Generalized

SDOFs
Giacomo Bo
Introductory
Remarks
The
Homogeneous
Problem
Modal Analysis
Examples
Multi Degrees of Freedom Systems
MDOFs
Giacomo Bo
Dipartimento di Ingegneria Strutturale, Politecnico di Milano
April 20, 2011
Generalized
SDOFs
Giacomo Bo
Introductory
Remarks
The
Homogeneous
Problem
Modal Analysis
Examples
Outline
Introductory Remarks
An Example
The Equation of Motion, a System of Linear Dierential
Equations
Matrices are Linear Operators
Properties of Structural Matrices
An example
The Homogeneous Problem
The Homogeneous Equation of Motion
Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors
Eigenvectors are Orthogonal
Modal Analysis
Eigenvectors are a base
EoM in Modal Coordinates
Initial Conditions
Examples
2 DOF System
Generalized
SDOFs
Giacomo Bo
Introductory
Remarks
An Example
The Equation of
Motion
Matrices are
Linear Operators
Properties of
Structural
Matrices
An example
The
Homogeneous
Problem
Modal Analysis
Examples
Introductory Remarks
Consider an undamped system with two masses and two degrees of freedom.
k
1
k
2
k
3
m
1
m
2
x
1
x
2
p
1
(t) p
2
(t)
We can separate the two masses, single out the spring forces and, using the
DAlembert Principle, the inertial forces and, nally. write an equation of
dynamic equilibrium for each mass.
Generalized
SDOFs
Giacomo Bo
Introductory
Remarks
An Example
The Equation of
Motion
Matrices are
Linear Operators
Properties of
Structural
Matrices
An example
The
Homogeneous
Problem
Modal Analysis
Examples
Introductory Remarks
Consider an undamped system with two masses and two degrees of freedom.
k
1
k
2
k
3
m
1
m
2
x
1
x
2
p
1
(t) p
2
(t)
We can separate the two masses, single out the spring forces and, using the
DAlembert Principle, the inertial forces and, nally. write an equation of
dynamic equilibrium for each mass.
Generalized
SDOFs
Giacomo Bo
Introductory
Remarks
An Example
The Equation of
Motion
Matrices are
Linear Operators
Properties of
Structural
Matrices
An example
The
Homogeneous
Problem
Modal Analysis
Examples
Introductory Remarks
Consider an undamped system with two masses and two degrees of freedom.
k
1
k
2
k
3
m
1
m
2
x
1
x
2
p
1
(t) p
2
(t)
We can separate the two masses, single out the spring forces and, using the
DAlembert Principle, the inertial forces and, nally. write an equation of
dynamic equilibrium for each mass.
p
2
m
2
x
2
k
3
x
2
k
2
(x
2
x
1
)
m
2
x
2
k
2
x
1
+(k
2
+k
3
)x
2
= p
2
(t)
m
1
x
1
k
2
(x
1
x
2
) k
1
x
1
p
1
m
1
x
1
+(k
1
+k
2
)x
1
k
2
x
2
= p
1
(t)
Generalized
SDOFs
Giacomo Bo
Introductory
Remarks
An Example
The Equation of
Motion
Matrices are
Linear Operators
Properties of
Structural
Matrices
An example
The
Homogeneous
Problem
Modal Analysis
Examples
The equation of motion of a 2DOF system
With some little rearrangement we have a system of two
linear dierential equations in two variables, x
1
(t) and x
2
(t):

m
1
x
1
+(k
1
+k
2
)x
1
k
2
x
2
= p
1
(t),
m
2
x
2
k
2
x
1
+(k
2
+k
3
)x
2
= p
2
(t).
Generalized
SDOFs
Giacomo Bo
Introductory
Remarks
An Example
The Equation of
Motion
Matrices are
Linear Operators
Properties of
Structural
Matrices
An example
The
Homogeneous
Problem
Modal Analysis
Examples
The equation of motion of a 2DOF system
Introducing the loading vector p, the vector of inertial forces
f
I
and the vector of elastic forces f
S
,
p =

p
1
(t)
p
2
(t)

, f
I
=

f
I,1
f
I,2

, f
S
=

f
S,1
f
S,2

we can write a vectorial equation of equilibrium:

f
I
+f
S
= p(t).
Generalized
SDOFs
Giacomo Bo
Introductory
Remarks
An Example
The Equation of
Motion
Matrices are
Linear Operators
Properties of
Structural
Matrices
An example
The
Homogeneous
Problem
Modal Analysis
Examples
f
S
= Kx
It is possible to write the linear relationship between f
S
and
the vector of displacements x =

x
1
x
2

T
in terms of a
matrix product.
In our example it is
f
S
=
_
k
1
+k
2
k
2
k
2
k
2
+k
3
_
x = Kx
introducing the stiness matrix K.
The stiness matrix K has a number of rows equal to the
number of elastic forces, i.e., one force for each DOF and a
number of columns equal to the number of the DOF.
The stiness matrix K is hence a square matrix K
ndofndof
Generalized
SDOFs
Giacomo Bo
Introductory
Remarks
An Example
The Equation of
Motion
Matrices are
Linear Operators
Properties of
Structural
Matrices
An example
The
Homogeneous
Problem
Modal Analysis
Examples
f
I
= M

x
Analogously, introducing the mass matrix M that, for our
example, is
M=
_
m
1
0
0 m
2
_
we can write
f
I
= M x.
Also the mass matrix M is a square matrix, with number of
rows and columns equal to the number of DOFs.
Generalized
SDOFs
Giacomo Bo
Introductory
Remarks
An Example
The Equation of
Motion
Matrices are
Linear Operators
Properties of
Structural
Matrices
An example
The
Homogeneous
Problem
Modal Analysis
Examples
Matrix Equation
Finally it is possible to write the equation of motion in matrix
format:
M x +Kx = p(t).
Of course, we can consider the damping forces too, taking into
account the velocity vector x, introducing a damping matrix C
and writing
M x +C x +Kx = p(t),
however it is now more productive to keep our attention on
undamped systems.
Generalized
SDOFs
Giacomo Bo
Introductory
Remarks
An Example
The Equation of
Motion
Matrices are
Linear Operators
Properties of
Structural
Matrices
An example
The
Homogeneous
Problem
Modal Analysis
Examples
Matrix Equation
Finally it is possible to write the equation of motion in matrix
format:
M x +Kx = p(t).
Of course, we can consider the damping forces too, taking into
account the velocity vector x, introducing a damping matrix C
and writing
M x +C x +Kx = p(t),
however it is now more productive to keep our attention on
undamped systems.
Generalized
SDOFs
Giacomo Bo
Introductory
Remarks
An Example
The Equation of
Motion
Matrices are
Linear Operators
Properties of
Structural
Matrices
An example
The
Homogeneous
Problem
Modal Analysis
Examples
Properties of K

K is symmetrical, because the elastic force that acts on

mass i due to an unit displacement of mass j, f
S,i
= k
ij
is equal to the force on mass j due to unit diplacement
of mass i, f
S,j
= k
ji
.

The strain energy V for a discrete system can be written

V =
1
2
x
T
f
S
=
1
2
x
T
Kx,
because the strain energy is positive it follows that K is
a positive denite matrix.
Generalized
SDOFs
Giacomo Bo
Introductory
Remarks
An Example
The Equation of
Motion
Matrices are
Linear Operators
Properties of
Structural
Matrices
An example
The
Homogeneous
Problem
Modal Analysis
Examples
Properties of K

K is symmetrical, because the elastic force that acts on

mass i due to an unit displacement of mass j, f
S,i
= k
ij
is equal to the force on mass j due to unit diplacement
of mass i, f
S,j
= k
ji
.

The strain energy V for a discrete system can be written

V =
1
2
x
T
f
S
=
1
2
x
T
Kx,
because the strain energy is positive it follows that K is
a positive denite matrix.
Generalized
SDOFs
Giacomo Bo
Introductory
Remarks
An Example
The Equation of
Motion
Matrices are
Linear Operators
Properties of
Structural
Matrices
An example
The
Homogeneous
Problem
Modal Analysis
Examples
Properties of M
Restricting our discussion to systems whose degrees of
freedom are the displacements of a set of discrete masses, we
have that the mass matrix is a diagonal matrix, with all its
diagonal elements greater than zero. Such a matrix is
symmetrical and denite positive, as well as the stiness
matrix is symmetrical and denite positive.
En passant, take note that the kinetic energy for a discrete
system is
T =
1
2
x
T
M x.
Generalized
SDOFs
Giacomo Bo
Introductory
Remarks
An Example
The Equation of
Motion
Matrices are
Linear Operators
Properties of
Structural
Matrices
An example
The
Homogeneous
Problem
Modal Analysis
Examples
Properties of M
Restricting our discussion to systems whose degrees of
freedom are the displacements of a set of discrete masses, we
have that the mass matrix is a diagonal matrix, with all its
diagonal elements greater than zero. Such a matrix is
symmetrical and denite positive, as well as the stiness
matrix is symmetrical and denite positive.
En passant, take note that the kinetic energy for a discrete
system is
T =
1
2
x
T
M x.
Generalized
SDOFs
Giacomo Bo
Introductory
Remarks
An Example
The Equation of
Motion
Matrices are
Linear Operators
Properties of
Structural
Matrices
An example
The
Homogeneous
Problem
Modal Analysis
Examples
Generalisation of previous results
The ndings in the previous two slides can be generalised to
the structural matrices of generic structural systems, with
one exception.
For a general structural system, M could be semi-denite
positive, that is for some particular displacement vector the
kinetic energy could be zero.
Generalized
SDOFs
Giacomo Bo
Introductory
Remarks
An Example
The Equation of
Motion
Matrices are
Linear Operators
Properties of
Structural
Matrices
An example
The
Homogeneous
Problem
Modal Analysis
Examples
Generalisation of previous results
The ndings in the previous two slides can be generalised to
the structural matrices of generic structural systems, with
one exception.
For a general structural system, M could be semi-denite
positive, that is for some particular displacement vector the
kinetic energy could be zero.
Generalized
SDOFs
Giacomo Bo
Introductory
Remarks
An Example
The Equation of
Motion
Matrices are
Linear Operators
Properties of
Structural
Matrices
An example
The
Homogeneous
Problem
Modal Analysis
Examples
The problem
Graphical statement of the problem
k
1
= 2k, k
2
= k; m
1
= 2m, m
2
= m;
p(t) = p
0
sin t.
k
1
x
1
x
2
m
2
k
2
m
1
p(t)
The equations of motion
m
1
x
1
+k
1
x
1
+k
2
(x
1
x
2
) = p
0
sin t,
m
2
x
2
+k
2
(x
2
x
1
) = 0.
... but we prefer the matrix notation ...
Generalized
SDOFs
Giacomo Bo
Introductory
Remarks
An Example
The Equation of
Motion
Matrices are
Linear Operators
Properties of
Structural
Matrices
An example
The
Homogeneous
Problem
Modal Analysis
Examples
The problem
Graphical statement of the problem
k
1
= 2k, k
2
= k; m
1
= 2m, m
2
= m;
p(t) = p
0
sin t.
k
1
x
1
x
2
m
2
k
2
m
1
p(t)
The equations of motion
m
1
x
1
+k
1
x
1
+k
2
(x
1
x
2
) = p
0
sin t,
m
2
x
2
+k
2
(x
2
x
1
) = 0.
... but we prefer the matrix notation ...
Generalized
SDOFs
Giacomo Bo
Introductory
Remarks
An Example
The Equation of
Motion
Matrices are
Linear Operators
Properties of
Structural
Matrices
An example
The
Homogeneous
Problem
Modal Analysis
Examples
The problem
Graphical statement of the problem
k
1
= 2k, k
2
= k; m
1
= 2m, m
2
= m;
p(t) = p
0
sin t.
k
1
x
1
x
2
m
2
k
2
m
1
p(t)
The equations of motion
m
1
x
1
+k
1
x
1
+k
2
(x
1
x
2
) = p
0
sin t,
m
2
x
2
+k
2
(x
2
x
1
) = 0.
... but we prefer the matrix notation ...
Generalized
SDOFs
Giacomo Bo
Introductory
Remarks
An Example
The Equation of
Motion
Matrices are
Linear Operators
Properties of
Structural
Matrices
An example
The
Homogeneous
Problem
Modal Analysis
Examples
The steady state solution
because using the matrix notation we can follow the same steps
we used to nd the steady-state response of a SDOF system.
First, the equation of motion
m
_
2 0
0 1
_
x +k
_
3 1
1 1
_
x = p
0

1
0

sin t
substituting x(t) = sin t and simplifying sin t, dividing by k,
with
2
0
= k/m,
2
=
2
/
2
0
and
st
= p
0
/k the above equation
can be written
__
3 1
1 1
_

2
_
2 0
0 1
__
=
_
3 2
2
1
1 1
2
_
=
st

1
0

solving for /
st
gives

st
=
_
1
2
1
1 3 2
2
_
1
0

(
2

1
2
)(
2
2)
=

1
2
1

(
2

1
2
)(
2
2)
.
Generalized
SDOFs
Giacomo Bo
Introductory
Remarks
An Example
The Equation of
Motion
Matrices are
Linear Operators
Properties of
Structural
Matrices
An example
The
Homogeneous
Problem
Modal Analysis
Examples
The steady state solution
because using the matrix notation we can follow the same steps
we used to nd the steady-state response of a SDOF system.
First, the equation of motion
m
_
2 0
0 1
_
x +k
_
3 1
1 1
_
x = p
0

1
0

sin t
substituting x(t) = sin t and simplifying sin t, dividing by k,
with
2
0
= k/m,
2
=
2
/
2
0
and
st
= p
0
/k the above equation
can be written
__
3 1
1 1
_

2
_
2 0
0 1
__
=
_
3 2
2
1
1 1
2
_
=
st

1
0

solving for /
st
gives

st
=
_
1
2
1
1 3 2
2
_
1
0

(
2

1
2
)(
2
2)
=

1
2
1

(
2

1
2
)(
2
2)
.
Generalized
SDOFs
Giacomo Bo
Introductory
Remarks
An Example
The Equation of
Motion
Matrices are
Linear Operators
Properties of
Structural
Matrices
An example
The
Homogeneous
Problem
Modal Analysis
Examples
The steady state solution
because using the matrix notation we can follow the same steps
we used to nd the steady-state response of a SDOF system.
First, the equation of motion
m
_
2 0
0 1
_
x +k
_
3 1
1 1
_
x = p
0

1
0

sin t
substituting x(t) = sin t and simplifying sin t, dividing by k,
with
2
0
= k/m,
2
=
2
/
2
0
and
st
= p
0
/k the above equation
can be written
__
3 1
1 1
_

2
_
2 0
0 1
__
=
_
3 2
2
1
1 1
2
_
=
st

1
0

solving for /
st
gives

st
=
_
1
2
1
1 3 2
2
_
1
0

(
2

1
2
)(
2
2)
=

1
2
1

(
2

1
2
)(
2
2)
.
Generalized
SDOFs
Giacomo Bo
Introductory
Remarks
An Example
The Equation of
Motion
Matrices are
Linear Operators
Properties of
Structural
Matrices
An example
The
Homogeneous
Problem
Modal Analysis
Examples
The steady state solution
because using the matrix notation we can follow the same steps
we used to nd the steady-state response of a SDOF system.
First, the equation of motion
m
_
2 0
0 1
_
x +k
_
3 1
1 1
_
x = p
0

1
0

sin t
substituting x(t) = sin t and simplifying sin t, dividing by k,
with
2
0
= k/m,
2
=
2
/
2
0
and
st
= p
0
/k the above equation
can be written
__
3 1
1 1
_

2
_
2 0
0 1
__
=
_
3 2
2
1
1 1
2
_
=
st

1
0

solving for /
st
gives

st
=
_
1
2
1
1 3 2
2
_
1
0

(
2

1
2
)(
2
2)
=

1
2
1

(
2

1
2
)(
2
2)
.
Generalized
SDOFs
Giacomo Bo
Introductory
Remarks
An Example
The Equation of
Motion
Matrices are
Linear Operators
Properties of
Structural
Matrices
An example
The
Homogeneous
Problem
Modal Analysis
Examples
The steady state solution
because using the matrix notation we can follow the same steps
we used to nd the steady-state response of a SDOF system.
First, the equation of motion
m
_
2 0
0 1
_
x +k
_
3 1
1 1
_
x = p
0

1
0

sin t
substituting x(t) = sin t and simplifying sin t, dividing by k,
with
2
0
= k/m,
2
=
2
/
2
0
and
st
= p
0
/k the above equation
can be written
__
3 1
1 1
_

2
_
2 0
0 1
__
=
_
3 2
2
1
1 1
2
_
=
st

1
0

solving for /
st
gives

st
=
_
1
2
1
1 3 2
2
_
1
0

(
2

1
2
)(
2
2)
=

1
2
1

(
2

1
2
)(
2
2)
.
Generalized
SDOFs
Giacomo Bo
Introductory
Remarks
An Example
The Equation of
Motion
Matrices are
Linear Operators
Properties of
Structural
Matrices
An example
The
Homogeneous
Problem
Modal Analysis
Examples
The solution, graphically
0
1
0 0.5 1 2 5
N
o
r
m
a
l
i
z
e
d

d
i
s
p
l
a
c
e
m
e
n
t

2
=
2
/
2
o
steady-state response for a 2 dof system, harmonic load

1
/
st

2
/
st
Generalized
SDOFs
Giacomo Bo
Introductory
Remarks
The
Homogeneous
Problem
The
Homogeneous
Equation of
Motion
Eigenvalues and
Eigenvectors
Eigenvectors are
Orthogonal
Modal Analysis
Examples
Homogeneous equation of motion
To understand the behaviour of a MDOF system, we start
writing the homogeneous equation of motion,
M x +Kx = 0.
The solution, in analogy with the SDOF case, can be written
in terms of a harmonic function of unknown frequency and,
using the concept of separation of variables, of a constant
vector, the so called shape vector :
x(t) = (Asin t +Bcos t).
Substituting in the equation of motion, we have
_
K
2
M
_
(Asin t +Bcos t) = 0
Generalized
SDOFs
Giacomo Bo
Introductory
Remarks
The
Homogeneous
Problem
The
Homogeneous
Equation of
Motion
Eigenvalues and
Eigenvectors
Eigenvectors are
Orthogonal
Modal Analysis
Examples
Homogeneous equation of motion
To understand the behaviour of a MDOF system, we start
writing the homogeneous equation of motion,
M x +Kx = 0.
The solution, in analogy with the SDOF case, can be written
in terms of a harmonic function of unknown frequency and,
using the concept of separation of variables, of a constant
vector, the so called shape vector :
x(t) = (Asin t +Bcos t).
Substituting in the equation of motion, we have
_
K
2
M
_
(Asin t +Bcos t) = 0
Generalized
SDOFs
Giacomo Bo
Introductory
Remarks
The
Homogeneous
Problem
The
Homogeneous
Equation of
Motion
Eigenvalues and
Eigenvectors
Eigenvectors are
Orthogonal
Modal Analysis
Examples
Homogeneous equation of motion
To understand the behaviour of a MDOF system, we start
writing the homogeneous equation of motion,
M x +Kx = 0.
The solution, in analogy with the SDOF case, can be written
in terms of a harmonic function of unknown frequency and,
using the concept of separation of variables, of a constant
vector, the so called shape vector :
x(t) = (Asin t +Bcos t).
Substituting in the equation of motion, we have
_
K
2
M
_
(Asin t +Bcos t) = 0
Generalized
SDOFs
Giacomo Bo
Introductory
Remarks
The
Homogeneous
Problem
The
Homogeneous
Equation of
Motion
Eigenvalues and
Eigenvectors
Eigenvectors are
Orthogonal
Modal Analysis
Examples
Eigenvalues
The previous equation must hold for every value of t, so it
can be simplied removing the time dependency:
_
K
2
M
_
= 0.
This is a homogeneous linear equation, with unknowns
i
and the coecients that depends on the parameter
2
.
Speaking of homogeneous systems, we know that there is
always a trivial solution, = 0, and that dierent non-zero
solutions are available when the determinant of the matrix of
coecients is equal to zero,
det
_
K
2
M
_
= 0
The eigenvalues of the MDOF system are the values of
2
for which the above equation (the equation of frequencies) is
veried.
Generalized
SDOFs
Giacomo Bo
Introductory
Remarks
The
Homogeneous
Problem
The
Homogeneous
Equation of
Motion
Eigenvalues and
Eigenvectors
Eigenvectors are
Orthogonal
Modal Analysis
Examples
Eigenvalues
The previous equation must hold for every value of t, so it
can be simplied removing the time dependency:
_
K
2
M
_
= 0.
This is a homogeneous linear equation, with unknowns
i
and the coecients that depends on the parameter
2
.
Speaking of homogeneous systems, we know that there is
always a trivial solution, = 0, and that dierent non-zero
solutions are available when the determinant of the matrix of
coecients is equal to zero,
det
_
K
2
M
_
= 0
The eigenvalues of the MDOF system are the values of
2
for which the above equation (the equation of frequencies) is
veried.
Generalized
SDOFs
Giacomo Bo
Introductory
Remarks
The
Homogeneous
Problem
The
Homogeneous
Equation of
Motion
Eigenvalues and
Eigenvectors
Eigenvectors are
Orthogonal
Modal Analysis
Examples
Eigenvalues
The previous equation must hold for every value of t, so it
can be simplied removing the time dependency:
_
K
2
M
_
= 0.
This is a homogeneous linear equation, with unknowns
i
and the coecients that depends on the parameter
2
.
Speaking of homogeneous systems, we know that there is
always a trivial solution, = 0, and that dierent non-zero
solutions are available when the determinant of the matrix of
coecients is equal to zero,
det
_
K
2
M
_
= 0
The eigenvalues of the MDOF system are the values of
2
for which the above equation (the equation of frequencies) is
veried.
Generalized
SDOFs
Giacomo Bo
Introductory
Remarks
The
Homogeneous
Problem
The
Homogeneous
Equation of
Motion
Eigenvalues and
Eigenvectors
Eigenvectors are
Orthogonal
Modal Analysis
Examples
Eigenvectors
For a system with N degrees of freedom the expansion of
det
_
K
2
M
_
is an algebraic polynomial of degree N in

2
, whose roots,
2
i
, i = 1, . . . , N are all real and greater
than zero if both K and M are positive denite matrices,
condition that is always satised by stable structural systems.
Substituting one of the N roots
2
i
in the characteristic
equation,
_
K
2
i
M
_

i
= 0
the resulting system of N1 linearly independent equations
can be solved (except for a scale factor) for
i
, the
eigenvector corresponding to the eigenvalue
2
i
.
A common choice for the normalisation of the eigenvectors is
normalisation with respect to the mass matrix,
T
i
M
i
= 1
Generalized
SDOFs
Giacomo Bo
Introductory
Remarks
The
Homogeneous
Problem
The
Homogeneous
Equation of
Motion
Eigenvalues and
Eigenvectors
Eigenvectors are
Orthogonal
Modal Analysis
Examples
Eigenvectors
For a system with N degrees of freedom the expansion of
det
_
K
2
M
_
is an algebraic polynomial of degree N in

2
, whose roots,
2
i
, i = 1, . . . , N are all real and greater
than zero if both K and M are positive denite matrices,
condition that is always satised by stable structural systems.
Substituting one of the N roots
2
i
in the characteristic
equation,
_
K
2
i
M
_

i
= 0
the resulting system of N1 linearly independent equations
can be solved (except for a scale factor) for
i
, the
eigenvector corresponding to the eigenvalue
2
i
.
A common choice for the normalisation of the eigenvectors is
normalisation with respect to the mass matrix,
T
i
M
i
= 1
Generalized
SDOFs
Giacomo Bo
Introductory
Remarks
The
Homogeneous
Problem
The
Homogeneous
Equation of
Motion
Eigenvalues and
Eigenvectors
Eigenvectors are
Orthogonal
Modal Analysis
Examples
Eigenvectors
For a system with N degrees of freedom the expansion of
det
_
K
2
M
_
is an algebraic polynomial of degree N in

2
, whose roots,
2
i
, i = 1, . . . , N are all real and greater
than zero if both K and M are positive denite matrices,
condition that is always satised by stable structural systems.
Substituting one of the N roots
2
i
in the characteristic
equation,
_
K
2
i
M
_

i
= 0
the resulting system of N1 linearly independent equations
can be solved (except for a scale factor) for
i
, the
eigenvector corresponding to the eigenvalue
2
i
.
A common choice for the normalisation of the eigenvectors is
normalisation with respect to the mass matrix,
T
i
M
i
= 1
Generalized
SDOFs
Giacomo Bo
Introductory
Remarks
The
Homogeneous
Problem
The
Homogeneous
Equation of
Motion
Eigenvalues and
Eigenvectors
Eigenvectors are
Orthogonal
Modal Analysis
Examples
Initial Conditions
The most general expression (the general integral) for the
displacement of a homogeneous system is
x(t) =
N

i=1

i
(A
i
sin
i
t +B
i
cos
i
t).
In the general integral there are 2N unknown constants of
integration, that must be determined in terms of the initial
conditions.
Generalized
SDOFs
Giacomo Bo
Introductory
Remarks
The
Homogeneous
Problem
The
Homogeneous
Equation of
Motion
Eigenvalues and
Eigenvectors
Eigenvectors are
Orthogonal
Modal Analysis
Examples
Initial Conditions
Usually the initial conditions are expressed in terms of initial
displacements and initial velocities x
0
and x
0
, so we start deriving
the expression of displacement with respect to time to obtain
x(t) =
N

i=1

i
(A
i
cos
i
t B
i
sin
i
t)
and evaluating the displacement and velocity for t = 0 it is
x(0) =
N

i=1

i
B
i
= x
0
, x(0) =
N

i=1

i
A
i
= x
0
.
The above equations are vector equations, each one corresponding
to a system of N equations, so we can compute the 2N constants
of integration solving the 2N equations
N

i=1

ji
B
i
= x
0,j
,
N

i=1

ji

i
A
i
= x
0,j
, j = 1, . . . , N.
Generalized
SDOFs
Giacomo Bo
Introductory
Remarks
The
Homogeneous
Problem
The
Homogeneous
Equation of
Motion
Eigenvalues and
Eigenvectors
Eigenvectors are
Orthogonal
Modal Analysis
Examples
Initial Conditions
Usually the initial conditions are expressed in terms of initial
displacements and initial velocities x
0
and x
0
, so we start deriving
the expression of displacement with respect to time to obtain
x(t) =
N

i=1

i
(A
i
cos
i
t B
i
sin
i
t)
and evaluating the displacement and velocity for t = 0 it is
x(0) =
N

i=1

i
B
i
= x
0
, x(0) =
N

i=1

i
A
i
= x
0
.
The above equations are vector equations, each one corresponding
to a system of N equations, so we can compute the 2N constants
of integration solving the 2N equations
N

i=1

ji
B
i
= x
0,j
,
N

i=1

ji

i
A
i
= x
0,j
, j = 1, . . . , N.
Generalized
SDOFs
Giacomo Bo
Introductory
Remarks
The
Homogeneous
Problem
The
Homogeneous
Equation of
Motion
Eigenvalues and
Eigenvectors
Eigenvectors are
Orthogonal
Modal Analysis
Examples
Orthogonality - 1
Take into consideration two distinct eigenvalues,
2
r
and
2
s
,
and write the characteristic equation for each eigenvalue:
K
r
=
2
r
M
r
K
s
=
2
s
M
s
premultiply each equation member by the transpose of the
other eigenvector

T
s
K
r
=
2
r

T
s
M
r

T
r
K
s
=
2
s

T
r
M
s
Generalized
SDOFs
Giacomo Bo
Introductory
Remarks
The
Homogeneous
Problem
The
Homogeneous
Equation of
Motion
Eigenvalues and
Eigenvectors
Eigenvectors are
Orthogonal
Modal Analysis
Examples
Orthogonality - 1
Take into consideration two distinct eigenvalues,
2
r
and
2
s
,
and write the characteristic equation for each eigenvalue:
K
r
=
2
r
M
r
K
s
=
2
s
M
s
premultiply each equation member by the transpose of the
other eigenvector

T
s
K
r
=
2
r

T
s
M
r

T
r
K
s
=
2
s

T
r
M
s
Generalized
SDOFs
Giacomo Bo
Introductory
Remarks
The
Homogeneous
Problem
The
Homogeneous
Equation of
Motion
Eigenvalues and
Eigenvectors
Eigenvectors are
Orthogonal
Modal Analysis
Examples
Orthogonality - 2
The term
T
s
K
r
is a scalar, hence

T
s
K
r
=
_

T
s
K
r
_
T
=
T
r
K
T

s
but K is symmetrical, K
T
= K and we have

T
s
K
r
=
T
r
K
s
.
By a similar derivation

T
s
M
r
=
T
r
M
s
.
Generalized
SDOFs
Giacomo Bo
Introductory
Remarks
The
Homogeneous
Problem
The
Homogeneous
Equation of
Motion
Eigenvalues and
Eigenvectors
Eigenvectors are
Orthogonal
Modal Analysis
Examples
Orthogonality - 3
Substituting our last identities in the previous equations, we
have

T
r
K
s
=
2
r

T
r
M
s

T
r
K
s
=
2
s

T
r
M
s
subtracting member by member we nd that
(
2
r

2
s
)
T
r
M
s
= 0
We started with the hypothesis that
2
r
=
2
s
, so for every
r = s we have that the corresponding eigenvectors are
orthogonal with respect to the mass matrix

T
r
M
s
= 0, for r = s.
Generalized
SDOFs
Giacomo Bo
Introductory
Remarks
The
Homogeneous
Problem
The
Homogeneous
Equation of
Motion
Eigenvalues and
Eigenvectors
Eigenvectors are
Orthogonal
Modal Analysis
Examples
Orthogonality - 3
Substituting our last identities in the previous equations, we
have

T
r
K
s
=
2
r

T
r
M
s

T
r
K
s
=
2
s

T
r
M
s
subtracting member by member we nd that
(
2
r

2
s
)
T
r
M
s
= 0
We started with the hypothesis that
2
r
=
2
s
, so for every
r = s we have that the corresponding eigenvectors are
orthogonal with respect to the mass matrix

T
r
M
s
= 0, for r = s.
Generalized
SDOFs
Giacomo Bo
Introductory
Remarks
The
Homogeneous
Problem
The
Homogeneous
Equation of
Motion
Eigenvalues and
Eigenvectors
Eigenvectors are
Orthogonal
Modal Analysis
Examples
Orthogonality - 4
The eigenvectors are orthogonal also with respect to the
stiness matrix:

T
s
K
r
=
2
r

T
s
M
r
= 0, for r = s.
By denition
M
i
=
T
i
M
i
and

T
i
K
i
=
2
i
M
i
.
Generalized
SDOFs
Giacomo Bo
Introductory
Remarks
The
Homogeneous
Problem
The
Homogeneous
Equation of
Motion
Eigenvalues and
Eigenvectors
Eigenvectors are
Orthogonal
Modal Analysis
Examples
Orthogonality - 4
The eigenvectors are orthogonal also with respect to the
stiness matrix:

T
s
K
r
=
2
r

T
s
M
r
= 0, for r = s.
By denition
M
i
=
T
i
M
i
and

T
i
K
i
=
2
i
M
i
.
Generalized
SDOFs
Giacomo Bo
Introductory
Remarks
The
Homogeneous
Problem
Modal Analysis
Eigenvectors are a
base
EoM in Modal
Coordinates
Initial Conditions
Examples
Eigenvectors are a base
The eigenvectors are linearly independent, so for every vector
x we can write
x =
N

j=1

j
q
j
.
The coecients are readily given by premultiplication of x by

T
i
M, because

T
i
Mx =
N

j=1

T
i
M
j
q
j
=
T
i
M
i
q
i
= M
i
q
i
in virtue of the ortogonality of the eigenvectors with respect
to the mass matrix, and the above relationship gives
q
j
=

T
j
Mx
M
j
.
Generalized
SDOFs
Giacomo Bo
Introductory
Remarks
The
Homogeneous
Problem
Modal Analysis
Eigenvectors are a
base
EoM in Modal
Coordinates
Initial Conditions
Examples
Eigenvectors are a base
Generalising our results for the displacement vector to the
acceleration vector, we can write
x(t) =
N

j=1

j
q
j
(t), x(t) =
N

j=1

j
q
j
(t),
x
i
(t) =
N

j=1

ij
q
j
(t), x
i
(t) =
N

j=1

ij
q
j
(t).
Introducing q(t), the vector of modal coordinates and , the
eigenvector matrix, whose columns are the eigenvectors,
x(t) = q(t), x(t) = q(t).
Generalized
SDOFs
Giacomo Bo
Introductory
Remarks
The
Homogeneous
Problem
Modal Analysis
Eigenvectors are a
base
EoM in Modal
Coordinates
Initial Conditions
Examples
EoM in Modal Coordinates...
Substituting the last two equations in the equation of motion,
M q +Kq = p(t)
premultiplying by
T

T
M q +
T
Kq =
T
p(t)
introducing the so called starred matrices we can nally write
M

q +K

q = p

(t)
Generalized
SDOFs
Giacomo Bo
Introductory
Remarks
The
Homogeneous
Problem
Modal Analysis
Eigenvectors are a
base
EoM in Modal
Coordinates
Initial Conditions
Examples
... are N independent equations!
We must examine the structure of the starred symbols.
The generic element, with indexes i and j, of the starred
matrices can be expressed in terms of single eigenvectors,
M

ij
=
T
i
M
j
=
ij
M
i
,
K

ij
=
T
i
K
j
=
2
i

ij
M
i
.
where
ij
is the Kroneker symbol,

ij
=

1 i = j
0 i = j
Substituting in the equation of motion, with p

i
=
T
i
p(t)
we have a set of uncoupled equations
M
i
q
i
+
2
i
M
i
q
i
= p

i
(t), i = 1, . . . , N
Generalized
SDOFs
Giacomo Bo
Introductory
Remarks
The
Homogeneous
Problem
Modal Analysis
Eigenvectors are a
base
EoM in Modal
Coordinates
Initial Conditions
Examples
... are N independent equations!
We must examine the structure of the starred symbols.
The generic element, with indexes i and j, of the starred
matrices can be expressed in terms of single eigenvectors,
M

ij
=
T
i
M
j
=
ij
M
i
,
K

ij
=
T
i
K
j
=
2
i

ij
M
i
.
where
ij
is the Kroneker symbol,

ij
=

1 i = j
0 i = j
Substituting in the equation of motion, with p

i
=
T
i
p(t)
we have a set of uncoupled equations
M
i
q
i
+
2
i
M
i
q
i
= p

i
(t), i = 1, . . . , N
Generalized
SDOFs
Giacomo Bo
Introductory
Remarks
The
Homogeneous
Problem
Modal Analysis
Eigenvectors are a
base
EoM in Modal
Coordinates
Initial Conditions
Examples
Initial Conditions Revisited
The initial displacements can be written in modal
coordinates,
x
0
= q
0
and premultiplying both members by
T
M we have the
following relationship:

T
Mx
0
=
T
Mq
0
= M

q
0
.
Premultiplying by the inverse of M

and taking into account

that M

is diagonal,
q
0
= (M

)
1

T
Mx
0
q
i0
=

T
i
Mx
0
M
i
and, analogously,
q
i0
=

i
T
M x
0
M
i
Generalized
SDOFs
Giacomo Bo
Introductory
Remarks
The
Homogeneous
Problem
Modal Analysis
Examples
2 DOF System
2 DOF System
k
1
= k, k
2
= 2k; m
1
= 2m, m
2
= m;
p(t) = p
0
sin t.
k
1
x
1
x
2
m
2
k
2
m
1
p(t)
x =

x
1
x
2

, p(t) =

0
p
0

sin t,
M= m
_
2 0
0 1
_
, K = k
_
3 2
2 2
_
.
Generalized
SDOFs
Giacomo Bo
Introductory
Remarks
The
Homogeneous
Problem
Modal Analysis
Examples
2 DOF System
Equation of frequencies
The equation of frequencies is
_
_
K
2
M
_
_
=
_
_
_
_
3k 2
2
m 2k
2k 2k
2
m
_
_
_
_
= 0.
Developing the determinant
(2m
2
)
4
(7mk)
2
+(2k
2
)
0
= 0
Solving the algebraic equation in
2

2
1
=
k
m
7

33
4

2
2
=
k
m
7 +

33
4

2
1
= 0.31386
k
m

2
2
= 3.18614
k
m
Generalized
SDOFs
Giacomo Bo
Introductory
Remarks
The
Homogeneous
Problem
Modal Analysis
Examples
2 DOF System
Equation of frequencies
The equation of frequencies is
_
_
K
2
M
_
_
=
_
_
_
_
3k 2
2
m 2k
2k 2k
2
m
_
_
_
_
= 0.
Developing the determinant
(2m
2
)
4
(7mk)
2
+(2k
2
)
0
= 0
Solving the algebraic equation in
2

2
1
=
k
m
7

33
4

2
2
=
k
m
7 +

33
4

2
1
= 0.31386
k
m

2
2
= 3.18614
k
m
Generalized
SDOFs
Giacomo Bo
Introductory
Remarks
The
Homogeneous
Problem
Modal Analysis
Examples
2 DOF System
Equation of frequencies
The equation of frequencies is
_
_
K
2
M
_
_
=
_
_
_
_
3k 2
2
m 2k
2k 2k
2
m
_
_
_
_
= 0.
Developing the determinant
(2m
2
)
4
(7mk)
2
+(2k
2
)
0
= 0
Solving the algebraic equation in
2

2
1
=
k
m
7

33
4

2
2
=
k
m
7 +

33
4

2
1
= 0.31386
k
m

2
2
= 3.18614
k
m
Generalized
SDOFs
Giacomo Bo
Introductory
Remarks
The
Homogeneous
Problem
Modal Analysis
Examples
2 DOF System
Eigenvectors
Substituting
2
1
for
2
in the rst of the characteristic
equations gives the ratio between the components of the rst
eigenvector,
k (3 2 0.31386)
11
2k
21
= 0
while substituting
2
2
gives
k (3 2 3.18614)
12
2k
22
= 0.
Solving with the arbitrary assignment
21
=
22
= 1 gives
the unnormalized eigenvectors,

1
=

+0.84307
+1.00000

,
2
=

0.59307
+1.00000

.
Generalized
SDOFs
Giacomo Bo
Introductory
Remarks
The
Homogeneous
Problem
Modal Analysis
Examples
2 DOF System
Eigenvectors
Substituting
2
1
for
2
in the rst of the characteristic
equations gives the ratio between the components of the rst
eigenvector,
k (3 2 0.31386)
11
2k
21
= 0
while substituting
2
2
gives
k (3 2 3.18614)
12
2k
22
= 0.
Solving with the arbitrary assignment
21
=
22
= 1 gives
the unnormalized eigenvectors,

1
=

+0.84307
+1.00000

,
2
=

0.59307
+1.00000

.
Generalized
SDOFs
Giacomo Bo
Introductory
Remarks
The
Homogeneous
Problem
Modal Analysis
Examples
2 DOF System
Normalization
We compute rst M
1
and M
2
,
M
1
=
T
1
M
1
=

0.84307, 1

_
2m 0
0 m
_
0.84307
1

1.68614m, m

0.84307
1

= 2.42153m
M
2
= 1.70346m
the adimensional normalisation factors are

1
=

2.42153,
2
=

1.70346.
Applying the normalisation factors to the respective unnormalised
eigenvectors and collecting them in a matrix, we have the matrix of
normalized eigenvectors
=
_
+0.54177 0.45440
+0.64262 +0.76618
_
Generalized
SDOFs
Giacomo Bo
Introductory
Remarks
The
Homogeneous
Problem
Modal Analysis
Examples
2 DOF System
Modal Loadings
The modal loading is
p

(t) =
T
p(t)
= p
0
_
+0.54177 +0.64262
0.45440 +0.76618
_
0
1

sin t
= p
0

+0.64262
+0.76618

sin t
Generalized
SDOFs
Giacomo Bo
Introductory
Remarks
The
Homogeneous
Problem
Modal Analysis
Examples
2 DOF System
Modal EoM
Substituting its modal expansion for x into the equation of
motion and premultiplying by
T
we have the uncoupled
modal equation of motion

m q
1
+0.31386k q
1
= +0.64262 p
0
sin t
m q
2
+3.18614k q
2
= +0.76618 p
0
sin t
Note that all the terms are dimensionally correct. Dividing by
m both equations, we have

q
1
+
2
1
q
1
= +0.64262
p
0
m
sin t
q
2
+
2
2
q
2
= +0.76618
p
0
m
sin t
Generalized
SDOFs
Giacomo Bo
Introductory
Remarks
The
Homogeneous
Problem
Modal Analysis
Examples
2 DOF System
Particular Integral
We set

1
= C
1
sin t,

=
2
C
1
sin t
and substitute in the rst modal EoM:
C
1
_

2
1

2
_
sin t =
p

1
m
sin t
solving for C
1
C
1
=
p

1
m
1

2
1

2
with
2
1
= K
1
/m m = K
1
/
2
1
:
C
1
=
p

1
K
1

2
1

2
1

2
=
(1)
st
1
1
2
1
with
(1)
st
=
p

1
K
1
= 2.047
p
0
k
and
1
=

1
of course
C
2
=
(2)
st
1
1
2
2
with
(2)
st
=
p

2
K
2
= 0.2404
p
0
k
and
2
=

2
Generalized
SDOFs
Giacomo Bo
Introductory
Remarks
The
Homogeneous
Problem
Modal Analysis
Examples
2 DOF System
Integrals
The integrals, for our loading, are thus

q
1
(t) = A
1
sin
1
t +B
1
cos
1
t +
(1)
st
sin t
1
2
1
q
2
(t) = A
2
sin
2
t +B
2
cos
2
t +
(2)
st
sin t
1
2
2
for a system initially at rest

q
1
(t) =
(1)
st
1
1
2
1
(sin t
1
sin
1
t)
q
2
(t) =
(2)
st
1
1
2
2
(sin t
2
sin
2
t)
we are interested in structural degrees of freedom, too... disregarding
transient

x
1
(t) =
_

11

(1)
st
1
2
1
+
12

(2)
st
1
2
2
_
sin t =
_
1.10926
1
2
1

0.109271
1
2
2
_
p
0
k
sin t
x
2
(t) =
_

21

(1)
st
1
2
1
+
22

(2)
st
1
2
2
_
sin t =
_
1.31575
1
2
1
+
0.184245
1
2
2
_
p
0
k
sin t
Generalized
SDOFs
Giacomo Bo
Introductory
Remarks
The
Homogeneous
Problem
Modal Analysis
Examples
2 DOF System
The response in modal coordinates
To have a feeling of the response in modal coordinates, lets say
that the frequency of the load is = 2
0
.
This implies that
1
=

1
=
2.0
0.31386
= 6.37226 and

2
=

2
=
2.0
3.18614
= 0.62771.
-2
-1.5
-1
-0.5
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
q
i
/

s
t
=
o
t
q
1
()/
s
t q
2
()/
s
t
In the graph above, the responses are plotted against an
adimensional time coordinate with =
0
t, while the ordinates
are adimensionalised with respect to
st
=
p
0
k
Generalized
SDOFs
Giacomo Bo
Introductory
Remarks
The
Homogeneous
Problem
Modal Analysis
Examples
2 DOF System
The response in structural coordinates
Using the same normalisation factors, here are the response
functions in terms of x
1
=
11
q
1
+
12
q
2
and
x
2
=
21
q
1
+
22
q
2
:
-2
-1.5
-1
-0.5
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
x
i
/

s
t
=
o
t
x
1
()/
s
t x
2
()/
s
t