representation of the specific EMC capabilities. An example grouping of capabilities would !nclude a grounding, bonding, and shielding man, a circuit, component, and filter man who can handle system integration, and an EM! and EMC testing man who is capable of interpreting test results in terms of system interference causes and improvements.

The final functional group, training, is actually only a formalized version of the single most time-consuming occupation and duty performed by the other EM! team members. A good instructor can make his formal and informal training sessions relieve much of the pressure on his teammates by explaining the good housekeeping rules and methods required for an interference-free system to the engineers who design and manufacture the system.

The ideal requirement for an effective man is seemingly paradoxical in that he must be a generalist in a very specialized area of electrical engineering. He must have a working knowledge of topics ranging from propagation and antenna theory to the physics

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of the latest piece parts, and from the materials used and their process to the latest circuit and filtering techniques. This working knowledge, however, must not be in how to use these technologies to accomplish the systems mission, but in those undesired side effects of the physical phenomena that produce EM interference. This is a fairly tall order considering that in many areas very little is known of the physics involved.

Management duties in the EMC area are therefore clear. Considering the proven need for an effective EMC program, and considering the high caliber of personnel needed

to make such a program pay for itself, management must initiate a professional EMC organization and give it the necessary backing and prestige to attract the individuals with the required capabilities. It has always been true that if the necessary professional climate is provided, the capable individuals will become available.

/'

REFERENCES

1. William J. Baldan, Electromagnetic Compatibility Control in Large Weapon Systems, Presented at the National Aerospace Electronics Conference,

Dayton, Ohio, 14 May 1963.

2. Fred J. Nichols and James C. Senn, Electromagnetic Compatibility in Weapon Systems, Presented at the AlEE Summer General Meeting, Denver, Colorado, 17 - 22 June 1962.

3. Fred J. Nichols, "Management Responsibility on Obtaining an Electrical/ Electronic Compatible Weapon System, " Proceedings of the Eighth Tri-Service Conference on Electromagnetic Compatibility, 30 October 1962.

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11

CHAPTER 3

EM C PROGRAM EVALUATION

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3-1

CHAPTER 3

EMC PROGRAM EVALUATION

3. 1 EMC PROGRAM COST CONSIDERATIONS

Before any program can be properly evaluated, a basic understanding of the underlying principles is most essential. Many of these principles in an electromagnetic compatibility program have varying degrees of complexity and require professional appraisals to assure that all facets are covered in sufficient technical depth to be meaningful. A superficial review of initial requirements for an EMC program could be costly in time and money.

Once all the facts hive been given careful consideration, an EMC program is proposed based on the established objectives. This program is accomplished by an estimated cos. breakdown that reflects the required accuracy for over-all systems evaluation. The EMC program is then reviewed by all responsible management to determine the economsc feasibility and operational practicality.

It is a foregone conclusion that before long, perhaps within the next year. contracts

for thedevelopment or production of Government communications and electronic equipmenta and systems that radiate or receive electromagnetic energy will include definitive spectficattons and requirements for electromagnetic compatibility, not only within the spectfic equipment or system, but with respect to its specified operational environment. In fact, the Electronics Industries Association has formally recommended to

'"

the Department of Defense that EMC be included as a firm requirement in Government R&D contracts. In view of the seriousness of the problems that currently exist and with the envisioned increased number and complexity of electronic/electrical systems, these recommendations are bound to be accepted. Present day levels of electromagnetic interference can no longer be tolerated if present reliability goals and safety requirements are to be met.

For some time, spectficattons have been applied covering the interference characteristics of components and subsystems, as well as intrasystem compatibility. However, to date, development or production contracts have not included specified levels of interference compatibility in a specified environment. The main reason for this omission

is the lack of sufficient knowledge to do this on a practical basis. It is recognized that

until such knowledge is available, it will not be possible to define with reasonable ac- )

curacy specific tests that will demonstrate to both the contractor and customer that

the items of the contract are EM compatible. Currently, neither the specific definition of the particular electromagnetic environment nor the tests necessary to prove in the laboratory or factory that a system would comply with these specifications can be provided .•

Present day attempts to specify environmental electromagnetic compatibility is comparable to the situation in 1955 when attempts were made to specify reliability in electronic equipment. At that time, it was not known how to specify reliability in terms that meant anything contractually. Now, largely as a result of the comprehensive pioneering efforts of the Advisory Group on Reliability of Electronic Equipment during 1956 and 1957, Government agencies are definitively specifying reliability in the terms of measurable performance in most of the contracts for the development and production of electronic equipment and 'systems,

Before specific requirements for electromagnetic compatibility can be included for a new system with respect to its intended oper-ational environment, the contractor must be furnished with: (1) a quantitative definition of the signals that will be encountered

in the environment, spelled out in detail in terms of frequency, energy level, and time relationship; (2) a list of the receiving devices of other systems in the environment and their susceptibility to interfering signals; and (3) a definite specification of tests that can be made in the contractor's plant to prove compliance with the requirement.

Up to this point, the emphasis has been directed toward the establfshment of an electromagnetic companbtltty program that starts with the system conceptional phase and

. is carried through the subsystem and component development phases, There may be some doubts in the minds of many managers as to the feasibility of embarking on a program of compatibility control through a system design approach when anyone of a dozen or more specifications may be applied against a group of electronic equipments to provide sufficient control for development of a compatible system.

With reference to the interference control specifications, the intent is to insure the colocation of multiple electronic equipments in a compatible environment, but upon a

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3-3

complete analysis it will become apparent that these specifications can only provide insurance in a very minor number of particular types of systems. A classic example is a case of the prime contractor who developed, at great expense to himself, a very sensitive, high-frequency communications receiver for a missile system. Special tubes had been developed, wave guides and antennas had been designed, and packaging configurations were complete. Unfortunately, this system was to be colocated with a doppler navigation radar working at exactly the same frequency. The design changes necessitated by a shift in frequency proved to be a very expensive lesson. Another incident that occurred just recently is quoted from Electronic News dated 29 March 1965:

"Wallops Island, Va., The Space Agency Friday postponed the launch of its first geodesy satellite which will use a Doppler shift device to measure irregularities in the Earth's gravitational field.

"The Beacon Explorer-C tentatively scheduled for launch here Tuesday has been returned to the Applied Physics Laboratory, Silver Springs, Md., for correction of an electrical interference problem discovered after the probe was attached to its booster.

"A secondary mission - supporting an extensive international effort - will be to survey the electron content of the ionosphere and measure electron densities near the spacecraft.

"NASA said the launch has been delayed indefinitely. "

It is a matter of record that a vast majority of flight delays and failures result from electronic problems. The malfunction of the TV cameras on Ranger 6 is the most publicized of recent incidents. The NASA inquiry found that the probable explanation for the TV malfunction was an unscheduled triggering of the TV equipment approxi-

"

mately 67 seconds after launch. Electric arcing in the equipment probably burned out both channels.

The problem, on a broad scale, is one of electromagnetic compatibility. Among the dense electronics of a spacecraft, a wide spectrum of interferences is possible because everything that carries a current is radiating and because every electronic device is, to some degree, susceptible to radiation. Unwanted interactions can occur not only between component and component, on the lowest level, but between system and environment, on the highest level.

Beyond Ranger, there are the manned Apollo flights, and with these missions the job of trying to dispossess interaction problems before launch becomes a deadly serious one.1 The difficulty is that the possible interferences are not well defined. It is not merely a matter of indicating that a signal must go from here to there, but of knowing all the possible paths where a signal might go and create a serious problem.

In the above discussion, only intersystem compatibility of the space vehicle have been considered. Now it might be best to look at environment in its broadest possible EM! sense, which includes everything that could relate to a space vehicle with respect to radiated and conducted interference. Thus, it includes all ground support equipment (GSE) , boosters, other craft that will come in contact with the spacecraft (LEM and Apollo Command and Service Modules, for instance), and the atmosphere and the ionized portions of space through which the vehicle moves. It even includes operation of the engines, which produce ionized particles that could cut off communications signals and/or change antenna propagation patterns. The descent engine exhaust plume on LEM~ for instance, could change landing radar antenna patterns as the vehicle approaches within 100 feet of the lunar surface. The effect of the reaction control system engine exhausts on VHF communication signals are also being . studied; ionized particles could absorb the VHF signal. There is also an indication that the heat of the engines could distort antenna shape. and hence the antenna propagation pattern.

Assuring compatibility of ground support equipment with the vehicle begins with a look at the interactions of the checkout equipment and spacecraft electronics. It is entirely possible that some of the signal patterns and voltage levels being checked out could be corrupted by the ground equipment itself, or subtle interactions of the equipment could cause potential spacecraft failures which could be overlooked.

Additional interference problems might be found at any point in the GSE-vehicle relationship. For example, a rocket recently fired at Wallops Island carried a transceiver which failed to operate properly just before launch. Investigation uncovered the fact that the tracking radar was radiating interference at the frequency of the transceiver. Such radiations saturated the transceiver on the Wallops Island launch pad and the format of the rocket's telemetered signal was broken up. The solution in this particular incident was simple. It required that the tracking radar remain off the air until there was sufficient distance between this equipment and the transceiver.

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J

3-5

N ext, consider the interactions that could take place between a spacecraft and a booster, on the one hand, and a spacecraft and another spacecraft, on the other. A spacecraft transmitter that is normally radiating at a frequency of 220 Mc will produce less intense radiations at multiples of this frequency (at 110 Mc, 440 Mc, 880 Mc, 1760 Mc, and so on). The 220 Mc, which is the fundamental frequency, or its multiples can beat together with another primary frequency in a nonlinear device to produce radiations called cross-products. Spacecraft vulnerability to cross-products of the booster emitters and the mating spacecraft emitters is increased by the proximity of the antennas on the various bodies. Solutions of compatibility between boosters and spacecraft and between spacecraft and spacecraft must be based more on the optimization programs for pointing of antennas plus careful choice of frequencies, rather than being forced to discontinue the operation of equipment due to interference as was the case with the tracking radar and transceiver at the Wallops Island launch. Antenna orientation optimization is not an easy matter, since a launch, especially a manned one, will carry many channels of telemetry (five, for example- on the Apollo-LEM-Saturn),

each transmitting at 18 discrete frequencies and many different channels for communications, from S-band (1800 + Me) down to VHF (215 + Mc).

A search for anomalies requires a comprehensive look for all problem areas. Studies are presently being conducted on the harmful static charges that could be developed on the vehicle during its course through space. Before it enters space, the vehicle would have an essentially negative charge accumulated from the earth's negative charge, although this could be counteracted by the frictional effects of moving through the atmosphere.

On first encountering the Van Allen belt, a spacecraft takes on a higher negative charge.

Since this high negative potential attracts ions and deflects many electrons, the vehicle would tend to neutralize its charge after leaving the Van Allen belt, but still might have a negative charge when it approaches-the moon. On the Apollo mtsston, for instance, all of the charge may not be neutralized when the Command and Service Modules and LEM reach the moon. In a quick-look analysis, there would seem to be no harm in having both 'vehicles at a negative potential. However, when the vehicles separate,

and if the moon proves to have a positive charge, static discharge damage could occur either when the LEM touches the moon's surface or when it has picked up the charge

of the moon and rendezvous with the Apollo Command and Service Modules. Studies presently indicate that difference in charges will be negligible and a discharge of only

about three joules of energy will occur between the reunited LEM and Command and Service Modules. However, this is an analytical rather than empirical conclusion, and until more real data are collected it will remain an unknown quantity but nevertheless one that cannot be neglected.

.", )

The discussions on the justifications for an EMC program starting at the inception of new or even modified systems is by no means complete. Much more could be said but it is felt that sufficient evidence has been presented to indicate the need for and importance of an EMC program. It becomes apparent that not one of the interference control specifications and! or the environmental data could have covered all of the problems cited in the foregoing. These problems can be prevented economically or greatly reduced (factoring in all parameters, cost, time, trade-offs, etc.) by competent EMC personnel provided they are called in at the inception of the project and have the complete backing of management. Attempts at after-the-fact fixes in most cases would be much too expensive to even consider risking a project that neglects or minimtzes the compatibility requirements until the final phases of the program.

The following is a summary of the highlights that are pertinent to the argument of a full-scale EMC program versus an after-the-fact fix approach:

a. Compliance to EMC specifications is no insurance that a system will be compatible in its operating environment.

b. Many costly launch delays and much more costly mission aborts have been traceable to electromagnetic incompatibility.

c. The importance of properly interpreting the environmental conditions and designing for electromagnetic compatibility.

d. Under most circumstances it is impractical to consider after-the-fact fixes ,

It is therefore concluded that an EMC program is a most essential part of any largescale space project.

Basic cost considerations must be developed around EMC operations in all phases of project activity.2 These activities fall into two major areas, analysis and control. Understandably, during certain phases of a project, EMC operations will center around one area exclusively, while during other phases simultaneous activity of both types

will be necessary.

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•

The following is a brief outline of the types of EMC tasks that are required to carry out the work necessary to accomplish the goals of each contract phase. Figure 3-1 depicts the various phases of the project and their relationships to EMC tasks to assist in the clarification of the discussions presented below.

lilt TA"S

CUlTOIIrR
~
,IIIO'O'AL ITST.MS MAID.""l MANU'ACTultINI "'LD
· orl .... A~""OAC" • "GUn'.IIINT • DEI •• " • SURYEIL.LANC£ • ,Nn.RATION
• 'UNCTIONAL. · "."DWA"I - 'DlVI~IIINT - · IA""LI., ~ • hA,"UATIOItf .-
• ENYIRON.ENTAL • ADMINIIT"ATION • IVALItlATION • IlUAI.-TIIT
·IIIIELI".ILITY .
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t t t t
• ........ vs •• • ITITIIil ••• LTlIl • rllt H'I.N •• III/ •• e TIITI •• , • DATA ...... L'tII ••
• "1~ICTION • ",tIF'CATION' AI'IITANtl EVALUATION, AND rV&LUATIOIrI ••• D
• "I&.IIIINA",. C"'TE".A • INTIIIII'.lte:NCI CONTItOL · 011'." "Iv,,_ _"rtfION CO""ICTtON
• HI.'" ."""OACH ttLA" • EVA. ... UATto ... ND
"Ivlrw COR"rCfION
' ..... + I • • I ! 'IItOJrCT "MAUl

"L."', " •• 0'"'10It1 HO L''''ION

_ 'UitCTJON FLOW

·tIII~IIbRf IN"""S

"11_Ae" 0' COlt"rCTIVE &CTIO.

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I L J I

L _.J

Figure 3-1. EMC Task in Relation to Project Activity

In the proposal phase of a contract, the first predictions or estimates must be made regarding EMC technical feasibility and concomitant costs. Based on available technical data regarding the operational environment and proposed -destgn configuration, analytical prediction studies are carried out. In the absense of this necessary data,

"

it will become necessary to make expert assumptions regarding the operational environment, probable susceptibility problems, and attainable interference levels. The urgency normally associated with proposal predictions almost dictates the use of electronic analytical facilities which, if not available in-house, can be contracted on a real-time basis with any of a number of highly qualified outside concerns engaged in consulting activities.

A major portion of the effort associated with the preliminary analysis work involves the expense of adequate definition of the disturbance environment and the establishment of criteria for success and failure. Prior to or at least upon the award of a contract,

r 3-7

"--

For detail's on EMC Control Plans, refer to Chapter 15.

there must be mutual agreement between customer and contractor on these fundamental considerations. It is important that the contractor be knowledgeable with regard to what is and what is not technically essential, desirable, feasible, or even possible.

In the proposal phase, gross rather than minute EMC problems are to be considered. If necessary, the prevalent design philosophy must be reoriented at the outset to eliminate any obvious interference trouble features. A review of the adequacy of the available evaluation facilities is in order at this time. The bidder's demonstrated sophistication and sensitivity regarding EMC problems, as evidenced by proper emphasis in the proposal document, could conceivably be the deciding factor in the award of a contract.

After award of a contract, a detailed functional design study is made of the over-all

system and its constituent subassemblies. The EMC problem is defined, the major ,_.'

contributory factors are analyzed, and the necessary goals are established. A pr~-

liminary co-st budgeting of the total EMC allowance is made. EMC specifications are

then formulated and general EMC requirements and testing procedures for purchased

items are prepared. Specific equipment and facilities requirements are also detailed.

Liaison contacts with the cognizant hardware organizations are established and £MC

philosophy and goals are conveyed to them.

The culmination of activity in this phase is the Interference Control Plan which, according to MSFC-SPEC-279 is required to be submitted to the customer by the contractor within 120 days after a contract award. This plan describes the interference control program and the engineering design procedures and techniques that will be used in complying with MSFC-SPEC-279 or with applicable military specifications.

"

Typical of the types of information to be included in the Plan are ground rules for system grounding, bonding, shielding, and filtering; means employed to elimina:te spurious emanations, responses, and resonances; suppression data on high-power RF equipment or sealed equipment; descriptions of critical components, etc.

During the hardware design phase, close attention to EMC precautions must be paid by the various responsible "hardware" organizations. Value analyses and value engineering principles are applied. One ultimate goal in this phase would be to promulgate EMC design guidelines or EMC design standards to simplify the designer's

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task or routinize some of the labor involved. Achievement of this goal is dependent upon acquisition of a reliable body of knowledge in the field. At the present state of the art and degree of complexity of the EMC problem, such a body of useful data is not readily available although there are currently many engineers working in the field securing specialized knowledge in various specific areas of investigation.

Design review and/or design analysis of parts, circuitry, and packaging is then carried out. Radiation characteristics of components and circuit elements must be investigated to assure compatibility with their intended application. The most common, routine circuit should be investigated objectively. Switches, relays, brushes. and any other contractive type devices come in for special scrutiny. Relocation of the subassemblies or major components, changes in packaging and weight, and revision of excitation levels and/or frequencies are examples of changes which might be recommended as a result of the potential EMC problems uncovered. When problems are detected, if they cannot be eliminated at the source, their effects must be nullified or restricted to make them nonharmful, by shielding, for example. Electromagnetic shields must be carefully designed not only to assure effectiveness. but to minimize weight and space.

In the cousse of prototype fabrication, caution must be exercised to make sure that all engineertag design information is incorporated in the hardware. Special fabrication or assembly techniques may be required to make leak-proof RF gaskets for example.

As a prototype hardware evolves, evaluation for EMC should be conducted on a priority level similar to that for major environmental evaluations. As soon as practicable, original predictions and system EMC budget allocations should be reviewed and reapportioned if necessary. Suppression and reduction techniques are applied as needed. Needless to say, design shortcomings discovered in this stage can save considerable money and time in design changes which would have to be incorporated later.

After hardware design has crystallized and prototype evaluation has been completed, full-scale EMC evaluation should be conducted on the pilot or first production lot to verify that all corrective actions recommended during development have reached the working drawings at the shop level and also to uncover any changes resulting from use of production handling and fabrication techniques. Inasmuch as EMC is primarily engineered into the product, a thorough evaluation at this phase should constitute the

last major design verification effort. Thereafter, sampling of the regular production, on a small scale, is desirable at the present state of the art to insure that quality control factors and minor changes do not accidentally result in deterioration of EMC levels.

The ultimate test of compatibility, of course, is to integrate the product in the space vehicle system and observe its performance in the field environment. While the space system's electromagnetic environment can probably be simulated reasonably well inplant if it is known, this expedient will normally not be completely satisfactory due to schedule considerations. The various subsystems sometimes undergo evaluation at about the same time so that accurate knowledge of the ElVIC characteristics may not be available prior to scheduled delivery. Nevertheless, some evaluation of the integrated system in its simulated environment is possible and should be undertaken prior to

field evaluation.

Field evaluation for EMC can involve elaborate and expensive experimental set-ups. Extensive cooperation between subcontractors is necessary and desirable since deficiencies may often be corrected by either suppressing the source of the undesirable radiation or protecting the affected equipment or both,

It becomes evident that EMC, while it is a special consideration to be handled by the experienced, nevertheless must be effectively integrated into the project planning and action right from the very beginning of the proposal phase. Experience has shown that design shortcomings, when corrected early in a project, will go a long way toward insuring ultimate success. The era of cut and try has faded into the background and in its place are appearing the well organized scientific and engineering programs developed around automated facilities for the expeditious opttmizatton of techniques and design.

Zf

The economics of this approach cannot be measured in dollars and cents for a given

period of time, but experience has proven that monies properly allocated for a well organized program will pay big dividends in the long run.

3.2 MANAGEMENT CONSIDERATIONS

3.2.1 GENERAL

As previously mentioned, a Control Plan should be developed by the Compatibility Control Group, subsequent to contract award. The Control Plan, when properly developed and applied, probably represents the single most significant document of the total EMC

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effort and will delineate procedures and techniques which will" be applied throughout the program in order to institute effective EMC measures to arrive at a successful conclusion. A sales approach such as that used in the proposal should not be taken in the Control Plan. Rather, factual and theoretical information which pertains directly to the system should be included. The document should be updated, revised, and corrected to keep the procuring agency abreast of changing parameters.

Other documents considered essential are grounding, cabling, and interference control specifications in order that all designers follow the same procedures.

Review and approval of all procurement documents and engineering drawings are mandatory if effective, uniform, control is to be maintained. All design changes affecting packaging or electrical parameters must be reviewed and approved.

Once having developed adequate EMC control spectftcattons , the systems design engineer should prepare for constant liaison with all design groups in order to monitor black-box and subsystem design and, in particular, to scrutinize carefully all interface connections -. By paying particular attention to all interface redundancy, cost, weight, and time can be reduced and systems,reliability increased.

An Electromagnetic Compatibility Program Plan should use as a basis the requirements and hardware involved. In a typical manned spacecraft, there are six major electronic subsystems, each of which includes several black boxes: (1) communications, comprising earth-to-spacecraft, interspacecraft (LEM to Apollo for instance), television and intercommunication links; (2) instrumentation, including scientific

«

measurtgg devices and electronic checkout equipment; (3) navigation and guidance

""

equipment, including computing circuits, electro-optical reference devices, accelerometers and gyros with their electrical pickoffs, and radars; (4) flight control,

with electronics, servomechanisms, and solenoids for controlling the firing of motors; (5) controls and displays for the astronaut; and (6) electric power, including the power supply (such as fuel cells and auxiliary batteries in Apollo and LEM), distribution equipment, and inverters to convert dc to ac , Each one of these equipments will be a major contributing factor to the over-all electromagnetic environment. It is, therefore, very important when EMC program plans are being formulated to take into account the total effects the equipment may have on the susceptibility or radiation in this environment.

In developing an Electromagnetic Compatibility Program Plan, the first considerations should be focused on:

a. Thorough planning and effective management of the ElVIC effort.

b, Definition of the major electromagnetic compatibility engineering tasks and their place as an integral part of the design and development process.

c. Assurance of electromagnetic compatibility through a program of prediction, test, and evaluation.

d. Continuous status indication and control on the effectiveness of the electr omagnettc compatibility program through a thorough program of documentation and reporting.

e. Controls to minimize the degradation of electromagnetic compatibility in the quality aspects of the design and in the manufacturing, handling, and shipment of hardware.

To ensure effective planning, management, and monttortng of the EMC program, it is necessary to clearly identify an individual or a group within a company organization

to be responsible for management of the Electromagnetic Compatibility Program. Although the accomplishment of many of the tasks may not be the line responsibility of the EMC management group, and also that certain ElVIC tasks may be delegated to other elements of company organizations, the EMC management group should have full responsibility for the monitoring of these tasks and to continually ensure that all are accomplished effectively. The individual destgnated as the head of this group should have the necessary authority to discharge this responsibility. Another important requisite is that he devote full time to this effort.

In general, the Electromagnetic Compatibility Program Plan serv<ts as the master planning and control document for the EMC program. This plan should detail the approach and step-by-step procedures (including cost and scheduling data to be sure that all requirements have been covered). Where subcontracts are involved for portions of the system, these too should be factored into the over-all EMC program. Assuming that electromagnetic compatibility is a part of the contractual obligation, then in the proposal phase it is expected that NASA would require that the plan be prepared in close collaboration with the cogntzant NASA installation to facilitate development of a satisfactory program. Logic dictates that, regardless of whether or not an EMC requirement has been made a part of the contractual agreement, it would be in the best interests of all concerned to maintain close liaison with the customer throughout all phases of the project in connection with EMC requirements.

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With more and more emphasis being placed on electromagnetic compatibility, pressures will be brought to bear on the procurement agencies to have this as much a part of a contract as reliability is today. Enactment of this important step in contractual requtrernents will place the full responsibility for EMC control with the contractor. In anticipation of the added responsibility, preparations should be made to meet these new contractual requirements just as soon as they are imposed.

The management controls that must be exercised are those of concept and approach, program requirements analysis, program planning and review, program organization, programming and control, documentation, audit, and training. A major factor in assurance of success is conformance to the principles embodied in the controls. These principles have to be implemented, applied, and audited by organizational functions, poltcies , procedures, and auditing. These principles are:

a. Electromagnetic compatibility is important in planning and maintaining appropriate resources in management and engineering .

. b. EMC requirements are negotiated and developed through explictt tradeoffs with other system parameters, e.g., performance, schedule, and cost.

c. An activity ts required and supported early in the planning and implementing of a program for identifying, determining, and defining all environmental and operational requirements for the system, subsystem, and components.

d. Human factors are a major consideration in system compatibility.

e. Electromagnetic compatibility is a fundamental characteristic of every part, component, equipment, subsystem, and system. A minimum acceptable EMC requirement must be specified as an engineering parameter by specifications, exhibits, product descriptions, and contracts.

f. The EMC program plans must be expltcit and realistic.

g. Inherent compatibility is established by the basic design and can only be improved through design changes, frequency shifts (which may result in design changes), equipment relocation, etc.

h. Fundamental to the accomplishment of a mature design are the collection, analysis, and feedback of the information to the proper action authority with appropriate follow-up.

1. Improvement of inherent compatibility is best achieved in the early phases of development and testing program.

variations in manufacturing, maintenance, storage, transportation, and operational processes. The control of compatibility requires planned fabrication, quality control, and testing progress.

k, Effective and timely EMC functional activities must be planned and developed in conjunction with all other functions necessary to satisfy contractual requirements.

1. The best information and techniques available on EMC should be applied to the contract program.

m, The progress of the EMC program requires systematic monitortng in terms of promptness and quality of organizational performance.

n, Prediction and measurement of EMC should be made at planned steps to evaluate program EMC progress.

o, Achi.eved EMC can only be calculated from accurate measurements supported by information on all other parameters affecting performance.

p, Vendor contracts must include EMC requirements, EMC programs, and require monttortng throughout the contract period.

q, Evidence of EMC conformance must be available to the customer.

r. EMC training programs should be established for all personnel who contribute to the product's success.

j. The inherent EMC present in design tends to be degraded by inevitable "'--'"

A summary of the foregoing may be stated as follows:

a. Program requirements analysis has to consider negotiations with the customer for cooperation in outlining the program plan, EMC requirements, program demonstration, and the parts improvement program.

b. Program planning should include an integrated EMC program plan, a de-

'"

veloped production EMC program, and a field EMC program to allow re-

porting EMC progress to top management and the customer.

c. Product success requires the establishment of EMC organization poltcies , responsibilities, and preparation and communications of operating procedures and program directives to include procurement, engineering, quality assurance, manufacturing, and field support.

d. Programming and control requires inclusion of major EMC events in a spectrum chart, resolution on interface problems with responsible parties, and establishing and maintaining a control system for specifications, drawings, and technical requirements to control configuration.

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e. EMC status documents and periodic EMC progress reports are necessary to a successful program,

f. Management review meetings should be conducted as required to resolve persistent problems.

g. A successful program requires the appointment of design review teams, the determination of design review tasks, and preparation and maintenance of design review documentation.

3.2.2

ELECTROMAGNETIC COMPATIBILITY CONTROLS

The EMC controls that must be exercised are those of electromagnetic compatibility requirements, analysis, environment determination, EMC prediction, specification and design review, parts control, test planning and analysis, data reporting, data system, and processing, change control, corrective action, EMC improvement studies, and subcontractor and vendor control.

The EMC requirements analysis controls are achieved by:

a. The establishment of the system EMC requirement and EMC allocation based on contractual product requirement.

b. The review of all system requirements and guidelines for contractual compliance.

c. The establishmentofoperational compatibility, mission and time compatibility, interference definition, and minimum acceptable degradation for the miaston,

d. Spectrum studies to evaluate frequency allocation.

e. The development of alternate methods to perform the same function.

f. . The development of the necessary information studies and guidelines for

'"

achieving compatibility and stability.

g. The use of trade-off studies to optimize EMC and cost.

h. The meaningful translation of equipment EMC requirements into specific

design, manufacturing, and operational criteria.

i , The preparation of EMC specifications for subcontractors.

j. The preparation of lists of hardware types with EMC requirements. k, The establishment of the depth and scope of repair at different repair

levels.

1. The specification of training for the various supply and maintenance personnel with respect to proper handling, storage, and care.

m. The determination of training needs in the broad sense and in the specialized areas.

n, The analysis of skills and abilities neededbyfield engineers , maintenance, and operating personnel.

)

The EMC environmental determination controls are achieved by:

a. The determination and establishment of the specifications that define the environments to which the items will be subjected.

b. The promulgation and maintenance of environmental criteria or handling, storage, ground operations, and the definitions of environmental test limits.

The EMC prediction controls are achieved by:

a. The development of EM! susceptibility predictions of flight-critical equipment.

b. The generation of performance specification requirements and tolerances.

c. The out-of-tolerance effects of EM! generators and flight-critical

equipment.

d. The information that would allow logical test point selection.

e. The formulation of an EMC demonstration plan.

f. The evaluation of prototype demonstration tests.

g. The use of test results and design analyses to demonstrate EMC tests.

h. The collection and analyses of parts characteristic data to develop and revise specifications.

1. -The measurement-of attained electromagnetic compatibility.

The speciftcatton and drawing review controls are achieved by:

a. The review of preliminary spectffcattons and procedures to determine feasibility and adequacy.

b. Making certain of compatibility of operating procedures and hardware.

The parts control is achieved by:

a. The development of test methods to simulate environment and establish EMC criteria.

c.

The defining of test conduct criteria. The destgn of experiments.

The writing of test plans and procedures.

b.

d.

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e. The preparation of the item for test.

f. The conducting and monitoring of test and test results.

g. The negotiation of production environmental test plans 'with the procuring activity.

h. The preparation of the EMC demonstration plans and the integration of the demonstration provision in specifications.

The data reporting control requires the integration of an EMC reporting system with the reliability reporting system which includes processing, documenting, and transmitting the results of EMC investigations from in-plant, field, receiving, inspection, production, and operation.

The data system and process control requires:

a. The integration of the EMC data into the established reliability data center to receive, compile, and analyze EMC information.

b. The integration of pertinent EMC information into the data processing system.

c. The preparation of significant summaries of EMC data, such as EMC trends, spectrum signatures, and possible troublesome areas.

d. The provtston for interchange of pertinent EMC information with Government agencies.

The electromagnetic interference analysis control is achieved by:

a. The formulation of the detailed plan and the writing of the operating procedure for the interference and susceptibility characteristics of parts.

b. The conducting of EM! analyses to determine criticality, system identification of potential interference, and susceptibility.

c. The analyses of operating procedures and instructions to assure that interference and susceptibility modes are not introduced.

Control change requires:

a. The review and approval of changes in manufacturing processes, specifications, and procedures.

b. The pr ovtsions for rebuilding or reworking of returned components to a higher EMC configuration.

C 3-17

c. The provisions for spares that satisfy the system requirements and necessary checks.

The corrective action control is achieved by:

a. The preparation of operating procedures delineating responsibilities for corrective action.

b. The preparation of follow-up action reports when data indicates a problem is present.

c. The assurance of compatibility analyses and corrective action through document review.

d. The morutortng of vendor and subcontractor interference and susceptibility analyses and subcontractor compatibility analyses and corrective action for adequacy.

e. The assurance of vendor and subcontractor corrective action on EMC problems.

In order to achieve the controls for EMC improvement studies, the following efforts are required:

a. The initiation and preparation of detailed plans for parts improvement when information indicates the allocated EMC requirements will not be attained.

b. The conducting of EMC improvement studies to predict the compatibility of potential interference and susceptibility modes.

c. The conducting of studies and research in design improvement, costs, EMC methods, procedures, and manufacturing techniques.

d. The coordination of advanced EMC techniques to all program EMC effort.

Vendor control ts achieved by:

a. The establishment and maintenance of a supplier selection program based on facilities, past experience, and EMC, reliabil1ty, and quality efforts.

b. The surveillance of suppliers to assure conformance with EMC and other performance requirements.

c. Providing the vendor with test, receiving, and other applicable data on the product.

d. The evaluation of the subcontractor's proposed EMC program.

e. The preparation and inclusion of qualitative and quantitative EMC and test requirements in the vendor contracts.

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f. The monitoring of vendor's preparation and release of his procedures and specifications.

The practices and standards of design, manufacturing, quality assurance, and system test and operation are the cornerstones to program success.

The practices and standards that should be used in design are:

a. The preparation of a standard design manual.

b. The preparation of a standard parts manual.

c. The preparati on of drafting practice and drawing specifications.

d. The judicious use of safety margins.

e. The application of spectrum Signatures based on critical review of application.

f. The normal use of standard parts.

g. The rules to be followed when non-standard parts are to be used. -

The practices and standards that should be used in manufacturing are:

a. The establishment of production tooling controls to insure that tooling is within tolerance and that out-of-tolerance tooling is not used.

b. The establishment of manufacturing processing procedures and inspection checks.

c. The furnishing of special equipment when handling, storing, or installing delicate items.

d. The mandatory requirement that critical items be conveyed by protective

means.

e. The preparation and evaluation of process specifications and procedures for manufacturing activities with respect to lessening the degradation of the design EMC.

f. The parttctpation in vendor selection surveys.

g. The development of training aids, equipment, and standards to be used in manufacture.

h. The formulation and implementation of training programs for manufacturing personnel.

i , The ready identification on external packages.

j. The furnishing of the correct packaging to protect equipment during handling, transportation, storage, and field use.

The practices and standards to be used in quality assurance are:

a. The establishment of detailed inspection and acceptance testing documen-

tation plus instructions for the care and use of the test equipment.

b. The development of a qualification test program for parts.

c. The formulation and implementation of a production test plan.

d. The establishment of acceptance test parameters, including time, for maximum screening effectiveness and minimum life expenditure.

e. The parttcipating in establishing and monitoring a vendor control program to insure fully qualified parts.

f. The development of acceptance criteria to assure compliance with specifications.

g. The establishment of methods, processes, and procedures for inspecting equipment.

h. The operation of an electrical standard laboratory to calibrate and maintain electrical measurement equipment.

I, The operation of a mechanical laboratory to calibrate and maintain gages

and mechanical measurement equipment.

j. The establishment of classification of characteristics for selected items. k, The performance of recurring inspection on all incoming material.

1. The parttctpatton in materials review board.

m. The 'performance of inspections at specified check points on various assembly lines.

n, The inspection of packaging of outgoing items.

o , The establishment and implementation of controls to assure that the required physical and performance variations fall within the desired distribution set for the production process.

'"

p. The furnishing to management of the necessary documentation in the

areas of receiving, inspection, fabrication, assembly, and functional testing.

The practices and standards to be used in system test and operation are:

a. The availability of field manuals and technical orders which fully describe the proper methods and procedures for setting up, checking, adjusting, aligning, calibrating, and operating equipment prior to test or operational use.

b. The establishment of poltctes and procedures for repair and maintenance for the various phases in the field.

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c. The availability of procedures to isolate interference to the level required in the field.

d. The development of testing procedures to determine degradation from storage or use.

e. The establishment of policies and procedures for disposition of unacceptable or rejected test items.

It will be recognized that many of these controls are already in place within the reliability program. The reliability function and the electromagnetic function are closely related in this one respect. There are other similarities such as that of starting the program in the concept stages, prediction, optimum design, and environmental and acceptance testing requirements. The big differences are in the approaches used and the highly specialized skills required to resolve their-respective problems. The EMC engineer approaches his problems from the standpoint of degradation due to interfer-

- ence rather than that of part failure as does the reliability engineer (which can also be a factor in EMC control). In addition to the environmental tests required in the reliability program (most of which are also required for the compatibility function}, interfereaoe and susceptibility tests must be conducted in the EMC program. Through careful consideration of the various functions of these programs, it is evident that some C-M1 be integrated while others must be performed separately for an effective and efficieat over-all approach.

In conclusion; _it can be stated that the management controls, EMC controls, and practices and standards have ramifications that allow the program to function in a wellorganized manner. The depths to which all the efforts are pursued will depend on the program costs, schedules, and goals. The proper application of the management controls , electromagnetic compatibility controls, and practices and standards can lead to a successful space program.

3.3 SUMMARY

The text presented in the first three chapters explained electromagnetic compatibility from the early phase of recognition through present-day problems. The need for EMC control was emphasized, and the objectives, along with a functional organization structure, were proposed to meet these needs. Project phases were related to EMC task requirements and a management control plan was suggested in the form of a checklist. Most of the management tools for the establishment of an EMC program have been

(

dealt with in varying depths, providing more details in the less-known areas. A brief review of basic management concepts may assist in a better understanding of the intended approach taken in these chapters.

One of the most spectacular developments of the operations research type of approach to many of the complex undertakings during and after World War II is the so-called Theory of Games. 3 Although the advantages of quantitative analytical methods in weapons or space systems analysis are essentially obvious, such is not the case in applications involving military, business, or general management strategy. A major reason for this difference is that matters of strategy have traditionally been considered the domain of intuition, spacial experience, and unusual talent rather than of logic and numbers.

The successes of the Theory of Games have substantially lowered the credibility of --..../

such traditional views. These successes have been based on the systematiC application

of a relatively small number of basic ideas which includes (1) clear and complete defi-

nitions of the specific interests of each of the participants in a "game" (gameofcbance, military battle, corporate competition in a given market, and so on) so that the quanti-

tative estimates can be made of the advantages to each participant of alternative courses

of action (strategies) by each of .them; (2) exhaustive analyses of the strategies avail-

able to each player and the development of a "pay-off matrix," estimating quantita-

tively the gains or losses to each participant as a result of the particular choices of

strategies by each; and (3) clarification of classes of situations-in which, for example,

it might be advantageous for each player to pursue always a particular strategy, or

for anyone of them to pursue sequences of particular strategies randomly selected

from those available.

The purpose in presenting these remarks on the Theory of Games is to suggest that a modern approach to the problems of managing any program, including programs in electromagnetic compatibility engineering, should take advantage of new ideas wherever possible.

In a discussion of management problems .from the Game Theory point of view, it is necessary to be explicit about the conflicts and relative interests of participants at various organizational levels. For the purposes here, it will be sufficient to introduce only three levels, namely top management, project management, and subcontractor. The first level is concerned with planning programs (1. e., sets of projects), allocating

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resources among them, and evaluating the performance of project managers; the second level plans and manages a single project through his level organization and a tier of subcontractors and evaluates their performances; the thrrd prosecutes projects for different customers.

The conflicts between top management and project management center principally about the processes used for evaluation of project progress and establishing the necessary level of support. The principal interest of the project management level is to minimize the volume and level of detail of the information, particularly if it is of negative character, flowing upward, since doing so increases the likelihood that its own appraisals of programs and support needs will' prevail. The principal interests of the top management level are diametrically opposed, since it constantly seeks to maximize both the objectivity and completeness of the flow of information that is of interest to it.

The important characteristic, in this context, of EMC engineering is that it offers the means for appraising project progress in a more Objective, quantitative, and timely manner. In general,no other techniques of operation analyses or of systems engineering, when applied to a complex project, go quite so deeply into all aspects of its equipment and operational pr ocedurea.. Moreover, because periodic quantitative estimates of system maturity can be made, these techniques offer the potential for the most powerful available method for defining and appratstng the rate of progress toward system goals.

The game theorist, accordingly, would predict that the project management level would apply itself systematically to the task of insuring that the top management level does not"W.veeffective capabilities for EMC analysis purposes, or, if nevertheless such

'"

capabilities are established, that they be organizationally placed directly under the

control of project management. Furthermore, since this form of conflict between the two management levels is very much a part of the "game" disputes about the need to have an EMC engineering group at the top management level, or about its general competence to do a useful job if located at that level,' or about the validity of its EMC estimates, cannot be expected to disappear.

Accordingly, from the viewpoint of top management, the prtncipal question with respect to establishment of its own EMC engineering group is how much could the information that it would generate be worth, compared to the task of maintaining the group existance in a relatively hostile environment. Clearly, such a question cannot have a

general answer. The nature of the projects involved, - their complexity and duration, as well as the technical competence of both project management and of the EMC engineering group are all relevant and will differ from organization to organization and project to project.

In the set of possible conflicts between project management and subcontractor, it is useful to look at three situations, first at the time subcontract proposals are evaluated, second, after the negotiations with the winner begin, and third, after the contract is

in effect.

At the proposal level, the potential subcontractor is offering a proposed pay-off matrix in competition with those of other subcontractors. His major problem is demonstrating that he has relatively greater technical understanding and capability to make the exten-

stons in the state of the art that the project requires. On the other hand, the project manager's major technical problem at this level is extracting the various kinds at Was in each proposal, so that the individual proposals can be uniformly calibrated as to the current state of the art, the advances proposed, and the capabilities offered by each contractor to accomplish them.

During contract negotiations, the subcontractor's objective will be to minimize the level of the current state of the art, so that the apparent effort required to accomplish the project is exaggerated. Moreover, he will oppose the contractual inclusion of quantitative bases, such as EMC goals, for evaluating his performance since their presence would tend to increase the over-all uncertainty about his side of the pay-off matrix.

On similar grounds, the subcontractor would be likely to argue, for example, that

EMC demonstration is either unnecessary and therefore a waste of funds, or that it is so difficult that its costs would be prohibitive. The project manager's problem would be assuring possession of the necessary technical competence, neither to understate what is currently technologically attainable, nor to overstate what advances in the state of the art are required, and to include as part of the contract a useful quantitative basis for evaluating progress and for relating the subcontractor's pay-off schedule to such evaluations.

During the contract performance period, the subcontractor's choice of strategies will almost certainly emphasize minimizing the use of his most valuable resource (his most

3-24

"' )

skilled scientists and engineers) in living up to the terms of the contract. This is the case because his most important strategy is continually to increase the size of his business, that is, to acquire additional contracts for more complex systems, and this can be insured best by using his scarcest skills for research and development needed for advances in technology beyond the level required for his curreIl:t contracts. Collaterally, his interests will not be opposed to extending the time taken to complete

his present contracts.

As long as such schedule slippages do not hurt his chances of getting future contracts, they will be desirable since they tend to increase the total volume of sales from a given project. On the other hand, the project manager's interest is diametrically opposed; his needs are best met by having the subcontractor's best people on the project. Accordingly, the project manager's strategy during subcontract negotiations mustbe to create conditions for bringing this about. Clearly, his best means to this end is to-include quantitative indices of system compatibility as part of the pay-off matrix conditions on the subcontractor to use all available resources necessary to assure the level of system compatibility specified in the contract.

The Theory of Games is responsible for the introduction of another concept useful in

.

analyzing conflict situations, that of the concept of dominance among strategies. A

particular. strategy ts said to dominate another if the pay-off matrix elements for it exceed in value those of the dominated strategy for everyone of the possible strategies that the opposing contestant might select.

Looking at the conflicts and the related strategies between the project manager and subcontractors at the proposal, negotiation, and contract performance levels, a dominant

. ~

strategy for the project manager stands out: systematic application of a quantitative

basis for evaluating the state of the art, estimating the difficulties of attaining changes in this state, and for appraising objectively the progress of a system development. It should be clear that possession by the project manager of an EMC engineering capability along the lines proposed would supply him with an evaluative tool to effectuate such a dominant strategy.

One of the reasons for making explicit the historical and methodology relationships of electromagnetic compatibility engineering to operations research and systems engineering was to help display the great fruitfulness of analytical, quantitative methods for dealing with information. The principal reason such methods were found so successful

(

"--

3-25

in military problems during World War II, and later, was that they insured systematic thoroughnes s in reaching an understanding of complex situations, and in minimizing the influence of prejudice and bias, technical or other, in the decision-making process.

In general, wherever complex situations involve not only difficulties with the laws of nature but conflicts of interest in the Game Theory sense as well, such methods are likely to be more successful than their traditional predecessors in which sole reliance was likely to be vaguely placed largely on experience.

However, there is a caution to all this. Unless the model of the system employed is valid and realistic, the data inputs are objective and of the requisite level of accuracy, and the many important pit falls of complex analytic tools are well understood, the results of attempted quantitative exercises may seriously mislead rather than assist the engineer or manager, hence the supreme importance of having gifted and trained people assigned to do this kind of work. Only if this is done can the approach recommended live up to the potential gains it offers to an organization, particularly at the top management level.

It is this last consideration that suggests that (at the top management level) an EMe effort alone may be ineffective, but that such an effort, combined with, and a log(;¥ial outgrowth of, an effective operations research and systems engineering capabtltty;

may well be a dominant strategy 'at this o~ganizationallevel. Particularly with prGgrams requiring large developmental efforts over spans of many years, the use of such capabilities at this level could greatly diminish the likelihood of subtle but vital errors and accelerate the rate of system technological progress by improving both the speed and the compatibility of the technical and administrative decision-making process.

"

The EMC engineering phase of this capability would supply the principal quantitative basis for evaluating the usefulness of systems within the state of the art, and of determining spectfically what needs to be and can be done to improve them significantly.

Recalling remarks previously made, a decision by top management to provide itself with an effective capability would meet systematic, determined, and perhaps effective opposition from lower organizational levels, and for the reasons described earlier. The effectiveness of this opposition, in the long run, would be determined by the level of competence of the staff group; the greater the competence versus the comparable

3-26

)

skills available at the project level, the more intense the opposition, but also probably the greater the likelihood of survival of the group.

With the required competence slotted properly in the organization structure, an EMC program should be most effective in meeting the established goals of living within the economic limits, advancing the technology, and greatly Improvtng product performance.

(

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REFERENCES

1. Arnold B. Whitaker, "Integration of Spacecraft Electronics, " .§pace/AerQ: nautics, August 1964.

2. George A. Yabroudy, "Project Integration of EMC," Arma Engineering, Volume 4, No.2, June 1961.

3. N. E. Golovin, "Systems Reliability in the Space Program," Industrial Qualitv Control Journal, Volume XX, No. 11, May 1964.

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)

CHAPTER 4 ELEMENTS OF EMI

4-1

CHAPTER 4 ELEMENTS OF EM!

4.1 TYPES OF ELECTROMAGNETIC INTERFERENCE

4.1.1 INTRODUCTION

Electromagnetic interference can, in many instances, result in annoying or impossible operating conditions. This problem is becoming particularily serious because of the continual increase in the number of electronic equipments operating within a given geographical and spectral environment, the high power levels associated with electromagnetic sources, and the increased sensitivity of equipments that are susceptible to electrotnagnetic energy. Because of the severity of the electromagnetic interference problem, it is necessary that management, system planners, equipment designers, test engineers, and equipment users have a thorough knowledge of the technical aspects of electromagnetic interference.

This section will discuss the sources of electromagnetic energy, define the characteristics of different types of interference, review the modes of interference transmtssion, and discuss susceptible equipments and interference effects.

In considering the sources of electromagnetic energy, two basic categories have been established. The first category consists of functional sources (i. e., those sources that are designed for the specific purpose of generating electromagnetic ~ergy). Examples of the first category are oscillators, communication transmitters, and radar transmitters. In addition to those equipments that are specifically designed to produce electromagnetic energy, there are a number of other sources of electromagnetic energy. The second category consists of incidental sources (i. e., natural and manmade sources that are not designed specifically for the purpose of generating electromagnetic energy). A number of electrical equipments fall into this category. Examples include power lines, generators, motors, switches, relays, etc. Natural interference that falls into the category of incidental sources includes thunderstorms. cosmic sources, and the sun.

, The characteristics associated with electromagnetic interference originating from different sources can vary considerably. For example, sources such as oscillators or transmitters that are designed to generate electromagnetic energy may produce a single-frequency sine wave, a relatively narrowband amplitude or frequency modulated signal, or a pulse type of signal. In any event, the functional energy originating from these sources will, in general, be confined to some specific frequency or range of frequencies.

On the other hand, incidental electromagnetic sources often generate energy that is broadband in nature. That is, the electromagnetic energy' generated by these sources is spread over a very wide portion of the spectrum. Broadband interference is categorized as either random or impulsive in nature and these two categories are discussed in detail in Section 4. 1. 3.

The two fundamental modes by which electromagnetic interference may be transmitted from a source to a susceptible equipment are radiation and conduction. In Section 4. 1. 4, the major transmission characteristics associated with these two modes are reviewed.

The final part of Section 4.1 identifies equipments that are susceptible to electromagnetic energy and discusses the deleterious effects that are produced in these equipments as a result of interference, From the above discussion, it is seen that the basic elements of the interference problem are the source (which may be either functional

or incidental}, the transmission media (which may be either conducted or radiated), and the susceptible equipment. These basic elements of the problem are, summarized in Figure 4-:, 1.

'"

Section 4.2 presents case histories to illustrate satellite and support system interfer-

ence problems, describes techniques that may be used to ensure systems compatibility, reviews special space vehicle and ground support compatibility problems, and introduces the electromagnetic compatibility spectftcatton.

4.1.2

FUNCTIONAL ELECTROMAGNETIC SOURCES

In considertng the technical aspects of electromagnetic interference, it is important that careful attention be devoted to the sources of electromagnetic energy, The reason for this is that a single interference source can affect a large number of susceptible equipments. Thus, in order to solve the EMI problem, there is a choice of reducing or eliminating each interfering signal at its source or protecting a large number of

4-2

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