MODULE 1 PATTERS In casting, a pattern is a replica of the object to be cast, used to prepare the cavity into which molten

material will be poured during the casting process. Patterns used in sand casting may be made of wood, metal, plastics or other materials. Patterns are made to exacting standards of construction. TYPES (a)Solid/Single Piece Pattern (b) Split Pattern

(c) Gated Pattern (d) Loose Piece Pattern (e) Sweep Pattern

(f) Match Plate Pattern (g) Multipiece Pattern

ALLOWANCES To compensate for any dimensional and structural changes which will happen during the casting or patterning process, allowances are usually made in the pattern. 1. Contraction allowances / Shrinkage allowance The pattern needs to incorporate suitable allowances for shrinkage; these are called contraction allowances, and their exact values depend on the alloy being cast and the exact sand casting method being used. 2. Draft allowance When the pattern is to be removed from the sand mold, there is a possibility that any leading edges may break off, or get damaged in the process. To avoid this, a taper is provided on the pattern, so as to facilitate easy removal of the pattern from the mold, and hence reduce damage to edges. The taper angle provided is called the Draft angle. The value of the draft angle depends upon the complexity of the pattern, the type of molding (hand molding or machine molding), height of the surface, etc. 3. Finishing or machining allowance The surface finish obtained in sand castings is generally poor (dimensionally inaccurate), and hence in many cases, the cast product is subjected to machining processes like turning or grinding in order to improve the surface finish. During machining processes, some metal is removed from the piece. To compensate for this, a machining allowance should be given in the casting. 4. Shake allowance Usually during removal of the pattern from the mold cavity, the pattern is rapped all around the faces, in order to facilitate easy removal. In this process, the final cavity is enlarged. To compensate for this, the pattern dimensions need to be reduced. There are no standard values for this allowance, as it is heavily dependent on the personnel. This allowance is a negative allowance, and a common way of going around this allowance is to increase the draft allowance. 5. Distortion allowance During cooling of the mold, stresses developed in the solid metal may induce distortions in the cast. This is more evident when the mold is thinner in width as compared to its length. This can be eliminated by initially distorting the pattern in the opposite direction. COLOUR CODING FOR PATTERNS Representation of different types of surfaces by means of different colours is known as colour coding. By accepted colour code on pattern, we can judge the casting surfaces either to be machined or not. Parts of pattern as a core print or seat for loose piece are also justified by it. A widely accepted colour code for common practice is given below: 1) Black colour Surfaces to be left unmachined 2) Red colour Surfaces to be machined 3) Yellow colour Core prints 4) Red strips on Yellow base Seats for loose pieces 5) Black strips on Yellow base Stop offs 6) No colour or Clear Parting surface
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MOLDING SAND Main constituents of moulding sand The Principal constituents of moulding sand are: i). Silica Sand ii) Binder iii) Additives iv) Water i) Silica sand Silica sand do not possess the clay content and need addition of a suitable binder to make them usable for founding work. They are sometimes called sharp sands. When mixed with binders and additives they are known as synthetic sands. All the foundry sands owe their colour to the impurities present in them. The common colours of sands used in foundry work are white, yellow, brown, grey and red. Silica is the main constituent of all the sands. ii) Binders Binders are added to the moulding sand to impart it sufficient strength and cohesiveness. This enables it to retain the shape after the mould has been rammed and the pattern withdrawn. But it reduces the permeability of the sand mould. The common binders used in foundry can be classified as: 1. Organic Binders 2. Inorganic binders Organic binders are specifically used in core making. The common binders used in this category are:1. Dextrin 4. Cereal binders 2. Molasses 5. Pitch 3. Linseed Oil 6. Resins like phenol and urea formaldehydes Common types of inorganic binders and clay, sodium silicate and portland cement. Out of these the clay binders are commonly used. The commonly used types of clays are 1) Bentonite 3) Limonite 5) Fire clay 2) Kaolonite 4) Ball clay 6) Fullers earth iii) Additives Additives are those materials which are added to the moulding sand to improve upon some of its existing properties or to impart certain new properties to it. The commonly used additives are: 1. Coal dust 5. Wood flour 2. Sea coal 6. Pitch 3. Cereals or corn flour 7. Dextrin and molasses 4. Silica flour 8. Fuel oil iv) Water The clay content added to the foundry sand will give the required strength only if a suitable quantity of water is added to it. The water content present in the sand mass in partly in mixed form called pore water and partly in the free state known as free water. When water is added to the clay it starts filling into the pores of the clay and forms a sort of microfilm. This water content is held rigidly by the clay and is mainly responsible for enabling the clay to impart the desired strength to the sand. The quantity of bond and the capacity of clay for providing the bond mainly depend upon the, thickness of water film that it can hold. When more water is added to the clay mixture, than the amount required as pore water, it remains as a fluid and is held between the clay particles separating them. This excess amount of free water behaves as a lubricant and this improves the mouldability and plasticity of the moulding sand. But is reduces the strength of the mixture and weakens the mould. Types of moulding sands: According to their use in the foundry, moulding sands are classified into following categories: 1. Green sand: It is sand used in the wet condition for making the mould. It is mixture of silica sand with 15-25 per cent clay and 6-8 per cent water As explained earlier green sand moulds are not dried and metal is poured in them in the wet condition
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Being damp the sand can be easily worked with hand to give it any desired shape This sand is used for producing small to medium sized moulds which are not very complex 2. Dry sand: Dry sand is the green sand that has been dried or baked after preparing the mould. Drying sand gives strength to the mould so that it can be used for larger castings 3. Loam sand: Loam sand is sand containing up to 50 % clay which has been worked to the consistency of builder mortar. This sand is used for loam sand moulds for making very heavy castings usually with the help of sweeps and skeleton patterns. 4. Parting sand: This sand is used during making of the mould to ensure that green sand does not stick to the pattern and the cope and drug parts can be easily separated for removing the pattern without causing any damage to the mould. Parting sand consists of fine grained clay free dried silica sand, sea sand or burnt sand with some parting compounds. The parting compounds used include charcoal, ground bone and limestone, groundnut shells, talc and calcium phosphate. 5. Facing sand: Facing sand is the sand which covers the pattern all around it. The remaining box is filled with ordinary floor sand. Facing sand forms the face of the mould and comes in direct contact with the molten metal when it is poured. High strength and refractoriness are required for this sand. It is made of silica sand and clay without the addition of any used sand. Graphite, mollases, plumbago etc. may be added to the facing sand. Thickness of the sand layer varies from 20 to 30 mm. 6. Backing sand: Backing sand is the bulk of the sand used to back up the facing sand and to fill up the volume of the flask. It consists mainly of old, repeatedly used moulding sand which is generally black in colour due to addition of coal dust and burning on contact with hot metal. Because of the colour backing sand is also sometimes called black sand. The main purpose for the use of backing sand is to reduce the cost of moulding. 7. System sand: This is the sand used in mechanized foundries for filling the entire flask. No separate facing sand in used in a mechanized foundry. Sand, cleaned and reactivated by the addition of water and binders is used to fill the flask. Because of the absence of any fresh sand, system sand must have more strength, permeability and refractoriness compared to backing sand. Properties of moulding sands: The important properties are: 1. Strength: The sand should have adequate strength in its green, dry and hot states Green strength is the strength of sand in the wet state and is required for making possible to prepare and handle the mould. If the metal is poured into a green mould the sand adjacent to the metal dries and in the dry state it should have strength to resist erosion and the pressure of metal. The strength of the sand that has been dried or basked is called dry strength At the time of pouring the molten metal the mould must be able to withstand flow and pressure of the metal at high temperature otherwise the mould may enlarge, crack, get washed or break Strength of the moulding sand depends on: 1. Grain size and shape 2. Moisture content 3. Density of sand after ramming
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The strength of the mould increases with a decrease of grain size and an increase of clay content and density after ramming. The strength also goes down if moisture content is higher than an optimum value. 2. Permeability: The moulding sand must be sufficiently porous to allow the dissolved gases, which are evolved when the metal freezes or moisture present or generated within the moulds to be removed freely when the moulds are poured. This property of sand is called porosity or permeability. 3. Grain size and shape: The size and shape of the grains in the sand determine the application in various types of foundry. These are three different sizes of sand grains. 1. Fine 2. Medium 3. Coarse Fine sand is used for small and intricate castings. Medium sand is used for benchmark and light floor works. If the size of casting is larger coarse sand is used Sand having fine, rounded grains can be closely packed and forms a smooth surface. Although fine-grained sand enhances mould strength 4. Thermal stability: The sand adjacent to the metal is suddenly heated and undergoes expansion. If the mould wall is not dimensionally stable under rapid heating, cracks, buckling and flacking off sand may occur. 5. Refractoriness: Refractoriness is the property of withstanding the high temperature condition moulding sand with low refractoriness may burn on to the casting It is the ability of the moulding material to resist the temperature of the liquid metal to be poured so that it does not get fused with the metal. The refractoriness of the Silica sand is highest. 6. Flowability: Flowability or plasticity is the property of the sand to respond to the moulding process so that when rammed it will flow all around the pattern and take the desired mould shape. High flowability of sand is desirable for the sand to get compacted to a uniform density and to get good impression of the pattern in the mould. Flowability is also very important in machine moulding Flowability of sand increases as clay and water content are increased. 7. Sand texture: As mentioned earlier the texture of sand is defined by its grain size and grain size distribution. The texture chosen for an application should allow the required porosity, provide enough strength and produce the desired surface finish on the casting. 8. Collapsibility: The moulding sand should collapse during the contraction of the solidified casting it does not provide any resistance, which may result in cracks in the castings. Besides these specific properties the moulding material should be cheap, reusable and should have good thermal conductivity 9. Adhesiveness: It is the important property of the moulding sand and it is defined as the sand particles must be capable of adhering to another body, then only the sand should be easily attach itself with the sides of the moulding box and give easy of lifting and turning the box when filled with the stand. 10. Reusability: Since large quantities of sand are used in a foundry it is very important that the sand be reusable otherwise apart from cost it will create disposal problems 11. Easy of preparation and control: Sand should lend itself to easy preparation and control by mechanical equipment 12. Conductivity: Sand should have enough conductivity to permit removal of heat from the castings.

Methods of Sand testing: The moulding sand after it is prepared should be properly tested to see that require properties are achieved. Tests are conducted on a sample of the standard sand. The moulding sand should be prepared exactly as it is done in the shop on the standard equipment and then carefully enclosed in a container to safeguard its moisture content. Sand tests indicate the moulding sand performance and help the foundry men in controlling the properties of moulding sands. Sand testing controls the moulding sand properties through the control of its composition. The following are the various types of sand control tests: 1. Moisture content test 3. Grain fitness test 6. Refractoriness test 2. Clay content test 4. Permeability test 7. Mould hardness test 5. Strength test Moisture content test Moisture is the property of the moulding sand it is defined as the amount of water present in the moulding sand. Low moisture content in the moulding sand does not develop strength properties. High moisture content decreases permeability. Procedures are: 1. 20 to 50 gms of prepared sand is placed in the pan and is heated by an infrared heater bulb for 2 to 3 minutes. 2. The moisture in the moulding sand is thus evaporated. 3. Moulding sand is taken out of the pan and reweighed. 4. The percentage of moisture can be calculated from the difference in the weights, of the original moist and the consequently dried sand samples. Percentage of moisture content = (W1-W2) / (W1) % Where, W1-Weight of the sand before drying W2-Weight of the sand after drying Dry strength This test uses the standard specimens dried between 105 and 1100 C for 2 hours. Since the strength increases with drying, it may be necessary to apply larger stresses than the previous tests. The range of dry compression strengths found in moulding sands is from 140 to 1800 KPa, depending on the sand sample. Steps involved are: 1. Specimen is held between the grips 2. Apply the hydraulic pressure by rotating the hand wheel 3. Taking the deformation use of the indicators. Refractoriness test The refractoriness is used to measure the ability of the sand to withstand the higher temperature. Steps involved are: 1. Prepare a cylindrical specimen of sand 2. Heating the specimen at 1500 C for 2 hours 3. Observe the changes in dimension and appearance 4. If the sand is good, it retains specimen share and shows very little expansion. If the sand is poor, specimen will shrink and distort. Types of Moulds 3D Moulds These moulds are available in either a closed-bottom or open-bottom format, depending on whether you prefer to make hollow or solid chocolates Flat Moulds A flat mould produces a flat backed piece of candy with a dimensional front. A flat mould yields one or more pieces, depending on the number of cavities. Each piece is referred to as a cavity. Hollow Magnetic Spinning Moulds Manufactured from food grade polycarbonate material, these moulds also use high-strength magnets to ensure a dependable closure
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Solid Magnetic Moulds They are made out of heavy-duty polycarbonate plastic for increased durability, and feature high-powered magnets that ensure seamless castings, giving work pieces a vastly superior finish. Praline Moulds The polycarbonate moulds are regarded as among the best in the world. Magnetic Transfer Moulds The moulds hold colored cocoa butter transfer sheets in place with the help of magnets and metal backing, resulting in a finished piece with decorative pattern or texture.

MOULDING MACHINES An Injection molding machine, also known as an injection press, is a machine for manufacturing plastic products by the injection molding process. It consists of two main parts, an injection unit and a clamping unit. Operation Injection molding machines can fasten the molds in either a horizontal or vertical position. The majority of machines are horizontally oriented, but vertical machines are used in some niche applications such as insert molding, allowing the machine to take advantage of gravity. Some vertical machines also don't require the mold to be fastened. There are many ways to fasten the tools to the platens, the most common being manual clamps (both halves are bolted to the platens); however hydraulic clamps (chocks are used to hold the tool in place) and magnetic clamps are also used. The magnetic and hydraulic clamps are used where fast tool changes are required. Types of injection molding machines Machines are classified primarily by the type of driving systems they use: hydraulic, mechanical, electric, or hybrid. Hydraulic Hydraulic presses have historically been the only option available to molders until Nissei Plastic Industrial Co., LTD introduced the first all-electric injection molding machine in 1983. Hydraulic machines, although not nearly as precise, are the predominant type in most of the world, with the exception of Japan. Mechanical Mechanical type machines use the toggle system for building up tonnage on the clamp side of the machine. Tonnage is required on all machines so that the clamp side of the machine does not open (i.e. tool half mounted on the platen) due to the injection pressure. If the tool half opens up it will create flash in the plastic product. Reliability of mechanical type of machines is more as tonnage built during each cycle is the same as compared to hydraulic machines. Electric The electric press, also known as Electric Machine Technology (EMT), reduces operation costs by cutting energy consumption and also addresses some of the environmental concerns surrounding the hydraulic press. Electric presses have been shown to be quieter, faster, and have a higher accuracy, however the machines are more expensive. Hybrid Hybrid injection molding machines claim to take advantage of the best features of both hydraulic and electric systems, but in actuality use almost the same amount of electricity to operate as a standard hydraulic, A robotic arm is often used to remove the molded components; either by side or top entry, but it is more common for parts to drop out of the mold, through a chute and into a container. CORES A core is a device used in casting and molding processes to produce internal cavities and reentrant (pointing inwards) angles. The core is normally a disposable item that is destroyed to get it out of the piece. They are most commonly used in sand casting, but are also used in injection molding. Requirements There are seven requirements for core 1. In the green condition there must be adequate strength for handling.
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2. In the hardened state it must be strong enough to handle the forces of casting; therefore the compression strength should be 100 to 300 psi (0.69 to 2.1 MPa). 3. Permeability must be very high to allow for the escape of gases. 4. As the casting or molding cools the core must be weak enough to break down as the material shrinks. Moreover, they must be easy to remove during shakeout. 5. Good refractoriness is required as the core is usually surrounded by hot metal during casting or molding. 6. A smooth surface finish. 7. A minimum generation of gases during metal pouring. Types There are many types of cores available. The selection of the correct type of core depends on production quantity, production rate, required precision, required surface finish, and the type of metal being used Green-sand cores

Green-sand cores are not a typical type of core in that it is part of the cope and drag, but still form an internal feature. Their major disadvantage is their lack of strength, which makes casting long narrow features difficult or impossible. Even for long features that can be cast it still leave much material to be machined. A typical application is a through hole in a casting. Dry-sand cores Dry-sand cores overcome some of the disadvantages of the green-sand cores. They are formed independently of the mold and then inserted into the core prints in the mold, which hold the core in position. They are made by mixing sand with a binder in a wooden or metal core box, which contains a cavity in the shape of the desired core. The most simple way to make dry-sand cores is in a dump core box, in which sand is packed into the box and scraped level with the top. A wood or metal plate is then placed over the box, and then the two are flipped over and the core segment falls out of the core box. The core segment is then baked or hardened. Multiple core segments are then hot glued together or attached by some other means. Any rough spots are filed or sanded down. Finally, the core is lightly coated with graphite, silica, or mica to give a smoother surface finish and greater resistance to heat. Single-piece cores do not need to be assembled because they are made in a split core box. A split core box, like it sounds, is made of two halves and has at least one hole for sand to be introduced. For simple cores that have constant cross-sections they can be created on special core-producing extruders. The extrusions are then just cut to the proper length and hardened. More complex single-piece cores can be made in a manner similar to injection moldings and die castings. CHAPLETS

Chaplets are metallic supports often kept inside the mould cavity to support the cores. As such, the chaplets must be of the same or similar material as the metal being cast. This is because the molten metal will provide enough heat to completely melt them and thus fuse with it during solidification. Their use should also be minimized because they can cause casting defects or create a weak spot in the casting. It is usually more critical to ensure the upper chaplets are stronger than the lower ones because the core will want to float up in the molten metal. FORCES ACTING ON MOLDING FLASKS (Also known as metallostatic force) This force is exerted by the molten metal in all directions of the cavity. The metallostatic force is coming because of the head with which the metal is entering the mould cavity. This force Fm can be estimated by taking the area of crosssection of the casting on which this is acting. The projected area Ap of the casting in the parting plane is the area on which the metal pressure will be acting. The head of the metal is given by h, hence the force Fm is given by, Fm = Ap * * h Where liquid metal density in kg/m or N/cm h head of metal in m Ap Area in m
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GATING SYSTEM The set of channels through which a molten metal flows to the mold cavity is called gating system. Typical gating system consists of a pouring cup and a sprue receiving the poured melt, runner a channel through which the melt is supplied to the gates through which the molten metal enters the mold cavity.

A gating system may include a riser (feed head) a cavity connected to the gating system feeding the casting when it is shrinking. Air within the mold cavity and gases formed when a molten metal contacts the mold surface are removed through the vents. The interior cavities of a casting are formed by a separate inserts called cores. Cores are usually made of sand and backed. A mold frame (flask) consists of two parts: cope (the upper part) and drag (the lower part). A mold cavity is formed in the process of pattern molding, when the pattern (commonly wooden) is embedded in sand in the flask forming an impression of the casting. After the sand packing the pattern is removed from the flask and the cores and the gating system are arranged. Cores, runner and gates are arranged in the drag; pouring cap and sprue are placed in the cope. Then the two parts of the mold are assembled and poured. After the metal has solidified and cooled to a desired temperature, the casting is removed from the mold by the process called shakeout.

Goals of Gating System To minimize turbulence to avoid trapping gasses into the mold To get enough metal into the mold cavity before the metal starts to solidify To avoid shrinkage Establish the best possible temperature gradient in the solidifying casting so that the shrinkage if occurs must be in the gating system not in the required cast part. Incorporates a system for trapping the non-metallic inclusions Hydraulic Principles used in the Gating System Reynold's Number Bernoulli's Equation FLUID FLOW AND HEAT TRANSFER IN METAL CASTING Fluid Flow A major factor in making a good casting is the ability to get the metal from the container into the mold with a minimum of turbulence, slag, entrapped sand or other materials in the mold or molten metal system which could get swept into the mold cavity.. Fluidity Mold design The capability of a molten metal to fill mold The design and size of the sprue, runners, and cavities risers affect fluidity Viscosity Mold material and surface Higher viscosity decreases fluidity Thermal conductivity and roughness decrease fluidity Surface tension Decreases fluidity; often caused by oxide film Superheating The temperature increment above the melting Inclusions point increases fluidity Insoluble particles can increase viscosity, reducing fluidity Pouring Lower pouring rates decrease fluidity because Solidification pattern of faster cooling Fluidity is inversely proportional to the freezing temperature range Heat transfer Affects the viscosity of the metal Heat Transfer The metal that solidifies first is at the wall of the mold; this solid layer thickens as time passes. Shrinkage during cooling can change the part dimensions and sometimes cause cracking; it is caused by the metals thermal expansion properties and the phase change between liquid and solid.

ELEMENTS AND DESIGN OF GATING SYSTEM The gating systems refer to all those elements which are connected with the flow of molten metal from theladle to the mould cavity. The elements of gating systems are Pouring Basin Sprue Base Well Ingate Sprue Runner Riser Runner Extension

Any gating system designed should aim at providing a defect free casting. This can be achieved by considering following requirements. The mould should be completely filled in the smallest possible time without having to raise neither metal temperature nor use of higher metal heads. The metal should flow smoothly into the mould without any turbulence. A turbulence metal flow tends to form dross in the mould. Unwanted materials such as slag, dross and other mould materials should not be allowed to enter the mould cavity. The metal entry into the mould cavity should be properly controlled in such a way that aspiration of the atmospheric air is prevented. A proper thermal gradient should be maintained so that the casting is cooled without any shrinkage cavities or distortions. Metal flow should be maintained in such a way that no gating or mould erosion takes place. The gating system should ensure that enough molten metal reaches the mould cavity. It should be economical and easy to implement and remove after casting solidification. The casting yield should be maximised SPRUE A sprue is the passage through which liquid material is introduced into a mold. During casting or molding, the material in the sprue will solidify and need to be removed from the finished part. GATING RATIO Gating ratio is the ratio of sprue area to total runner area to total gating area. The horizontal portion of the gating system that connects the sprues to the gates is known as runners.

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SLAG TRAP SYSTEM In order to obtain sound casting quality, it is essential that the slag and other impurities be removed from the molten metal fully before it enters the mould cavity. Apart from the use of pouring basins and strainer cores the following methods are also used. a) Runner Extension Normally the metal which moves first into the gating system is likely to contain slag and dross which should not be allowed to get into the mould cavity. This could be achieved by extending the runner beyond the ingates so that the momentum of the metal will carry it past the gates and to a blind alley called runner extension. A runner extension having a minimum of twice the runner width is desirable. b) Whirl Gate Another method employed successfully to trap the slag from entering steel casting is a whirl gate. This utilizes the principle of centrifugal action to throw the dense metal to the periphery and retain the lighter slag at the centre. In order to achieve this action, it is necessary that entry area should be at least 1.5times the exit area so that the metal is built up at the centre quickly. Also the metal should revolve 270 before reaching the exit gate so as to gain enough time for separating the impurities. RISERS Risers are important to ensure a flow of molten metal to the part being cast as it's starting to solidify. Without a riser heavier parts of the casting will have shrinkage defects, either on the surface or internally. As molten metal solidifies it shrinks. If it does not have a source of more molten metal to feed it as it shrinks you will get defects in your casting. A risers purpose is to provide that extra molten metal. Basically a riser is a vertical portion of the gating system, similar to a straight sprue, that stores the molten metal until it is needed by the casting. This means the metal in the riser must stay liquid longer than the metal in the part being cast. The risers can either be attached to the top or the side of a part. They may also be blind risers. A blind riser is completely contained in the mold, not exposed to the air. Since it's not opened to the air this type of riser cools slower and thus will stay liquid longer. It's important that no matter where it's located the gate that connects the riser to the casting is not too small and as short as possible or else the gate will solidify too soon and prevent the metal in the riser from reaching the casting, try and keep the length to 1/2 the diameter of the riser. Cupola operation

To begin a production run, called a 'cupola campaign', the furnace is filled with layers of coke and ignited with torches. Some smaller cupolas may be ignited with wood to start the coke burning. When the coke is ignited, air is introduced to the coke bed through ports in the sides called tuyeres (tube or nozzle)
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When the coke is very hot, solid pieces of metal are charged into the furnace through an opening in the top. The metal is alternated with additional layers of fresh coke. Limestone is added to act as a flux. As the heat rises within the stack the metal is melted. It drips down through the coke bed to collect in a pool at the bottom, just above the bottom doors. During the melting process a thermodynamic reaction takes place between the fuel and the blast air. The carbon in the coke combines with the oxygen in the air to form carbon monoxide. The carbon monoxide further burns to form carbon dioxide. Some of the carbon is picked up by the falling droplets of molten metal which raises the carbon content of the iron. Silicon carbide and ferromanganese briquettes may also be added to the charge materials. The silicon carbide dissociates and carbon and silicon enters into the molten metal. Likewise, the ferromanganese melts and is combined into the pool of liquid iron in the 'well' at the bottom of the cupola. Additions to the molten iron such as ferromanganese, ferrosilicon, Silicon carbide and other alloying agents are used to alter the molten iron to conform to the needs of the castings at hand. The operator of the cupola is known as the "cupola tender" or "furnace master". During the operation of a tapped cupola (cupolas may vary in this regard) the tender observes the amount of iron rising in the well of the cupola. When the metal level is sufficiently high, the cupola tender opens the "tap hole" to let the metal flow into a ladle or other container to hold the molten metal. When enough metal is drawn off the "tap hole" is plugged with a refractory plug made of clay. The cupola tender observes the furnace through the sight glass or peep sight in the tuyeres. Slag will rise to the top of the pool of iron being formed. A slag hole, located higher up on the cylinder of the furnace, and usually to the rear or side of the tap hole, is opened to let the slag flow out. The viscosity is low (with proper fluxing) and the red hot molten slag will flow easily. Sometimes the slag which runs out the slag hole is collected in a small cup shaped tool, allowed to cool and harden. It is fractured and visually examined. With acid refractory lined cupolas a greenish colored slag means the fluxing is proper and adequate. In basic refractory lined cupolas the slag is brown. After the cupola has produced enough metal to supply the foundry with its needs, the bottom is opened, or 'dropped' and the remaining materials fall to the floor between the legs. This material is allowed to cool and subsequently removed. The cupola can be used over and over. A 'campaign' may last a few hours, a day, weeks or even months. When the operation is over, the blast is shut off and the prop under the bottom door is knocked down so that the bottom plates swing open. This enables the cupola remains to drop to the floor or into a bucket. They are then quenched and removed from underneath the cupola. Pouring and cleaning of castings Pouring In a foundry, molten metal is poured into molds. Pouring refers to the process by which the molten metal is delivered into the mold. Pouring can be accomplished with gravity, or it may be assisted with a vacuum or pressurized gas. Many modern foundries use robots or automatic pouring machines for pouring molten metal. Traditionally, molds were poured by hand using ladles. Cleaning Once you are certain that the mold and glass inside are cool, carefully break the mold away from the glass. Proceed slowly, taking care not to break the glass. This can be easier said than done, but if you are careful you will eventually be able to remove the entire mold and free the glass. The surface of the casting will probably look ugly, not at all like the shimmering piece of glass you may have imagined. Let the casting sit for a few hours just to make certain it has completely cooled, then you can begin the cleaning process. Wash the casting in water. You may want to use a stainless steel or stiff nylon brush to clean off the mold material residue. Sometimes you will need to use a wet/dry sandpaper or Dremel-type tool to help with the cleaning. Its important to keep the casting wet during this cleaning and to wear a respirator to keep from breathing in any silica dust particles. Once the casting is clean, you may want to polish it (see Polishing equipment section) or shine it up using an oil or acrylic enamel. Clear spray oil, such as Varathane Natural Oil Finish #66 Clear, will permanently give the casting a shiny finish. Similarly, you can use a clear acrylic or enamel spray to give the glass a permanent wet look. For all of these products, make certain the casting is completely clean and clear of fingerprints and other blemishes prior to using. If you have a soda-lime glass such as Bullseye or Uroboros, you can use a commercial product such as Back Magic to impart sheen to the casting. These products are painted or brushed on the casting, which is heated in a kiln to
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around 1100 degrees F. If you use this approach, make sure you heat, anneal, and cool the item slowly so as to prevent cracking. Unfortunately, these products are lead-based, so they cannot be used on surfaces that will come into contact with food. Finally, although kiln casting can be more rewarding and interesting that fusing and slumping, it is also more complicated. There are many more tricks and techniques, and most artists have developed their own approaches to kiln casting. This variety can be a source of frustration (there is, after all, no single "right way"), but it is also part of what gives kiln casting its charm and excitement. Defects in Casting 1. Metallic Projections 2. Cavities 3. Discontinuities 4. Defective Surface 5. Incomplete Casting 6. Incorrect Dimensions or Shape 7. Inclusions or Structural Anomalies Metallic Projections These appear as projections of irregular thickness often with lacy edges. They are perpendicular to one of the faces of the casting surface. They occur along the joint or parting line of the mold or wherever two elements of the mold intersect.

Cavities B l o w h o l e s , P i n h o l e s : These are smooth walled, nearly spherical, cavities often not contacting the surface. Smaller cavities appear in groups while larger cavities appear most often in isolation. These defects can appear in all regions of the casting.

D i s p e r s e d S h r i n k a g e : Narrow cavities resembling tears or fissures, generally perpendicular to the surface of the casting. Their depth may be as great as 2 cm. The internal surface of the cavity is dendritic.

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O p e n o r E x t e r n a l S h r i n k a g e : This is a shrinkage cavity that extends to the exterior surface of a casting. This generally occurs in heavy sections with a funnel shaped and sometimes elongated pattern.

I n t e r n a l o r B l i n d S h r i n k a g e : Shrinkage cavity normally found in heavy sections of a casting; but, the funnel shape defect does not extend to the surface. The defect generally is located toward the upper section of the casting or at the intersection of casting walls.

C o r n e r o r F i l l e t S h r i n k a g e : A cavity that emerges to the surface in reentrant angles of the pattern, at gates or at isolated surfaces that are characterized by slow solidification. The walls of the cavity are most often rough and dendritic.

C e n t e r l i n e o r A x i a l S h r i n k a g e : A cavity or porous region along the centerline of casting sections that is plate-like or worm-like in shape.

M a c r o s h r i n k a g e , M i c r o s h r i n k a g e o r S h r i n k a g e P o r o s i t y : This defect has a spongy appearance, sometimes dendritic or in the form of small superimposed cavities. It is generally localized in the last section to freeze off during solidification. It is most often found in alloys with a wider liquidus-solidus range.

Discontinuities H o t C r a c k i n g : A crack, often scarcely visible because the casting has not separated into fragments. The design of the casting is such that the crack would not be expected to result from the solidification forces during cooling.

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. H o t T e a r i n g : More or less deep intercrystalline fissures of irregular outline characterize this defect. The cracks often show a fine dendritic structure. The defect most often appears in the last sections of the casting to solidify where sharp angles or wide variations of mass are present.

Q u e n c h C r a c k i n g : A discontinuity in the form of a crevice that is visible to the naked eye. The crack is clearly delineated by sharp edges and is of uniform width; it may occur only at the surface or extend through the entire section. This may typically occur in bonding some other metal to a platinum casting.

C o l d S h u t o r C o l d L a p : A linear discontinuity with rounded edges. The defect has a characteristic appearance and may vary in depth. In the mildest case, it may consist merely of a shallow groove with rounded edges. A cold shut occurs on wide surfaces of the casting, in thin sections that are difficult to fill or where two streams of metal converge in the mold due to the sequence of filling.

Defective Surface S u r f a c e F o l d s o r G a s R u n s : Irregular fold marks distributed across a surface of the casting. This defect most often occurs on thin sections, which are remote to the gating of the pattern.

M e t a l - M o l d R e a c t i o n , O r a n g e P e e l a n d A l l i g a t o r S k i n : This is a defect where areas of the casting are covered with hollow blemishes resembling an orange peel. Dimensions of the blemishes may vary according to the severity of the condition. They are larger on thick heavy sections.

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S i n k M a r k s , D r a w a n d S u c k - I n : These are depressions in the casting surface at heavy metal sections and intersections. The surface of the depression is normally no different than that of other areas of the casting.

E x t e r n a l S l a g I n c l u s i o n s : These are small shallow angular surface cavities of varying widths. They are typically uniform in their depth and are more prevalent toward the top of the mold.

M e t a l P e n e t r a t i o n : Contrary to the name, this defect is actually a projection of metal at the surface of no particular geometric shape, comprised of an intimate mixture of investment material and metal having a spongy appearance, but strongly adhering to the casting. This defect typically occurs in hot sections of the casting.

D i p C o a t S p a l l , S c a b : This is a defect that occurs when a flake or piece of mold material is trapped within the metal surface.

Incomplete Casting M i s r u n This is a defect where a portion of the casting is missing, usually distant from the gate area. Edges are rounded and the adjacent surfaces are generally shiny.

P o u r e d S h o r t : The upper or extended areas of the casting are not filled. The edges adjacent to the missing section are slightly rounded; all other contours conform to the original pattern. The sprue, gates and pattern are all filled to the same height on the casting.
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Incorrect Dimensions or Shape M u t i l a t i o n : Areas of the casting are thinner than the pattern or they are deformed in relation to the original pattern.

I m p r o p e r S h r i n k a g e A l l o w a n c e : All measurements of the casting are uniformly large or small in comparison to the specified dimensions.

C a s t i n g D i s t o r t i o n : The casting displays overall distortion in comparison with the original pattern and the mold. Such distortions occur in long, flat areas or where changes in thickness take place.

Inclusions or Structural Anomalies S l a g , D r o s s o r O t h e r C e r o x i d e I n c l u s i o n s : Irregularly shaped non-metallic inclusions resembling a ceramic material. These inclusions may occur below the casting surface and may not be visible until the piece is finished and polished.

H a r d S p o t s : Hard inclusions, more or less finely dispersed and sometimes rather large. The casting may appear brittle and will display cracking if only slightly bent.

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Inspection and quality control for castings 1) The general inspection is concerning company systems. That system must assure: a. A company quality for the products b. A consistent quality c. A system to react on non-conformities in order to solve the problem and assure the re-appearance of it. 2) The product inspections are concerning: a. Appearance b. Dimensions c. Material requirements d. Section quality e. Surface quality. Continuous casting Continuous casting is a refinement of the casting process for the continuous, high-volume production of metal sections with a constant cross-section. Molten metal is poured into an open-ended, water-cooled copper mold, which allows a 'skin' of solid metal to form over the still-liquid centre. The strand, as it is now called, is withdrawn from the mold and passed into a chamber of rollers and water sprays; the rollers support the thin skin of the strand while the sprays remove heat from the strand, gradually solidifying the strand from the outside in. After solidification, predetermined lengths of the strand are cut off by either mechanical shears or traveling oxyacetylene torches and transferred to further forming processes, or to a stockpile. Cast sizes can range from strip (a few millimeters thick by about five meters wide) to billets (90 to 160 mm square) to slabs (1.25 m wide by 230 mm thick). Sometimes, the strand may undergo an initial hot rolling process before being cut. Continuous casting is used due to the lower costs associated with continuous production of a standard product, and also increased quality of the final product. Metals such as steel, copper and aluminum are continuously cast, with steel being the metal with the greatest tonnages cast using this method. Direct strip casting Direct strip casting is a continuous casting process for producing metallic sheet directly from the molten state that minimizes the need for substantial secondary processing (Secondary processes modify, refine or add features to an already-shaped body) Shell mold casting Shell molding is similar to sand casting, but the molding cavity is formed by a hardened "shell" of sand instead of a flask filled with sand. The sand used is finer than sand casting sand and is mixed with a resin so that it can be heated by the pattern and hardened into a shell around the pattern. Because of the resin and finer sand, it gives a much finer surface finish. The process is easily automated and more precise than sand casting. Common metals that are cast include cast iron, aluminium, magnesium, and copper alloys. This process is ideal for complex items that are small to medium sized. Vacuum die casting

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The pressure inside the die is decreased by a vacuum pump and the difference of pressure forces the liquid metal to enter the die. This transfer is less turbulent than by other casting techniques so that gas inclusions can be very limited. As a consequence, this new technique is specially aimed to components which can subsequently be heat-treated. Investment casting Investment casting (known as lost-wax casting in art) is a process that has been practiced for thousands of years, with the lost-wax process being one of the oldest known metal forming techniques. From 5000 years ago, when beeswax formed the pattern, to todays high technology waxes, refractory materials and specialist alloys, the castings ensure high-quality components are produced with the key benefits of accuracy, repeatability, versatility and integrity. Investment casting derives its name from the fact that the pattern is invested, or surrounded, with a refractory material. The wax patterns require extreme care for they are not strong enough to withstand forces encountered during the mold making. One advantage of investment casting is that the wax can be reused. The process is suitable for repeatable production of net shape components from a variety of different metals and high performance alloys. Although generally used for small castings, this process has been used to produce complete aircraft door frames, with steel castings of up to 300 kg and aluminium castings of up to 30 kg. Compared to other casting processes such as die casting or sand casting, it can be an expensive process, however the components that can be produced using investment casting can incorporate intricate contours, and in most cases the components are cast near net shape, so require little or no rework once cast. Slush casting Slush casting is a variant of permanent molding casting to create a hollow casting or hollow cast. In the process the material is poured into the mold and allowed to cool until a shell of material forms in the mold. The remaining liquid is then poured out to leave a hollow shell. The resulting casting has good surface detail but the wall thickness can vary. The process is usually used to cast ornamental products, such as candlesticks, lamp bases, and statuary, from low-melting-point materials. It uses less material than solid casting, and results in a lighter and less expensive product. Pressure Die Casting Pressure die casting is a quick, reliable and cost-effective manufacturing process for production of high volume; metal components that are net-shaped have tight tolerances. Basically, the pressure die casting process consists of injecting under high pressure a molten metal alloy into a steel mold. This gets solidified rapidly (from milliseconds to a few seconds) to form a net shaped component. It is then automatically extracted. 1. High Pressure Die Casting Here, the liquid metal is injected with high speed and high pressure into the metal mold. The basic equipment consists of two vertical platens. The bolsters are placed on these platens and this holds the die halves. Out of the two platens, one is fixed and the other movable.

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This helps the die to open and close. A specific amount of metal is poured into the shot sleeve and afterwards introduced into the mold cavity. This is done using a hydraulically-driven piston. After the metal has solidified, the die is opened and the casting eventually removed. Types of High Pressure Die Casting a)Hot Chamber process

The workings of a hot chamber process goes like this. The molten metal for casting is placed in the holding furnace at the required temperature adjacent to (sometimes as part of the machine itself) the machine. The injection mechanism is placed within the holding furnace and most of its part is in constant touch with the molten metal. When pressure is transmitted by the injection piston, the metal is forced through the gooseneck into the die. On the return stroke, the metal is drawn towards the gooseneck for the next shot. This process ensures minimum contact between air and the metal to be injected. The tendency for entrainment of air in the metal during injection is also minimised b)Cold Chamber process

The difference of this process with the hot-chamber process is that the injection system is not submerged in molten metal. On the contrary, metal gets transferred by ladle, manually or automatically, to the shot sleeve. The metal is pushed into the die by a hydraulically operated plunger. This process minimises the contact time between the injector components and the molten metal. This extends the life of the components. However the entrainment of air into the metal generally associated with high-speed injection can cause gas porosity in the castings. In the cold chamber machine, injection pressures over 10,000 psi or 70,000 KPa is obtainable. Generally steel castings along with aluminium and copper based alloys are produced by this method.

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2. Low pressure Die casting

The process works like this; first a metal die is positioned above a sealed furnace containing molten metal. A refractory-lined riser extends from the bottom of the die into the molten metal. Low pressure air (15 - 100 kPa, 2- 15 psi) is then introduced into the furnace. This makes the molten metal rise up the tube and enters the die cavity with low turbulence. After the metal has solidified, the air pressure is released. This makes the metal still in the molten state in the riser tube to fall back into the furnace. After subsequent cooling, the die is opened and the casting extracted. With correct die design it is possible to eliminate the need of the riser also. This is because of the directional freezing of the casting. After the sequence has been established, the process can be controlled automatically using temperature and pressure controllers to oversee the operation of more than one die casting machine. Casting yield is exceptionally high as there is usually only one ingate and no feeders. Application of Pressure Die Casting Automotive parts like wheels, blocks, cylinder heads, manifolds etc. Aerospace castings. Electric motor housings. Kitchen ware such as pressure cooker. Cabinets for the electronics industry. General hardware appliances pump parts, plumbing parts. Centrifugal casting In this process molten metal is poured in the mold and allowed to solidify while the mold is rotating. Metal is poured into the center of the mold at its axis of rotation. Due to centrifugal force the liquid metal is thrown out towards the periphery. Centrifugal casting is both gravity- and pressure-independent since it creates its own force feed using a temporary sand mold held in a spinning chamber at up to 900 N. Lead time varies with the application. Semi- and true-centrifugal processing permit 30-50 pieces/hr-mold to be produced, with a practical limit for batch processing of approximately 9000 kg total mass with a typical per-item limit of 2.3-4.5 kg. Squeeze Casting The squeeze casting process uses an accurately measured or metered quantity of molten metal which is poured into a heated mould via a launder. The mould is closed to produce an internal cavity in the shape of the required component. The molten metal is forced/displaced into the available space of the die cavity. As with most casting processes, using a permanent pattern, the mould is coated with a suitable release agent and for squeeze casting it is usually in the form of a graphite coating. Pressure continues to be applied to the molten metal until it has solidified and forms the required component. The press is then withdrawn and the component is ejected. Squeeze casting is most suited to the production of light alloy components in large production quantities. Retractable and disposable cores can be used to create complex internal features.
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Advantages 1. Offers a broader range of shapes and components than other manufacturing methods 2. Little or no machining required post casting process 3. Low levels of porosity 4. Good surface texture 5. Fine micro-structures with higher strength components 6. No waste material, 100% utilization Disadvantages 1. Costs are very high due to complex tooling 2. No flexibility as tooling is dedicated to specific components 3. Process needs to be accurately controlled which slows the cycle time down and increases process costs. 4. High costs mean high production volumes are necessary to justify equipment investment Semi-solid metal casting Semi-solid metal (SSM) casting is a modified die casting process that reduces or eliminates the residual porosity present in most die castings. Rather than using liquid metal as the feed material, SSM casting uses a higher viscosity feed material that is partially solid and partially liquid. A modified die casting machine is used to inject the semi-solid slurry into re-usable hardened steel dies. The high viscosity of the semi-solid metal, along with the use of controlled die filling conditions, ensures that the semi-solid metal fills the die in a non-turbulent manner so that harmful porosity can be essentially eliminated. Used commercially mainly for aluminium and magnesium alloys, SSM castings can be heat treated to the T4, T5 or T6 tempers. The combination of heat treatment, fast cooling rates (from using un-coated steel dies) and minimal porosity provides excellent combinations of strength and ductility. Other advantages of SSM casting include the ability to produce complex shaped parts net shape, pressure tightness, tight dimensional tolerances and the ability to cast thin walls.

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