Aircraft Flight

Chapter Chapter 5: 5: Airfoils, Airfoils, Wings Wings and and Other Other Aerodynamic Aerodynamic Shapes Shapes AOE Fall AOE 3014 3014 Fall Junior Junior Year Year Lift, Lift, Drag, Drag, and and Moment Moment (( 5.1-5.3) 5.1-5.3) Lift, Lift, Drag, Drag, and and Moment Moment Coefficients Coefficients (( 5.3) 5.3) Drag Drag Polar Polar (( 5.14) 5.14) Chapter Chapter 6: 6: Elements Elements of of Airplane Airplane Performance Performance AOE Spring AOE 3104 3104 Spring Sophomore Sophomore Year Year Equations Equations of of Motion Motion (( 6.2) 6.2) Static Static Performance Performance (( 6.1-6.6) 6.1-6.6) Chapter Chapter 7: 7: Principles Principles of of Stability Stability and and Control Control AOE Spring AOE 3134 3134 Spring Junior Junior Year Year (or (or Spacecraft) Spacecraft) Introduction Introduction and and Definitions Definitions ((7 7.1-7.4) .1-7.4)

Airfoil Nomenclature
Airfoil Airfoil is is a a two-dimensional two-dimensional cross-section cross-section of of a a wing wing Camber Camber is is the the maximum maximum distance distance between between the the mean mean camber camber line line and and the the chord chord line line Camber, Camber, shape shape of of mean mean camber camber line, line, and and thickness thickness determine determine the the lift lift and and moment moment characteristics characteristics of of the the airfoil airfoil Mean camber line Camber Thickness Chord, c

Lift and Drag

L Drag Drag is is in in freestream freestream direction direction Lift Lift is is perpendicular perpendicular to to drag drag Moment Moment is is usually usually taken taken about about the the quarter-chord quarter-chord point point

Mc/4 D c/4

Normal and Axial Forces

L N Axial Axial force force is is in in chord chord line line direction direction Normal Normal force force is is perpendicular perpendicular to to chord chord line line L L= =N N cos cos A A sin sin D D= =N N sin sin + +A A cos cos

D c/4

Lift, Drag, and Moment Coefficients

Applying Applying dimensional dimensional analysis analysis to to the the forces forces and and moments moments leads leads to to the the definitions definitions of of these these coefficients coefficients
L S cll L= =q q Sc D S cd D= =q q Sc d M S c cm M= =q q Scc m

is the dynamic pressure, S is the wing Here Here q q is the dynamic pressure, S is the wing area, area, and and c c is is the the chord chord length length , and cm are The The three three coefficients coefficients c cll,, c cd d, and c m are dimensionless dimensionless numbers numbers that that depend depend on on angle angle of of attack, attack, Mach Mach number, number, and and Reynolds Reynolds number number (also (also dimensionless dimensionless numbers) numbers)

Lift, Drag, and Moment Coefficients

These These dimensionless dimensionless coefficients coefficients depend depend on on angle angle of of attack, attack, Mach Mach number, number, and and Reynolds Reynolds number: number:
c ( , M , Re) cll = = ff1 1( , M , Re) c = f2 ( , M , Re) cd d= f 2( , M , Re) c = f3 ( , M , Re) cm m= f 3( , M , Re)

These These three three numbers numbers are are also also dimensionless: dimensionless:

= = angle angle of of attack attack (units (units = = radians, radians, dimensionless) dimensionless)

is For For subsonic subsonic incompressible incompressible flow, flow, M M is small (), etc. small and and Re Re is is large large c cll = = ff1 1(), etc.

M = Mach number = V /a (a = speed of sound) M = Mach number = V /a (a = speed of sound) Re V c/ (=viscosity) Re = = Reynolds Reynolds number number = = V c/ (=viscosity)

Flow Separation
Low Low angle angle of of attack attack minimal minimal flow flow separation, separation, at at trailing trailing edge edge As As angle angle of of attack attack increases increases point point of of flow flow separation separation moves moves slightly slightly forward forward At At stall stall angle, angle, separation separation point point moves moves forward forward dramatically dramatically Separated Separated flow flow increases increases pressure pressure on on upper upper surface surface reduced reduced lift lift

Lift Coefficient cl ()
Nearly Nearly constant constant slope, slope, dc dcll //d d ,, between between the the stall stall angles angles Positive Positive lift lift at at

= =0 0

Stall Stall corresponds corresponds to to flow flow separation separation

Drag Coefficient

Drag Polar
For For finite finite wings wings at at subsonic subsonic speeds, speeds, the the drag drag coefficient coefficient can can be be written written as as denotes the profile drag or the The The little little c cd d denotes the profile drag or the airfoil airfoil section section drag drag denotes the total drag on the finite The The big big C CD D denotes the total drag on the finite wing wing denotes the total lift on the finite The The big big C CL L denotes the total lift on the finite wing ) wing (as (as compared compared with with c cll) planform efficiency efficiency The The term term 0 0< <e e< <1 1 denotes denotes a a planform factor Elliptical wing wing e e= =1 1 factor.. Elliptical The The term term is is called called the the induced induced drag drag
2 2 C = c + C /( e AR) CD = c + C d L D d L /( e AR)

Drag Polar
The The profile profile drag drag includes includes drag drag due due to to skin skin friction friction and and pressure pressure drag drag due due to to separation separation This This plot plot is is an an essential essential tool tool in in the the design design of of airplanes, airplanes, and and we we will will see see one one application application a a bit bit later later

Example 5.14
Consider Consider the the Northrop Northrop F-5 F-5 fighter fighter airplane, airplane, 2 which .. The which has has a a wing wing area area of of 170 170 ft ft2 The wing wing is is generating generating 18,000 18,000 lb lb of of lift. lift. For For a a flight flight velocity velocity of of 250 250 mi/h mi/h at at standard standard sea sea level, level, calculate calculate the the lift lift coefficient. coefficient.

Example 5.15
The The wingspan wingspan of of the the F-5 F-5 is is 25.25 25.25 ft ft.. Calculate Calculate the the induced induced drag drag coefficient coefficient and and the the induced induced drag drag for for the the conditions conditions of of Ex. Ex. 5.14. 5.14. Use Use e=0.8 e=0.8..

Example 5.16
Consider Consider a a flying flying wing wing with with a a wing wing area area of of 2 206 ,, an 206 m m2 an aspect aspect ratio ratio of of 10 10,, a a span span effectiveness effectiveness factor factor of of 0.95 0.95,, and and a a NACA NACA 4412 4412 5N airfoil. N.. airfoil. The The weight weight of of the the airplane airplane is is 7.5 7.5 10 105 If If the the density density altitude altitude is is 3 3 km km and and the the flight flight velocity velocity is is 100 100 m/s m/s,, calculate calculate the the total total drag drag on on the the aircraft. aircraft.

Weve Weve seen seen this this before, before, but but this this is is a a nice nice picture picture

Airplane Performance
Equations Equations of of Motion Motion
Static Static Performance Performance (zero (zero acceleration) acceleration) Thrust Thrust required required Thrust Thrust available available Power Power required required Power Power available available Maximum Maximum velocity velocity Rate Rate of of climb climb Time Time to to climb climb Maximum Maximum altitude altitude Range Range and and endurance endurance Takeoff Takeoff Landing Landing Turning Turning flight flight V-n V-n diagram diagram Accelerated Accelerated rate rate of of climb climb Reading: Reading: Chapter Chapter 6 6 Preview Preview of of AOE AOE 3104 3104 Dynamic Dynamic Performance Performance (finite (finite acceleration) acceleration)

Equations of Motion
Newtons Newtons Second Second Law, Law, F F= = ma ma The The four four forces: forces:
Lift Lift L L,, perpendicular perpendicular to to flight flight path path Drag Drag D D,, parallel parallel to to flight flight path path Weight Weight W W,, toward toward center center of of Earth Earth Thrust Thrust T T,, generally generally inclined inclined wrt wrt flight flight path path L
e n i l d chor T

D W

Equations of Motion
F (this F= = ma ma (this equation equation is is a a vector vector equation) equation) Velocity Velocity is is always always along along flight flight path path m dV/dt dV/dt (a (a scalar scalar equation) equation) F F = =m Acceleration Acceleration perpendicular perpendicular to to flight flight path path is is centripetal centripetal acceleration, acceleration, which which depends depends on on velocity velocity and and radius radius of of curvature, curvature, rrcc 2 2 = m V /r F F^ = m V /rcc (a (a scalar scalar equation) equation) ^ kinematics The The preceding preceding two two equations equations are are the the kinematics equations; equations; next next we we must must determine determine the the two two force force summations summations

Equations of Motion
Examination Examination of of the the figure figure below below leads leads to to
D W sin F F = =T T cos cos T T D W sin = L + T sin T W cos F F^ ^ = L + T sin T W cos = =m m dV/dt dV/dt 2 = /r =m mV V2 /rcc

These These are are the the equations equations of of motion motion for for an an airplane airplane in in 2-D 2-D translational translational flight flight Rotational Rotational motion motion is is not not included included here here
L
ne i l d r ch o T

D W

Level Unaccelerated Flight

Velocity Velocity is is constant, constant, radius radius of of curvature curvature is is infinite, infinite, = =0 0 Equations Equations of of motion motion reduce reduce to to = 0, these equations further Assuming Assuming that that T T = 0, these equations further reduce reduce to to Since Since lift lift and and drag drag are are related related by by the the drag drag polar, polar, we we can can use use the the drag drag polar polar to to determine determine the the required required thrust thrust for for straight straight level level flight flight
T T= =D D L L= =W W (thrust (thrust = = drag) drag) (lift (lift = = weight) weight) T = T cos cos T =D D T L =W L+ +T T sin sin T T = W

Thrust Required for Straight, Level Flight

T T T T = (thrust =D D (thrust = = drag) drag) S CD = =D D= =q q S C D

L (lift L= =W W (lift = = weight) weight) S CL L L = =W W= =q q S CL Thrust-to-weight Thrust-to-weight ratio: ratio: T /CL T // W W= =C CD D/C L

Required Required thrust: thrust:

= W CD /CL = W/(CL /CD ) = W/(L/D) T TR R = W C D/C L = W/(C L/C D) = W/(L/D)

Thrust-Required Curve
1.Choose 1.Choose value value of of V V 2.Calculate 2.Calculate lift lift coefficient coefficient C CL L
2 2 C = C + C /( e AR) CD = C + C D,0 L D D,0 L /( e AR) 2 2 L = W/(q S) = 2W/( V S) L= =W W C CL = W/(q S) = 2W/( V L S)

3.Calculate from drag polar 3.Calculate drag drag coefficient coefficient C CD D from drag polar 4.Calculate 4.Calculate the the lift-to-drag lift-to-drag ratio, ratio, 5.Calculate 5.Calculate the the thrust thrust required required This (V ) This procedure procedure can can be be used used to to compute compute T TR R( V ) , or to compute for a range of for for a a specific specific V V , or to compute for a range of speeds speeds
T = W/(CL /CD ) TR R = W/(C L/C D) L/D /CD L/D = =C CL L/C D

Example 6.1
Given Given span: span: b b= = 35.8 35.8 ft ft 2 area: S area: S= = 174 174 ft ft2 weight: weight: W W= = 2950 2950 lb lb parasite = 0.025 parasite drag drag coeff: coeff: C CD,0 D,0 = 0.025 Oswald Oswald efficiency efficiency factor: factor: e e= = 0.8 0.8 3 Look Look up up density: density: = = 0.002377 0.002377 slug/ft slug/ft3 Compute Compute 2 aspect //S aspect ratio: ratio: AR AR = =b b2 S induced induced drag drag denominator: denominator: pear pear = = eAR eAR Follow Follow procedure procedure from from previous previous slide slide .. .. ..

A Matlab Code to Compute TR

% % Treq.m Treq.m % % thrust thrust required required vs vs V_\infty V_\infty % % using using data data from from example example 6.1 6.1 % % this this section section just just does does the the initialization initialization clear clear close close all all b b S S AR AR W W Cdo Cdo e e pear pear = = = = = = = = = = = = = = 35.8; 35.8; 174; 174; b^2/S; b^2/S; 2950; 2950; 0.025; 0.025; 0.8; 0.8; pi*e*AR; pi*e*AR;

rho=0.002377; rho=0.002377;

%Treq.m %Treq.m

continued continued

N=100; N=100; Vmin=80; Vmin=80; Vmax=350; Vmax=350; Vi=linspace(Vmin,Vmax,N); Vi=linspace(Vmin,Vmax,N); CLv=zeros(size(Vi)); CLv=zeros(size(Vi)); CDv=CLv; CDv=CLv; TRv=CLv; TRv=CLv; for for i=1:N i=1:N CL=2*W/(rho*Vi(i)^2*S); CL=2*W/(rho*Vi(i)^2*S); CD=Cdo+CL^2/pear; CD=Cdo+CL^2/pear; LoD=CL/CD; LoD=CL/CD; TR=W/LoD; TR=W/LoD; CLv(i) CLv(i) = = CL; CL; CDv(i) CDv(i) = = CD; CD; TRv(i) TRv(i) = = TR; TR; end end

% % % % % % % % % % % % % % % % % %

N N points points [Vmin, [Vmin, Vmax] Vmax] save save Lift Lift Coefficients Coefficients save save Drag Drag Coefficients Coefficients save save Thrust Thrust Required Required Steps Steps 1& 1& 2 2 Step Step 3 3 Step Step 4 4 Step Step 5 5 Save Save everything everything

%Treq.m Make %Treq.m continued continued Make the the TR TR vs vs Vinfty Vinfty plot plot figure; figure; hold hold on on hndl=plot(Vi,TRv); hndl=plot(Vi,TRv); set(hndl,'linewidth',2); set(hndl,'linewidth',2); hndl=xlabel('V_\infty, hndl=xlabel('V_\infty, ft/s'); ft/s'); set(hndl,'fontsize',18) set(hndl,'fontsize',18) hndl=ylabel('T_R, hndl=ylabel('T_R, lb'); lb'); set(hndl,'fontsize',18) set(hndl,'fontsize',18) set(gca,'fontsize',18) set(gca,'fontsize',18)

This This code code snippet snippet opens opens the the figure figure window, window, makes makes the the plot, plot, changes changes the the line line thickness, thickness, makes makes x&y x&y axis axis labels, labels, and and changes changes the the fontsizes fontsizes

TR vs V

How How does does angle angle of of attack attack vary vary with with V for straight and V for straight and level level flight? flight?

figure; figure; hold hold on on hndl=plot(Vi,CLv,b); hndl=plot(Vi,CLv,b); set(hndl,'linewidth',2); set(hndl,'linewidth',2); hndl=plot(Vi,CDv,r); hndl=plot(Vi,CDv,r); set(hndl,'linewidth',2); set(hndl,'linewidth',2); hndl=xlabel('V_\infty, hndl=xlabel('V_\infty, ft/s'); ft/s'); set(hndl,'fontsize',18) set(hndl,'fontsize',18) hndl=ylabel('C_L, hndl=ylabel('C_L, C_D'); C_D'); set(hndl,'fontsize',18) set(hndl,'fontsize',18) set(gca,'fontsize',18) set(gca,'fontsize',18)

This This code code snippet snippet opens opens the the figure figure window, window, makes makes two two plots, plots, changes changes the the line line thickness, thickness, makes makes x&y x&y axis axis labels, labels, and and changes changes the the fontsizes fontsizes

CL and CD vs V
Why Why are are Lift Lift and and Drag Drag Coefficients Coefficients larger larger for for smaller smaller V for straight and V for straight and level level flight? flight?

Some Questions
? How How does does angle angle of of attack attack vary vary with with V V ? What What is is special special about about the the minimum minimum Thrust Thrust Required vs V curve? Required point point on on the the T TR R vs V curve? Why Why are are lift lift and and drag drag coefficients coefficients larger larger for for smaller ? smaller V V ? =D Begin Begin by by recalling recalling that that thrust thrust = = drag, drag, T TR R= D

Analysis of TR vs V
TR TR TR = D = q SCD = q S (CD,0 + CD,i ) 2 CL = q S CD,0 + eAR 2 q SCL = q SCD,0 + eAR

First term is parasite thrust required (zero-lift) Second term is induced thrust required Recall that CL also depends on q : CL TR = = W q S so that

W2 q SCD,0 + q S eAR

Continued Analysis of TR vs V
W2 TR = q SCD,0 + q S eAR dTR dq dTR dV dTR dq = = = dTR dV (chain rule) dV dq dTR =0 0 dq W2 0 SCD,0 2 =0 q S eAR

A little manipulation [Exercise] leads to: CD,0 = CD,i Parasite drag = Induced drag

Conclusions Regarding TR vs V
has two T TR R has two components: components: a a zerozerolift lift term term and and a a liftliftinduced induced term term The The minimum minimum occcurs occcurs where where the the two two terms terms are are equal equal Available Available thrust thrust must must be be required required thrust thrust to to maintain maintain straight straight level level flight flight

Further Topics
Equations Equations of of Motion Motion
Static Static Performance Performance (zero (zero acceleration) acceleration) Thrust Thrust required required Thrust Thrust available available Power Power required required Power Power available available Maximum Maximum velocity velocity Rate Rate of of climb climb Time Time to to climb climb Maximum Maximum altitude altitude Range Range and and endurance endurance Takeoff Takeoff Landing Landing Turning Turning flight flight V-n V-n diagram diagram Accelerated Accelerated rate rate of of climb climb Reading: Reading: Chapter Chapter 6 6 Preview Preview of of AOE AOE 3104 3104 Dynamic Dynamic Performance Performance (finite (finite acceleration) acceleration)

Stability Stability & & Control Control

Stability Stability Static Static
Longitudinal Longitudinal o o Criteria Criteria o o Moments Moments about about c.g. c.g. o o Equations Equations for for stability stability o o Neutral Neutral point point o o Static Static margin margin Directional Directional Lateral Lateral

Control Control Static Static

Longitudinal Longitudinal Directional Directional Lateral Lateral

Dynamic Dynamic Reading: Reading: Chapter Chapter 7 7 Preview Preview of of AOE AOE 3134 3134

Dynamic Dynamic

Parking Stability
If If mass mass center center (c.g. (c.g. ) ) is is between between landing landing gear, gear, then stable then the the parked parked aircraft aircraft is is stable If If c.g. c.g. is is aft aft of of aft aft landing landing gear, gear, then then the the parked unstable parked aircraft aircraft is is unstable If If c.g. c.g. is is aligned aligned with with aft aft landing landing gear, gear, then then the the parked parked aircraft aircraft is is marginally marginally stable stable

marginally stable unstable stable

Roll, Pitch and Yaw

pitch yaw longitudinal roll

Remember Remember the the Right Right Hand Hand Rule Rule Stability Stability & & Control Control deals deals with with rotational rotational motion motion

vertical

lateral

Roll Roll about about longitudinal longitudinal axis axis Pitch Pitch about about lateral lateral axis axis Yaw Yaw about about vertical vertical axis axis

Roll, Pitch and Yaw

pitch yaw longitudinal roll

Remember Remember the the Right Right Hand Hand Rule Rule

vertical

lateral

Roll Roll angle angle is is positive positive when when right right wingtip wingtip rotates rotates down down Pitch Pitch angle angle is is positive positive when when nose nose rotates rotates up up Yaw Yaw angle angle is is positive positive when when right right wingtip wingtip rotates rotates aft aft These These are are all all conventions conventions

Longitudinal Stability
Given Given an an airplanes airplanes aerodynamic aerodynamic properties, properties, determine determine whether whether it it is is stable stable in in straight straight and and level level flight flight

Flight Flight conditions conditions determine determine lift lift and and drag drag coefficients. coefficients. Tail Tail controls controls = 0. (typically) (typically) are are used used to to make make the the moment moment coefficient coefficient C CM,cg M,cg = 0.

Moment Coefficient Possibilities

Slope Slope could could be be negative negative or or positive positive Generally, Generally, the the symbol symbol used used for for the the slope slope of of the the moment moment coefficient coefficient for for small small changes changes of of angle angle attack attack from from the the trim trim condition condition is is

CM,cg = C M

Positive Slope: CM >0

Disturbance Disturbance (gust) (gust) could could cause cause or or becomes positive implies implies that that C CM,cg M,cg becomes positive becomes negative imples imples that that C CM,cg M,cg becomes negative

> e e < e

Negative Slope: CM <0

Disturbance Disturbance (gust) (gust) could could cause cause or or becomes negative implies implies that that C CM,cg M,cg becomes negative becomes positive imples imples that that C CM,cg M,cg becomes positive

> e e < e

Static Longitudinal Stability

Disturbance Disturbance (gust) (gust) could could cause cause or or becomes negative implies implies that that C CM,cg M,cg becomes negative
Pitch Pitch moment moment negative negative stable stable Pitch Pitch moment moment positive positive stable stable

becomes positive imples imples that that C CM,cg M,cg becomes positive

> e e < e

Further topics in Stability & Control

Consideration Consideration of of all all contributions contributions to to the the pitch pitch moment: moment: Wing, Wing, Body, Body, Tail Tail =0) =0) Neutral Neutral point point (location (location of of c.g. c.g. where where C CM M Static Static margin margin (distance (distance between between c.g. c.g. and and n.p.) n.p.) Lateral Lateral stability stability (roll (roll stability, stability, dihedral dihedral effect) effect) Control Control (use (use of of actuators actuators such such as as elevator, elevator, rudder rudder and and trim trim tabs tabs to to achieve achieve stability) stability) AOE AOE 3134: 3134: Stability Stability & & Control, Control, Spring Spring Junior Junior Year Year covers covers all all these these topics, topics, and and will will likely likely include include some some sort sort of of demonstration demonstration using using the the aircraft aircraft flight flight simulator simulator