BRACED AND STRUTTED EXCAVATIONS

SYMBOLS Notation bracing for excavations is presented herein.

Figure 1 shows two common systems for installing the strutted Dimensional Analysis bracing. In one system a continuous line of sheet 'piling' is driven in advance of the excavation. As excavation proceeds, horizontal beams c = cohesion M L-1 T-2 known as 'wales' are installed against and parallel with the sheet piling. F = factor of safety - At right angles to and structurally supporting the wales in the horizontal H = height or depth of excavation L planes are installed, across the excavation, horizontal beams known as q = surface surcharge load per unit area M L-1 T-2 'struts'. Where the excavation is large, the struts (sometimes known as m = coefficient - 'rakers') slope gently into the excavation. In the second system shown in - Figure 1 vertical members known as 'soldier beams' or piles are driven at Nb = stability coefficient related to basal failure = unit weight of soil M L-2 T-2 predetermined intervals along the edge of the proposed excavation. As excavation proceeds planks (generally of wood) called 'lagging' are Subscripts where not given above immediately inserted between the soldier beams and the retained soil. At intervals of depth wales are placed horizontally across several soldier b = base of excavation beams and then strutted as previously described. u = undrained

Figure 1. Installation of bracing (a) using sheet piling; (b) soldier beams and lagging. Figure 2. Common types of bracing. INTRODUCTION Gravity retaining walls are generally permanent structures. In many cases only temporary soil retention is required as for example around excavations for buildings, subways or pipelines. Eventually the excavation is either backfilled or filled with a structure which permanently retains the surrounding soil. If the temporary excavation is greater than about 1.3 metres most building codes require either relatively flattish side slopes to the excavation or soil retention by a system of bracing. The bracing may be tied back, anchored or strutted. The design of strutted

There are, of course, many variations of these two basic methods of strutted bracing systems, depending on the size of the excavation and the preferences of the construction contractor. Some typical details are shown in Figure 2. There are also other methods, some already mentioned such as tieback bracing with anchors driven through the walls into the earth behind the wall. This method, with the tiebacks prestressed as construction proceeds, is increasing in popularity since the excavation is kept free of obstacles.

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DESIGN LOADS - EARTH PRESSURES The distribution of pressures against the walls of strutted excavations cannot be accurately predicted from theory. Field measurements show that the actual pressure distribution varies from section to section depending on many construction variables. For a safe excavation no single strut may be over-loaded, thus design is based on an envelope of probable distributions, determined from field experience. Because of this, design is based on the two main types of soil behaviour, cohesionless and cohesive.

diagram shown in Figure 3(c) is normally used for design. The variation in the value of maximum pressure level, ranging from 0.2 H to 0.4 H, is dependent on the character of the clay, the degree of jointing or fissuring, and the reduction in strength of the clay with time. The choice of pressure within this range should only be made on the basis of experience and detailed knowledge of the clay deposit. Surcharge Loading (q) The design of all members must include the effects of loads of street traffic, construction equipment, supported utilities, adjacent structures which are not underpinned, and any other loads that must be carried by the walls of the excavation during the construction period, (Terzaghi and Peck, 1967). Effect of seepage and drainage Groundwater pressures estimated in design should be consistent with the required or permissible drawdown levels. Where soldier beams with wood lagging are to be utilized, groundwater is generally assumed to be at, or below, the base of the interior of the excavation. When the wall is intended to prevent all leakage of groundwater, maximum exterior groundwater pressures should be added to the lateral design pressures. Design and Installation of Members (1) Structural Design: Members such as walls, struts, soldier piles, and sheeting should be sized for the loads defined in Figure 3 in accordance with normally recognized structural design requirements. The effects of combined axial and flexural loading, unsupported span lengths and lateral stability of the members must, of course, be considered in the design. Details on contractor's shop drawings should show appropriate means for posting of struts and walers, lacing of struts in both vertical and horizontal planes to provide lateral stability, web and connection stiffeners, brackets, and provisions for wedging and jacking of struts to prevent horizontal movement. Details are a vital element in the adequacy and safety of temporary earth retaining structures and should be shown completely on the contractor's shop drawings in conjunction with the methods and sequence of installation of all elements of the structure. Particular attention should be given to procedures for prestressing, wedging, or jacking to maintain tight contact for all bracing members and to provide for uniformity of distribution of load to struts and walers.

Figure 3. Pressure distribution against braced excavations (e.g. Peck, 1969)

Self Weight Loading (1) Cohesionless Soils (c = 0): For cohesionless soils, the pressure (2) Strut Design: Struts should be designed for the loads calculated from distribution normally used for design in Canada is shown in Figure 3(a). Figure 3 on the assumption that the members subjected to bending stresses The area of the rectangular pressure diagram shown produces a lateral are hinged at each strut position. thrust about 30 per cent greater than the Rankine's active value. Long struts may be subjected to large temperature-induced (2) Soft to Firm Clays (cu = 12 to 50 kPa): For soft to firm clays, the stresses when exposed to the sun and it may be necessary to make an pressure distributions normally used for design in Canada are given in allowance in design for this effect. Figure 3(b). The parameters referred to in the text and figures are: (3) Rakers and Raker Footings Design: Rakers and their connections may = the unit weight of material, be designed in the same way as horizontal struts. H = the depth of excavation, cu = the undrained shear strength of clay beside and Raker footings should be designed in accordance with the immediately beneath the cut, design principles for shallow foundations subject to inclined loading. Fb = the factor of safety against base heave, and q = the value of any surcharge on the ground surface adjacent Footings and the foundation material should be protected from freezing or to the excavation deterioration. Where a great depth of soft clay exists below the excavation, All raker footings should be located outside the zone of the pressure diagram shown in Figure 3(b) is normally used with a value influence of the buried portion of soldier piles and at a distance of not less for m = 0.4 Fb # 1. than 1.5 D from the piles, where D = the minimum design depth of penetration required for stability of the piles below the base of the Where a much more resistant layer is encountered at or near the excavation. No excavation should be made within two footing widths of base of the excavation, the same Figure 3(b) is used, however, this time the raker footings on the side opposite the rakers. m = 1.0. (4) Soldier Piles Design: The design loads defined in Figure 3 should be (3) Stiff to Very Hard Clays (cu > kPa): For stiff clays, the pressure used for the design of soldier piles or soldier beams. Soldier piles should

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of soil moving into the excavation. Immediately after placement of lagging, wedges should be driven to force it lightly against the soil. Voids behind the lagging should be packed by hand to reduce the amount of loss of ground. The depth of excavation below any lagging boards that have not been backfilled should not exceed one metre. To minimize the possibility of erratic loss of ground in local areas when excavating sands and silts below original groundwater, it is Interim construction conditions must be analyzed to check essential that straw packing, burlap, nonwoven geotextile, or in extreme flexural stresses in the soldier piles. When sloping berm excavation conditions, grouting be used behind the lagging as it is installed. procedures are employed, the depth to the equivalent support point which The design of timber lagging, in common practice, is empirical. allows the effective span of the pile to be determined, may be estimated In general, the practice given in Table 1 has been found satisfactory for using the method illustrated in Figure 4. excavation depths 8 metres or less. For excavation depths greater than 8 metres but less that 22 metres, the lagging thickness should be increased by 25 mm. be designed as continuous members supported at strut or tieback points, and stresses should be checked for various stages of construction when only partial support may exist. For preliminary sizing, the members may be selected assuming walers and piles to be hinged at the support points (i.e. the whole system is simply supported) and the calculated bending moments reduced by 25 percent.

Table 1. Lagging for different soldier pile spacings. Spacing of soldier piles Up to 2.0 m 2.0 m to 2.5 m 2.5 m to 3.0 m Thickness of lagging in excavation < 8 m deep 50 mm 75 mm 100 mm

For depths 8 m to 22 m add 25 mm to lagging thickness. (6) Diaphragm and Sheetpiled Wall Design: Generally diaphragm walls and sheetpiled walls used for excavation support are designed as continuous walls between supports, (Terzaghi, 1953). The installation and construction in situ of diaphragm walls is critically dependent on construction techniques and should only be carried out by contractors of recognized competence in this field of work. (7) Penetration of Vertical Members: If the bracing system is designed such that there are no struts near the bottom of the excavation, the minimum design depth of penetration to be provided should be 1.5 times the depth required for passive equilibrium using the equivalent strut force at excavation level. The resistance provided to the portion of wall penetrating below the base of the excavation is computed using the passive pressure and ignoring wall friction (Rankine theory). For driven soldier piles, the maximum horizontal force on the flange of the soldier pile below the bottom of the excavation may be conservatively taken as 3 times the values computed for the width of the flange, providing that the pile spacing is greater than 5 times the flange width (Broms, 1964 a & b) (Teng, 1975).

Figure 4. Placement of raker struts.

For piles placed in a concreted base, the diameter of the Unless large soil movements adjacent to the excavation can be tolerated, the soldier piles should be in place before excavation concrete-filled hole may be used in place of the flange width as discussed commences and should remain in contact with the soil at all times. in the preceding paragraph. Consequently, no excavation behind soldier piles should be allowed. Interim Construction Conditions The design of all members including struts, walers, sheetpiling, If soldier piles are installed in pre-augured holes, sloughing or caving of the holes must be prevented. Immediately after installation of walls, and soldier piles should be checked for several stages of partial the piles, the hole should be backfilled with lean concrete. If, because of excavation when the wall is assumed to be continuous over the strut possible caving or sloughing, pre-auguring is not possible, the soldier immediately above the excavation level and supported some distance below the excavation level by the available passive resistance. (See piles should be installed by driving. Figure 4 for the case where only a berm remains to support the wall). This (5) Lagging Design: The design of timber planks or lagging should condition could produce the maximum loading in struts and walers. conform with good practice and the lagging should be of good quality hardwood. Lagging is installed by hand after a depth of 1 to 2 metres are Where excessive stresses or loads would result from interim excavated. The maximum depth made each time before a section of construction conditions using regular construction procedures, trenching lagging is placed depends on the soil characteristics. Soft clay and techniques can be employed to advantage. cohesionless soils must be planked in short depths to reduce the amount

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Table 2. Shoring for trenches less than 6 metres deep and 2 metres wide. Soil Type Size mm Cohesive cu > 25 kPa Cohesive cu < 25 kPa Cohesionless free running soils None required 150x200 150x250 1.2 1.2 Walers Spacing m Size mm 100x150 150x200 150x200 Struts Vertical Spacing m 1.2 1.2 1.2 Horizontal Spacing m 2 2 2 Sheeting Upright Spacing m 2 1 close tight

Minimum upright lumber size 50 mm x 200 mm The design of members should also be checked for the deformation is increased appreciably. No satisfactory theoretical condition when portions of the building within the excavated area are procedures exist to determine sheeting or wall pressures at depth below completed and lower struts are removed. Consideration must be given to the base of the excavation. the possible increase in loading on the upper struts remaining in place; also the span between that portion of the building that has been completed and the lowest strut then in place must be considered in relation to flexural stresses. Because of the possibility of delays in construction, it is essential that the safety of the excavation is satisfactory for long term as opposed to short term conditions. The pressure distribution diagrams given in Figure 3 are for short term conditions only and in certain cases the pressure distribution can vary considerably with time. It is therefore essential that monitoring of deformation (and hence implied stress) be carried out systematically during construction and additional struts added if required. SHORING REQUIREMENTS OF SHALLOW TRENCHES Trenches and excavations with vertical faces greater than 1.2 metres deep are generally required to be shored by statutory law. Where trench widths do not exceed 2 metres wide and 6 metres deep minimum shoring consists of lumber 50 mm x 200 mm minimum dimensions supported by struts placed a minimum of 1.2 metre intervals in the vertical direction. Minimum horizontal spacing and other minimum details are given in Table 2. BASAL INSTABILITY (1) Soft to Firm Clays (cu = 12 to 50 kPa): Deep excavations in cohesive soils are subject to base heave failures which result from over-stressing the soil in shear (Figure 5). Bjerrum and Eide (1957) have shown that the factor of safety with respect to base heave may be calculated as: Fb ' Nb cu H % q Figure 5. Base heave stability (e.g. Bjerrum and Eide, 1956) (1)

where Nb is a stability factor dependent upon the geometry of the (2) Cohesionless Soils (c = 0): In cohesionless soils, basal instability excavation (see Figure 5), and the remaining parameters are those defined takes the form of piping or heave and is associated with groundwater flow. previously. Groundwater control can be achieved by drainage, by using sheetpiling to support the face of the excavation and providing adequate penetration of As the potential for bottom instability increases, the heave in the piling for cut-off purposes, or by a combination of the two methods. the base of the excavation and the loss of ground adjacent to the excavation increases. It should be noted that, in the case of soft clays MOVEMENTS ASSOCIATED WITH EXCAVATION underlying the base of the excavation where Fb is less than 2, substantial Introduction deformations may result with consequent loss of ground. If soft clay Movements associated with braced excavations are primarily extends to a considerable depth below the excavation, the beneficial related to construction technique and commonly consist of lateral yield of effects of even relatively stiff sheeting in reducing deformation have been the soil and support system towards the excavations with corresponding found to be minimal. However, if the lower portion of the sheeting is vertical movement adjacent to the excavation walls. Both lateral and driven into a hard stratum, the effectiveness of the sheeting in reducing

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vertical movements due to yield are generally of the same order of magnitude; however, if very flexible soldier piles are used, lateral movements can be grossly increased. Where construction technique is poor, erratic movements can also occur due to loss of ground or erosion behind the wall. Magnitude of movements: For well-constructed support systems, designed in accordance with the previously presented requirements for Strutted Walls, it has been found that the magnitude of deformations are dependent on the wall height and related to the soil type. (a) Cohesionless soils (c = 0): If the struts are installed as soon as the support level is reached and prestressed to 100 per cent of the design load, the lateral movements in the system can be expected to be of the order of 0.2 percent of the depth of the excavations. (b) Soft to firm clays (cu = 12 to 50 kPa): Substantial movements often occur when vertical cuts are made in soft clays. These movements occur in spite of well-constructed and installed support systems. Measurements have shown that 60 to 80 percent of the total lateral yield occurs below the excavation level. Struts should be installed and prestressed as soon as the excavation reaches the support level. The applied prestress should be 100 percent of the design load. However, lateral movements below the bottom support will increase significantly if the excavation reaches a depth where the factor of safety against base heave becomes less than about 2.0. Even if the system is properly installed, the maximum lateral movement of the support system is likely to be 1 to 2 percent of the excavation depth. (c) Stiff clay (cu > kPa): The lateral movements of temporary support systems decrease sharply as the shear strength of the soil increases. Limited available data indicated that maximum lateral movements of excavations on stiff clays with cu > 75 kPa will be less than 0.2 percent of the excavation depth and often less than 0.1 percent provided struts are installed as soon as the support level is reached and prestressed to 100 percent of the design load. Means of reducing movements: To reduce the magnitude of movements it is necessary to reduce the shear stresses induced in the ground by excavation. Two possible methods can be utilized to effect this: (a) The unsupported depth of wall between supports can be shortened by using more levels of struts. Generally, a vertical spacing of 2.5 m between strut levels is considered a minimum from a construction viewpoint, with 4 m to 5 m being preferred. The maximum spacing for small lateral deformation is generally close to 4 m, but where underpinning of small or light adjacent structures is omitted, and tightly braced excavation walls are intended to prevent movement of such adjacent structures, the vertical spacing should be kept to the minimum value of 2.5 m. (b) The unsupported depth of wall can be shortened by use of the trenching method as illustrated in Figure 4. LOSS OF GROUND BEHIND EXCAVATIONS Cohesionless Soils (c = 0) Because lateral yield of strutted excavations in cohesionless soils is usually small, the loss of ground behind such systems is also usually small. However, placement of lagging and backfill behind the lagging must be emphasized. With good workmanship and attention to detail, settlements can often be kept to less than 0.05 percent of the depth of the excavation.

cohesionless deposits. It is difficult to estimate settlements associated with flow of or migration of sands into a cut because of dependence on construction techniques, groundwater levels and local soil situations. Settlements due to densification of loose cohesionless deposits can be of the order of 1.5 percent of the depth of the cut. Soft to firm clays (cu = 12 to 50 kPa) Because significant lateral yield occurs in cuts in soft clays, the surface settlements associated with such cuts are also substantial. The magnitude and extent of these surface settlements may be estimated using the relationships shown in Figure 6.

Figure 6. Guide to settlements adjacent open cuts (Peck, 1969). Underpinning (1) General: Structures adjacent to excavations will frequently need to be supported. The support required will depend on the soil type, and the magnitude of the foundation loads and their locations with respect to the excavation. The structural loads may be carried out by direct underpinning of the foundations, or by the provision of additional lateral support to the face of the excavation. The following recommendations assume the foundation material to be soil. Rather less underpinning and more face support might well be considered for rock foundations.

(2) General Support Requirements: The geometry of zones within which Two exceptions to the above general rule are sometimes support for adjacent structures is usually considered necessary is shown encountered. These are loss of ground due to flow of water into the cut on Figure 7. In general, foundations of adjacent heavy structures which resulting in soil erosion, and loss of ground due to densification of loose lie within the active earth Zone A surrounding the excavation will need to

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be underpinned. For vertical cuts, this is defined as a zone inside of the line rising at a slope of 2 vertical on 1 horizontal from a point 600 mm below the edge of the base of the excavation. The limiting slope angle within which underpinning may be required, Zone B, ranges from 2 vertical on 1 horizontal, to 1 vertical on 1 horizontal, depending on the character of the soils. Where building foundations lying immediately between these limits are so heavy that they would expand the active zone, underpinning should be provided.

applied to them by non-underpinned foundations in Zones A and B. Design bearing pressures for foundations of underpinning members should be limited to the allowable values. Note, however, that lower values than usual might well be desired for underpinning members in order to restrict possible settlements. REFERENCES 1. Bjerrum, L., C.J.F. Clausen and J.M. Duncan. 1972. "Earth Pressures on Flexible Structures - A State of the Art Report". Proceedings of the Fifth European Conference on Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering, Madrid, Volume 2, pp. 169-196. Bjerrum, L. and O. Eide. 1956. "Stability of Strutted Excavations in Clay". Geotechnique, Volume 6, No. 1, pp. 3247. Broms, B.B. 1964a. "Lateral Resistance of Piles in Cohesive Soils". Journal of the Soil Mechanics and Foundation Division, American Society of Civil Engineers, Volume 90, No. SM2, pp. 27-63. Broms, B.B. 1964b. "Lateral Resistance of Piles in Cohesionless Soils". Journal of the Soil Mechanics and Foundation Division, American Society of Civil Engineers, Volume 90, No. SM3, pp. 123-156. Golder, H.Q., J.P. Gould, T.W. Lambe, G.P. Tschebotarioff and S.D. Wilson, 1970. "Predicted Performance of Braced Excavation". Journal of the Soil Mechanics and Foundation Division, American Society of Civil Engineers, Volume 96, No. SM3, pp. 801-815. Lambe, T.W., L.A. Wolfskill and I.H. Wong. 1970. Journal of the Soil Mechanics and Foundation Division, American Society of Civil Engineers, Volume 96, No. Sm3, pp. 817-836. "Lateral Stresses in the Ground and Design of Earth Retaining Structures". 1970. American Society of Civil Engineer Specialty Session, Proceedings of 328 pages. Peck, R.B. 1969. "Deep Excavations and Tunnelling in Soft Ground". Proceedings of the Seventh International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering, State of the Art Volume, pp. 225-290. Terzaghi, K. 1953. "Anchored Bulkheads". American Society of Civil Engineers, Volume 79, Separate 262, September 1953, p. 39. Discussions published in Volume 80, Separate 572, December 1954, pp. 1-44. Terazaghi, K. and R.B. Peck. 1967. "Soil Mechanics in Engineering Practice". John Wiley and Sons, New York, N.Y. Second Edition, p. 729.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6. Figure 7. Requirements for undercutting. Where foundations of smaller structures lying on the active 7. Zone A adjacent to the excavation apply an equivalent line load on the front wall or on side walls perpendicular to the street totalling less than 30 kN/m, it might be possible to eliminate underpinning and control movement by careful excavation within tightly braced excavation walls. 8. In all cases of excavation in soil where foundations of adjacent structures supported in Zones A and B are not underpinned, the temporary retaining structure and the permanent subsurface structure must be designed to resist the horizontal and vertical pressures applied by these 9. foundations. (3) Requirements for Underpinning Supports: For excavation in soil, all portions of the bearing area or tip of the underpinning members should extend into Zone C of Figure 7, below a line rising at a slope of 1 vertical 10. on 1 horizontal from a point 600 mm below the edge of the base of the excavation. The support provided to the underpinning member below this line should accommodate the total applied load with adequate safety factor. In this case no pressures from the underpinned structure need be considered in the design of the excavation support system. Underpinning walls, piers, or piles which form a portion of the excavation support system should be extended to a depth not less than 600 mm below the lowest nearby subgrade of the excavation. The bearing support for such underpinning members should provide an adequate safety factor during excavation and construction as well as after the completion of construction. Where underpinning members will be exposed at the sides of the excavation, they must be capable of resisting any horizontal loads

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EXAMPLE 1 A deep vertical trench 10 m deep and 4 m wide is to be made in a deep deposit of clay. The sides are supported by braced sheet piling. The piling penetrates below the bottom of the excavation sufficient that the base may be assumed to act as bracing. Bracing is placed at 3 m intervals starting from the base of the excavation. The clay has a bulk density of 17 kN/m3 and an undrained shearing strength cu = 35 kPa. Calculate the factor of safety against bottom heave using Nb as given below. Using a simple method of analysis also calculate the loads on the bracing, including that taken by the base (i.e. assume simple supports where possible). Calculate the depth of penetration of the sheet piling to give 1.5 times the required Rankine depth passive resistance to equalize the reaction support at the excavation base. The recommended pressure distribution according to the Canadian Foundation Engineering Manual is given in the appropriate Figure of the notes and is to be used in answering the question. Nb is to be assumed to increase linearly from 5.0 for an excavation depth of zero to 7.5 when the excavation depth is 3 times the excavation width and then remains constant. _________________________________________________________

Moments about (2) to find R of beam 1-2 (and similarly for other beams: 2.5 % 88.3 (1.5) 3 3 119 kN/m run of excavation 2.5 88.3 1.5 % &119 ' 124 kN/m run 2 3 88.3 ' 132 kN/m run 2 124 % 132 ' 256 kN/m run 256 kN/m run 132 kN/m run 0.5 (88.3) 2.5 1.5 % 1.5 2

R1 ' ' {R2}1&2 ' {R2}2&3 ' R2 ' R3 ' R4 '

DEPTH OF PENETRATION R4 is the load taken by the soil and must be resisted by passive soil pressure at the base of the excavation. 2 c u N H p N Equateing passive resistance 0.5 Hp N Hp % 2 cu Hp
2

' ' ' '

2 (35) 1 ' 70 kPa 17 Hp 1 ' 17 Hp to R4 R4

8.5 Hp % 70 Hp ' 132 [Hp % 4.12]2 ' 15.53 % 16.96 Hp ' & 4.12 % 5.70 ' 1.58m Design depth ' Dp ' 1.5 Hp ' 2.37 m below excavation base

Fb '

Nb cu H

5 % 2.5 '

H 35 3 B 17 (10)

m ' 0.4 Fb ' 0.4 (1.46) ' 0.58 4 m cu ' 4 (0.58) 35 ' 81.7 kPa H ' 17 (10) ' 170 kPa H & 4 m cu ' 88.3 kPa which is greater than 0.3 H

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EXAMPLE 2 A braced excavation 10 m deep is to be made in a sand deposit. The sands angle of friction ' = 35E and unit weight = 19 kN/m3. Impermeable sheet piling is to be driven deep enough to allow a water table at 5 m below the ground surface. Calculate the strut loads for struts at 2.5 m spacing starting with the first at 0.5 m depth below the surface. Also calculate the depth of penetration of the sheeting to give 1.5 times the required Rankine passive resistance. _________________________________________________________

EXAMPLE 3 Repeat Example 2 assuming soldier piles 0.3 m wide at 2.5 m centre to centre were used in place of the piled sheeting. _________________________________________________________ same. In this case the pressure diagram and forces R1 to R5 are the

The pile width = 0.3 m Passive spread = 3x0.3 = 0.9 m, provide spacing is > 5xpile width = 5x0.3 = 1.5 m Soil force per pile = R5xSpacing = 68x2.5 = 170 kN/pile Soil resistance from pile embedment = 0.9x[Pp per m run] = 0.9x0.5x/xHp2xN = 0.45x(19-9.81)xHp2x3.68 = 15.2xHp2 kN/pile Hp = (17015.2)0.5 = 3.34 m Length of embedment of piles = 1.5xHp = 5.02 m

K a ' tan2 45 &

2 ) o

10

35 2 ' H & w H w ' tan2 45 &

' 0.272

' 19 (10) & 9.81 (5) ' 141 kPa

0.65 o

w Hw ' 5 (9.81) ' 49 kPa 25 (3) R1 ' R2

A

10

K a ' 0.65 (141) 0.272 ' 25 kPa

' 45 kN/m run of excavation 2.5 ' 25 (3) & 45 ' 30 kN/m run of excavation

3 2

0.5 9.81 (0.5) 0.5 25 (2.5) 1.25 3 R2 ' % B 2.5 2 (2.5) ' 31 kN/m run of excavation R2 ' 61 kN/m run of excavation R3 R3 ' '
C

'

' ' R3 ' R4 ' ' R5 '

0.5 9.81 (0.5) 0.5 2.5 & 25 (2.5) 1.25 3 % 2.5 2 (2.5) 32 kN/m run 25 (2.5) 1.25 % 9.81 (0.5) 2.5 (1.25) % 9.81 (2.5) 2.5 (0.5) 0.83 2.5 31.25 % 6.13 % 10.2 48 kN/m run of excavation 80 kN/m run 31.25 % 25 % 6.13 % 10.2 (2)% 29.43 % 6.5 119 kN/m run 25 % 29.43 % 6.5 (2) ' 68 kN/m run

DEPTH OF PENETRATION R5 is load taken by the soil and must be resisted by soil's passive pressure inside the excavation (at its base). If soil is dry (by suitable drainage system, e.g. relief wells): R5 = 0.5 H2p N = 0.5 (10) H2p 0.272 = 68 kN/m run Hp = %1.96 = 1.40 Required embedment depth = 1.5 (1.40) = 2.09 m

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