Section 3.2: Fundamental of Transmission

Fundamental of Transmission
SECTION 3.2
Fundamental of Digital Transmission, Encoding & Modulation Tec ni!ues, Definition & Discri"tion of Digital ierarc ies, Digital Multi"le#ing conce"ts, Signal $ustification & Control, %itter & &ine Coding
BRBRAITTJabalpur, issued in january-2006
Fundamental of Transmission Se ! "!2
F'ND(MENT(& OF DI)IT(& T*(NSMISSION Introduction Basically there are two ways in which information of any type can be transmitted over telecommunication media analog or digital. Analog means that the amplitude of the transmitted amplitude signal varies over a continuous range. Digital transmission means that a stream of on/off pulses are sent on the transmission media. The pulses are referred to as bits. Examples of analog signals are human voice hifi music temperature reading etc. !hile that of digital are data telegraphy signals. Telecommunication systems started with the transmission of digital signals. "n fact nonelectric signalling systems date bac# over $%%% years. The &ree# &eneral 'olybius is #nown to have used a scheme based on an array of (% torches in )%% B.*. and +oman armies made extensive use of a form of samaphore signalling. *laude *happe ,ommering !heatstone and *oo# were all experimenting with different #inds of Telegraphy till it was perfected by -ores. "n all this only written message was transmitted and message was converted to a coded signal to match the characteristics of a transmission line. &ary Bandot and others developed other codes which were mainly used in Telegraph networ#. Thus we can say by (./$ most of the basic techni0ues of digital transmission had been discovered. "n (1/2 Alexander &raham Bell invented the Telephone and as means of communication the telephone was fast personal and convenient. "t needed no training in the use of codes and so made electrical communications directly accessible to the general public. Thus telephone began to dominate the development of communications. Telephony involves the transmission of analog signals and when a practical amplifying service appeared in the form of the thermionic valve this also proved suitable for dealing with analog signals. 3ence after (11% the developing Telecom networ#s were basically designed to handle analog transmissions and to an increasing extent the digital transmission in the form of telegraphy had to be adopted to fit in with the characteristics of these networ#s.
By (.4%s the world5s communications systems were based entirely on analog transmission. 3owever interest in the digital transmission received an impetus after the publications of classic papers of 6y0uist and ,hannon. !ith the invention of pulse code modulation by +eeves in (.)1 the basic principles for digiti7ing analog speech signals were established. 3owever the technical means for transmitting digiti7ed speech signals were not available at that time. "t was not until the transistor came into use that indications of the economic advantages of digital techni0ues as compared to analog methods became apparent. 8," and 98," techni0ues that are now available have made digital communications far more economical as compared to analog methods became apparent. 8," and 98," techni0ues that are now available have made digital communications far more economical as compared to analog systems. Digital transmission systems are gaining more acceptance in view of : ;(< introduction of digital switching systems ;$< the need to transmit non voice signals which are increasingly becoming important instead of the plain old Telephone service and ;)< the introduction of new media li#e optical fibres waveguide which are more suitable for digital transmission systems will be introduced in the networ# and by the turn of the century most of the countries would have gone completely digital. (d+antages of Digital Communication ;i< Fig., shows the 0ualitative representation of the signal to noise ratio along a transmission line. "n both analog and digital systems the signal power ' is sub=ect to line attenuation which can be compensated by repeaters. 3owever a main difference exists in the accumulated noise power 6. "n the transmission of analog signals this power 6a is amplified in linear repeaters by the same factor as the useful signal and the noise contributions from the individual repeater section accumulate. "n the digital transmission on the other hand the signal is practically achieved of the noise 6d with the aid of regenerative repeaters. +esidual noise may only become effective in the form of digital errors and =itter due to regeneration reshaping and retiming ;) +s.< carrier out section by section only the digital errors
are accumulated while the noise is not. The need to recogni7e only the presence or absence of a pulse ma#es the system highly immune from noise. Thus the transmission 0uality is almost independent of distance and method of transmission involved. This is of particular value in transmission paths sub=ect to extreme interference such as for instance in space flights or in communications with interplanetary probes.
Fig. , Signal to Noise *atio (long ( -.Mission /at
;ii<
*ompatibility of different media : *ables radio lin#s switching e0uipment can
be interconnected without decoding the digital signals by means of relatively cheap interface e0uipment which contributes little or no impairment to the signal. There is thus no need to ta#e any consideration of the particularities of the original signal. ;iii< *ompatibility of different traffic : Any digital media of suitable capacity can carry encoded speech telephone signalling telegraphy digital data encode visual information or an arbitrary mixture there of. The desperate re0uirements of these signals can be handled in the terminals and have no mutual interference between different types of traffic. The introduction of ",D6 is thus possible. ;iv< -ultiplexing demultiplexing branching of digital signals produce no additional interference as noise in analog communications. 3ence these can be done as often as necessary. -oreover all bits are sub=ect to same interference and hence all TDchannels are treated e0ually i.e. there are no channels of inferior 0uality as for instance in >D- transmission certain channels at the edges of the tranmission bands. ;v< 8evel fluctuations occurring during transmission have no effect on the primary
signal recovered in the receiver. "n >D- however sophisticated e0uipments are re0uired to maintain the level more or less constant. ;vi< Economies in certain applications : '*- is inherently cheaper than the >Dand the investment needed can be made progressively as the traffic growth =ustifies it. Economies can be achieved by combining services already of a digital nature. Digital signals can be switched by digital exchanges without demodulation. ;vii< 'ossibility of novel facilities : The digital mode lends itself to such things as cryptography storage and various forms of digital processing not accomplished otherwise. ;viii< Applicability to other transmission media : ?ptical fibre waveguides multiple access satellites appear to be more suited digital than to analog information. ;ix< Applicability to extremely difficult transmission paths.
;x<
,impler e0uipment : There is no need of complicated filter and analog
amplifiers for various ranges. ;xi< Easy repeatability of design. Main O0stacles to Digitalisation ;a< ,pectrum width : >or example the bandwidth re0uired for $/%% channels is ($ -37 in the case of analog systems where as band width re0uired in the case of (.$% channels is as much as (@% -37. Thus band width re0uired is very large in the case of digital signals this results conse0uently : ;i< ;ii< 8ess efficient use of carrier capacity in terms of telephone channelsA !or#ing at very high fre0uenciesA
;iii< 6eed of multilevel modulation for radio transmissionA ;iv< 9oice interpolation re0uired for satellite communicationA ;v< ;b< 3igher sensitivity to selective transmissions caused by propagation. Different transmission of T9 signals : Digital transmission of T9 signals re0uires
a very wideband if redundancy reduction is not used which however involve higher cost and 0uality problems for moving images. ;c< +eliability and power consumption : >or the same transmitted signals digital
transmission e0uipments are in general more complex than analog ones. E!"t. 8ine repeaters ;($ -37 9s (@% -b/s< (B( +adio repeater ;(1%% >D- 9s (@% -b/s< (nalog $! $%% ! Digital @! 2%% !
Means to o+ercome digital transmission limits 1 ;a< Evolution of high fre0uency components and technology
;b<
3ybrid circuits 3igh speed integrated circuits >ET5s amplifiers ;for radio transmission< "ntroduction of large scale integrated components ;8," 98,"< Cse of microprocessor ;for functions such as adaptive combination voice
interpolation etc.<. increased circuit compactness ;T9 encoding ,ignal processing etc.<. reduced power consumption.
/ulse Transmission C annel Ca"acit2 or Information *ate "n general the capacity of a channel for information transfer is proportional to its bandwidth. Two ma=or theories that relate to the amount of data that can be transmitted based upon the bandwidth of a medium are the 6y0uist +elationship and ,hannon5s 8aw. 'rior to discussing these theories it is important to understand the difference between bit and baud due to the confusion that dominates the use of these terms. 3it +ersus 0aud The binary digit or bit is a unit of information transfer. "n comparison the term baud defines a signalling change rate normally expressed in terms of signal changes per second. "n a communications system the encoding of one bit per signal element results in e0uivalency between bit and baud. That is an information transfer rate of D bits per second is carried by a signalling change rate of D baud where each baud signal represents the value of one bit. 6ow suppose our communications system was modified so that two bits are encoded into one signal change. This would result
in the baud rate being half the bit rate which obviously ma#es bit and baud non e0uivalent. The encoding of two bits into one baud is #nown as dibit encoding. N2!uist relations i" "n (.$1 3arry 6y0uist developed the relationship between the bandwidth and the baud rate on a channel as B E $! where B is the baud rate and ! the bandwidth in 37. The 6y0uist relationship was based upon a problem #nown as intersymbol interference which is associated with bandlimited channels. "f a rectangular pulse is input to a bandlimited channel the bandwidth limitation of the channel results in a rounding of the corners of the pulse. This rounding results in the generation of an undesired signal in which the leading and trailing edges formed due to signal rounding can interfere with both previous and subse0uent pulses. This signal interference is illustrated in >ig.).
Fig. 3
'ulse response through a bandlimited channel. The bandwidth limitation of a channel causes the leading and trailing edges of a pulse to interfere with other pulses as the signal change exceeds twice the bandwidth of a channel. This condition is called intersymbol interference . The 6y0uist relationship states that the rate at which data can be transmitted prior to intersymbol interference occurring must be less than or e0ual to twice the bandwidth in 37. Thus an analog circuit with a bandwidth of )%%% 37 can only support baud rates at or under 2%%% signaling elements per second. ,ince an oscillating modulation techni0ue such as amplitude fre0uency or phase modulation halves the achievable signaling rate a twisted pair telephone circuit supports a maximum signaling rate of )%%% baud. S annon4s la5 "n (.@1 *laude E. ,hannon presented a paper concerning the relationship of coding to noise and calculated the theoretical maximum bit rate capacity of a channel of bandwidth ! 37. The relationship developed by ,hannon is given by * E ! log$ ;(B,/6< where * ! , 6 E E E E capacity in bits per second bandwidth in 37 ,ignal power at the receiver input power of thermal noise E 6o.!
3it 3aud *ate, S2m0ols !e wish to transmit fb bits/s in a baseband channel having a bandwidth of B 37. "n most applications the transmission system is considered to be more cost effective if in a given bandwidth more bits/sec can be transmitted. "f fb the transmission rate is normali7ed to a Bandwidth B E ( 37 then the system efficiency can be characteri7ed in terms of transmitted bits per second per 37 ;b/s/37<.
6y0uist theorem on minimum Bandwidth transmission systems states that it is possible to transmit fs independent symbols in a channel ;low pass filter< having a bandwidth of only B E fn E fs/$ 37. "f the digital signal changes at a rate of 6 bits/sec then the modulated phase would change at a rate of 6/$ symbols/sec. This rate of change of symbols is #nown as the Baudrate ;+<. N2!uist Criteria, *oll Off Factor &ive an ideal low pass change of Bandwidth B o 37 it is possible to transmit independent binary symbols through the channel at the maximum rate + b E $ Bo bits/sec. E0uivalently given a bit rate + b E (/Tb the Bandwidth Bo E %.4 +b defines the minimum transmission bandwidth acceptable for distortionFless transmission. The Bandwidth Bo so defined is called 6y0uist Bandwidth. >or practical usefulness however the minimum Bandwidth ,olution has to be modified. "t is done by ;(< permitting a channel Bandwidth B in excess of the 6y0uist Bandwidth Bo and ;$< introducing transition region shaped as onehalf of a raised cosine. The width of the transition region is controlled by the role off factor x defined as excess bandwidth ;i.e. the amount by which the channel Bandwidth B exceeds the 6y0uist Bandwidth Bo< divided by the 6y0uist Bandwidth itself. "n the raised cosine solution flexibility exists in the selection of the
transmitting and receiving filters. This flexibility can be exploited to provide noise immunity. "n particular given a baseFband channel of transfer function 3;f< and a message source of #nown waveform we can optimi7e the transfer function 3 T;f< of the transmitting filter and the transfer function 3 +;f< of the receiving filter so that the following ) re0uirements are =ointly satisfied. ;i< ;ii< ;iii< "," is Gero. 'robability of symbol error is minimi7ed. *onstant power is transmitted.
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;iv<
6y0uist B! re0uired has been defined as e0ual to half the symbol rate i.e. 6.B! E +/$
Thus for a (@% -b/s signal the symbol rate E /% -b/s if H',I is employed. The minimum B! needed for transmitting so many symbols without "," is )4 -37. This is the one sited filter Bandwidth. The total +> B! would include both sides of the spectrum and be e0ual to /% -37. This is the theoretical minimum B!. "f (2 ',I is used then Baud rate E )4 -B/s. 6y0uist B! E (/.4 -37. Total channel B! E )4 -37. 6 at is Inter S2m0ol Interference 7ISI8 9 "nter symbol interference is interference between ad=acent symbols due to pulse spreading by band limited channels. Because of the delay ;as the band width of channel is finite< the delayed version of wave form of one sampling interval will extend into the next sampling interval leading to ",". ,uppose that binary information is transmitted using a pulse type waveform. A ( 9olt pulse is used to send a ( and % 9olt pulse for a binary %. !hen this waveform goes through the system it gets distorted. Among other effects any sharp corners of the wave are rounded since the system cannot pass infinite fre0uency. Therefore the values in previous sampling intervals affect the value within the present interval. "f for example we send a long string of (s we would expect the channel output to eventually settle to a constant (. ,imilarly if we send a long string of %5s the output should eventually settle towards %. "f we alternate (5s and %5s the output might resemble a sine wave depending upon the fre0uency cut off of the channel. Therefore if we examine a single interval in which a binary ( is being transmitted the output waveform within that interval will depend upon the particular
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se0uence that preceded the interval in 0uestion. "f we now plot all possible waveforms within the interval including those for a ( and those for a % in the interval we get a pattern that resembles a picture of an eye. The following figure ;>ig.2< shows some representative transmitted
waveforms and the resulting receiver waveform. The eye pattern is s#etched. The eye pattern is therefore the superposition of many waveforms within one sampling interval the components of this composite waveform being the signals due to all possible preceeding data strings. The number of individual waveforms contributing to the eye pattern depends upon the memory of the system. >or example if the system transient response extends over six sampling intervals the particular pattern of six most recent bits determines the waveform within the interval.
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Transmitter
*ecei+er
,uperimposition of +eceived !aveform Fig. : )eneration of E2e /attern
Superposition BRBRAITTJabalpur, issued in january-2006

of received waveforms
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Encoding & Modulation Tec ni!ues "f transmission media were perfect we would not have to worry about errors in data communications. Cnfortunately that is not the case. 6oise spi#es and other types of interference can change (s to %s and %s to (s during transmission. A short $% ms clic# on a telephone line may be annoying during a telephone conversation but it is unli#ely to disrupt voice communication. 3owever if data are being sent over the line at @1%% b/s that same clic# may destroy $@% data bits. A number of techni0ues have been developed to detect and sometimes to correct errors. All of the methods of detecting errors involve the transmission of redundant data. +edundant data are data that are not necessary to the information content of the transmission. +edundant data could be omitted and communication would still ta#e place. Error chec#ing schemes compare the redundant data to see if they agree. "f they do agree it is li#ely that no error has occurred. "f they do not agree it is almost certain that an error has occurred. The simplest way to deal with errors is to let the receiving operator correct them. This method ta#es advantage of the fact that human language itself is redundant. >or example suppose the following sentence is sent over a news service communication system as part of a news story : T3E D?!6T?!6 B+A6*3 ?> T3E BA6I ?> *E6TE+9"88E !A,
+?BBED ?> -?+E T3A6 J@%%% 8A,T 6"&3T. "f the transmission is sent to Baudot and the first bit of the second ! in the word D?!6T?!6 is changed by a noise spi#e the message will be received as : T3E D?!6T?A6 B+A6*3 ?> T3E BA6I ?> *E6TE+9"88E !A, +?BBED ?> -?+E T3A6 J@%%% 8A,T 6"&3T. "t would not be difficult for the receiving operator to reali7e that D?!6T?A6 is not a word and to ma#e the necessary correction before publishing the story. There is enough reduntant information in the message to do that. 3owever if the character @ in the sentence is affected by noise and the message is received as :
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T3E D?!6T?!6 B+A6*3 ?> T3E BA6*I ?> *E6TE+9"88E !A, +?BBED ?> -?+E T3A6 J1%%% 8A,T 6"&3T. the receiving operator will #now that there is an error in the message but will probably not #now how to fix it. There is enough redundant information in the message to detect the error but there is not enough to correct it. "n most of today5s data communication systems the only types of errors that humans are expected to correct are typing errors. -ost communication systems detect and correct errors that occur after the information leaves the #eyboard. Ec o"le# Echoplex is a simple form of error detection that relies on redundant transmission to help the sending operator ma#e corrections. "t is commonly used on fullduplex communications systems in which each character is sent as it is typed into the transmitting terminal. Almost anyone who has used a computer and a modem has used echoplex. As the receiving terminal receives each character it retransmits or echoes it bac# to the transmitting terminal where it appears on that termianal5s screen. The operator chec#s the character on the screen to see if it has been echoed correctly. "f there is an error the operator presses the bac#space #ey to erase the erroneous character and then types the correct one. The advantage of echoplex is its simplicity. "t does not re0uire complex circuitry and it is easy to implement. ?ne disadvantage of echoplex is that it relies on a human operator to detect and correct errors. Another disadvantage is that it ma#es inefficient use of the communications channel because the same information is transmitted in both directions. Although echoplex is commonly used to correct typing errors in communication systems that transmit information as the operator types it into a terminal it is not used in other types of communications systems. /arit2 'arity is one of the simplest forms of automatic error detection and is fre0uently used with the A,*"" code. Although A,*"" is a /bit code a redundant
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bit called a parity bit is often added to the A,*"" character. The parity bit is placed in the most significant bit ;bit /< position. There are two types of parity odd and even. "f even parity is used every 1bit data word in a message contains an even number of binary (s. "f odd parity is used every word has an odd number of (s. As the parity bit is added to the A,*"" character by the sending terminal it is either set or cleared to form the correct parity. 6either type of parity has an advantage over the other in most communications systems and both are widely used. 3owever the transmitting and receiving terminals must use the same type of parity and all characters sent between those two terminals must have the same type of parity. E#am"le ;.: The following A,*"" characters are sent : ((% %%%( ((( %%(% and ((% %(%(. "f the characters are transmitted with odd parity where parity bit is added to each character a ( or a %K !hat is the A,*"" code for each character in hexadecimal including theparity bit K Solution >or odd parity the total number of binary (s in each character including the parity bit is odd. The first character ((% %%%( has three (s which is already odd parity. Therefore a parity bit of % is added in the -,B position to ma#e the complete 1bit data character %((% %%%( or J2(. The second character ((( %%(% has an even number of (s. The sending terminal adds a binary ( as a parity bit to ma#e the total number of (s odd. The resulting A,*"" character including the parity bit which ma#es the complete data character (((% %(%( or JE4. The receiver chec#s the parity of each incoming A,*"" character to see if it is correct. "f the receiver is programmed to receive odd parity every incoming data word must have odd parity. "f it is programmed to receive even parity every incoming data word must have even parity. "f one bit in a data character gets is (((( %%(% or J>$. The third character ((% %(%( also re0uires a ( for odd parity
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changed by noise during transmission the parity of the received character will be incorrect. !hen incorrect parity is received it is called a "arit2 error. >or example suppose a communications system uses even parity and that the A,*"" character (%(( (%%% is sent. "f a noise spi#e changes bit ( the character will be received as (%(( (%(% which has odd parity. This is a parity error. 3ow a communication system responds to parity errors depends on how the terminals have been programmed. "n a halfduplex or fullduplex system the receiving terminal may send a message bac# to the transmitting terminal re0uesting that the entire message containing the error be retransmitted. "n a simplex system the receiving terminal cannot send messages bac# to the transmitting terminal so there is no way for it to re0uest retransmission. "n such a case the terminal may be programmed to print a star ;L< on the screen to let the receiving operator #now that an error has occurred. A parity error is generated when an odd number of bits is changed during transmission but no parity error is generated when an even number of bits is changed. >or example suppose $ bits are changed by noise during transmission so that the character (%(( (%%% is received as (%(( (((%. Although the receiver character contains two errors both the received character and the character that was originally sent have even parity. The receiving terminal does not generate a parity error and the data error is not detected. 8i#e all methods of error detection parity adds redundant information ot the data stream. A disadvantage of parity is that it detects only errors that affect an odd number of bits in a data word. An advantage of parity is that it is simple to implement. Because of its simplicity parity is widely used. <ori=ontal and >ertical /arit2 C ec? A better method of detecting errors involves using a combination of ori=ontal and +ertical "arit2 c ec?s. The simple parity chec# discussed in ,ection 4$$ is a hori7ontal parity chec#. 9ertical parity is calculated for all of the bits with the same bit number in a bloc# of data. After a bloc# of data has been sent
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the transmitting terminal calculates a parity bit for bit % of all of the characters in the bloc# another parity bit for bit ( of all of the characters and so on. The vertical parity bits are transmitted as a 0loc? c ec? c aracter 73CC8 at the end of the bloc# of data. Either even or odd parity may be used for both the hori7ontal and vertical parity bits. The same parity may be used for both or one of them may have even parity and the other may have odd parity. 3owever the transmitting and receiving terminals must use the same parity scheme. >or illustration the hori7ontal parity in Table ( is even and the vertical parity is odd. Bits % through 2 in the figure are the A,*"" code for the information transmitted. 6otice that even the parity bit of the B** passes both the vertical and hori7ontal parity chec#. Table 1 A short message using even character and odd column parity / ( ( % ( ( % % ( ( , 0: ( ( ( ( % ( ( ( ( , 0; ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( A 0@ % % ( % % % % % % A 03 % % % % % % ( ( ( A 02 ( % ( % % % ( ( ( A 0, % % % % % ( ( % % , 0A % ( % ( % ( ( ( ( , (SCII C aracter d a t a ,' c o m m 3CC
The receiver chec#s the hori7ontal parity of each character as it is received. The receiver also generates its own B** and compares it with the chec# character received at the end of the bloc# of data. The two should be identical. "f they are not an error has occurred and the receiver can re0uest that the sending terminal retransmit the bloc# of data.
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3owever the combination of hori7ontal and vertical parity chec#ing does more than detect errors. "t also allows the receiver to correct singlebit errors without re0uesting further information from the transmitter a process #nown as for5ard error correction 7FEC8. Table $ shows the data bloc# of Table ( but bit ( of the ,' or space character has been altered by noise. Both the hori7ontal parity chec# for the space character and the vertical parity chec# for bit ( fail. Therefore bit ( of the ,' character must be in error. The receiver can correct the error by changing the ( bac# to a %. Table 2 Bit 1 of the SP character fails both character and column parity chec s and is therefore in error. / ( ( % ( ( % % ( ( , 0: ( ( ( ( % ( ( ( ( , 0; ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( A 0@ % % ( % % % % % % A 03 % % % % % % ( ( ( A 02 ( % ( % % % ( ( ( A 0, % % % % ( ( ( % % , 0A % ( % ( % ( ( ( ( , (SCII C aracter d a t a ,' c o m m 3CC
Cnfortunately the combination of hori7ontal and vertical parity can reliably perform >E* only on singlebit errors. Errors that involve two or more bits cannot always be corrected. To illustrate in Table ) both bit ( of the ,' character and bit $ of the character c have been changed by noise. Both characters fail hori7ontal parity chec#s and bits ( and $ fail their vertical parity chec#s but the receiver cannot determine which bits are in error. The error could =ust as easily be bit $ of the space character and bit ( of character c. Even though the receiving terminal cannot perform >E* at least the receiving terminal can determine that a transmission error
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has occurred and it can re0uest that the sending terminal retransmit the entire bloc# of data. Table 3 T!o"bit errors can be detected by a combination of character and column parity chec s# but they usually cannot be corrected / ( ( % ( ( % % ( ( , 0: ( ( ( ( % ( ( ( ( , 0; ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( A 0@ % % ( % % % % % % A 03 % % % % % % ( ( ( A 02 ( % ( % % ( ( ( ( A 0, % % % % ( ( ( % % , 0A % ( % ( % ( ( ( ( , (SCII C aracter d a t a ,' c o m m 3CC
6o system of error chec#ing is (%%M foolproof. Table @ contains @ bit erorrs. Bits ( and $ of both the ,' and c characters have been altered during transmission. Both characters pass their hori7ontal chec#s and both bit positions pass vertical parity chec#s. Even the combination of hori7ontal and vertical parity chec#s has failed to detect the errors. 'arity bits can be generated by software routines in the sending terminal and they can be chec#ed by software routines at the receiving terminal. 3owever it is more efficient to generate and chec# parity bits in hardware. >igure (( is the schematic of a circuit that can be used to generate hori7ontal parity bits. The / bits of the A,*"" character are applied to the inputs labelled bit % through bit 2 and a bias bit is applied to the remaining input. "f the bias bit is a ( the correct hori7ontal parity bit will be generated to give the character odd parity. A bias bit of % will cause the circuit to generate the correct hori7ontal parity bit for even parity. Trace the circuit by assuming a set of inputs to assure yourself that it wor#s.
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'arity generator and chec#er circuits are part of the DTE circuit. They were once constructed from discrete exclusive ?+ gates as shown in >igure (( below but today they are built into a larger integrated circuit that also performs other communication tas#s as will be discussed in *hapter 1.
Fig. 11 A Parity $enerator %ircuit
Table & 'ven the combination of character and column parity chec s !ill not detect all errors / ( ( % ( ( % % ( ( , 0: ( ( ( ( % ( ( ( ( , 0; ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( A 0@ % % ( % % % % % % A 03 % % % % % % ( ( ( A 02 ( % ( % ( % ( % ( A 0, % % % % ( ( ( ( % , 0A % ( % ( % ( ( ( ( , (SCII C aracter d a t a ,' c o m m 3CC
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C ec?sums As illustrated in Table 4 a c ec?sum is the least significant byte of the arithmetical sum of the binary data transmitted. As the data is sent the transmitting terminals sums it. At the end of the data bloc# it sends the least significant byte of the sum as an extra character called the chec#sum. The receiver generates its own chec#sum by summing the data as it is received. At the end of the bloc# it compares the chec#sum it generated with the chec#sum it receives from the transmitter. "f the two are identical it is li#ely that no error occurred. "f the two chec#sums are different an error has occurred and the receiver re0uests that the bloc# of data be resent. Table ( The chec sum is the least significant byte of the sum of the coded data C aracter T e r r i b l e *hec#sum E3CDIC JE) J14 J.. J.. J1. J1$ J.) J14 JBD
C2clic *edundanc2 C ec? 7C*C8 ?ne of the more effective methods of error detection is the c2clic redundanc2 c ec? 7C*C8. A circuit that can be used to generate a (2bit *+* character is shown in >ig.($. "dentical *+* circuits are used in the transmitting and the receiving terminals to generate a chec# character which is highly dependent on all the data that were sent in the bloc#. !e will use the *+* circuit in the receiving terminal as our example.
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Shift right register
Data input
Fig. 12 A %)% circuit The *+* circuit is initiali7ed with all %s in the shift registers. Each time a bit is received every bit in the shift registers is shifted right. Assume that the first bit received is a (. "t is exclusively %+ed in &) with a % shifted out of b% of the shift register to produce a logical ( which is in turn shifted into the b(4 position of he shift register and continues to shift right as each subse0uent bit is received. >our received bits later it will have been shifted to the b(( position where it will influence the output of exclusive ?+ gate &(. The output of &( is shifted to the right until it arrives at the b@ position and influences the output of &$. The &$ output in turn shifts right to the b% position where it is exclusively %+ed with a received bit of data to influence the output of &) and thereby the input to the *+* circuit. The important thing to recogni7e is that once a bit is received it continues to influence the contents of the shift registers in the *+* circuit. "f one bit is received incorrectly it will cause the contents of the *+* shift registers to be different than they would have been if all bits had been received correctly. As mentioned the transmitting terminal has a *+* circuit identical to the *+* circuit in the receiver. As each bit is transmitted a copy of that bit is input into the *+* circuit. At the end of the bloc# of data the sending terminal transmits the contents of its *+* registers. !hen the receiver receives the *+* character it compares it with the contents of its own *+* registers. The two *+* characters
23
should be identical. "f they are not an error has occurred in transmission and the receiver can re0uest that the sending terminal retransmit the bloc# of data. Although >ig.($ shows a circuit that generates a (2bit *+* )$bit *+*s are also common in many data communication systems. Twelvebit and $@bit *+*s are used in some systems. 8i#e the parity chec#er circuit *+* generators are usually not separate circuits as shown in the figure. They are included in a larger integrated circuit that also performs other data communications functions. Summar2 "n this chapter we have loo#ed at codes used in data communications and methods used to detect and sometimes correct errors. ?f the codes presented in this chapter the two that are most commonly used in data communications are A,*"" and EB*D"*. Baudot is a 4bit code and it was the first code to be widely used for data communications. Baudot has two modes a letters mode and a figures mode each with its own character set. The 8T+, and >"&, characters are used to shift bac# and forth between the two modes. *ommunications systems that once used Baudot have now almost all switched to the A,*"" code. A,*"" is a /bit code although a redundant 1bit called a parity bit is sometimes added to detect errors. There is also an 1bit version of A,*"" which is called extended A,*"". A,*"" is used both in data communications and to store data in personal computer memories and dis#s. EB*D"* is an 1bit code that was developed by "B- *orporation for use in its larger computers. EB*D"* is also used in e0uipment that was designed to be compatible with those "B- *omputers. Errors inevitably occur in data transmission. "n some systems those errors tolerated and nothing is done to correct them. 3owever a number of schemes been developed to detect and sometimes correct errors. All of these methods are redundant information. "n echoplex the receiving terminal echoes each recent character bac# to the sending terminal where it appears on the terminal screen i.e.
24
terminal operator visually inspects each character to ma#e sure that it is correct. Echoplex5s main use is to correct typing errors. 'arity is an extra bit that is added to each data character in the -,B position. The parity bit is set or cleared to ensure that each character either contains an even number of (s or that each character contains an odd number of (s. 'arity is conse0uently used with the A,*"" code. A combination of hori7ontal and vertical parity chec#s cannot only detect errors but also allow the receiver to correct singlebit errors a process #nown as forward error correction ;>E*<. This system in addition to having a parity bit each character uses a binary chec# character ;B**< which is transmitted at the end of a bloc# of data. A chec#sum is no more than the least significant type of the arithmetical sum of all the binary characters transmitted in a bloc# of data. Both the transmitter and the receiver calculate a chec#sum and at the end of a transmission the sending terminal transmits the chec#sum which the receiver then compares with its own chec#sum. A cyclic redundancy chec# ;*+*< character can be formed by circulating transmitted data through a system of shift registers and exclusive ?+ gates. "dentical circuits are used at the transmitter and receiver. At the end of a bloc# of data a sending terminal transmits its *+* character and the receiver compares it with the *+* character that it has generated. "f the two *+* characters are different then error has occurred.
25
MOD'&(TION TEC<NIB'ES ,.A Introduction "n order to transmit digital signals over +adio systems. "t is necessary to transfer the information to the +adio fre0uency carrier. Digital information can be imposed upon the carrier by modifying the amplitude fre0uency phase or a combination of these characteristics The choice of the modulating scheme is made after considering a number of conflicting re0uirements which include susceptibilities to noise interference fading non linearities spectrum efficiency ;i.e. Bits/sec/37< and e0uipment complexities with associated cost aspect. The spectrum efficiency is a ratio of bit speed ;say + bits per second< and band width say B 37. This ratio i.e +/B is #nown as the spectrum efficiency for the particular modulation techni0ue adopted for the purpose of modulation of the +> carrier. The following sections describe the most commonly adopted digital modulation schemes. 2.A (m"litude S ift Ce2ing "n general for amplitude modulation the amplitude of the carrier is varied in proportion to the amplitude of the modulating signal and the carrier fre0uency does not change The special case sFof digital modulating signals are referred to as amplitude shift #eying. A number is usually added as per the number of the digital symbol states. TiNus binary signals produce $ A,I and @ level signals produce @ A,I. The A,I signals are generally expressed mathematically as: D ;t< E g ;t< x A x cos O$ fc t< where g ft< is the random digital signal. A binary A,I modulator is symboli7ed in Fig. 2., where the binary bits cause switching between carrier 5?6P and 5?>>5 states.
3inar2 in"ut
Fig. 2.,
(SC MOD'&(TO*
26
FI). 2.2 SI)N(& CONSTE&&(TION
BAND !DT" #!$!T%D AT 2 A&' AT (
FI) 2.3 (SC 6(>ES<(/E
27
The power spectral density of the resultant $ A,I signal as the same as that of the random data signal but mirrored about the carriers. "n the normal A,I signal the presence of D* component in the modulating signal results in the presence of a carrier component which contains no information in the output signal and is a waste of available transmitted power. 2., Su""ressed Carrier (SC "f the D* component is removed from the random signal the resultant ,ignal is referred to as double side band suppressed carrier amplitude modulated signal often abbreviated to the word D,B.
2.2
Single Side0and (SC The modulating process produces both upper and lower sidebands and the spectrum occupancy of the signal doubles. ,ince either of the sidebands of A,I signals contains the information to be transmitted spectrum efficiency can be improved considerably by elimination of one of the sidebands such a system is #nown as single sideband suppressed carrier amplitude modulation ;,,B,*A-< usually abbreviated to ,,B. To separate the sidebands a perfect high or low pass filter is re0uired with a cut off at the carrier fre0uency. 2.3 >estigial Side0and (SC An alternative method to overcome the difficulties associated with ,,B signals is to transmit a small part ;vestige< of the other sideband. This is #nown as vestigial sideband amplitude modulation 9,BA- often abbreviated to 9,B. Fre!uenc2 S ift Ce2ing "n fre0uency modulation the fre0uency of the carrier is varied in proportion to the amplitude of the modulating signal and the carrier amplitude remains constantA ,ince for 5digital modulation the baseband signal ta#es on only one of the two values the fre0uency of the modulation also will ta#e one of the two values and the modulation prosess can be thought of as a #eying operation. "n general the binary >,I signal can be mathematically expressed by. D;t< E A *os ;$ fc tB$fd g ;t< dt B <. where A. and fc are the carrier amplitude and fre0uency g;t< is a random binary waveform with levels B ( and F( and F% is an arbitrary phase. The instantaneous fre0uency is given by the derivative of the phase of D;t< namely by fc B fd g;t< which is e0ual to the two shift fre0uencies f ( and f $ where f(E fc F fd and f$ E fc B fd Figure 3., illustrates a simple modulator consisting of two oscillators and a switch ;#ey<. This form of >- is referred to as >re0uency ,hift Ieying ;>,I<.
3.A
28
)arrier
a*e0
+% ,% +-
Bit &tream
0 ,+% 0 ,%
The waveform for >,I modulation techni0ue can be represented as in Fig. 3.2 The power spectral density of >,I waveform is as follows 7Fig. 3.38.
29
3.,
Demodulation of FSC There are two methods of demodulation of >,I. They are F *oherent detection F "ncoherent detection.
3.,., Co erent detection The *oherent detection is illustrated in Fig. 3.@
30
3.,.2 Inco erent Detection "f the phase of the incoming wave is not #nown we must resort to incoherent forms of detection. An incoherent demodulator is illustrated in Fig. 3.;.
Fig. 3.:. compares the performance of incoherent detector with that of coherent detector.
!n.o/erent
)o/erent
FI) 3.: /E*FO*M(NCE COM/(*ISON OF INCO<E*ENT (ND CO<E*ENT FSC DETECTO*
31
"t may be seen that for a given BE+ re0uirement the Eb/6o ;and hence */6< re0uirement is more for incoherent detection compared to that of coherent detection i.e. *oherent detection is superior to incoherent detection. 3.2 MD(*E FSC -FA+Q >,I ;->,I< FisFa way to trade bandwidth for signaling speed. "nstead of sending data using binary signals with one of two fre0uencies the signaling alphabet is expanded to include - possible fre0uencies. This process will normally increase the speed between the lowest and the highest fre0. and therefore the bandwidth can be expected to increase. 3owever since increased information is sent with each signal element the baud rate can be decreased to partially counteract the increase in bandwidth. >or example if it were necessary to send (%%% bps of data this could be one by sending a binary >,I pulse every millisecond. Alternatively a @ ary >,I burst could be sent every $ ms representing a decrease in baud rate by a factor of two. ;Baud rate is a unit of signaling speed and it is the number of symbols ;pulses</ second in the *hannel. "f each symbol represents one bit then baud rate is same as bit rate it each symbol represents more than one bit then baud rate is less than bit rate. Baud rateE Bit +ate/6o of Bits per ,ymbol<. The performance of ->,I for the various values of - is shown in >ig.)./. "n the >ig.)./ it may please be noted that ordinate is the symbol error probability and not the bit error probability. This is an important distinction since a single symbol error can cause more than one bit error. !e should also note that constant energy ;E< does not imply constant signal power. As -ain causes the symbol period increases so proportionately less signal power is re0uired to achieve the same signal to noise ratio. Also shown on the figure is a theoretical bound for -RR# which is obtained from the ,hannon channel capacity theorem.
32
Fig 3.F SEM3O& E**O* /E*FO*M(NCE FB* MFSC *.E. ,hannon has shown that a given communication channel has a maximum rate of information 5*5 Inown as .the channel capacity. "f the information rate + is less than * one can approach arbitrarily small error probabilities by intelligent coding techni0ues. "f the information rate + is greater than the channel capacity 5*5 errors can not be avoided regardless of the coding techni0ue employed. !e consider the band limited channel operating in the presence of additive white &aussian noise. "n this case the channel capacity is given by: *E B log$ ;( B ,/6< !here * is the capacity in bits per second B is the bandwidth of channel in 37 and ,/6 is the signal to noise ratio. The signal power , is the energy per bit multiplied by the number of bits per second. The noise power is 6o multiplied by the system bandwidth. "f we ta#e the limit as the bandwidth approaches infinity. * E E 8im B 8im B E E/6o E B log$ ;(BE*/6oB< ;E*/6o< 8og$ ;(BE*/6o B/Ec<
;E*/6o< 8og$ e E (.@@ E*/6o F(.2dB
This is shown in Fig. )./ labeled as since the infinite bandwidth assumption coincides with the infinite value of -. @.A /SC Modulation
"n general for 'hase modulation the phase of the carrier is varied in proportion to the amplitude of the input signal and the amplitude and fre0uency remains constant. The special cases of Digital -odulation of signals are referred to as 'hase ,hift Ieying ;',I< -odulation with a number in the front indicating the number of levels of the digital signal. $ ',I @ ',I and 1 ',I are modulation methods that have been adopted for some digital radio systems. @., Corres"ondence 0et5een carrier " ase and 0it stream state ,ince a bit stream is a series of binary digits it re0uires a $ 'hase ',I system where phases of a S?P and S P radians correspond to the ?s and ( s of the bit stream. The number of phases used is limited only by the re0uirement that each phase be distinguishable from the others which result in an increased capacity for
33
information transmission n bit streams re0uired $ n combinations of n bits as shown in table below. Therefore a system which can distinguish $ n phases can transmit upto n bit stream. Table: *orrespondence between phases and codes. a. 2 / ase S2stem 'hase % 0. Binary % ( Binary *ode ,tream ( % (
@ / ase S2stem 'hase Huaternary Binary *ode
,tream ( % /$ )/$ % ( $ ) % % ( (
,tream $ % ( % (
a, 2 0/ase &1stem
2, 4 0/ase &1stem
34
SI)N(& D S/(CE DI()*(M FO* 3IN(*E CODES ,ince the re0uired number of code combinations is the nth power of $ i.e $ @ and 1 phase >,I systems are feasible.
@.2
/rinci"les of Modulation There are two type of phase modulation.
T T
Absolute phase modulation Differential phase modulation "n the absolute phase modulation system pulse signals directly modulate a carrier. Demodulation uses another carrier to synchroni7e with the carrier and detect difference in phase. ,hould the phase of the two sub carriers differ by rt ;for B+,I< the entire data train will be inverted and every bit will be in error.
>or this reason we often choose differential form of encoding. "n such techni0ues the data are represented as changes in levels rather than by the particular signal level. "n other words phase transitions rather than phase states are transmitted. Two phase differential phase modulation called $FD',I is described with reference to the following 7Fig.@.,8.
35
?n the top line the original bit stream D is the se0uence %((%. The phase stream on the $nd line is obtained by QiEDi
+ +
QiF( ;
exclusive ?+<
At the receiving end the following calculation recovers the original bit stream. DiEQi @.3 Qi.( /rinci"les of Demodulation There are two ways to detect ',I signals : ;(< *oherent detection ;$< Differential< detection ;delay detection< signal using each of these two methods.
7,8 Co erent Detection The following figure ;>ig @.$< illustrates the coherent detection principle. A *os ;wt B < represents a ',I signal and contains the information.
The ',I signaU and a synchronous carrier ;i.e. having same phase and fre0uency of carrier on the transmitter side< are fed to the phase detector. Detected output after the 8'> ;8ow 'ass >ilter< is proportional to *os ,ince
36
*os assumes values of either B( or F( corresponding to E o and respectively the decision circuit =udges only polarity ;B or F(< in the $ phase ',I system. Bits % and ( correspond to phases % and respectively. The carrier used in the receiver must be synchroni7ed with that of the carrier on the transmitter side. Thus a carrier synchronising circuit called the carrier recovery circuit is also necessary. 728 Differential Detection 7Dela2 Detection8 The following figure ;>ig.@.)< illustrates the differentialU detection principle. The incoming $S% signal is expressed as EE A *os ;wt& '!
The one bit delayed ',I signal E5 is expressed as: E E A *os ;wt B iF(< where "i and iF( represent the phases corresponding to the ith and ;iF(<th bits respectively. The E and E( signals are fed to a phase detector. The output of 8'> is *os ;wt B "F(< The decision circuit discriminates between different values of *os ;wi B iF(< in the same way as the decision circuit in the coherent detection case. Com"arison Differential Detection is not applicable to low speed data streams 3owever it is applicable to high speed data streams but the detected output contains twice as much thermal noise as the ?/' of coherent detection system. This is because differential detection uses two separately received ',I signals ;with a time difference of one bit< which are e0ually noisy whiie in the coherent detection case the carrier is assumed to be free of noise.
37
>or these reasons the coherent detection is the preferred demodulation method. Cnli#e differential detection coherent detection needs carrier recovery. @.@ Decision circuit GT res old Com"arator8 The detector output which represents the phase changes of received ',I signal includes thermal noise distortion arid interference which enter the signal at repeaters and along propagation paths. *onse0uently the detected output waveforms are considerably distorted as shown in the following figure.
"," : "ntersymbol interference 6+G : 6on return to 7ero 6(>EFO*MS OF DETECTED 3(SE3(ND Csing the cloc# signal to discriminate between V(V and V%V states it is possible to recover the original waveform from the distorted pulse waves. There are two Vdecision methods: "nstantaneous decision and integral decision. The instantaneous decision method determines whether the detected value belong to the Vrange (V ;?ver the threshold< or the Vrange %V ;Below the threshold< by comparing the detected output amplitude to the threshold level ;% 9olts< at sampling points derived from the *loc# >re0uency. The output is a pulse stream with the appropriate voltages. The integral decision method integrates the amplitude of the detected output for a fixed time interval and compares the result with the threshold. The
38
integral decision method is more sensitive to inter symbol interference than the instantaneous decision method and so the instantaneous decision method is preferred. @.@.3 6 at is %itter 9 Cnwanted phase modulation is termed as =itter in the decision circuit cloc# pulses are generated using ',I signal phase changes as a reference. These cloc# pulses may some times be inaccurate due to poor tuning of the pulse generating circuit causing =itter. @.; 3/SC Modulation B',I -odulator is shown in >ig. @.2. +ing -odulator ;-?D<
39
@.:
Four / ase /SC S2stems
The following figure 7Fig. @.F8 illustrates a functional bloc# diagram of H',I -odulator
!
1
T"
!n4ut Data &30 )on

!! 32
$ $
B0F
B0F
4
3 03&
5ut4ut Data
!! 32
(
Transmitter
162 7 #0F 3 7 Bit Timin8 9e.o*er1 4 7 )arrier T" 7 T/res/old )om4arator B0F 7 Band 0ass Filter
T "
9e.ei*er
Fig. @.F 3&OCC DI()*(M OF B/SC MOD'&(TO* "n this system the "/' pulse stream is converted into two bit streams. Their pulse speed is exactly half that original stream. The serial to parallel converter bloc# includes a differential encoding function. H',I modulator can be thought of $ B',I modulators in parallel. As the signal space diagram indicates the H',I modulator uses a gray code arrangement i.e. instead of having ;% (< ;( ; ( ( < ;% %< symbols we BeF having ;% (< ;( (< ;( %< ;% %< symbols. The reason is explained with reference to the following figure ;>ig.@.1<.
40
FI). @.H >ector Diagram of /SC signals, noise, and su0Dcarriers Any noise superimposed in a ',I signal changes the signals vectors. The noise vector are constantly varying in phase and amplitude and if the vector sum of the noise and ',I signal cross a carrier vector a bit error occurs. As a noise vector increases in magnitude so does the possibility of mista#ing the true ',I signal
41
vector for an ad=acent one. 3owever the possibility of the noise vector increasing enough to mista#e the true ',I signal vector for the signal vector (1% % opposite ;differing by < is very low. &ray coding therefore improves bit error rate compared with natural binary coding because one symbol error results in a single bit error. i.e. bit error rate E ,ymbol error rate / $ *ircuits used for 6atural *ode to &ray *ode conversion ;At the transmitter< and vice versa ;At the +eceiver< are shown below. Natural Code to )ra2 Code Con+ersion
@.:., Co erent Detection >or H',I demodulation coherent detection is superior to differential detection. The bloc# diagram of coherent detection circuit is as follows 7Fig. @.,A8.
42
FI). @.,A CONFI)'*(TION OF CO<E*ENT DETECTION CI*C'IT @.:.2 Carrier *eco+er2 The carrier wave re0uired for the coherent detection must be recovered from @ ',I signal which does not contain the proper unmodulated fre0uency component. The @ ',I signal is expressed by E E A *os ;wtB B n/$< The n/$ phase component must be removed because it randomly assumes values of % ( $ ). There are many carrier recovery strategies. !e will consider ;(< >our multiplication system ;$< *osta5s 8oop method. @.:.2., Four Multi"lication S2stem
The derivation of the four multiplication of a @ ',I signal system is as fallows: E@ E A@ *os@ ;t B B n/$<
43
A@ /1O)B@*os$ ;t B B n/$<B ;t B B n/$<W
A band pass filter extracts the @ components called E;@<. E;@< E A@ *os@ ;t B B n/$< E 1 A *os ;@t B @<
@
>our times fre0uency division fo E;@< recovers a pure carrier. ,imilarly for B',I scheme $ multiplication system can be used.
Fig. @.,, CostaIs loo"

The 9*? operates at the carrier fre0uency fc . The output of upper low pass filter is given by %.4 A ;t< sin ; F<. This output is therefore proportional to the sine of the phase difference. "f the two fre0uencies are not matched the phase difference includes a linearly varying term. The output of the lower 8'> is given by %.4 A ;t< sin ; F<. This output is therefore proportional to the cosine of the phase difference. !hen these two terms are multiplied together the result is the error term. E;t< E E %.$4 A$ ;t< sin; F< cos ; F<. %.($4 A$ ;t< sinX$; F<Y
44
The error term is therefore proportional to the sine of twice the phase difference and the loop drives this term toward 7ero.
;.A
,: B(M The (2 HA- ;Huadrature Amplitude -odulation< system carriers twice as much information as the H',I system.
;.,
Modulation
The (2 HA- signal is obtained by vector summing two @ level A,I signals in 0uadrature. The following figure shows two @ level A,I signals in 0uadrature 7Fig. ;.,8.
>"& 4.( T6O @D &E>E& (SC SI)N(&S /E*/ENDIC'&(* TO E(C< OT<E*
The signal space diagram is as shown in the >ig. 4.$
45
The bloc# diagram of (2 HA- is shown if >ig . 4.). The modulator is provided with four data signal inputs ,( to ,@ which are applied to D/A converters. The D/A converter delivers a single data stream with four amplitude levels from the two data input streams each with two amplitude levels. The four amplitude level output are applied to modulation circuits. The modulator circuits consist of two balanced diode mixers coupled with two hybrid transformers. The hybrid transformer at the input delivers two outputs with a .%Z phase shift the " channel and H channel signals. The hybrid transformer at the output simply combines the two outputs. The demodulator bloc# diagram is shown in >ig. 4.@. The demodulator demodulates the "> signal and produces four data signal outputs ,( to ,@. The "> amplifier which contains an A&* loop reduce A "> signal level changes before applying to the detector. The detector consists of two balanced diode mixers and hybrid transformer. The hybrid transformer at the input splits the "> signal into two signals with no phase shifting between them.
46
47
48
The other hybrid transformer produces two signals with a .% % phase shift between them. The local fre0uency signal is fed to the two mixers via the hybrid transformer. The output of the detector the " channel and the H channel signals are amplified separately and applied to cosine roll off filters for spectrum shaping and to A/D converters. The A/D converters perform the threshold decision.
49
DEFINITION (ND DESC*I/TION OF DI)IT(& <IE*(*C<IES

,.A INT*OD'CTION (ND DEFINITION The term [digital hierarchy\ has been created when developing digital transmission systems. "t was laid down when by multiplexing a certain number of '*- primary multiplexers were combined to form digital multiplexers of higher order ;e.g. secondForder multiplex e0uipments<. *onse0uently a digital hierarchy comprises a number of levels. Each level is assigned a specific bit rate which is formed by multiplexing digital signals each having the bit rate of the next lower level. "n **"TT +ec. &./%$ the term [digital multiplex hierarchy\ is defined as follows : [A series of digital multiplexes graded according to capability so that multiplexing at one level combines a defined number of digital signals each having the digit rate prescribed for the next lower order into a digital signal having a prescribed digit rate which is then available for further combination with other digital signals of the same rate in a digital multiplex of the next higher order\. 2.A 6<E <IE*(*C<IES 9 $.( Before considering in detail the digital hierarchies under discussion we are going to recapitulate in brief why there are several digital hierarchies instead of one only. "t has always been pointed out that as far as the analogue >D- techni0ue is concerned the *.*.".T.T. recommends the world wide use of the ($Fchannel group ;secondary group<. +elevant *.*.".T.T. +ecommendation exists also for channel assemblies with more than 2% channels so that with certain exceptions there is only one worldFwide hierarchy for the >D- system ;although the term [hierarchy\ is not used in the >D- techni0ue<. "n the digital transmission techni0ue it was unfortunately not possible to draw up a worldFwide digital hierarchy. "n practice e0uipment as specified in *.*.".T.T. +ecommendation &./)$ and /)) they do not only differ completely in their bit rates but also in the frame structures in signalling frame alignment etc. 6eedless to say that as a conse0uence the higher order digital multiplexers derived from the two
$.$
50
different '*- primary multiplexers and thus the digital hierarchies differ as well. $.) ,ince these two '*- primary multiplexers are available two digital heirarchies only would have to be expected. "n reality however two digital hierarchies with several variants are under discussion because the choice of the fundamental parameters of a digital hierarchy depends not only on the '*- primary multiplex which forms the basic arrangement in that hierarchy but on many other factors such as : ;a< ;b< ;c< ;d< ;e< the bit rate of the principal signal sources. traffic demand networ# topology operational features flexibility of the networ#. time division and multiplexing plant re0uirements. compatibility with analog e0uipment. characteristics of the transmission media to be used at the bit rates for the various levels of the hierarchies.
,ince today these factors which are essential for forming digital hierarchies vary from country to country it is no wonder that we now have to consider more than two proposals for digital hierarchies. 3.A DI)IT(& <IE*(*C<IES 3(SED ON T<E ,;@@ C3ITJS /CM /*IM(*E M'&TI/&E- EB'I/MENT
"t was around (.21 that Bell labs. proposed a digital hierarchy based on the $@Fchannel '*- primary multiplex at the various levels of the hierarchy : &e+el in ierarc 2 >irst level ,econd level Third level >ourth level >ifth level 3it rate (4@@ #bit/s 2)($ #bit/s @2)%@ #bit/s $1%%%% #bit/s 421%%% #bit/s T( T$ 84 ;]umbo &rp< !T@ ;!ave guide< T4 Trans. line
This proposal was modified during the following years. At the end of the study period (.21//$ the following digital networ# hierarchy was finally proposed as given in >ig.(.
51
Fig. 1 'ncoded F*+ ,+aster $roup- .SA / %anada ).( >or the various bit rates at the higher levels of the two proposals different reasons have been indicated. The bit rate of @@/)2 #bit/s was selected to provide a flexibility point for circuit interconnection and because it was a suitable coding level for the 2%% channel >D- mastergroup. "t is also an appropriate bit rate for interFconnection to radioFrelay lin#s planned for use at various fre0uencies. At the same time 6.T.T. published its '*- hierarchy are concerned ;(44@ and 2(($ #bit/s respectively< these two proposals are identical. They differ however in the higher levels as shown in >ig.$.
).$ ).)
Fig. 2
52
Encoded TDM 7%a"anese8 ).@ "n the 6.T.T. proposal the bit rate of )$%2@ #bit/s at the third level of the proposed hierarchy might be considered a suitable bit rate to be used on international satellite lin#s perhaps for administrations operating different '*- primary multiplex e0uipments. "t is also a convenient bit rate for encoding the standardi7ed )%%Fchannel >D- mastergroup. Delta modulation and differential '*- for @ -37 visual telephone are also suitable for this bit rate. Transmission of )$%2@ #bit/s via a special symmetrical cable of new design is also possible. The above fact shows that the differing bit rates of the third level indicated in the two hierarchy proposals can therefore be =ustified by technical arguments. As far as the differing bit rates of the fourth level are concerned only a few technical reasons are included in the two proposal. "n both cases coaxial cables are used as a transmission medium so that the medium does not call for different bit rates. -oreover it seems that at present the specifications of the fourth level ;and higher ones< in the two proposed hierarchies is not yet considered so urgent. >or the time being the third level seems to be more important. The *.*.".T.T. faced with this situation has reached finally the solution which is covered by **"TT recommendation &./4$ as one can see from this recommendation two different hierarchical levels are existing in the third level of this hierarchy namely )$%2@ #bits/s and @@/)2 #bit/s respectively. 3igher level have not been specified so far. DI)IT(& <IE*(*C<E 3(SED ON T<E 2A@K C3ITJS /CM /*IM(*E M'&TI/&E- EB'I/MENT >or this digital hierarchy two specifications have at present been laid down only for the first level at $%@1 #bit/s and for the second level at 1@@1 #bit/s. As for the higher levels the situation is =ust contrary to that existing in the case of digital hierarchies derived from (4@@ #bit/s primary multiplex i.e. general agreement has more or less been reached on the fourth level having a bit rate of ().$2@ #bit/s. 4th order system where bit rate of 424 -b/s have also been planned now. @.( The critical point in this hierarchy is whether or not the third level at )@)21 #bit/s should exist.
).4
).2
)./
@.A
53
@.$
The *.*.".T.T. has agreed after long discussions on the following ;+ecommendation &./4(< [that there should be a @ th order bit rate of ().$2@ #bit/s in the digital hierarchy which is based on the $ nd order bit rate of 1@@1 #bit/s\. There should be two methods of achieving the @th order bit rate : Met od , by using a )rd order bit rate of )@)21 #bit/s in the digital hierarchy. Met od 2 by directly multiplexing sixteen digital signals at 1@@1 #bit/s. The digital signals at the bit rate of ().$2@ #bit/s obtained by these two methods should be identical. The existence of the above two methods implies that the use of the bit rate of )@)21 #bit/s should not be imposed on an Administration that does not wish to reali7e the corresponding e0uipment.
@.)
"n accordance with the above two methods the following reali7ations of digital multiplex e0uipments using positive =ustification are recommended : Met od , : +eali7ation by separate digital multiplex e0uipments : one type which operates at )@)21 #bit/s and multiplexes four digital signals at 1@@1 #bit/sA the other type which operates at ().$2@ #bit/s and multiplexes four digital signals at )@)21 #bit/s. Met od 2 : +eali7ation by a single digital multiplex e0uipment which operates at ().$2@ #bit/s and multiplexes sixteen digital signals at 1@@1 #bit/s. -ethod ( has been put into practice.
@.@
!here the fifth level is concerned some preliminary proposals ;e.g. 424(@1 #bit/s< have been submitted which were not discussed in detail. Therefore the present structure of this digital hierarchy is as given in >ig.).
,3H.2:@
54
Fig. 3 Encoded TDM 7Euro"ean8 4.% -ost of the administrations favour the specification of a third level at )@)21 #bit/s mainly as a suitable flexibility point for the operation of the networ# and as an ade0uate bit rate for digital line systems which are to be set up either on new cables ;screened symmetrical or microFcoaxial cables< or an radioF relay lin#s. ?ther administrations do not consider the specification of a third level to be advantageous for their networ#s. ?n the contrary they regard it to be more economical to go directly from the second level at 1@@1 #bit/s so the fourth level at ().$2@ #bit/s is also achieved by multiplexing four digital signals at )@)21 #bit/s each of which is obtained by multiplexing first four digital signals at 1@@1 #bit/s. 3owever this is a matter of internal multiplexing only i.e. digital multiplex e0uipment of this type has no external input or output at )@)21 #bit/s. All administrations interested in the third level at )@)21 #bit/s would thus be offered the possibility of using this level. Their digital multiplex e0uipment which multiplexes in the same way each of the four digital signals at 1@@1 #bit/s has to provide external outputs for the resulting signal at )@)21 #bit/s. The digital multiplex e0uipment which multiplexes each of the four digital signals at )@)21 #bit/s has to provide four inputs for these bit rates and one output for the resulting bit rate of ().$2@ #bit/s. 4.( Outloo? The above context indicates that at the moment the discussion of digital hierarchies is still underway and is mainly concentrated on the third and fourth levels. Although certain trends are evident the specification of these and higher levels will ta#e some time. "n the interest of a comprehensive specification of the digital hierarchies to be drawn up as soon as possible it is to be hoped that all parties concerned perform their studies with high priority. All digital multiplexes and hierarchies proposed till date are operating in an asynchronous mode ;positive =ustification [positive stuffing\ bitFinterleaved<. "t is li#ely that in the future synchronous digital multiplex e0uipment has to be considered when setting up digital hierarchies. >or various digital line systems being developed in many countries nonFhierarchical bit rates have provisionally been adopted with due regard to the characteristics of the
55
transmission media used. These nonFhierarchical bit rates for digital line systems have also to be born in mind when defining the digital hierarchies and may affect the hierarchical bit rates. :.A :., CCITT *ecommendations Second order digital multi"le# e!ui"ment o"erating at K@@K ?0itJs and using "ositi+e $ustification CCITT *ec. ) F@2. (. This $nd order digital multiplex e0uipment using positive =ustification is intended for use on digital paths using $%@1 #bit/s primary multiplex e0uipments. Bit rates : The nominal bit rate should be 1@@1 #bit/s. The tolerance on this rate should be B)% ''-. >rame ,tructure : Frame Structure >rame alignment word ;((((%(%%%%< Alarm to remote Tml 6ational use Bits from tributaries ]ustification *ontrol bits Bits from tributaries ]ustification *ontrol bits Bits from tributaries ]ustification *ontrol bits Bits for tributaries =ustification Bits from tributaries >rame 8ength bits/tributary @. available for 3it No. ( to (% (( ,et " ($ ,et " () to $($ ,et " ( to @ ,et "" 4 to $($ ,et "" ( to @ ,et """ 4 to $($ ,et """ ( to @ ,et "9 4 to 1 ,et "9 . to $($ ,et "9 1@1 bits $%2 bits
$. ).
&oss *eco+er2 of Frame alignment and conse!uent action.
56
8oss of frame alignment should be assumed to have ta#en place when four consecutive frame alignment signals have been incorrectly received in their predicted positions. !hen frame alignment is assumed to be lost the frame alignment device should decide that such alignment has effectively been recovered when it detects the presence of three consecutive frame alignment signals. The frame alignment device having detected the appearance of a single correct frame alignment signal should begin a new search for the frame alignment signal in one of the two following frames. ;. Multi"le#ing Met od *yclic bit interFleaving in the tributary numbering order and positive =ustification is recommended. 'ositive =ustification should be indicated by the signal ((( no =ustification by the signal %%%. -a=ority decision is recommended. :.2 T ird order digital multi"le# e!ui"ment o"erating at 3@3:K ?0itJs. ,. 3it rates 1 The nominal bit rate should be )@)21 #bit/s. The tolerance on the rate should be B $% ''2. Frame Structure 7Fig. ;8 3it No. ( to (% ,et " (( ,et " ($ ,et " () to )1@ ,et " ( to @ ,et "" 4 to )1@ ,et "" ( to @ ,et """ 4 to )1@ ,et """ ( to @ ,et "9 4 to 1 ,et "9 . to )1@ (4)2 bits Frame Structure >rame alignment word ;((((%(%%%%< Alarm to indication to the remote T-8 6ational use Bits from tributaries ]ustification *ontrol bits Bits from tributaries ]ustification *ontrol bits Bits from tributaries ]ustification *ontrol bits Bits for tributaries available for =ustification Bits from tributaries >rame length
57
bits/tributary 3. @.
)/1 bits
&oss and *eco+er2 of Frame alignment ,ame as the $nd order digital -CD system. Multi"le#ing Met od ,ame as the $nd order digital -CD system.
58
Fig. (
59
3&301 2b3s +ultiple4ing Frame Structure
60
:.3
Fourt order digital multi"le# e!ui"ment o"erating at ,3H2:@ ?0itJs. ,. 3it rates 1 The nominal bit rate should be ().$2@ #b/s. The tolerance on the rate should be B(4 ''2. Frame Structure Frame Structure 3it No. ( to ($ () ,et " (@ to (2 (/ to @11 ( to @ 4 to @11 ,et "" to 9 ( to @ 4 to 1 ,et 9" . to @11 $.$1 bits /$) bits
>rame alignment word ;(((((%(%%%%%< Alarm to indication to the remote digital -CD tml Bit reserved for 6ational use Bits from tributaries ]ustification ,ervice bits Bits from tributaries ]ustification *ontrol bits Bits for tributaries available for =ustification Bits from tributaries >rame length bits/tributary 3. &oss and *eco+er2 of Frame alignment
,ame as the $nd and )rd order digital -CD system. @. F.A /.( Multi"le#ing Met od ,ame as the $nd and )rd order digital -CD system. INTE*F(CES ,pecification for "nterfaces at $%@1 #b/s. (. &eneral characteristics : Bit rate *ode : : 3DB). $%@1 #b/s B 4% ''-
61
2.
S"ecification at Out"ut /ort /air7s8 in eac direction One Coa#ial /air /4 ohm ;rest.< $.)/ 9 %B%.$)/ 9 $@@ ns %..4 to (.%4 %..4 to (.%4 One S2mmetrical /air ($% ohm ;rest.< )9 %B%.) 9 $@@ns %..4 to (.%4 %..4 to (.%4
Test 8oad "mpedance 6ominal pea# voltage of a mar# ;pulse< 'ea# voltage of a space ;no pulse< 6ominal pulse width +atio of amplitude of Bve and ve pulses at the centre of pulse interval +atio of widths of Bve and ve pulses at the nominal half amplitude 3. S"ecification at IJ/ /orts
The digital signal presented at the i/p port shall be modified by the characteristics of the interconnecting pair. The attenuation of this pair shall be assumed to follow f law and the loss at a fre0uency of (%$@ I37 shall be in the range of % to 2 dB. This attenuation should ta#e into account any losses incurred by the presence of a digital distribution frame between the e0uipments. The input port shall be able to tolerate a digital signal with these electrical characteristics but modulated by sinusoidal =itter. F.2 ,. S"ecification for Interfaces at K@@K ?0Js )eneral C aracteristics 1 Bit rate : 1@@1 #b/s B )% ppm *ode : 3DB) 2. S"ecification at oJ" /ort 1 One Coa#ial /air /4 ohm ;rest.< $.)/ 9 % B %.$)/ 9 4. ns %..4 to (.%4 /air7s8 in eac direction Test 8oad "mpedance 6ominal pea# voltage of a mar# ;pulse< 'ea# voltage of a space ;no pulse< 6ominal pulse width +atio of amplitude of Bve and ve pulses at the centre of pulse interval
62
+atio of widths of Bve and ve pulses at the nominal half amplitude 3. S"ecification at IJ/ /orts
%..4 to (.%4
The digital signal presented at the i/p port shall be modified by the characteristics of the interconnecting cable. The attenuation of this cable shall be assumed to follow a f law and a loss at a fre0uency of @$$@ I37 shall be in the range of % to 2 dB. This attenuation should ta#e into account only losses incurred by the presence of a digital distribution frame between the e0uipments. The i/p port shall be able to tolerate digital signal with these electrical characteristics but modulated by sinusoidal =itter. F.3 ,. Interface at 3@3:K ?0Js )eneral C aracteristics Bit rate : )@)2 #b/s B $% ppm *ode : 3DB). 2. S"ecification at oJ" /ort /air7s8 in eac direction Test 8oad "mpedance 6ominal pea# voltage of a mar# ;pulse< 'ea# voltage of a space ;no pulse< 6ominal pulse width +atio of amplitude of Bve and ve pulses at the centre of pulse interval +atio of widths of Bve and ve pulses at the nominal half amplitude 3. S"ecification at IJ/ /orts One Coa#ial /air /4 ohm ;rest.< (.% 9 % B %.(9 (@.44 %..4 to (.%4 %..4 to (.%4
The digital signal presented at the i/p port shall be modified by the characteristics of the interconnecting cable. The attenuation of this pair shall be assumed to follow f law and the loss at a fre0uency of (/(1@ I37 shall be in the range of % to ($ dB.
63
The i/p port shall be also to tolerate a digital signal with these electrical characteristics but modulated by sinusoidal =itter.
F.@ ,.
Interface at ,3H2:@ ?0Js )eneral c aracteristics Bit rate : ().$2@ #b/s B (4 ppm *ode : *-"
2.
S"ecification at oJ" /ort /air7s8 in eac direction One Coa#ial /air /4 ohm ;rest.< ( B %.( 9 ^ $ ns _ (4 dB for / -37 to $(% -37
Test 8oad "mpedance p#. to p#. voltage +ise time between (%M and .%M amplitude of measured amplitude +eturn loss 3. S"ecification at IJ/ /orts
The digital signal presented at the i/p port shall be modified by the characteristics of the interconnecting coaxial pair shall be assumed to follow `f law and have a maximum insertion loss of ($ dB at fre0uency of /% -37. The +eturn loss characteristic should be same as o/p port. The input port should be able to tolerate a digital signal with these electrical characteristics but modulated by sinusoidal =itter.
64
DI)IT(& M'&TI/&E-IN) CONCE/TS, SI)N(& %'STIFIC(TION & CONT*O& (ND %ITTE* ,. INT*OD'CTION The functions of digital multiplex e0uipment are to combine a defined integral number of digital input signals ;called tributaries< at a defined digit rate by time division multiplexing and also to carry out the reverse process ;demultiplexing<. "n analogue system multiplex e0uipment uses >.D.-. to assemble individual channels into groups super group etc. ,imilarly in digital systems hierarchical levels have been defined using T.D.-. and are identified by their digit rate measured in bit/sec. 3it rate M0itJsec. $.%@1 1.@@1 )@.)21 ()..$2@ M'&TI/&E-IN) OF DI)IT(& SI)N(&S No. of c annels )% ($% @1% (.$%
2.A
The digital signals which are to be multiplexed may be synchronous to one cloc# ;called master cloc#< or they may not be synchronous ;called asynchronous signals<. 3.A M'&TI/&E-IN) OF SENC<*ONO'S DI)IT(& SI)N(&S The various tributary bit streams are synchronous and operate at the same rate defined as T bit/sec. To multiplex SnP such tributaries the rate of multiplex output should be nT bit/s. The method adopted for multiplexing such n signals into one stream may be as follows : 7i8 3loc? interlea+ing 1 Bunch of information ta#en at a time from each tributary and fed to main multiplex output stream. The memory re0uired will be very large. 7ii8 3it interlea+ing 1 A bit of information ta#en at time from each tributary and fed to main multiplex output stream in cyclic order a very small memory is re0uired. At the demultiplex end it is necessary to recognise which bit of information belongs to which tributary. This could be achieved by transmitting a fixed code after a fixed number of information bits called [frame\. The fixed code is called frame alignment signal. "t is recognised first and received frame of information is aligned to this fixed code.
65
This method of multiplexing is easy but not reliable. "f any deviation in nominal bit rate of a tributary occurs it will cause loss of time slot and hence loss of information.
66
@.A
M'&TI/&E-IN) OF (SENC<*ONO'S SI)N(& 3ere various tributaries operate at different bit rates.
Two signals are asynchronous at their corresponding significant instant occur at nominally the same rate any variation in rate being constrained within specified limits. !hen nominal bit rate of tributaries are within specified limit. "t is necessary to synchroni7e the tributary signal with a common nominal bit rate of multiplexer derived from timing generator of multiplexer. The synchroni7ation is done in such a way that there is no loss of information. The process adopted for such synchroni7ation is called ['ulse stuffing\ or =ustification. ]ustification is a process of changing the rate of digital signals in a controlled manner. There are three types of =ustification processes : 7a8 /ositi+e $ustification 1 *ommon synchroni7ation bit rate offered at each tributary is higher than the bit rate of individual tributary. 708 /ositi+eDnegati+e $ustification 1 *ommon synchroni7ation bit rate offers is e0ual to the nominal value. 7c8 Negati+e $ustification 1 *ommon synchroni7ation bit rate offered is less than the nominal value. >ig. (;a< shows a configuration where the outputs of two '*- transmitters ANB are to be multiplexed in the combiner. "f A and B are synchronous they can be easily multiplexed by the combiner as shown in >ig. (;b<. &enerally however ANB are cloc#ed by separate cloc# sources of asynchronous. "n this case multiplexing is not successively accomplished simply by the use of combiner owing to the occurrence of pulse phase fluctuations and/or pulse amplitude superposition as can be seen in >ig.(;c<. ;.A *ETIMIN) (SENC<*ONO'S SI)N(&S 3E %'STIFIC(TION >igure $ shows a system for explaining the principle of the multiplexer for successfully multiplexing plural asynchronous signals. The waveforms appearing at various points in >ig.$ are shown in >ig.). An asynch. input pulse train A is written into -E- " comprising several elements. The writing pulse train * whose bit rate is f is extracted from A at a cloc# extraction ;*8I EDT "<. ?n the other hand the written information is read out of -E- " with a sufficient phase lag with respect to time of writing in. Through an inhibit gate ;"63 &ATE "< the reading pulse train D is obtained by dividing the output bit rate nf ;(B a< of a common cloc# generator ;*8I &E6< at a bit rate divider ;D"9 (<. n F no. of asynch. signals to be multiplexed.
67
cloc# increase rate.
68
As the bit rate of the reading pulse train D is set at ;fB a f< which is higher than any value of f the time of read out ;D< gradually approaches that of write in b. The phase difference between *ND is monitored by a phase comparator of *?-' " and =ust before the difference reaches 7ero a pulse is applied to the inhibit input of "63 &ATE " from a control circuit ;*?6T "< to inhibit the gate. At this moment with one bit of the reading pulse train D being removed the reading operation pauses and an information less pulse ;or =ustification pulse< is inserted into the read out pulse train E. the time of read out ;D< at the same time is again set to a sufficient lag with respect to time write in ;&<. As all the signals read out of the respective memories are now retimed by timing pulses derived from the common *8I &E6 they are now easily multiplexed as > in >ig.) at the combiner ;*?-B<. The information pulses inserted into E ;those hatched in >ig. )< and this sort of retiming method are respectively called [=ustification pulses\ and [=ustification\. The information whether or not =ustification has been performed is inserted into > and *?-B and transmitted to the receiving side. :.A *ECO>E*IN) O*I)IN(& SI)N(&S 3E DE%'STIFIC(TION The =ustification pulses have to be removed at the receiving side to perfectly recover the original signals. This operation is called [de=ustification\. The transmitted pulse train > from the line is received and demultiplexed at distributor ;D",T<. ?ne of the demultiplexed signal E that corresponds to A is written into memory -E- $. The writing pulse train & whose bit rate is ais obtained through an ingibit grate ;"63 &ATE $< by dividing the output bit rate nf;(B a f< of cloc# extractor ;*8I EDT$<. ?n the other hand the written information is read out of -E$ with a slight phase lag with respect to the time of write in. The reading pulse train 3 whose bit rate is f is applied from voltage controlled oscillator ;9*?<. As the bit rate of the reading pulse train 3 is lower than that of the writing pulse train & the time of read out ;3< gradually drifts away from that of write in ;&<. ]ust before a =ustification pulse in E ;?6E of these hatched in >ig.)< is written into -E- $ the information telling that the =ustification has been performed is applied from D",T to a control circuit ;*?6T $<. Then a pulse is applied to the inhibiting input of "63 &ATE $ from *?6T $ to inhibit the gate.
69
At this moment with one bit of the writing pulse train & being removed the writing operation pauses and the =ustification pulse is removed or de=ustified. At the same time the time of read out ;3< again set to be very close to the time of write in ;&<. As the reading operation does not pause the original signal is recovered as SAP. The phase difference between & and 3 is monitored by a phase comparator ;*?-' $< and the low fre0uency components of the output voltage of *?-' $ are applied to 9*? through a low pass filter ;8'><. Thus the =itter introduced due to de=ustification into the read out pulse train SAP is sufficiently suppressed. The loop formed by 9*? *?-' and 8'> is called a ['hase controlled loop\. >igure @ gives the frame structure for )@ -bits/sec system. F.A %'STIFIC(TION CONT*O& SI)N(& ]ustification control signal indicates at demultiplexer the presence of =ustifiable bit in the frame. To avoid errors present in the =ustification control bit more than one bit is transmitted as control bit and ma=ority decision is ta#en at demultiplexer. 6ormally ) or 4 bits ;) bits in case of 1 and )@ -bits systems and 4 bits in (@%- bits system< are transmitted per tributary per frame as =ustification control bits and $ or ) bits present at demultiplexer out of ) or 4 bits transmitted are ta#en as ma=ority decision and it is assumed that =ustifiable bit is present in the frame. These ) or 4 bits of =ustification control bits per tributary per frame are distributed in the frame. Two or three digital errors are re0uired to cause false information of =ustification ;loss of one digit or addition of one digit< which results in a loss of frame alignment in lower hierarchical levels. K.A <(*D6(*E *E(&IL(TION OF DI)IT(& M'&TI/&E- SESTEM
,ystem are reali7ed by digital circuits using TT8 and E*8 "*s. The typical gate delays and toggling speeds of the different series of "*s are given below :
/ro"agation 7t2"ical8 8, series TT8 , series TT8 (% %%% E*8 series (4 ns 4 ns ) ns
dela2s Toggling 7t2"ical8 $4 -37 /4 -37 $%% -37
s"eed
70
As is is evident from the above rates that 8, series is suitable only till 1 -37 system where as , series is suitable for )@ -37 system and (% %%% series is being used for (@% -37 system. H.A T*(NSMIT T*I3'T(*E The information from tributary is written in an elastic memory with tributary cloc# derived from incoming signal. Elastic memory is read out by a cloc# which is faster than the cloc# of its own. +eading cloc# is derived from common transmit cloc# ;*ommon synchroni7ation cloc#<. The reading cloc# is of rate >$/n ;where n is the no. of tributaries and >$ is output fre0uency of multiplexer for ex. )@ )21/@ for )@- bit system< with gaps where non information bit occurs in the frame structure ;i.e. for frame alignment signal and =ustification control bit service digits<. ,ince read cloc# always operates faster than write cloc# it is re0uired to stop read cloc# for a bit and insert nonFinformation bitF=ustification bit. The information which read out from memory contains information bit =ustification control bit and =ustifiable bit. The decision when to insert the =ustifiable bit is ta#en when linearly increasing phase difference crosses a threshold level. The threshold value is selected in such a way that average rate of read cloc# is e0ual to the write cloc# rate. "n the demultiplexer the cloc# timing of the input multiplex signal enables a control on the timing of operations. The detection of frame alignment signals enables the receive frame to be aligned with the transmit frame which enables the receiver to demultiplex the tributary information. This tributary information is written in elastic memory as in transmit tributary by the cloc# derived from receive cloc#. A phase loc#ed oscillator is used to read the elastic memory with a timing rate e0ual to the average write cloc# and therefore e0ual to that of the corresponding tributary signal at the input of the multiplexer. ,A.A %ITTE* (S/ECT OF M'&TI/&E- EB'I/MENT !hile considering the =itter aspect of the multiplex system different types of =itter introduced in the systems are ta#en into account such as : ;a< ;b< ;c< ]itter introduced due to the routine insertion of the frame alignment words and of the service digits and =ustification instructions. ]ustification =itter. !aiting time =itter.
71
The first two =itter components are at high fre0uencies in relation to the pass band of the '.8.8. and hence filtered out whereas waiting time =itter which is due to phase difference between write and read cloc# and varies from frame to frame has a low fre0uency component and cannot be =ittered out by '.8.8. at the demultiplexer output. ,,.A &INE INTE*F(CE The output of multiplexer is purely a unipolar digital signal having D.*. voltage. 6ormally cable are balanced having no D* component or minimum D* to avoid cross tal#. Any code such as A-" 3DB) *-" can be chosen which are bipolar in nature. These line codes are selected in such a way that : (. Timing signal at the receiver could be extracted easily hence it should contain enough timing information. Timing signal extraction circuit has limitations because of the [H factor\ of the coil used in the circuit. 3igher the H of coil the costlier it is. The bandwidth of the signal is #ept small. The energy in the upper part of the fre0uency spectrum should be small in order to avoid attenuation distortion caused by high transmission loss at higher fre0uency. The energy in the lower part of the fre0uency spectrum should also be #ept small in order to reduce the interference from voice fre0uency circuit in the same cable and viceFversa. "t should have no D* component which could be obtained by selecting a code having minimum digital sum variation.
$.
).
@.
The output of $ 1 and )@ -Bit systems is in 3DB) code. +ules followed for 3DB) line code are as follows : ;i< Every se0uence of four consecutive 7eros is replaced by either %%%9 or B%%9 where B is a normal bipolar mar# and 9 is a mar# violating the A-" se0uence. ,e0uence %%%9 or B%%9 is used such that the number of bipolar pulses between successive violation pulse is odd. This ensures that violation pulses form their own bipolar se0uence. The output of (@% -Bit system is in *-" code where the coding rule is as follows :
;ii<
72
3inar2 element ( % %% W (( W %(
CMI code transmitted alternately
0)$
FIG. 1 (a)
/en A 6 B are &1n./ronous
FIG. 1 (b)
FIG. 1 ( c )
Fig. 1
73
Fig. 2 System for +ultiple4ing / *emultiple4ing Asynchronous Signals
ME M
74
Fig. 3 5aveforms at )espective Points
75
!"# $I%S
FIG. &
76
&INE CODES
,.A INT*OD'CTION
(.( The digital output of a '*- e0uipment contains V(s and 5?5s. >or transmission of the digital signals between two points the 5(5 s and 5?5 s contained by the signal are transmitted in the form of pulses as shown in >ig. (.
>ig. (. 'ulse representation of digital signals The transmission medium normally used for transmitting '*- signals is the 9> cable pair. "f the stream of pulses shown in >ig. (. is transmitted as it is the signal undergoes high fre0uency attenuation distortion and also suffers from other #inds of distortion such as cross tal# etc. This is because of the electrical characteristics of the 9> pair. -oreover the .signal passed through the cable pair has strong D* content. This is because of the characteristics of the signal and those of the medium do not match. (.$ >or distortion free transmission the '*- output should be converted into a suitable code which will match the characteristics of the medium. This code is called the Vline codeV and the signal converted to the line code is called a line signal. This handout briefly describes the basic re0uirements of a line code the different types of line codes and the operation of an 3DB) code decoder. 2.A *EB'I*EMENTS OF ( &INE CODE. $.( The line code used for transmission of '*- signals should meet the following re0uirements. ;i< The total band width of the signal should be as small as possible. ;ii< The energy in the upper part of the signal spectrum should be small so that the attenuation distortion caused by the high transmission losses at high fre0uencies is very low. The energy in the lower part of the spectrum should also be low to reduce the interference ;cross tal#< from 9> circuits in the same cable. This would minimi7e interference from the '*- signals to the other 9> circuits as well. ;"t may be recalled that a narrow pulse has. a wide fre0uency spectrum the energy distribution i.e. the levels of the various fre0uency components of the spectrum should be such that the
77
ma=or chun# of the signal power is around the centre of the spectrum. The fre0uency components in the lower and higher limits of the spectrum should have low levels<. ;iii< There should not be any D* comonent in the line coded sinal ;line signal< so that transformers can be used for coupling purposes. ;iv< The line code should permit easier designs of repeaters. ;v< The line code should contain ade0uate timing information since this is vital for regenerating the signals at repeater stations and at the receiving station for the purpose of synchroni7ation. ;vi< The line code must have an inFbuilt error monitoring capability. $.$ ,ince the invention of '*- by A.-. +eeves in (.)1 a number of line5 codes has been designed. A few of them will be discussed in the following paragraphs. 3.A N*L 3IN(*E CODE. ).( 6+G stands for V6onFreturn to GeroV code. ;i< ,uppose we have a code (%%(((%((%%( "n 'ulse form this would appear as in >ig. $.
. 3ere it may be seen that whenever a5 (5 is continuously transmitted the output continues at 59 level for a duration e0ual to the number of bits transmitted. "n a)% chl. '*- system the bit duration is %.@11 micro second. "f three 5( 5 ( s are transmitted the output signal is a pulse which is )x%.@11 micro seconds wide.
78
;ii< "n the example the signal has only one polarity. A 5? ( is ? volt and a 5 ( 5 is positive ;sayFfF4v<. ,ometimes however a 5 ( 5 is denoted by a positive voltage and V?( is denoted by a negative voltage. A pulse stream (% %.((%(((%%( in such a case can be represented graphically as in >ig.).
FIG.! $I'()*+ ,+- SIG,*)
3ere also when there is a string ofM (5 s to be transmitted the output continues at L (5 for as many bits as are continuously transmitted. "n both cases the output does not return to 7ero after every 59 bit when a number of (5s are transmitted.F for this reason this type of code is called a non return to 7ero or V6+GV binary. !hen the signal has only one polarity as in the first example the code is called unipolar or unbalanced 6+G binary and when the signal has dual polarity as in the second example it is called a balanced 6+G binary or bipolar 6+G. ).$ 8imitation of 6+G Binary *ode. >ig @. ,hows the spectrum of an 6+G binary signal. ;i< >rom the spectrum for the 6+G signal it can be seen that there is a strong D* component.
;ii< tal#. ;iii<
There is a large low fre0uency content. This may result in cross There is no fre0uency component at (/T $/T etc. "t means that there is no component corresponding to the cloc# fre0uency. This ma#es efficient recovery of timing pulses very difficult.
79
;iv< ;v<
The high D* component does not permit the use of transformers for coupling. Thus the simple 6+G binary code does not satisfy the re0uirements of a line code.
@.A *L 3IN(*E @.( This is a modification of the 6+G code and stands for V+eturn to 7eroV binary. "n this 5(5 bit is represented by a pulse of half the bit duration as shown in >ig. 4 ;b< The spectrum for this code is shown in >ig. 4 ;c<.
>"&. 4. +G B"6A+Q F !A9E>?+- N ,'E*T+C@.$ 3ere the 5(5 bits pulse have only 4%M duration. >rom the spectrum we can seen that there is a strong component at (/T the cloc# fre0uency. 3ence cloc# recovery is possible. But still because of the strong D*.component and low fre0uency content this code is also not suitable for transmission.
B+B+A"TT]abalpur issued in 6ov. $%%1
80
;.A 3I/O&(* CODIN) 7(MI CODE8. 4.( A-" stands for VAlternate -ar# "nversionV This code solves the D* content problem . 3ere a logic 5?5 is represented by o volt and logic 5(5 is alternately encoded with positive N negative voltages. Therefore the average voltage is maintained very close to 7ero and hence there is no D* component. Cnder steady state conditions a low D* of the order of %.@ to %.. volts only remains. The waveform for an A-" code is shown in >ig. 2.
>"&. 2. A-" *?DE. ,"&6A8 !A9E>?+4.$.( >rom the A-" wave form is can be seen that this code has a built in error monitoring facility. ,ince alternate mar#s ;or L(5s< are to be inverted any deviation from this would mean an error. This can be practically achieved by having a comparator networ# which will chec# the polarity of the 5 (5 s received. The spectrum of an A-" code signal ;after doing >ourier analysis and plotting the various fre0uency components of the signal< has a shape as shown in >ig. /.
>"&. /. ,'E*T+C- ?> A-" ,"&6A8 ;ii< >rom the spectrum >or the A-" code it can be seen that the maximum power is centred around the half bit rate i.e. (/$T and that there is no D* component. 81
;iii< Although the A-" code satisfies most of the line code re0uirements a series of L?5s is encountered the timing information is li#ely to be lost. This is a limitation of the A-" code. ;iv< 4.) The A-" code is the one specified for $@ channel '*- systems. &eneration of A-" code. >ig. 1. shows the bloc# schematic of the networ# used to generate the A-" code.
;A<
The serial '*- output in +G binary form is fed to the flioflop toggle point and to the gates &( and &$ as show ;ii< *ricuit operation >irst ma#e arrives Cnder this condition the flip flop is set and H goes 3"&3. *onse0uently &l output goes 3"&3 which triggers the positive generator. The output of this generator is a positive pluse. The wave forms for this condition are shown in section " of >ig. ..
;i<
>"&. .. A-" &E6E+AT"?6 F !A9E>?+-, >?+ >"&.4
82
;B<
The next mar# arrives

This pulse will reset the flip flop. 3ence H goes 3"&3. &$ will be also 3"&3 and it triggers the Fve generator whose output is a negative pulse as shown in section "".
;*<
Two continuous S( 5 s arrive

Cnder this condition the flip flop is ,et by the first bit and +eset by the second. Therefore &( goes 3"&3 first to generate a positive pulse and &$ goes 3"&3 next to generate a negative pulse as shown in section """. The adder networ# combines the outputs of negative and positive pulse generators to give the A-" output. These various wave forms are shown in >ig. .. from ;a< to ;h<.
:.A <D33 CODE 2.( To overcome the timing difficulties in the A-" code another code called the 3DB) code has been devised. The abbreviation 3DB stands for 3"&3F DE6,"TQ B"'8?A+ code. 2.$ ;i< The 3DB) code is actually a code from a family of codes derived from what is called binary 6 7ero substitution or B6G, method. ;ii< "n this method the '*- signal is usually transmitted according to the A-" codeA but when a string of 6 7eroes is encountered the 6 7eroes are replaced by a special code which will deliberately introduce a bipolar deviation or violation. ;6ormally in the A-" code if there are 6 7eroes they will be transmitted as such. But in the B6G, method a 5 ( 5 pulse is introduced deliberately. The polarity of this V ( 5 depends upon the polarity of the previous mar# encountered. This additional5 ( 5 pulse introduced in place of a 5%5 is called a VviolationV<. ;iii< !hen the substitution of a 7ero by a violation pulse is done for @ 7eroes ;i.e. 6 E @< the B6G, code is called the B@G, code. ,ince this code precludes strings of 7eroes greater than three it is also referred to as a 3DB) code. 3ere when the number of 7eroes is more than ) the fourth bit position is filled with a violation pulse. ;iv< *onsecutive violations are made to be of opposite polarity so that these violations themselves donot produce any D* component. ;v< The violation pulse is always placed in the last bit position. ,uppose there are @ 7eroes coming in a row. Then the 3DB) code for this would be B??9 in general where 9 is the violation pulse. The polarity of this depends on the polarity of the last 5(5 and the number of M(5Vencountered prior to the four 7eroes. ;vi< The first bit of the code was shown as B in ;v< above. B is set to 5%5 if the number of 5(5 s encountered prior to the violation is ?DD. "f it is E9E6 or GE+? then the VBV bit is filled with a T whose polarity is in accordance with the A-" code. i.e. if the previous 5 (5 was positive B then B is 5(5 with negative polarity and vice versa. ;vii< The substitution rules stated above are summari7ed in table (.
83
Ta0le ,. <D33 Code D Su0stitution *ules 6umber of 5 ( 5 since last 9iolation 'olarity of preceding ?dd 5(5 6egative %%% 9V 'ositive %%% 9 B Even BB??9B BV %% 9
>rom the above Table it can be seen that when the number of Ts is even the 3DB) substitution is B??9A in this B follows the A-" code and 9 follows B. "f 5B5 is positive then 9 is also a positive pulse. Thus consecutive violations are made to be of opposite polarity so that there is no D* component added by the violations themselves. 2.) Examples of 3DB) *ode *onversion *ondition (.
2.).(. ;6umber of5 ( 5s preceding violation is ?DD.< *onsider the 6+G binary wave form given in >ig (% ;a<. Assume that there is no previous violation.
X6? of ( E ?DDY >ig (% ;b< is the +G binary form for >ig (% ;a<. >ig (% ;c< is the corresponding 3DB) *ode. ;i< 6otice that upto pulse G the 3DB) *ode follows the A-" *ode. ;ii< After pulse G we have four consecutive 7eroes. This calls for a violation. ;iii< 'rior to the arrival of these 7eroes three S(5 s were encountered i.e. number of S( 5s preceding the violation is ?DD.
84
;iv< This means that the 3DB) substitution for the @ 7eroes will be of the form %%%9. ;v< Also the polarity of the last 5 ( 5 before the arrival of the 7eroes is positive. Therefore the violation pulse will also be a positive pulse as shown shaded in >ig (% ;c<. ;vi< Then the fourth pulse ' arrives which is converted according to A-" code as shown. E-1 Draw the 3DB) code with the first pulse in >ig (% ;c< as a negative pulse. 2.).$ Example (. ;b< *onsider the +G binary wave form shown in >ig (( ;a<. "n this the first pulse is a violation pulse resulting from the occurrence of @ 7eroes =ust before pulse D.
;i<
3ere the first pulse is positive violation pulse. The next pulse ;i.e. pulse D< is converted in accordance with A-" code and is therefore shown as a negative pulse in >ig (( ;b<. ;ii< After pulse D we get @ Geroes. ;iii< 6ow the total number of 5(5s ,"6*E the last violation is one i.e. ?DD. Therefore the substitution is of the form %%%9. ;iv< As the polarity of the last -5 before the arrival of 7eroes is negative the violation pulse is also negative which is shown as a shaded pulse. ;9F<. 2.).) Example ( ;c< *onsider the +G wave form shown in fig ($ ;a< assume that there was no previous violation.
>"&. ($. EDA-'8E ?> 3DB) *?DE X(;c<Y
85
;i<
3ere after pulse D we have @ 7eroes and again after pulse Q @ more 7eroes.
;ii< The first pulse goes as a positive pulse. The next four 7eroes are substituted by %%% 9 because the polarity of the last 5(5 is positive and the total number is ?DD. ;iii< Then pulse is converted into a negative pulse according to A-" code.
;iv< The next @ 7eroes are substituted by %%%9 since in this case the total number of 5(5 s is again ?DD and the polarity of the last 5(5 is negative. 2.).@ *ondition $ :6umber of T E9E6 consider the +G binary shown in >ig.() ;a< and assume that there was no previous violation.
;i< "n this case the pluses D and Q are converted according to A-" *ode as shown in >ig () ;b<. ;ii< >our 7eroes are encountered after pulse Q. 3ere the number of5 ( 5s prior to these 7eroes is E9E6 and therefore the substitution is of the form B??9. ;iii< ,ince the last V(5 is a negative pulse from Table ( the substitution B??9. ;iv< The 3DB) substitution for the @ 7eroes is shown in >ig () ;b< as shaded positive pulses. ;v< The next pulse G is converted as a negative pulse in accordance with A-" code. 2.).4 Example $ ;b< *onsider the +G wave form shown in >ig (@ ;a<. Assume there was no previous violation.
>ig (@. 3DB *?DE *?69E+,"?6 ;eg $b<
86
;i<
"n this case the wave form begin with @ 7eroes. There are no previous violations. The number of V(5s preceding the string of V%V is 7ero i.e. E9E6.
;ii<
Therefore The substitution is of the form boov.
;iii< The ;A-"< coding networ# is so designed that the very first bit is always a positive pulse. 3ence the 3BD) code for >ig (@ ;a< would be %% 9 which is as shown in >ig (@ ;b<. ;iv< The following V (5s D Q and $ are converted according to A-" code.
:.3.: E#am"le 2 7C8 *onsider the +G wave from in >ig (4 ;a<. Assume a positive violation pulse to start with.
>ig. (4 3DB$ code conversion Xeg. $ ;c< ;i< 3ere as shown in >ig (4 ;b< a positive violation pulse is assumed. Then we have pulses D and Q which are converted according to A-" code. ;ii< After pulse Q we get @ 7eroes. Theses should be substituted by B??9 since the number of5 ( 5s is E9E6. ;iii< >urther since the polarity of the last 5 ( 5 is positive the code would be B %%9. This is shown as shaded pulsed in >ig (4 ;b<. Then pulse G is converted according to A-" code. :.3.F E#am"le 2 7d8 *onsider the +G !ave form in >ig (2 ;a<
87
;i< ;ii< ;iii<
3ere after pulses D and Q we get eight consecutive 7eroes. D and Q follow A-" code. 6umber of T s is Even in this case.
The first four 7eroes are substituted by B %% 9 since the last5 (5 was negative. ;iv< After the first @ 7eroes we have another @ 7eroes coming number of5 (5 in this case 7ero i.e. E9E6 again. ;v< 3ence the second set of 7eroes is also converted as B??9. But the polarity of the last 5(5 ;although it was a violation pulse< was positive.3ence the second set of 7eroes is converted as B %% 9
;vi< ;vii< 2.@
'ulse G then follows A-" code The substitution pulses are shown in shaded areas in >ig (2 ;b<. But for the insertion of violation pulses the 3DB$ coding is similar to the A-" code. The spectrum for the 3DB) code is shown in >ig. (/
>rom the spectrum it can be seen that there is no D* component and that maximum power is around %.@2/T. "t means that the power in the lower and upper limits of the spectrum is low. This would minimi7e high fre0uency alternation and cross tal#. Although this spectrum also has mulls at (/T$/T etc because of the violation pulse introduced timing is not lost when a long
88
string of 7eroes is encountered. The 3DB) code satisfies ad the re0uirements of a line code and is therefore specified by the ***TT for )% channel '*systems having $%@1 #bits/sec cloc#. F.A <D33 CODE* & DECODE* >ig. (1 shows a simplified bloc# schematic of an 3DB) *?DE+ 3ere the encoder output is passed to the A-" circuit through a A bit shift register. The shift register output is also fed to a c@ GE+? DETE*T?+5. 6ormally the 3DB) *?DE+ >C6*T"?6, as an A-" code generator. !hen @ or more L?5s come they are detected and an output goes to the violation command circuit during this operation the % detector is inhibited for @ cloc# periods. The mar# counter gives a 5 ( 5 when even number of mar#s are encountered. !hen ?DD 5 ( 5 are encountered the A6D gate ?/' is 7ero. The pulse from the violation command circuit is added to A-" output. !hen even L ( 5 s are encountered the A6D gate output ,ET, the first stage of the shift register. This goes to the A-" circuit and gets coded according to A-" law. The violation pulse is then added after a delay of $ bits. After the violation pulse is added the inhibit circuit and more counter are cleared.
89
F.2 <D33 DECODE* The 3DB) code must be decoded into +G binaryform at there receiving end for detecting the analog signal. The 3DB) decoder used for this purpose has the following function. ;a< Detect an A-" violation ;b< *ount the number of 7eros preceding the violation This is done to determine if the last received mar# is 3BD substitution or an error. >ig. (. shows a simplified bloc# schematic of an 3DB) decoder.
3ere the +G converter converts all negative pulse into positive pulses. These are then fed to a four bit shift register. !hen there is no violation. ;i.e. when there are no continuous 7eroes present< the shift register gives a serial output which is +G binary form. ,imultaneously The A-" violation detector chec#s for a deviation from the A-" code. "f alternate 6(5s are not having opposite polarity then it gives an output which will reset all the four bits of the shift register to 7ero. ;This is done because at the transmitting end when a number of 7eroes are faced the 9 bit in B??9 code was inserted with a polarity opposite to that of the previous mar# By resetting the shift register we are converting the B??9 code bac# to %%%%. This is what is desired<. The output of the shift register is a serial +G digital signal with the 3DB) code substitutions removed. This +G signal is the same as the TD- multiplexed output of the '*- e0uipment and this can be further processed through '*decoder to retrieve the analog signal. !aveforms Typical 3DB code/decoder wave forms are shown in >ig.$%.
90
91
K.A CMI CODE 7CODED M(*C IN>E*SION8 1.( This is a $ level 6+G code in which a binary 5%5 is coded as 5%(5 and binary S(5s are coded alternatively as a logic 5%5 or T. "n case of a binary 5%5 the two *-" bits 5%5 and 5(5 are for half cloc# duration whereas for binary Ts the 5? ( and 5(5 are for full cloc# duration. This is illustrates in >ig.$(.
This is basically a binary code and the bit rate of the code is twice the bipolar A-" code. >or this reason *-" code is grouped with (B$B family of line codes. The *-" code has a high cloc# content and for this reason. The *-" code is recommended by **"TT for (@% -b/s multiplex e0uipment ;not a line code<. H.A @3D3T CODE ..( This is a redundant ternary line code. "n this code bloc#s of >?C+ binary input digits are translated into cords of three ternary digits. The code has following features. +eduction of line fre0uency by $4M compared to A-" signals. 'rovides possibility of "nservice -onitoring of BE+ by monitoring +D, *ode efficiency is a high as 1@M +apid bloc# synchroni7ation
;+unning Digit sound<
This code is used in line systems of )@ -b/s and (@% -b/s capacity.
92
..$ AB) T code combination %%%% F B % F %%%( F F B % %%(% F % F B %%(( F B F % %(%% F B B % %(%( F % B B %((% F B % B %((( F B B B (%%% F B B F (%%( F F B B (%(% F B F B (%(( F B % % ((%% F % B % ((%( F % % B (((% F % B F (((( F F % F A Bit binary ) Bit Ternary ?ther Ternary combinations are also possible. The Exact combination 9aries for manufacturer to manufacturer. ,A.A 3IN(*E CODES (%.( There are $ level binary codes for used in optical line transmission. These are called alphabetical codes these have the form $6F(< B$6B where 6 is an integer. ,ome of the codes are : (B$Bcode;n E (< )B @B code ;n E $< 4B 2B code ;n E )< ,,.A COM/(*ISON OF &INE CODES 'arameter 8evels +edundancy 6ormali7ed timing constant 6ormali7ed average power -ax. 6o. ?f consecutive 5?5s "nput rate ?/' rate D,9 ;Digital sum variation< A-" ) 41.4M ( ( @ ( ( 3DB) ) 41.4M (.$1 (.$ ) ( $ @B)T ) (1.1M %./2 (.)2 @ (.))
/
93
,,.2 S/ECT*(& COM/(*ISON OF &INECODES >ig. $$ ,hows a comparison of the spectra of various line codes.
,2.A /O6E* DENSITE OF DIFFE*ENT CODES The digital output of the '*- e0uipment is as such not suitable for transmission over a cable pair. "t has to be converted into a suitable line code which will match the physical parameters of the medium. A number of codes have been devised for this purpose of these the most important are the A-" code and the 3DB) code which meet almost all the basic re0uirement of a line code. The wor#ing principle of an 3DB) decoder has also been outlined in this handout. ,3.A ;3:3 CODE1 ().( The coding is done as per Table F (. >or 4 bits of input signal to the code either state ( or state $ of 2 bit code is selected as shown in figure ;$)<. Disparity information is used to select the state of the current 2 bit code word as compared with the previous transmitted state. >or example if state ( is selected the input 4 bit data is converted into the corresponding 2 bit code in stateF( in TableF(.
94
95
"f the disparity of the converted 2FbitVcode is % the next 4Fbit data is also converted into a2Fbit code in stateF(. if the disparity is B$ the next 4 bit data is converted into a 2 bit code in state $. Thus state ( and state $ are alternated by a detection of disparity B $ or F $.
96
"n 4B2B Decoder the disparity information is used to decide the state of the current 2Fbit code as compared with the previously recogni7ed state. 6ormally disparityB$and F$ are received alternately with disparity % A thus state ( and state $ .are alternated. "f an error detector detects any uncertainty state shown in figure ;$@< with reference to violation of 4B2B decoding law or detects no code word the error detector generates an error alarm. 4B2B code in used in )@ -b/s and (@% -b/s optical line systems. d ddddd "nput word % ( $ ) @ 4 2 / 1 . (% (( ($ () (@ (4 (2 (/ (1 (. $% $( $$ $) $@ $4 $2 $/ $1 $. )% )( Table F( 4B2B *oding 8aw ,tate ( d ,tate $ (%(%(( $ %(%(%% %(((%% % %(((%% ((%%%( % ((%%%( (%(%%( % (%(%%( %((%(% % %((%(% %(%%(( % %(%%(( (%((%% % (%((%% (((%%( . $ %%%((% (%%((% % (%%((% %(%(%( % %(%(%( %(%((( $ (%(%%% (%%((( $ %((%%% ((%%(( $ %%%((( %((((% $ (%%%%( (%(((% $ %(%%%( ((%(%% % ((%(%% ??T%(( % %%(%(( %(((%( $ (%%%(% %((%(( $ (%%(%% (((%%% % %%((%% ((%((% $ %%(%%( (((%(% $ %%%(%( (%(%(% % (%(%(% : %((%%( % %((%%( (%((%( $ %(%%(% %%((%( % %%((%( ((%%(% % ((%%(% %(%((% % %(%((% (%%(%( % (%%(%( (%%%(( % (%%%(( %%(((% % %%(((% ((%(%( $ %%(%(% d F$ % % % % % % F$ % % F$ F$ % F$ F$ % % F$ F$ F$ F$ F$. % % F$ % % % % % % F$
97

Section 3.2: Fundamental of Transmission

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Fundamental of Transmission

BRBRAITTJabalpur, issued in january-2006

Fundamental of Transmission Se ! "!2

BRBRAITTJabalpur, issued in january-2006

Fundamental of Transmission Se ! "!2

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Fig. , Signal to Noise *atio (long ( -.Mission /at

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,impler e0uipment : There is no need of complicated filter and analog

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Fundamental of Transmission Se ! "!2

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Fundamental of Transmission Se ! "!2

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Fundamental of Transmission Se ! "!2

BRBRAITTJabalpur, issued in january-2006

Fundamental of Transmission Se ! "!2

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,uperimposition of +eceived !aveform Fig. : )eneration of E2e /attern

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BRBRAITTJabalpur, issued in january-2006

Fundamental of Transmission Se ! "!2

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Fundamental of Transmission Se ! "!2

BRBRAITTJabalpur, issued in january-2006

Fundamental of Transmission Se ! "!2

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BRBRAITTJabalpur, issued in january-2006

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BRBRAITTJabalpur, issued in january-2006

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Fig. 11 A Parity $enerator %ircuit

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Shift right register

Shift right register

Shift right register

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Fundamental of Transmission Se ! "!2

BRBRAITTJabalpur, issued in january-2006

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BRBRAITTJabalpur, issued in january-2006

ompatibility of different media : ables radio lin#s switching e0uipment can

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