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1 Algebrikèc Idiìthtec Tou R
1 Algebrikèc Idiìthtec Tou R
R
: To snolo twn pragmatikn arijmn Uposnola tou
R
: oi fusiko arijmo,
N = {0, 1, 2, . . .} Z = N (N)
N = {1, 2, . . .} = N \ {0}.
: m, n Z, n = 0} = { m : m Z, n N } Q = {m n n
Oi idithtec twn prxewn kai thc ditaxhc:
(5) 1 = 0 : a.1 = a a R (6) a = 0 a1 : a.a1 = 1 (7) a, b, c : a.(b.c) = (a.b).c (8) a, b : a.b = b.a
(9) a, b, c : a.(b + c) = a.b + a.c (10) a, b, c : (a > b) kai (b > c) a > c (11) a, b : a = b a > b a < b (12) a, b, c : a > b a + c > b + c (13) a, b, c : (a > b) kai (c > 0) a.c > b.c
H sqsh
ab
shmanei:
a<b
a = b:
enai h
rnhsh
thc
a > b.
'Es tw
a Z.
o
enai rtioc
a2
enai rtioc.
Den uprqei
rhtc
arijmc
s te
q 2 = 2.
s te
1 Upenjumzoume 2 Ja
touc sumbolismoc:
gia kje,
uprqei
x2 = 2.
Proc to parn
Parathrseic 1.3
(i)
3>2
5>1
3 5 2 1.
kat mlh: p.q.
(ii) Den mporome en gnei na pollaplasizoume anisthtec 3 > 2 kai 1 > 2 all 3(1) (2)(2). 'Omwc
a > b afo c > 0 lgw thc (P13) qoume ac > bc kai ap c > d afo b > 0 qoume bc > bd gia ton dio lgo. Sunepc ac > bc kai bc > bd ra ac > bd ap thn (P10).
'Es tw
(iii)
a, b R \ {0}
omshmoi.
An
a > b tte
1 1 < . a b
kai sunepc ap thn
a>b
kai
3 > 2
1 3
1 . 2
Askseic 1.4
ay < bx
kai (b)
me
b > 0, y > 0.
1 b= a +a . 2
An
a b
<
x tte (a) y
Jtoume
Tte
(ii)
Ap th sqsh
a2 > 2,
afo
a>0
prokptei (pollaplasi-
a 1 ) ti zontac me 2a 2
>
1 kai sunepc a
Epshc
(diti an
a 2
1 a
=0
ja eqame
a2 = 2).
(iii)
To snolo
X = {x > 0 : x2 > 2}
den qei elqis to s toiqeo.
Lsh thc
(iii) X
An doje na opoiodpote
X,
p.q. to
(iv)
To snolo
Y = {x Q+ : x2 2}
den qei elqis to s toiqeo.
(v) (vi)
An An
a, b R a, b R
tte kai
a2 +b2 2
ab > 0
+ . . . + c + c + 1 (2n + 1)cn .
kje
(vii)
Jtontac
a > 0,
c+
1 1 1 2, c2 + 2 2, . . . , cn + n 2 . c c c
cn + cn1 + . . . + c +
ra
1 1 1 + 2 + . . . + n 2n c c c
cn + cn1 + . . . + c + 1 +
kai pollaplasizontac ta do mlh tomenh.
h zh-
kje
(i) Den uprqei elqis toc jetikc arijmc: > 0, isqei a < , tte a = 0. ab+ a<b+
gia kje gia kje
An
0 a kai,
gia
(ii) (iii)
An An
>0 >0
tte
a b. a < b?
ti
enai aljeia ti
a b?
Lsh
(i)
An
a >0
gia
la
ta jetik
a den isqei. 2
> 0:
p.q.
Orismc 1.1
An
aR
, jtoume
|a| =
a a
an
a0 a<0
an
Paratrhsh 1.6
Gia kje
aR
kai
b0
dhl.
|a| b b a b |a| b a b b a
Paratrhsh 1.7
Gia kje
b a
kai
ab
a, b R
(tri gwnik anisthta)
(i) Oi
|a| + |b|
ra
|a| a |a| kai |b| b |b| dnoun |a||b| a + b (|a| + |b|) a + b |a| + |b| ra |a + b| |a| + |b| (ap thn
Epeid
c = |a| |b|.
a = (a b) + b
c = |a| |b| |a b|. Omowc b = (b a) + a ra |b| |b a| + |a|, opte c = (|a| |b|) = |b| |a| |b a| = |a b|.
Dexame ti
c |a b| b
kai
c |a b|, b.
ra
|c| |a b|.
s th jsh tou
3 giat
a (b + ) =
ab 2
>0
dhlad
a > b + .
4
|a + b| |a| + |b| (prosjtw |a + b|(|a| + |b|)) |a + b| + |a + b|(|a| + |b|) (|a| + |b|) + (|a| + |b|)|a + b| |a + b|(1 + |a| + |b|) (|a| + |b|)(1 + |a + b|) |a| + |b| |a + b| . 1 + |a + b| 1 + |a| + |b|
Gia th deterh anisthta, jtontac
x = |a|
kai
y = |b|,
qw
x0
kai
y 0.
Upenjmish:
antistoiqe ma prtash
P (n)
Upojtoume ti ikanopoiontai oi
exc do propojseic:
) H
P (0)
alhjeei,
KAI
tte
ii
) gia h
m,
an
P (m)
alhjeei
P (m + 1) P (n)
alhjeei.
Tte h
alhjeei gia
Pardeigma
nN
qoume
0 + 1 + 2 + 3 + ... + n =
Apdeixh
n(n + 1) 2
'Es tw
P (n)
h prtash
0 + 1 + 2 + 3 + ... + n =
Prpei na dexoume ti h H prtash
n(n + 1) . 2 n N. P (k ) P (k + 1).
P (0)
enai h
P (n) 0 = 0:
Isqurismc:
Gia kje
kN
isqei h
sunepa gw g
Prgmati:
k (k + 1) tte 2 k (k + 1) (k + 2)(k + 1) 1 + 2 + 3 + . . . + k + (k + 1) = + (k + 1) = 2 2
an
1 + 2 + 3 + ... + k =
pou enai h
P (k + 1).
'Estw ton
ti
se
kje
antistoiqe ma prtash
P (n)
, pou afor
Upojtoume ti ikanopoiontai oi
exc do propojseic:
) H
P (0)
alhjeei,
KAI
an
ii
) gia
alhjeoun oi
tte
P (m + 1)
.
alhjeei.
Tte h
P (n)
4
alhjeei gia
Pardeigma
n1
paragntwn.
4 Jumzoume
kai to
ti
prtoc
lgetai nac
p N, p 1
1.
Apdeixh
H Prtash {O
n+1
n = 0:
o arijmc
m N, m 1,
Kai prgmati:
ti an oi arijmo
1, 2, . . . , m
m+1
prtwn paragntwn. An den enai prtoc, tte qei diairtec, opte grfetai
m+1 = kl k
kai
pou oi fusiko
m + 1.
Suqn sunantme protseic pou alhjeoun gia kje fusik arijm megaltero ap kpoion
n o N,
Mpore kanec tte na qrhsimopoisei to exc ekolo Prisma tou Jewrmatoc 1.9:
Prisma 1.11
'Estw .
ti
se
kje
fusik ti
arijm
antistoiqe oi exc
ma
prtash
P (n)
seic: (i) H
kai
stw
no N
Upojtoume
ikanopoiontai
do
propoj-
P (no )
isqei.
kai
n N, n n o
, an h
P (n)
isqei, tte
isqei
P (n + 1)
Tte h
P (n)
fusik
arijm
n no
isqei
Pardeigma 1.12
gia
anisthta
2n n2
gia
kje
n4
qi
mwc
n=3
Apdeixh
Ed
P (n)
enai h prtash
2n n2 .
P (3)
2 <3
H
. enai alhjc.
P (4) : 24 42
n 4
thn sunepagwg
P (n) P (n + 1),
2n n2 2n+1 (n + 1)2 .
7
Prgmati, an
2n n2
tte
n 4.
To diwnumik anptugma
= 1 = a+b = a2 + 2ab + b2 = a3 + 3a2 b + 3ab2 + b3 4 = a + 4a3 b + 6a2 b2 + 4ab3 + b4 = a5 + 5a4 b + 10a3 b2 + 10a2 b3 + 5ab4 + b5 6 = a + 6a5 b + 15a4 b2 + 20a3 b3 + 15a2 b4 + 6ab5 + b6 Pascal:
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 6 5 15 4 10 20 3 6 10 15 2 3 4 5 6 1 1 1 1 1 1
Kje sunteles tc enai to jroisma twn do sunteles tn pou brskontai akribc ap pnw tou. apdeixh pou akolouje. Ja qreiasjon oi Aut h paratrhsh enai h ida gia thn epagwgik
Sumbolismo
n k
(k, n N, k n)
ak = a0 + a1 + . . . + an
k=0
Parathrome ti to jroisma
(n N).
a0 + a1 + . . . + an
n n+1
am =
m=0 j =1
aj 1 .
H isthta twn do autn paras tsewn mpore na prokyei kai me thn {allag metablhtc}
j = m + 1.
An
a, b R
kai
nN
n1
, tte
(a + b)n =
k=0
Shmewsh: Gia
n nk k a b k
(: P (n)).
n2
qoume
n(n 1) 2 n2 ab + nabn1 + bn . 2!
n=1
P (1)
enai h
a+b=a+b
n N, n 1, (a + b)n =
thn sunepagwg
P (n) P (n + 1):
k=0
n nk k a b k
tte
(a + b)
n+1
= (a + b )
k=0 n
n nk k n nk k n nk k a b =a a b +b a b k k k k=0 k=0
n
=
k=0 n+1
=a =a
+
k=1 n
(k=0) n+1
n1
+
k=1 n
= an+1 +
k=1
All
n n + k k1
an+1k bk + bn+1 .
n n + k k1
n! n! + k !(n k )! (k 1)!(n k + 1)! n! n! + = k (k 1)!(n k )! (k 1)!(n k + 1)(n k )! n!(n k + 1) n!k + = k (k 1)!(n k )!(n k + 1) k (k 1)!(n k + 1)(n k )! n!(n k + 1 + k ) (n + 1)! n+1 = = = k !(n k + 1)! k !(n + 1 k )! k
ra
(a + b)
n+1
=a
n+1
+
k=1
n + 1 n+1k k n+1 a b +b = k
n+1
k=0
n + 1 n+1k k a b . 2 k
10
Bernoulli)
An
x > 1
(1 + x)n 1 + nx
Apdeixh
gia kje
n N. 1 = 1.
H anisthta gia
n=0
enai profanc:
(1+ x)n 1+ nx tte (1+ x)(1+ x)n (1+ x)(1+ nx) (efson 1+ x > 0) (1 + x)n+1 = (1 + x)(1 + x)n (1 + x)(1 + nx) = 1 + (n + 1)x + nx2 1 + (n + 1)x. 2
Paratrhsh
Gia
x 0
h anisthta
Bernoulli
Prtash 1.15
ginmeno
n N n 1 b1 , . . . bn b1 b2 . . . bn = 1 b1 + b2 + . . . + bn n.
An , kai oi , tte
enai
jetiko
arijmo
me
Apdeixh
Me epagwg s to pljoc
n=1
n twn 1 1.
Gia
d1 d2 . . . dm = 1
isqei h anisthta
d1 + d2 + . . . + dm m
kai jloume na dexoume ti an dojon ginmeno
m+1
jetiko arijmo
b1 , . . . bm+1
me
b1 b2 . . . bm+1 = 1
tte ja isqei h
b1 + b2 + . . . + bm+1 m + 1 .
Parathrome ti, an qi, diatssontac
b1 = b2 = . . . = bm+1 , h anisthta isqei profanc. An touc arijmoc b1 , . . . , bm+1 kat axousa seir megjouc
An jewrsw thn
m-ada
jetikn arijmn
b1 bm+1 , b2 , . . . , bm
11
b1 bm+1 + b2 + . . . + bm m .
'Omwc ap tic sqseic
(1) dhlad
b1 + bm+1
ti
pou a1 .a2 . . . an .
nN n1
,
kai oi
a1 , . . . , a n a1 + a2 + . . . + an n a1 .a2 . . . an . n bk = n ak a1 .a2 . . . an
(2)
Apdeixh
An jsw
isodnama
a1 + a2 + . . . + an n n a .a . . . a 1 2 n apodeikta. 2 a1 , . . . an
enai
Paratrhsh 1.17
loi soi, tte h anisthta (2) enai s thn pragmatikthta isthta. An den enai loi soi, tte pwc prokptei ap thn apdeixh, h anisthta enai gnsia (diti
Sunepc:
msou isqei isthta an kai mnon
arijmhtiko-gewmetriko .
a1 = a2 = . . . = an
12