Critical Solutions

CRITICAL SOLUTIONS IN THE DYEING OF COTTON TEXTILE MATERIALS
R. Shamey and T. Hussein

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Abstract: Over the decades there have been several papers on the coloration of cotton-based textiles. The number of articles dealing with the processing of cotton, including preparation, dyeing, and finishing, may be in the thousands. An investigation of the possible causes of problems occurring in the coloration of textiles revealed that a comprehensive review of case studies and scientific analysis would be a welcome addition to the already rich pool of knowledge in this area.
Key words: Cotton, troubleshooting, pretreatment, dyeing, dyes, colorants.
1. INTRODUCTION
Cotton is the backbone of the worlds textile trade [1]. It has many qualities [2] and countless end uses [3], which make it one of the most abundantly used textile fibres in the world [4]. It is a seed hair of plant of genus Gossypium [5], the purest form of cellulose found in nature. However, cotton is one of the most problematic fibres as far as its general wet processing or dyeing is concerned. Quite frequently, the problems in dyed cotton materials are not due to the actual dyeing process but due to some latent defects introduced from previous production and processing stages. Often, the root-cause(s) of a problem in the dyed material can be traced as far back as to the cotton field. This monograph will address problems in the dyeing of cotton textile materials in various forms. An overview of various textile operations for cotton will be given in the beginning. Then, various key stages and factors involved in the production of dyed cotton textile materials will be described in detail and problems originating at each stage will be summarised. 1.1 Overview of Textile Operations for Cotton The textile industry is comprised of a diverse, fragmented group of establishments that receive and prepare fibres, transform fibres into yarn, convert the yarn into fabric or related products, and dye and finish these materials at various stages of production. Figure 1 shows some of the general steps involved in manufacturing cotton textiles. Textiles generally go through three to four stages of production that may include yarn formation, fabric formation, wet processing and textile fabrication [6]. Textile fibres are converted into yarn by grouping and twisting operations used to bind them together [7]. Although most textile fibres are processed using spinning operations, the processes leading to spinning vary depending on whether the fibres are natural or manmade. Figure 2 shows the different steps used in cotton yarn formation. Some of
The Textile Institute
Textile Progress
Raw Cotton Fibre Preparation Spinning Warping Sizing Knitting
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Yarn Formation
Fabric Formation
Weaving Preparation Printing Dyeing Finishing Cutting Finished Goods Sewing Wet Processing
Fabrication
Fig. 1
General steps in manufacturing cotton textile goods.
Raw Cotton Cleaning Warping Blending Carding Sizing Combing Drawing Drafting Spinning Weaving
Yarn
Knitting (Weft or Warp)
Fabric
Fig. 2
General steps in yarn and fabric formation.
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Critical Solutions in the Dyeing of Cotton
these steps may be optional, depending on the type of yarn and spinning equipment used. The major methods for fabric manufacture are weaving and knitting, although recently nonwoven constructions have become more popular. Before weaving, warp yarns are first wound on large spools, or cones, which are placed on a rack called a creel. From the creel, warp yarns are wound on a beam wherefrom they are passed through a process known as sizing or slashing. The size solution forms a coating that protects the yarns against snagging or abrasion during weaving. Fabrics are formed from weaving by interlacing one set of yarns with another set oriented crosswise. In the weaving operation, the lengthwise yarns that form the basic structure of the fabric are called the warp and the crosswise yarns are called the filling, also referred to as the weft [8, 9]. Knitted fabrics may be constructed by using hooked needles to interlock one or more sets of yarns through a set of loops. The loops may be either loosely or closely constructed, depending on the purpose of the fabric. Knitting is performed using either weft or warp knitting processes [10]. Woven and knitted fabrics cannot usually be processed into apparel and other finished goods until the fabrics have passed through several water-intensive wet processing stages. Wet processing enhances the appearance, durability and serviceability of fabrics by converting undyed and unfinished goods, known as grey or greige goods, into finished consumers goods. Various stages of wet processing, shown in Fig. 3, involve treating greige goods with chemical baths and often additional washing, rinsing and drying steps [11]. Some of these stages may be optional, depending on the style of fabric being manufactured or whether the material being wet-processed is a yarn, or a knitted or woven fabric. Some of the key steps in the treatment of cotton material include singeing, desizing, scouring, bleaching, mercerizing, as well as dyeing and finishing.
Singeing Desizing Scouring Bleaching Mercerising Dyeing Printing
Mechanical Finishing
Chemical Finishing
Finished Fabric
Fig. 3 The Textile Institute
General steps in wet processing.
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Singeing is a dry process that removes fibres protruding from yarns or fabrics. Desizing is a wet process that removes the sizing material applied to the warp yarns before weaving. Scouring is a cleaning process that removes impurities from fibres, yarns or cloth through washing, usually with alkaline solutions. Bleaching is a chemical process that decolourizes coloured impurities that are not removed by scouring and prepares the cloth for further finishing processes such as dyeing or printing. Mercerization is a chemical process to increase dyeability, lustre and appearance. Dyeing operations are used at various stages of production to add colour to textiles and increase product value. Dyeing can be performed using batch or continuous processes. Common methods of batch or exhaust dyeing include package, beam, beck, winch, jet and jig processing. Continuous dyeing processes typically consist of dye application, dye fixation with chemicals or heat, and washing. Dyeing processes may take place at any of several stages of the manufacturing process (fibres, yarn, piece-dyeing). Stock dyeing is used to dye fibres; yarn dyeing is used to dye yarn; and piece/fabric dyeing is done after the yarn has been constructed into fabric. Printing is a localized or patternised coloration of the fabrics. Fabrics are printed with colour and patterns using a variety of techniques and machine types. Finishing encompasses chemical or mechanical treatments performed on fibre, yarn or fabric to improve appearance, texture, or performance.
2. PROBLEMS ORIGINATING FROM COTTON FIBRE

2.1 Problems Caused by Immature and/or Dead Cotton Although it a common practice to use the terms dead and immature interchangeably, it is useful to use these terms to indicate two different levels of maturity in cotton fibres. The normal mature cotton fibre is bean-shaped in cross-section and has a thick cell-wall. The other extreme, dead cotton, has virtually no cell-wall thickness. The intermediate range between mature and dead is classified as immature. The immature (sometimes called thin-walled) fibre does have some secondary wall thickening. The thinner wall of the immature fibre lacks the rigidity of mature cotton. This increased flexibility of immature or dead fibres makes them prone to be mechanically knotted into a clump during ginning, lint cleaning and carding. These neps or clusters of fibres may resist dye and appear as white specks in the dyed material [1216]. The distinction between dead and immature fibres is very important. Both dye lighter than fully mature fibres but only immature fibres respond to mercerization or any other swelling treatment. In contrast, dead fibres lack the ability to accept some dye even if pre-treated with a swelling agent. The white or light-coloured specks caused by immature/dead fibres may be of one of the following three types. The first type of the defect occurs when a surface knot of entangled immature fibres is flattened during processing and takes on a glazed, shiny appearance. The knot then becomes a small, reflective mirror on the surface of the dyed material. Its greater reflectance makes the knot appear lighter at some viewing angles than the surrounding area although it has actually been dyed to the same depth. The second type occurs when the fabric is poorly penetrated during dyeing. Since the clumps of immature fibres are often loosely attached to the material, they can be moved or knocked loose during subsequent processes. If the clump, or
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the yarn behind it, is not properly penetrated during dyeing, a light spot will be seen when the clump changes its position. The third type is the classic case of the clump of immature or dead fibres not dyeing to the same depth as the surrounding material. The coverage of immature cotton depends upon the following factors: Fibre preparation: There are several stages in the fibre preparation where an attempt can be made to decrease the amount of neps of the immature and/or dead fibres that are usually clumped together [17]. It is important to try to remove these clumps prior to the carding process. Once past the main cylinder of the card, the clumped fibres go into the subsequently formed yarn and the fabric. Preparation sequence: The preparation sequence has little, if any, impact on the coverage of immature cotton. Only pre-treatments that swell the cell wall, giving it greater thickness, are effective in improving the dyeability of immature cotton. Swelling pre-treatment: Treatment with swelling agents at optimum concentration (e.g. caustic soda with a 14% or greater concentration) is effective in swelling the secondary wall of immature cotton, and improving its dyeing affinity. On the other hand, dead cotton lacks the necessary cell-wall thickness to be effectively treated by any type of swelling pre-treatment system. Dye selection: Dyes vary widely in their ability to effectively eliminate the white or off-shade specks. It is recommended that dye suppliers be consulted for data on the immature cotton coverage capabilities of specific dyes. Since caustic pretreatment is ineffective in eliminating white or off-shade specks caused by dead cotton, dye selection is the best alternative in this case. Although the exact mechanisms are unknown, one theory is that dyes that cover dead cotton are those which do not penetrate into the cellulose of the fibre (the core) but are deposited mainly in the outside layer. This gives the dead fibre a coloured skin. After-treatments: Swelling treatments such as mercerization or ammonia treatment may be effective after dyeing, as well as before, if the problem is the presence of reflective surfaces and not a genuine difference in dye uptake by the immature cotton. However, such a procedure is justified only in extreme cases, as there is an inevitable change of shade even when the fabric is dyed with dyes that are resistant to strong alkalis. 2.2 Problems Caused by Dyeability Variation in Cotton The results of research [18] confirm the dyeability variations in cotton obtained from different sources. It has been suggested that the substrate should be obtained from a single source, wherever possible, in order to keep the dyeability variations to a minimum. Since some dyestuffs are more sensitive to dyeability variations than others; those dyes should be selected for dyeing which are less sensitive to dyeability variation. 2.3 Problems Caused by Contaminants in Cotton While cotton fibre may be as much as 96 % cellulose, there are other components present which must be removed in preparation for a successful dyeing. Table 1 gives a summary of naturally occurring impurities in cotton [19]. The level of contamination in cotton is affected by: geology of cultivation area; soil constitution; weather conditions during the maturing period; cultivation techniques;
Textile Progress
doi:10.1533/tepr.2005.0001 Table 1 Typical Composition of Raw Cotton
Component Cellulose Pectins Wax Proteins Ash Other organic compounds
Proportion (%) 88.096.0 0.71.2 0.41.0 1.11.9 0.71.6 0.51.0
chemicals, pesticides and fertilizers; as well as harvesting techniques [20]. For the dyer, the elements that pose the greatest threat are alkaline earth and heavy metal contaminants such as calcium, magnesium, manganese, and iron. Depending on its origin, raw cotton can exhibit widely different contents of alkaline earth and heavy metal ions. Table 2 gives an example of the metal content of cotton having different origins [21].
Table 2 Origin of Cotton Ca Brazil Assai Piranha Brazil Sao Paulo Peru USA Texas USA California Egypt Makko 3147 845 700 810 600 640 Mg 1156 555 440 365 540 452 Metal Content of Cotton of Different Origins Metal Content (mg/kg) Fe 680 46 13 75 40 11 Cu 6 6 1 1 1 1 Mn 30 11 <1 <1 <1 <1
< < < <
Levels of fats, oils and waxes present in cotton can be reduced to acceptable limits by the action of alkali and surface-active products. In extreme cases, the use of solvent and surface active mixtures may be necessary [22]. Pectins and the related substances can be rendered soluble by the action of alkali, usually caustic soda, which also acts as a swelling agent. Amino acids are also rendered soluble in the presence of alkali by producing the corresponding sodium salts. Metals, however, cannot be adequately removed by conventional alkaline processes since, in an alkaline medium, sequestering agents cannot quantitatively separate the minerals of a complex structure containing heavy metals. Moreover, in the alkaline pH region, cellulose swells rapidly and strongly, thus impairing the transport of crystalline minerals from the core to the periphery of the fibre. Demineralisation with organic or inorganic acid is more effective as compared to the alkaline treatment process. However, regardless of the efficacy of an acid treatment, the use of organic or inorganic acids for the demineralisation of cellulosic fibres involves a number of disadvantages such as corrosion of machine parts, difficulties in handling, and risk of fibre damage with strong inorganic acids, while organic acids give lower demineralisation and are more volatile. Speciality products based upon strongly acidic sequestering agents or a mixture of sequestering agents with organic buffer systems are recently being used for demineralisation of cotton. These products offer numerous advantages over conventional
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acids such as hydrochloric acid or sulphuric acid. Some of the advantages are given as follows: No corrosion No steam volatility No unpleasant odour Prevention of dissolved metal ions from re-precipitating Synergy with surfactants, improving the washing effect, dispersion power and soil suspension capacity Lower ash content Improved degree of whiteness No fibre damage
However, with such an intensive demineralisation treatment, care must be taken that magnesium ions are added in subsequent peroxide bleaches, in order to avoid fibre damage in the bleach owing to insufficient stabilisation of hydrogen peroxide [23]. 2.4 Effect of Cotton Colour Grade on the Colour Yield of Dyed Goods The difference in the colour yield of cotton of different original colour grades, when dyed after scouring and bleaching, is so small as to be explicable by experimental variation [24]. A summary of dyeing problems originating from cotton fibre is given in Appendix A.
3. PROBLEMS ORIGINATING IN YARN FORMATION

As much as 25 percent of the faults responsible for downgrading cotton finished garments may be attributed to yarn [25]. The key yarn parameters are as follows: Yarn count Twist per inch Twist direction Strength Type (open-end or ring-spun, combed or carded) Elongation at break Moisture content Hairiness/pilling characteristics Uniformity/variation Impurities/foreign matter Composition Single or ply Colour/shade Dyeability Classimat majors [26]
Some common types of faults present in yarn are as follows: Neps Long thick places Short thick places
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Thin places Weak places Count variation Hairiness Dyeability variations [2730]
The main causes of the dyeability variations in yarn are: Immature fibres Dead fibres Vegetable matter or other foreign matter Wrong twist Bad splice Neps Count variations
4. PROBLEMS ORIGINATING IN YARN WINDING FOR PACKAGE DYEING

The success of package dyeing, in terms of both levelness and yarn quality, is greatly influenced by the degree of care taken in the preparation of the yarn packages [31]. It is often said that Well wound is half dyed [32]. The standard of winding affects the quality of dyed yarn to a great extent. A well wound package not only increases the chances of level dyeing but it also minimises the risk of many other dyeing problems [33]. The most important winding parameters are as follows: Winding system or type of winding Winding angle or package traverse The dye tube Winding ratio, i.e. the ratio of the inside tube diameter to the outside package diameter [34, 35] Package density [3638] Package type or concentricity
There are three types of winding in common use: wild or random winding; precision winding; and digital step winding. A comparison of the three different types is given in Table 3. The winding angle or package traverse depends upon the type of winding
Table 3 Wild Random Winding Stable package Constant winding density Areas of ribboning are possible Liquor flow characteristics are not optimum Comparison of Different Winding Systems Precision Cross Winding Fragile packagemust be handled with care Density varies from inside to out No ribboning Good liquor flow characteristics Digital or Step Winders Stable package Uniform homogeneous density No ribboning Good liquor flow characteristics
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system used. The winding angle remains the same in random winding. In precision winding there is a decreasing winding angle, and in digital step winding each layer has a slightly different angle from the previous one. An important consideration in any package dyeing operation is the type of carrier on which the yarn package is wound. A wide range of designs and materials has been used as support media (dye tubes) for packages. Rockets, cones, springs, plastic tubes and non-woven fabric centres have all found favour in certain regards. Each system has its advantages and disadvantages. Ultimately, the decision lies with the individual users based on the particular requirements of their businesses and the circumstances in use [39]. The use of large diameter tubes is said to offer improved quality at no reduction in productivity. Since the larger tube can hold an equivalent amount of yarn with less yarn thickness, lower flow and reduced pressure create less yarn disturbance and deliver a high quality product [40, 41]. Winding density is one of the most important package characteristics that affect the quality of the dyed package [4246]. Package density highly influences the flow of dye liquor through the package and the exchange between dye liquor and the yarn. As a result, density significantly affects the depth of shade and levelness of dyed yarn. Uniform package density is essential to producing a perfect dyeing. Fluctuations in winding density of 3% are regarded as very low, whereas differences of 5% to 8% are considered to be within the normal range [47]. If the package is too soft, channelling of the dye liquor will result and ballooning may occur. Soft packages also tend to have excessive yarn shifts when the dye liquor is forced through the package, making subsequent operations, such as back-winding, more difficult because the yarn tangles. If the package is too hard or dense, liquor circulation will be restricted through the package and cause un-dyed spots where yarns cross over one another. Higher winding densities within the area adjacent to the dyeing tube may inhibit uniform dyeing conditions in all sectors of the yarn bobbin [48]. The higher the compactness of the package, the lower is the liquor throughput [49]. The ideal package is of uniform density throughout. It should be of sufficiently open construction to permit dye liquor to flow freely, yet dense enough to prevent channelling of the liquor through more accessible places. In addition to levelness, package density also affects the shade depth. The inner zone density influences the shade depth the most, and the outer zone the least. Increasing the inner zone density decreases shade depth in all areas of the package. Increasing the middle zone density increases shade depth in both the inner and the middle zone, but decreases the outer zone shade depth. Increasing the outer zone density increases the outer zone shade depth and decreases the inner zone shade depth. Package density affects the inner zone shade depth the most and the outer zone shade depth the least. To ensure the shade levelness among packages, the same density profile should be used for all the packages. The influence of density profiles on the levelness and the shade depth is eventually due to their effect on liquor flow between and through the yarns. This indicates that the control of the dye liquor flow is the most important factor in the success of package dyeing. The factors affecting the density of the package, when surface winding, are different from those that govern it in precision winding. The yarn supply and its position, speed of winding,
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winding tension, and the pressure of the package on the winding drum all play an important role in the build-up of the package, and various devices are available for adjusting their effects in order to increase the possibility of producing packages that are regular and even in density [50]. The shape of the package also has some influence on the pattern of the liquor flow. Cheese-shaped packages of regular construction are shown to be ideally suited to uniform liquor flow. Cones have certain disadvantages as compared to cylindrical cheeses [51]. Parallel-sided packages are preferred on technical grounds, particularly with regard to levelness [52]. In the case of cones, it has been found that at the centre of the package the density is greater and more irregular than in the outer layers. In contrast, the distribution of pressure in cheeses is more uniform. As the liquor flows through the cones, an impact pressure builds up in the interior of the package, causing the ends of the cones to bulge. The result is that the liquor cannot penetrate these areas properly. Moreover, residual dyestuff is deposited in the area around the spacers, as is sand and other suspended matter. According to the maximum flow rate that can be achieved during the dyeing process, there are three types of yarn package properties [53]: dyeable at low flow rate, dyeable at medium flow rate and dyeable at high flow rate. Each type of package has a particular flow-rate limit, above which it is not possible to work without causing deformation, water channels and consequently all the associated defects. Other factors that contribute to proper winding are as follows: Supply package quality Yarn delivery Tensioning device Winding speed Soft edges Package build Package holder pressure control Number of packages per spindle
A summary of problems caused by poor package winding is given in Appendix B.
5. PROBLEMS ORIGINATING IN FABRIC FORMATION

Woven fabrics are produced by interlacing a group of warp and weft threads. Defects in woven fabrics can be broadly grouped as yarn defects and process defects. Process defects originate from the processes involved. Based on the processes, the defects in the woven fabrics may be attributable to spinning, winding, warping, sizing, drawingin, pirn winding, loom-setting and handling [54]. The identification [55], definitions [56], and images of defects [57] in woven fabrics and methods for their numerical designation [58] are given in the respective references. Major problems that become more apparent after dyeing but may be attributable to weaving include: Variation in the warp density of the cloth (wrong draw, missing end, double end) Selvedges thicker than the centre of the fabric Variation in size application on warp yarns Variation in drying of warp yarn after sizing Variation in warp tension during weaving
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Variation in weft density (missing pick, double pick) Variation in warp or weft yarns with respect to twist, twist direction, count, hairiness, colour, tensile properties, fibre composition and/or spinning batch Fly or foreign matter or fibre woven into the fabric
Knitting is a process of making cloth with a single yarn or set of yarns moving in only one direction, instead of two sets of yarns crossing each other, as in weaving. There are two basic categories of knitting: Warp knitting and weft knitting. Warp knitting works with multiple yarns running vertically and parallel to each other. The fabric is constructed by manipulating these warp yarns simultaneously into loops which are interconnected, e.g. Tricot, Raschel, Milanese, etc. Weft knitting works with one yarn at a time running in a horizontal direction. The fabric is constructed by manipulating the needle to form loops in horizontal courses built on top of each other, e.g. Circular, Flat, Hosiery, etc. The largest proportion of knitted fabrics used today is weft knits [10]. The faults in knitted fabrics can be categorized into those caused by yarn, those in the course or length direction and those due to, or apparently due to dyeing [59, 60]. Major problems that become more apparent after dyeing but may be attributable to knitting include [6165]: Variation in course length (a course is a row of loops across the width of a knitted fabric) Variation in yarn with respect to count, twist, twist direction, hairiness, colour, tensile properties, fibre composition, lubrication and/or spinning batch Variation in wale density (a wale is a column of loops along the length of a knitted fabric; wale density is the number of loops per unit length measured along a course) Vertical lines of distorted loops, of tuck stitches, or of cut stitches Fly or foreign matter knitted into the fabric
6. PROBLEMS CAUSED BY POOR WATER QUALITY

The use of water in textile dyeing and finishing is ubiquitous, and the role of water in such processes is manifold [66]. Although it is difficult to state definitive water demand for various processes, the raw material used in the greatest quantity in virtually every stage of textile wet processing is water [67]. The quality of textiles produced by any manufacturing operation which employs wet processes, such as preparation, dyeing and finishing, is profoundly affected by the water quality [68]. Various textile processes are influenced in different ways by the presence of impurities in the water supply and there are several major water use categories to be considered including water for processing, potable purposes, utilities, and laboratory use. Each requires different water-quality parameters. Process water (for preparation, dyeing, and finishing) is to be mainly used for making concentrated bulk chemical stock solutions, substrate treatment solutions, and washing. Potable water is for drinking and food preparation. Utility use includes non-contact uses such as boiler use, equipment cleaning etc. Water from almost all supply sources contains impurities to some extent. The type and amount of impurities depend upon the type of water source. The most common impurities that may be present in water are as follows:
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Calcium and magnesium (hardness) Heavy metals, such as iron, copper, and manganese Aluminium Chlorine Miscellaneous anions (sulphide, fluoride, etc.) Sediments, clay, suspended matter Acidity, alkalinity, and buffers Oil and grease Dissolved solids
Contaminants from the water source are not the only ones found in textile water supplies. There are major internal contributions, too. Common sources of internal contamination are as follows: Clear well (used for water storage) Greige goods or other substrate Plumbing, valves, etc. Machinery Prior processes in the case of water reuse
There are many quick qualitative tests for detection of trace quantities of ions and elements in water. There are also quantitative tests for determining the exact concentration of cations such as calcium, magnesium, iron, copper, and manganese in water. A description of quick spot tests for commonly occurring contaminants is given by Smith and Rucker [68]. Analytical methods for water testing are given by Thompson [69]. Water contaminants, especially metals, can have a substantial effect on many textile wet processes. The effects are not always adverse but even when a process is enhanced by water impurities, it is not desirable to have variance in processes and product quality due to water quality changes. Such variations in the quality of water make process and machinery optimisation and control difficult [70]. 6.1 Problems in the Textile Laboratory It is a common practice in some mills to use potable water for the laboratory supply while using non-potable water for production processing. Since potable water is usually chlorinated, it can alter the shade of dyeings and contributes to poor lab-tobulk reproducibility. Moreover, most work in analytical laboratories is done with distilled and/or deionized water. However, many situations arising in textile wet processing laboratories will require the use of process water in order to correlate well with production. The laboratory technician must be able to realize when to use process water and when to use distilled or deionized water. 6.2 Problems in Preparation Processes Metallic ions in water can have a dramatic effect by either enhancing or inhibiting the action of many preparation processes. All of the wet preparation processes are affected in some way by metallic ion contaminants in water. In enzymatic desizing, the metallic ions may cause inactivation of the enzymes, resulting in poor size removal.
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In scouring processes, calcium and magnesium ions (water hardness) cause the most problems. These ions will precipitate soaps, forming a sticky insoluble substance which deposits on the substrate. Such deposits impair the fabric handle, cause resist in dyeing, attract soil to the material and cause inconsistent absorbency in subsequent processes. Although most synthetic detergents used in scouring today do not precipitate in the presence of calcium and magnesium ions, the fatty acid hydrolysis products formed by the saponification of natural waxes, fats, and oils in the fibres will precipitate. The formation of complexes with alkaline and alkaline earth salts drastically reduces the solubility and the rate of dissolution of surfactants, thus impairing the wash removal ability of the surfactants [71]. It is, therefore, imperative to use soft water in the scouring process. Bleaching with hydrogen peroxide is greatly affected, even by trace quantities of metal ions in the water. The transition metal ions such as iron, copper, manganese, zinc, nickel, cobalt and chromium catalyze decomposition of hydrogen peroxide [72]. The decomposition is so rapid that it frequently occurs before any significant bleaching can occur. In addition, the decomposition products attack cotton fibres leading to their degradation. Bleaching baths containing these ions will therefore lead to reduction in whiteness and high loss in fibre strength, as well as an increase in fluidity. The alkaline earth metal (magnesium), on the other hand, produces beneficial effects when present in peroxide bleaching solutions. These ions increase the stability of hydrogen peroxide under alkaline bleaching conditions, and as a result increased whiteness and less fibre degradation is obtained. Electrolytes of other metals may have a harmful effect [73]. 6.3 Problems in Dyeing Processes The most commonly observed dyeing problems caused by poor water quality include inconsistent shade, blotchy dyeing, filtering, spots, resists, poor washing off, and poor fastness [74]. Inconsistent shade can be caused by chlorine contamination of the process water or iron, copper and other metals. The action of copper on the dyestuff can be prevented by a suitable complexing agent but not the action of iron. For iron, purification of water prior to dyeing is recommended. Chelating agents are frequently used in an attempt to eliminate the undesirable effect of these metals in process water, but in many cases, the chelate itself may cause unpredictable effects such as shade changes. The best strategy is to remove the metal from water before using it in processing. The presence of calcium and magnesium ions in the process water can cause inconsistent and uneven washing-off of unfixed dyes, leading to blotches, and/or inconsistent shade. Hexametaphosphates are effective sequestering agents for removing these ions and are generally safe in the sense that they do not cause other undesirable effects such as shade variations. Blotchy dyeing can result from acidity or alkalinity in the water, depending upon the application class of dyes. Even when the pH is neutral, water (and substrate) may contain substantial alkalinity. This can have effects on exhaustion, levelling and fixation of dyes. Similar types of defects can result from the residual chemicals, especially alum (aluminium) in water. Filtering in package dyeing, resists and spots can result from sediments, alum or
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other residual flocking agents left over from water treatment, from organic contaminants, from metal hydroxides (copper and iron), or from fatty acid/hardness metal complexes. Generally, the stiffness of textile material dried after rinsing is greater, the higher the solids content of the rinsing water [75]. In order to avoid the problems outlined above, water for textile processing has to meet fairly stringent demands [76, 77]. The main requirements are as follows: Freedom from suspended solids and from substances that can give staining in processing No great excess of acid or alkali Freedom from substances affecting the textile processes, such as iron, manganese, Calcium or magnesium salts, and heavy metals Non-corrosiveness to tanks and pipelines, and Freedom from substances that give rise to foaming or unpleasant odour
Table 4 gives a summary of the requirements that the processing water has to meet [32].
Table 4 Dyehouse Water Standard Characteristic Colour Smell pH value Water hardness Dissolved solids Solid deposits Organic substances Inorganic salts Iron (Fe) Manganese (Mn) Copper (Cu) Nitrate ( NO 1 3 ) Nitrite ( NO 1 2 ) Permissible Limit Colourless Odourless Neutral pH 78 < 5 dH (6.25eH; 8.95fH; 5.2 USA) < 1 mg/l < 50 mg/l < 20 mg/l (KMnO4 consumption) < 500 mg/l < 0.1 mg/l < 0.02 mg/l < 0.005 mg/l < 50 mg/l < 5 mg/l
Table 5 gives the limits of impurities acceptable in water for steam boilers.
Table 5 Steam Boiler Feed Water Standard Characteristic Appearance Residual hardness Oxygen Temporary CO2 Permanent CO2 Iron Copper pH (at 25 C) Conductivity (at 25 C) Phosphate (PO4) Boiler feed water temperature Acceptable Limit Clear, without residues < 0.05 dH < 0.02 mg/l 0 mg/l < 25 mg/l < 0.05 mg/l < 0.01 mg/l >9 < 2500 S/cm 45 mg/l > 90 C The Textile Institute
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Various measures and treatments may be employed in order to remove impurities from water and to avoid problems in textile processing [76, 78], such as follows: Sedimentation and filtration treatments Softening treatments [such as cold lime-soda-softening or Zeolite softening] Reverse osmosis [79] The use of sequestering agents [8083]
A summary of problems caused by poor water quality is given in Appendix C.
7. PROBLEMS IN SINGEING
Textiles are singed in order to improve their surface appearance and wearing properties [84]. The burning-off of protruding fibre-ends which are not firmly bound in the yarn, results in a clean surface which allows the structure of the fabric to be clearly seen. Unsinged fabrics soil more easily than singed fabrics. The risk of cloudy dyeings (a defect consisting of random, faintly defined uneven dyeing) with singed piecedyed articles in dark shades is considerably reduced, as randomly protruding fibres cause a diffused reflection of light. Although cotton textile materials can be singed in yarn [85], and knitted [8688] as well as woven forms [84], singeing of woven fabrics is much more common as compared to other forms. Two main methods of singeing are direct flame singeing and indirect flame singeing [89]. There are singeing faults that are optically demonstrable and are quite easily remedied during the actual working process. On the other hand there are singeing faults that are not visible until after dyeing and that can no longer be repaired once they have occurred. A summary of problems in the singeing of woven fabrics is given in Appendix D.
8. PROBLEMS IN DESIZING
Sizing has been considered as an invention of the devil by some dyers and finishers because it is the main source of many processing problems [90, 91]. Warp yarns are coated with sizing agents prior to weaving in order to reduce their frictional properties, decrease yarn breakages on the loom and improve weaving productivity by increasing weft insertion speeds. The sizing agents are macromolecular, film-forming and fibre bonding substances, which can be divided into two main types [92]: natural sizing agents which include native and degraded starch and starch derivatives, cellulose derivatives and protein sizes; and synthetic sizes which include polyvinyl alcohols, polyacrylates and styrenemaleic acid copolymers. Starch-based sizing agents are most commonly used for cotton yarns because of being economical and capable of giving satisfactory weaving performance. Other products are also used, either alone or in combination with starch sizes, when the higher cost can be off-set by improved weaving efficiency. Some auxiliaries are also used in sizing for various functions and include softening agents, lubricating agents, wetting agents, moistening agents, size degrading agents, and fungicides. The desizing procedure depends on the type of size. It is therefore necessary to know what type of size is on the fabric before desizing. This can easily be determined by appropriate spot tests [93]. The sizing material present on warp yarns can act as a resist towards dyes and chemicals in textile wet processing. It must therefore be removed before any subsequent
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wet processing of the fabric. The factors on which the efficiency of size removal depends are as follows: Viscosity of the size in solution Ease of dissolution of the size film on the yarn Amount of size applied Nature and the amount of the plasticizers Fabric construction Method of desizing Method of washing-off
Different methods of desizing are [94, 95]: Enzymatic desizing Oxidative desizing Acid steeping Rot steeping (use of bacteria) Desizing with hot caustic soda treatment Hot washing with detergents
The most commonly used methods for cotton are enzymatic desizing [9698] and oxidative desizing [99101]. Acid steeping is a risky process and may result in the degradation of cotton cellulose while rot steeping, hot caustic soda treatment and hot washing with detergents are less efficient for the removal of the starch sizes. Enzymatic desizing consists of three main steps: application of the enzyme, digestion of the starch and removal of the digestion products. The common components of an enzymatic desizing bath are as follows: Amylase enzyme pH stabiliser Chelating agent Salt Surfactant Optical brightener
The enzymes are only active within a specific range of pH, which must be maintained by a suitable pH stabiliser. Chelating agents used to sequester calcium or combine heavy metals may be injurious to the enzymes and must be tested before use. Certain salts may be used to enhance the temperature stability of enzymes. Surfactants may be used to improve the wettability of the fabric and improve the size removal. Generally, non-ionic surfactants are suitable but it is always recommended to test the compatibility of surfactants before use. Some brighteners may also be incorporated in the desizing bath which may be carried through the end of the pre-treatment, resulting in improved brightness but again, their compatibility must be ascertained before use. Enzymatic desizing offers the following advantages [102]: No damage to the fibre No usage of aggressive chemicals Wide variety of application processes High biodegradability
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Some disadvantages of enzymatic desizing include lower additional cleaning effect towards other impurities, no effect on certain starches (e.g. tapioca starch) and possible loss of effectiveness through enzyme poisons. Oxidative desizing [103] can be effected by hydrogen peroxide [104, 105], chlorites, hypochlorites, bromites, perborates or persulphates. Two important oxidative desizing processes are [106]: the cold pad-batch process based on hydrogen peroxide with or without the addition of persulphate; and the oxidative pad-steam alkaline cracking process with hydrogen peroxide or persulphate. The advantages offered by oxidative desizing are supplementary cleaning effect, effectiveness for tapioca starches and no loss in effectiveness due to enzyme poisons. Some disadvantages include the possibility of fibre attack, use of aggressive chemicals and less variety of application methods. After desizing, the fabric should be systematically analyzed to determine the uniformity and thoroughness of the treatment. It is first weighed to determine the percent size removed. The results are compared with a sample known to have been desized well in the lab. If the size is not adequately removed then either the treatment or washing have not been thorough. Iodine spot tests are then conducted on the fabric [107109]. The fabric is not spotted randomly but from side-centre-side at different points along the length of the fabric. The results of this evaluation give some idea of the causes of any inadequate treatment. Some of the most common problems in enzymatic desizing and their possible causes are given in Appendix E.
9. PROBLEMS IN SCOURING
Various aspects of cotton fabric preparation have been presented by Rosch [110118] and Sebb [119124]. An important, if not the most important, operation in the pretreatment of cotton is the scouring or alkaline boil-off process. The purpose of alkaline boil-off and the ensuing washing stage is to perform extensive fibre-cleaning by ensuring a high degree of extraction of pectins, lignins, waxes and grease, proteins, alkaline earth metals (Ca and Mg), heavy metals (iron, manganese and copper), low molecular weight cellulose fragments, dirt and dust; and softening of husks. The result is an increased responsiveness of cotton to subsequent processing [125]. The process removes water insoluble materials such as oils, fats, and waxes from the textile material. These impurities coat fibres and inhibit rapid wetting, absorbency and absorption of dyes and chemical solutions. Oils and fats are removed by saponification with hot sodium hydroxide solution. The process breaks the compounds down into water-soluble glycerols and soaps. Unsaponifiable material such as waxes and dirt are removed by emulsification. This requires the use of surfactants to disperse the water-insoluble material into fine droplets or particles in the aqueous medium. Both of these processes (saponification and emulsification) take place in a typical scouring process. In addition, the scouring process softens and swells the motes to facilitate their destruction during bleaching. Depending on the amount of impurities and the reaction and wash conditions, the loss in weight of the raw cotton material due to boil-off can reach up to seven percent or even higher in case of high-impurity cotton. The important parameters of the scouring process are as follows: Concentration of caustic soda Type and concentration of auxiliaries
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Treatment temperature Reaction time
The higher the caustic soda concentration, the shorter can be the dwell time. In other words, the shorter the dwell time, the higher the concentration required. The caustic soda concentration normally employed neither affects the ash content nor the average degree of polymerisation [DP] of cotton. Too high a concentration (e.g. > 8% o.w.f) may result in a reduction in DP as well as yellowing of the cotton fibre. The higher the concentration, the greater will be the fat removal. Due to the high degree of fat removal, the absorbency will also increase but there may be harshness in the handle of the material. Two important auxiliaries used in scouring are chelating agents and surfactants. Other auxiliaries that may sometimes be employed include antifoaming and anticreasing agents. Chelating agents are used to eliminate water hardness and heavy metals, such as iron and copper which can affect the scouring process. These agents bind polyvalent cations such as calcium and magnesium in water and in fibres, thus preventing the precipitation of soaps. If polyvalent ions are present, insoluble soaps may form, settle on the fabric and produce resist spots. There are four major types of sequestering agents to choose from: inorganic polyphosphates, aminocarboxylic acids, organophosphonic acids, and hydroxycarboxylic acids. The inorganic polyphosphates such as sodium tripolyphosphate and sodium hexametaphosphate are probably the best overall in that in addition to sequestering most metals they also aid in cleansing the fibres. They may, however, hydrolyze at high temperature and loose their effectiveness. The aminocarboxylic acid types such as ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA) are very good in that they sequester most metal ions and are very stable under alkaline conditions. They are the most used types. The organophosphonic acid types such as ethylenediaminetetra (methylene phosphonic acid) are also very effective but comparatively expensive. Oxalates and hydroxycarboxylic acids (citrates, etc.) are excellent for sequestering iron but not effective for calcium and magnesium. In order to quickly and effectively bring the chemicals to the textile material, i.e. to improve their wettability and to ensure that the fibrous impurities will be removed as far as possible, it is necessary to add surfactants with good wetting and washing/ emulsifying properties. A surfactant of optimal versatility to be used for preparation, and in particular for the scouring and bleaching processes, ought to meet the following requirements: It should have an excellent wetting ability within a wide temperature range It should permit a good washing effect and have a high emulsifying power for natural fats, waxes and oils It should be resistant to oxidants and reducing agents It should be resistant to water-hardening substances It should be highly stable to alkalinity It should be biodegradable and non-toxic
Care should be taken in selecting the surfactants because of the inverse effect of temperature on the solubility of non-ionic surfactants. If the process temperature is above the cloud point of the surfactant, the surfactant may be ineffective and may
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actually be deposited on the substrate. The surfactant used should have a cloud point temperature just above the operating temperature, to be most effective. The cloud point of non-ionic surfactants decreases in the presence of alkalis and electrolytes and the degree to which it is lowered increases with concentration. The cloud point should therefore be checked under application conditions to ensure that the surfactant is effective under those conditions. The adverse effect of temperature on non-ionic surfactants can be reduced by the addition of an anionic surfactant. Crypto-non-ionic surfactants do not exhibit a cloud point. These are non-ionic surfactants that are capped with an ionic group and they exhibit the excellent emulsifying properties of non-ionics along with the good solubility properties of anionics. Higher scouring temperatures will reduce treatment times and vice versa. At high temperature, however, there will be complete removal of fats and waxes, which will promote harsh handle of the material. Moreover, the cloud point of the surfactant also has to be taken into account while applying high temperature. In the case of pad-steam scouring, a typical process consists of the following steps: Saturating the fabric with a solution of sodium hydroxide, surfactant and sequestering agent; steaming; and thorough washing. After scouring, the material is checked for thoroughness and uniformity of scouring as well as other scouring faults. Appendix F gives most common problems in scouring, their possible causes, and countermeasures.
10. PROBLEMS IN BLEACHING

Cotton, like all natural fibres, has some natural colouring matter, which confers a yellowish brown colour to the fibre. The purpose of bleaching is to remove this colouring material and to confer a white appearance to the fibre. In addition to an increase in whiteness, bleaching results in an increase in absorbency, levelness of pre-treatment, and complete removal of seed husks and trash [126]. In the case of the production of full white finished materials, the degree of whiteness is the main requirement of bleaching. The amount of residual soil is also taken into consideration because of the possibility of later yellowing of the material. In the case of pretreatment for dyeing, the degree of whiteness is not as important as, for example, the cleanliness of the material, especially the metal content. Similar demands refer to the production of medical articles. In this case, too, the metal content as well as the ash content are important factors [127]. If whiteness is of primary importance, it requires a relatively large amount of bleaching agent as well as a high operating temperature and a long dwell time. Accurate regulation of the bleaching bath is a further obligatory requirement. Where the destruction of trash, removal of seed husks and an increase in absorbency is a prime necessity (e.g. for dyed goods), a high degree of alkalinity is all important. It is, however, not the alkali alone that is responsible for these effects. The levelness of pre-treatment can only be guaranteed if cotton of the same or equal origin is processed in each bath. If this is not the case, suitable pre-treatment will have to be undertaken to obtain, as closely as possible, the required uniformity. A pre-treatment with acid and/or a chelating agent will even out (better still eliminate) varying quantities of catalytic metallic compounds. Although there are different bleaching agents that can be used for bleaching cotton,
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hydrogen peroxide is, by far, the most commonly used bleaching agent today [128]. It is used to bleach at least 90% of all cotton and cotton blends, because of its advantages over other bleaching agents. The nature of the cotton colour, its mechanism of removal with hydrogen peroxide [129] and the basic rules for formulation of bleaching liquors have been presented in detail elsewhere [120]. The mere formulation of the correct initial bath concentration is not sufficient to ensure a controlled bleaching process. Of equal importance are regular checks of the bath composition during the operation. Such checks do not only contribute to an economic bleaching operation but also allow an early tracing of the defects and failures of the system [122]. The important parameters for bleaching with hydrogen peroxide are as follows: Concentration of hydrogen peroxide Concentration of alkali pH Temperature Time Nature and quality of the goods Water hardness and other impurities Types and concentration of auxiliaries Desired bleaching effect Available equipment, and stabilizer system employed [130, 131]
Most of these factors are inter-related, and all have a direct bearing on the production rate, the cost and the bleaching quality. Though they operate collectively, it is better to review them individually for the sake of clarity. There are two concentrations to be considered: that based on the weight of the goods and that based on the weight of the solution. All other factors being equal, the concentration on the weight of the goods determines the final degree of whiteness. In order to get adequate bleach there must be enough peroxide present from the start. On the other hand, the peroxide concentration based on the weight of the solution will determine the bleaching rate the greater the solution concentration, the faster the bleaching. No peroxide bleaching system ever uses up its entire peroxide charge for active bleaching, as some is always lost during normal process. The alkalinity in the system is primarily responsible for producing the desired scour properties and maintaining a reasonably constant pH at the desired level throughout the bleaching cycle. The quantity of the alkali to be added depends above all on the character of the goods, the finish required and the kind and quality of the other ingredients in the liquor. The alkalinity is defined as the amount of alkali in the system and should be distinguished from the pH, which is a measure of the hydrogen ion concentration in the solution. The pH value in peroxide bleaching is of extreme importance because it influences bleaching effectiveness, fibre degradation and peroxide stability in bleaching cotton fibres, as shown in Table 6. With increasing pH, whiteness index increases to a maximum at a pH of 11.0 and then decreases. Fibre degradation is at minimum at a pH of 9.0 but that which occurs at a pH of 10.0 is well within acceptable values. Above a pH of 11.0, fibre degradation is unacceptably severe. A pH range of 10.210.7 is considered optimum for bleaching cotton with hydrogen peroxide. Lower pH values can lead to decreasing solubility of
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Table 6 Effect of pH on Bleaching Effectiveness, Fibre Degradation, and Peroxide Stability in Bleaching Cotton Fibres Initial pH 8.0 9.0 10.1 11.0 12.0 Final pH 4.4 8.7 9.9 11.7 12.4 Whiteness Index 66.8 67.3 71.3 72.2 69.5 CUEN Fluidity 5.48 1.44 2.44 7.29 17.8 % Peroxide Remaining 72.5 71.6 63.3 7.0 2.0
sodium silicate stabiliser (see below) as well as lower whiteness due to less activation of the peroxide [132]. By increasing the temperature, the degree of whiteness as well as its uniformity increases. However, at too high a temperature, there is a possibility of a decrease in the degree of polymerisation of the cotton. Moreover, due to good fat removal at high temperatures such as 110 C, the handle of the material can become harsh and the sewability of woven cotton fabrics may also decrease. Time, temperature and concentration of peroxide are all inter-related factors. At lower temperatures, longer times and higher concentrations are required. As the temperature of bleaching increases, shorter times and lower peroxide concentrations can be employed. The amount of peroxide decomposed is greatly reduced with increasing weight of cotton fibre in the bleach liquor. The raw fibre almost completely suppresses decomposition, while the scoured fibre is somewhat less effective. The demineralised fibre is the least effective stabiliser [133]. While impurities such as magnesium and calcium may have a good stabilising effect when present in appropriate amounts, other impurities such as iron, copper and manganese can have very harmful effect, resulting in catalytic decomposition of hydrogen peroxide leading to fibre damage [134]. A good stabilising system is indispensable in bleaching cotton with hydrogen peroxide. While sodium silicate is one of the most commonly used stabilisers, its use may result in a harsh handle of the fabric as well as resist spots leading to spotty dyeing. The best alternatives to sodium silicate are organic stabilisers or a combination of silicate and organic stabilisers. In addition to the most important ingredients of the bleaching recipe, namely hydrogen peroxide, caustic soda and the stabilizer, auxiliaries are used sometimes to aid the bleaching process. These may include surfactants and chelating agents. The type and concentration of these auxiliaries also plays an important role in the bleach effect obtained. The desired bleaching effect does not need necessarily be optimal white. For goods-to-be-dyed, the main concern will normally be achieving good and uniform absorbency. The available equipment plays a role in determining which process criteria must be taken into account such as: cold, hot or HT bleaching; dry-wet or wet-on-wet impregnation; discontinuous or continuous processing; process control. The most common problems in bleaching cotton with hydrogen peroxide are as follows: Inadequate mote removal Low degree of whiteness
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Uneven whiteness (or bleaching) Pinholes, tears, broken yarns, catalytic damage, loss in strength [135, 136] Resist marks Formation of oxycellulose
A summary of the possible causes of these problems and their countermeasures is given in Appendix G. It is not always possible to find the cause of these problems without detailed analyses [72]. The most useful tests that can be carried out to check the effectiveness of the bleaching process are for whiteness, absorbency and tensile strength. Checks and measures are required also to assure level dyeing properties. After bleaching, for example, the pH of the goods should be adjusted in the last rinse. Control of residual moisture content (e.g. 7% for cotton) is part of the standard pre-treatment, which should be uniform throughout the material [126].
11. PROBLEMS IN MERCERIZATION

Mercerization is the treatment of cotton with a strong sodium hydroxide solution. This process improves many properties of cotton fibres and may actually reduce or eliminate some dyeing problems. Some of the properties of cotton fibres that are improved by this process include [137, 138]: Increase in dye affinity Increase in chemical reactivity Increase in dimensional stability Increase in tensile strength Increase in lustre Increase in fabric smoothness Improvement in the handle Improvement in the appearance
There are many possible variations in the mercerization process. A review of technical research and commercial developments in mercerisation has been given by Greenwood [139]. Mercerization of cotton can be carried out on raw fibre [140], yarn, and knitted [141147] or woven fabric, and at any stage during preparation. Fabric may be mercerised in greige form, after desizing, after scouring or after bleaching. The choice depends upon the type of goods, the particular plant set-up, and the requirements of the final mercerized fabric. Fabrics can be mercerized without tension to effect mainly an increase in strength and dye affinity, or under tension to effect mainly an increase in the lustre [148]. The treatment may be wet-on-dry, wet-on-wet or add-on [149151] at cold or hot temperatures [152]. A comparison of cold and hot mercerization is given in Table 7 [153]. The most common of the various mercerization processes is that of treating the fabric in the cold after bleaching with or without tension. The conventional method of mercerization generally consists of the following steps: Padding the fabric through a strong sodium hydroxide solution Allowing time for the alkali to penetrate and swell the cotton fibres Framing to provide the tension required for lustre development Thorough rinsing to remove the alkali
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Comparison of Conventional (Cold) and Hot Mercerization Hot Mercerization (70 C) Less fibre swelling Rapid swelling Rapid relaxation Good relaxation Lower residual shrinkage Complete swelling Evenness Softer hand Uninhibited NaOH diffusion Optimised lustre
Conventional Mercerization (1020 C) Strong fibre swelling Slower swelling Slower relaxation Incomplete relaxation Higher residual shrinkage Surface swelling Unevenness Harder hand NaOH diffusion inhibited Less lustre
The important mercerization parameters are as follows: Moisture content in the substrate for mercerization Concentration of caustic soda Penetration of caustic soda Temperature of caustic soda Wet pick-up Time of contact of the fabric with caustic soda Post-framing/tension on the material Washing/neutralization
If the fabric to be mercerized has a high moisture content, there may be a dilution of the caustic soda concentration and the reaction between caustic and water generates heat which may increase the bath temperature. The optimum concentration of sodium hydroxide concentration is between 25 and 30% (4854Tw). Lower concentrations will result in a lower degree of mercerization and less lustre. Higher concentrations have no beneficial effect. A good wetting agent is necessary to improve penetration of the caustic soda. The wetting agent must be stable and effective at the high alkaline concentrations used [154], so only those wetting agents designed specifically for mercerization should be used. The temperature of the bath can affect the degree of mercerization. Swelling of the cotton and thus mercerization decreases with increasing temperature [155]. The optimum temperature is 70100 F [2138 C]. Lower temperatures do not affect the process adversely if the sodium hydroxide concentration is in the proper range. At lower concentrations, the degree of mercerization increases as the temperature decreases. Lower degrees of mercerization are obtained at temperatures above l00 F. Wet pick-up in padding can affect mercerization in several ways. Less swelling may occur at low wet pick-up, leading to incomplete mercerisation. The caustic solution also plasticises the fabric so that it is easily stretched. At low wet pick-up values, less plasticisation occurs and the fabric may tear during stretching on the frame. Wet pick-up should be about 100%. The optimum time after padding is at least 30 seconds, to allow for the caustic to swell the cotton fibres before tension is applied on the frame. Shorter times will result in incomplete mercerization. As cotton fibres are swollen by the alkali, the fabric shrinks [156]. To obtain lustre
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and shrinkage control, the fabric must be stretched on a frame. It should be stretched in the width direction to its greige width or slightly more. No stretching in the length direction is required unless extreme lustre is desired. If lengthways stretching is needed, the frame speed should not exceed the padder speed by more than five percent. Removal of caustic soda from the fabric is very crucial for the development of lustre and shrinkage control. The caustic soda solution concentration in the fabric (not the rinse solution) should be reduced to less than 5% with the fabric still on the frame. If not, low lustre and shrinkage of the fabric will occur. If the fabric shrinks as it comes off the frame, the caustic concentration in the fabric has not been reduced sufficiently. After the fabric comes off the frame, the remaining caustic should be thoroughly rinsed out. It is difficult to remove residual amounts of caustic soda from the fabric by rinsing alone, so they are usually neutralized with a dilute acid solution. Care must be taken in using acetic acid for neutralization as some of the sodium acetate formed may remain in the fabric and alter the pH in the subsequent wet processes. After mercerization, an analysis is carried out to determine the degree of mercerization, which is specified by the Barium Number [157160]. The Barium Number obtained should be at least 130 and preferably 150. Low numbers result from incomplete swelling of cotton fibres. A quick test for determination of the degree of mercerization is to dye samples of the mercerized fabric along with a sample known to be properly mercerized, using a direct dye such as C.I. Direct Blue 80. Any differences in the depth of the dyeings are indicative of different degrees of mercerization. A red or blue dye should be used, since it is easier to observe differences in depths of these colours visually. There is no standard test for analysis of the lustre of mercerized fabric. It must be judged visually. A summary of common problems in mercerization is given in Appendix H.
12. PROBLEMS IN DYEING WITH REACTIVE DYES

Reactive dyes are one of the most commonly used application class of dyes for cotton materials, Two important aspects of reactive dyeing, namely dye variables and system variables, are discussed in this section, along with important characteristics of reactive dyeing such as exhaustion, migration and levelling, fixation and colour yield, and washing-off and fastness. A significant portion of this section also deals with the problem of the reproducibility and difficulties in obtaining right-first-time dyeing. 12.1 Dye Variables in Reactive Dyeing The major dye variables that affect reactive dyeing are dye chemistry, substantivity, reactivity, diffusion coefficient and solubility. Each of these will be briefly discussed below. Dye chemistry: Reactive dyes have a wide variety in terms of their chemical structure [161]. The two most important components of a reactive dye are the chromophore and the reactive group. The characteristics governed by the chromophore are colour gamut, light fastness,
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chlorine/bleach fastness, solubility, affinity, and diffusion [162]. The chromophores of most of the reactive dyes are azo, anthraquinone, or phthalocyanine [163]. Azo dyes are dischargeable. Disazo dyes have the disadvantage of being much more sensitive to reduction and many of them are difficult to wash-off. Anthraquinone dyes exhibit relatively low substantivity and are easier to wash-off. Most of them possess excellent fastness to light and to crease-resistant finishes, but they are not dischargeable. Phthalocyanine dyes diffuse slowly and are difficult to wash-off [164]. Metal complex dyes containing copper possess rather dull hues, but show a high degree of fastness to light and to crease-resistant finishes. Their substantivity is fairly high; 1:2 complexes diffuse relatively slowly, so a longer time is needed to wash-out unfixed dye completely. The dye characteristics governed by the reactive group are reactivity, dyefibre bond stability, efficiency of reaction with the fibre, and affinity. Dyeing conditions, especially the alkali requirement and temperature as well as the use of salt also depend on the type of reactive group [165]. Dyes based on s-triazine do not have good wet fastness properties in acidic media and, due to their high substantivity, have poor wash-off properties. Similarly, dyes having a vinyl sulphone reactive system have poor alkaline fastness. The chemical bond between the vinyl sulphone and the cellulosic fibre is very stable to acid hydrolysis. The substantivity of hydrolysed byproducts of vinyl sulphone is low, so washing off is easy. Monochlorotriazines have good fastness to light, perspiration and chlorine. The turquoise reactive dye shows an optimum dyeing temperature that is generally about 20 C higher than that of other dyes with the same reactive group [166]. The fluorotriazine groups form linkages with cellulose that are stable to alkaline media. Reactive dyes of dichloroquinoxaline, monochlorotriazine and monofluorotriazine types show a tendency for lower resistance to peroxide washing and dyefibre bond stability [167]. A lower sensitivity to changes in dyeing conditions (particularly temperature) is the most important characteristic feature of the monochlorotriazine-vinyl sulphone heterobifunctional dyes. Dyeing properties of some important reactive groups have been discussed in detail by various authors [168173]. Substantivity: Substantivity is more dependent on the chromophore as compared to the reactive system. A higher dye substantivity may result in a lower dye solubility [174], a higher primary exhaustion [175], a higher reaction rate for a given reactivity [176], a higher efficiency of fixation [177], a lower diffusion coefficient, less sensitivity of dye to the variation in processing conditions such as temperature and pH [178], less diffusion, migration and levelness [179, 180], a higher risk of unlevel dyeing, and more difficult removal of unfixed dye. Substantivity is the best measure of the ability of a dye to cover dead or immature fibres. Covering power is best when the substantivity is either high or very low [181]. An increase in the dye substantivity may be effected by lower concentration of the dye, higher concentration of electrolyte [182], lower temperature, higher pH (up to 11) and lower liquor to goods ratio [183]. Reactivity: A high dye reactivity entails a lower dyeing time and a lower efficiency of fixation. (To improve the efficiency of fixation by reducing dye reactivity requires a longer dyeing time and is, therefore, less effective than an increase in substantivity.)
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Also there is a wider range of temperature and pH over which the dye can be applied. Reactivity of a dye can be modified by altering the pH or temperature, or both. By a suitable adjustment of pH and temperature, two dyes of intrinsically different reactivity may be made to react at a similar rate. Diffusion coefficient: Dyes with higher diffusion-coefficients usually result in better levelling and more rapid dyeing. Diffusion is hindered by the dye that has reacted with the fibre and the absorption of active dye is restrained by the presence of hydrolysed dye. Different types of dyes have different diffusion characteristics. For example, the order of decreasing diffusion is: unmetallised dyes, 1:1 metal-complex dyes, 1:2 metal complex dyes; phthalocyanine dyes. An increase in the diffusion is affected by increasing temperature, decreasing electrolyte concentration, adding urea in the bath [184] and using dyes of low substantivity. Solubility: Dyes of better solubility can diffuse easily and rapidly into the fibres, resulting in better migration and levelling. An increase in dye solubility may be effected by increasing the temperature, adding urea and decreasing the use of electrolytes. 12.2 System Variables in Reactive Dyeing Temperature: A higher temperature in dyeing with reactive dyes results in a higher rate of dyeing [185], lower colour yield [186], better dye penetration, rapid diffusion, better levelling, easier shading, a higher risk of dye hydrolysis, and lower substantivity. Raising the temperature appears to result in an opening-up of the cellulose structure, increasing the accessibility of cellulose hydroxyls, enhancing the mobility as well as the reactivity of dye molecules and overcoming the activation energy barrier of the dyeing process, thereby increasing the level of molecular activity of the dyefibre system as well as dyefibre interaction [187]. A comparison of hot and cold reactive dyes has been given in [188, 189] along with some technical advantages of hot reactive dyes over cold reactive dyes. pH: The initial pH of the dyebath will be lower at the end of the dyeing by one half to a whole unit, indicating that some alkali has been used up during dyeing. The cellulosic fibre is responsible for some of this reduction, while a smaller part is used by the dyestuff as it hydrolyses [190]. In discussing the effect of pH, account must be taken of the internal pH of the fibre as well as the external pH of the solution. The internal pH is always lower than the external pH of the solution. As the electrolyte content of the bath is increased, the internal pH tends to equal the external pH. Since the decomposition reaction is entirely in the external solution, the higher external pH favours decomposition of the dye rather than reaction with the fibre. pH influences primarily the concentration of the cellusate sites on the fibre. It also influences the hydroxyl ion concentration in the bath and in the fibre. Raising the pH value by 1 unit corresponds to a temperature rise of 20 C. The dyeing rate is best improved by raising the dyeing temperature once a pH of 1112 is reached. Further increase in pH will reduce the reaction rate as well as the efficiency of fixation. Different types of alkalis, such as caustic soda, soda ash, sodium silicate or a combination of these
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alkalis, are used in order to attain the required dyeing pH. The choice of alkali usually depends upon the dye used, the dyeing method as well as other economic and technical factors. Electrolyte: The addition of electrolyte results in an increase in the rate and extent of exhaustion, increase in dye aggregation and a decrease in diffusion. The electrolyte efficiency increases in the order: KCl < Na2SO4 < NaCl [191]. There may be impurities present in the salt to be used, such as calcium sulphate, magnesium sulphate, iron, copper and alkalinity, that can be a source of many dyeing problems [192]. Liquor ratio: At lower liquor ratios, there is a higher exhaustion [193] and higher colour strength. An increase in colour strength may be attributed to greater availability of dye active species in the vicinity of the cellulose macromolecules, at lower liquor ratio. Surfactants and other auxiliaries: It is possible to enhance dye uptake on cellulosic fibres with the aid of suitable surfactants. Amongst all the systems, the highest dye uptake is obtained with anionic surfactants [194]. Non-ionic surfactants may result in a decrease in dye exhaustion and colour yield, and a change in shade. Some non-ionic surfactants may slow down the dye hydrolysis [195]. Triethanolamine (TEA) is known to enhance colour strength by enhancing the swellability and accessibility of the cellulose structure. It may also modify the state of the dye, thereby enhancing its reactivity and increasing the extent of covalent dye fixation. 12.3 Important Characteristics of Reactive Dyeings The best guide to the dyeing performance of a reactive dye can be obtained from two sources of information: the SERF profile and migration properties under application conditions. The SERF profile is constructed by the determination of substantivity factor, exhaustion factor, fixation percentage and rate of fixation. The performance of a reactive dye can also be defined by the Reactive Dye Compatibility Matrix (RCM) [196, 197]. The critical measures of performance are the substantivity equilibrium (S), the migration index (MI), the level dyeing factor (LDF) and an index of the reactivity of the dye (T50). Evaluation of these four measures of performance provides a measure of the compatibility of the dye to provide right-first-time production. Right first-time production is maximised if these fundamental measures of performance within the RCM are set at: Substantivity Migration index LDF T50 7080% >90 >70% a minimum of 10 minutes
In the following, some important characteristics of reactive dyeings, namely exhaustion, migration, levelness, fixation and colour yield, washing-off, dye-fibre bond stability, and fastness properties will be discussed. Exhaustion: There are two types of exhaustion that relate to the application of reactive dyes: primary exhaustion and secondary exhaustion. Primary exhaustion occurs before
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the addition of the alkali, while secondary exhaustion takes place after the addition of the alkali. Both the rate of exhaustion and the extent or degree of exhaustion are important. The rate of exhaustion can be increased by selecting dyes of high substantivity, increasing the temperature and increasing the electrolyte concentration. The degree of exhaustion can be increased by selecting dyes of high substantivity, lowering the temperature and increasing the electrolyte concentration. Migration: The intrinsic properties of a reactive dye that affect migration are substantivity, molecular structure, physical chemistry and stereochemistry. The higher the dye substantivity, the lower is the migration. The external factors that affect migration are: concentration of the dye, temperature, time, liquor ratio, liquor circulation and the form of the textile material. Levelness: Levelness of dyeing may be inhibited by high substantivity, lower dye migration [198], too much salt in the dyebath [199], too high rate of exhaustion, too high concentration of alkali [200], a rapid shift of dyebath pH, too high rate of fixation, too high rate of rise of temperature [201] and poor liquor agitation. Levelling is difficult to obtain in light shades and easier to obtain in dark shades. Addition of salt in portions is recommended for light shades while for deep shades, salt can be added all at one step. Levelness can be achieved in two ways [202]: either by controlling the rate of absorption so that a controlled absorption is obtained, or by using the migration properties of the dyes to compensate for the unlevelness that has occurred during the early stages of the process. Controlled absorption can be obtained by salt dosing, alkali dosing, and/or controlling the rate of heating. During the primary exhaustion, the dye is free to migrate. During the secondary exhaustion stage, dye migration is poor. For pale dyeing shades (less than 1 % o.w.f.) the degree of primary exhaustion is over 80% and the degree of secondary exhaustion is very small. Therefore control of the primary exhaustion stage is very important if level dyeing is to be obtained. The rate of primary exhaustion is dependent on the amount of electrolyte used. Dosing or split addition of salt is recommended to obtain level dyeing. For medium shades, both primary and secondary exhaustion steps are important for obtaining level dyeing. Both controlled salt and alkali addition are important in this case. In the case of deep shades, the all-in salt addition may be possible, but during the secondary exhaustion, alkali dosing is important [203]. Dyes with high substantivity, low secondary exhaustion, and low MI (Migration Index) values require controlled addition of electrolyte after the addition of the dye. In contrast, dyes with low substantivity, high secondary exhaustion, and medium to high migration index values require precise control of liquor ratio, concentration of electrolyte, and addition profile of the fixation alkali [204]. Table 8 gives a comparison of two different approaches to achieve level dyeing. Fixation and colour yield: The fixation and the colour yield depend upon the following factors [205]: Fibre cross-section Porosity of the substrate
doi:10.1533/tepr.2005.0001 Table 8
Critical Solutions in the Dyeing of Cotton Ways to Obtain Level Dyeing Control of Levelling Based on Controlled Absorption A very good level of control is necessary to get level dyeing Better reproducibility Better colour yield Less need of additions and corrections
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Control of Levelling Based on Migration A relatively low level of control may be sufficient to get level dyeing Poor reproducibility Poor colour yield Dye additions or corrections may have to be made
Dye structure with respect to substantivity ratio, dye diffusion, reactivity, etc. Degree of fibre preparation Liquor ratio Concentration of salt and alkali Use of reaction catalyst Use of dyefibre cross-linking agents Introduction of other chemical groups in the fibre Use of film-forming agents Chemical modification of cellulose After treatments
There are various ways to increase fixation and colour yield which include: Use of fixation accelerators Use of shorter liquor ratio Dyeing at low temperature (with decreasing temperature the substantivity for fibre increases, causing increased exhaustion) Modification of chromophore and reactive group Use of dyes with high substantivity and high reactivity Treating cellulosic fibres with swelling agents Modification in appearance techniques Changing the morphology of fibre by chemical modification.
A uniform rise in rate of fixation can be obtained by: controlling the temperature of the dyeing process suitably (possible for hot dyeing dyes only); adding alkali in stages (it is virtually impossible, however, to prevent a sharp rise in fixation rate whenever alkali is added); starting with a weaker alkali such as soda ash, and following this with a stronger alkali, but only after a higher degree of fixation has been achieved; progressive metering of alkali (such as the Remazol automet process); and adding salt in stages (suitable for high substantivity dyes). Washing-off of reactive dyes: The removal of unfixed dye takes place in three phases [206]: dilution of dye and chemicals in solution and on the surface of the cellulose; diffusion of the deeply-penetrated, unfixed, hydrolysed dye to the fibre surface; and dilution and removal of the diffused-out dye. Goods are rinsed cold twice to remove electrolyte, then rinsed hot to desorb some hydrolysed dye from the fibre prior to a soaping process at or near the boil. A subsequent cold rinse completes the task of
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removing un-reacted and hydrolysed dye [207]. The factors which affect the washing off of hydrolysed reactive dyes from the dyed material are as follows [208212]: Dye substantivity Diffusion behaviour Reactive group Liquor ratio Washing temperature Electrolyte concentration pH Presence of calcium and magnesium ions in the boiling soap/hardness of water Liquor carry-over of the substrate Amount of unfixed dye Washing time Number of washing cycles/washing baths [213] Washing auxiliary employed Mechanical action Filling and draining Heating and cooling rates
Dyefibre bond stability: Dyefibre bond stability primarily depends upon the reactive system. Dyes that react by a nuceophilic displacement mechanism show good stability to alkali and, to different degrees, less stability to acid. Dyes that react by nucleophilic addition give dyefibre bonds with good stability to acid, but are less stable to alkali. One of the most stable dyefibre bonds is achieved with pyrimidinyl-based systems. The triazinecellulose bond is generally resistant to oxidative breakdown in the presence of perborate, whereas this is a serious defect of some of the pyrimidinebased systems. Dyefibre bonds formed by monochlorotriazine dyes are less fast to alkali (particularly at high temperature) than those formed between dichlorotriazinyl dyes and cellulose. Vinyl sulphone dyes possess the same deficiency, but their higher reactivity enables the problem to be avoided by the use of milder fixation conditions. In case of pyrimidine dyes, the dyefibre bond is more stable than in either of the above two cases [214]. Fastness of reactive dyes: The factors that affect the fastness of reactive dyes are: the chromophoric group, the stability of the dyefibre bond and the completeness of the removal of the unfixed dye. To maximise wet fastness, particularly in deep shades, it is advisable to apply cationic after-treatments. A summary of problems in dyeing with reactive dyes is given in Appendix I.
13. PROBLEMS IN DYEING WITH DIRECT DYES

Direct dyes represent an extensive range of colorants that are easy to apply and also are very economical [215217]. There are three common ways to classify direct dyes, namely, according to their chemical structure [218], according to their dyeing properties, and according to their fastness properties. Of these three possible ways of classifying direct dyes, the first is of least importance to the dyer, although of considerable importance to those interested in dye chemistry [219]. According to the
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Society of Dyers and Colourists classification, which is essentially based upon the compatibility of different groups of direct dyes with one another under certain conditions of batch dyeing, there are three classes of direct dyes: A, B and C. Class A consists of self-levelling direct dyes. Dyes in this group have good levelling characteristics and are capable of dyeing uniformly even when the electrolyte is added at the beginning of the dyeing operation. They may require relatively large amounts of salt to exhaust well. Class B consists of salt-controllable dyes. These dyes have relatively poor levelling or migration characteristics. They can be batch dyed uniformly by controlled addition of electrolyte, usually after the dyebath has reached the dyeing temperature. Class C consists of salt- and temperature-controllable dyes. These dyes show relatively poor levelling or migration and their substantivity increases rapidly with increasing temperature. Their rate of dyeing is controlled by controlling the rate of rise of temperature, as well as controlling the salt addition. Important dyebath variables that influence the dyeing behaviour of direct dyes include temperature, time of dyeing, liquor ratio, dye solubility, and presence of electrolyte [220] and other auxiliaries. Direct dyes can be applied by batch dyeing methods (on jigs, jet or package dyeing machines), by semi-continuous methods (such as pad-batch or pad-roll) and by continuous methods (such as pad-steam). Many direct dyes are suitable for application by combined scouring and dyeing. In this process the usual practice is to employ soda ash and non-ionic detergent. However, dyes containing amide groups are avoided because of the risk of alkaline hydrolysis. Direct dyes vary widely in their fastness properties, and staining effects on various fibres. Most direct dyes, however, have limited wet fastness in medium to full shades unless they are after-treated. The fastness of selected direct dyes can be improved in several ways [221224], such as the following: Treatment with cationic fixing agents Treatment with formaldehyde Treatment with copper salts such as copper sulphate Treatment with cationic agents and copper sulphate in combination Diazotisation and development Treatment with crosslinking agents or resins
An important consideration in dyeing with direct dyes is the ability of the dyes to cover the immature cotton fibre neps, which has been explained, in most cases, in terms of both the molecular weight and hydrogen bond formation capacity of the dye molecules [225227]. Given a similar capacity to form hydrogen bonds, dyes having lower molecular weight show proportionately better nep coverage than those having higher molecular weight. Table 9 gives Colour Index number of dyes with better coverage of immature fibres [228]. A summary of common problems in the dyeing of cotton with direct dyes is given in Appendix I.
14. PROBLEMS IN DYEING WITH SULPHUR DYES

Despite their environmental concerns, which are constantly being addressed [229 234], sulphur dyes occupy an important place for dyeing of inexpensive black, blue,
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doi:10.1533/tepr.2005.0001 Colour Index Number of Dyes with Better Coverage of Immature Fibres (Numbers in Brackets Have Lower Overall Coverage than Others) Colour Index Number 7, 11, 27 (1, 15, 37, 102) 32 (20, 24, 76) 9, 22, 66 8, 26, 27, 98 (1, 26) 25, 29 3, 22, 39
Colour Yellow Orange Red Violet Blue Green Brown Black
brown and green shades in medium to heavy depths on cellulosic fibres [235, 236]. The history, development and application of sulphur dyes have been widely reviewed by various authors [237248]. Sulphur dyes have been classified into four main groups [249]: CI Sulphur dyes; CI Leuco Sulphur dyes; CI Solublised Sulphur dyes; and CI Condensed Sulphur dyes. CI Sulphur dyes are water-insoluble, containing sulphur both as an integral part of the chromophore and in attached polysulphide chains. They are normally applied in the alkaline reduced (leuco) form from a sodium sulphide solution and subsequently oxidised to the insoluble form on the fibre. Sulphur dyes differ from the vat dyes in being easier to reduce but more difficult to re-oxidise, different oxidants producing variations in hue and fastness properties. A leuco sulphur dye has the same CI constitution number as the parent sulphur dye but exists as the soluble leuco form of the parent dye together with a reducing agent in sufficient quantity to make it suitable for application either directly or with only a small addition of extra reducing agent. A solublised sulphur dye has a different constitution number because it is a chemical derivative of the parent dye, non-substantive to cellulose but converted to the substantive form during dyeing. Condensed sulphur dyes, although containing sulphur, bear little resemblance to traditional sulphur dyes in their constitution and method of manufacture. Sulphur dyes are available in various commercial forms such as powders, pre-reduced powders, grains, dispersed powders, dispersed pastes, liquids, and water soluble-brands. The various steps in the application of sulphur dyes depend very much on their type and commercial form. The main steps in the application of water-insoluble sulphur dyes are as follows: Reduction, whereby the water-insoluble dye is converted into water-soluble form Application, whereby the solubilised dye is applied onto the substrate by a suitable exhaust or continuous method Rinsing, whereby all loose colour is removed before the oxidation stage Oxidation, whereby the dye absorbed by the substrate is oxidised back into water-insoluble form, and Soaping, which results in an increase in brightness as well as improved fastness of the final shade
Various application methods for sulphur dyes, along with suggested recipes, have been discussed in [243, 245, 246, 249, 250].
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The auxiliaries used in sulphur dyeing are: reducing agents, antioxidants, sequestering agents, wetting agents, oxidising agents and fixation additives. The two most important reducing agents for sulphur dyes are sodium sulphide [Na2S] and sodium hydrosulphide [NaHS]. Caustic soda/sodium dithionite are conventional chemicals for vat dye reduction but this system is difficult to control in the application of sulphur dyes and tends to give inconsistent results except with certain sulphur vat dyes. A sodium carbonate/ sodium dithionite mixture is too weakly alkaline for the water-insoluble type sulphur dyes and requires careful control if over-reduction and consequent low colour yield are to be avoided. Glucose in the presence of alkali, usually caustic soda or a caustic soda/soda ash mixture, has been used as another possible sulphur dye reducing agent, but it is a weak reducing agent as compared to sodium sulphide or sodium hydrosulphide. Other reducing agents such as thioglycol, hydroxyacetone and thiourea dioxide, have had limited success. Sodium polysulphide and sodium borohydride can be used as antioxidants to inhibit premature oxidation, promote better dyebath stability and lessen the risk of bronzing, poor rubbing fastness and dark selvedges. Sequestering agents are used where water quality is poor or variable, to avoid poor rubbing fastness or unlevelness in the presence of multivalent ions in the dye liquor or in the substrate. Wetting agents may be used to improve the wettability of the substrate. Although the majority of sulphur dyes are unaffected by most wetting agents, some non-ionic wetting agents may inhibit the dye uptake in exhaust dyeing or precipitate the dye as a tarry leuco product. Traditionally, the most preferred oxidising system has been sodium dichromate/ acetic acid because of its ability to rapidly and completely oxidise all reduced sulphur dyes, resulting in good colour yield and fastness properties. Nevertheless, it has been criticised increasingly on environmental grounds, and for its effects on handle and sewability, especially with sulphur blacks. The addition of 1 g/l copper sulphate to batchwise oxidation baths of sodium dichromate/acetic acid improves the light fastness but may result in dulling of the shades, as well as harsher handle. It is not recommended with sulphur blacks, where the presence of copper promotes acid tendering. Other oxidising agents that have been tried as alternatives to sodium dichromate/acetic, with various degrees of success, include [251, 252]: potassium iodate/acetic acid; sodium bromate; hydrogen peroxide and peroxy compounds; and sodium chlorite. Fixation additives, such as alkylating agents based on epichlorohydrin, give dyeings of markedly improved washing fastness but often at the risk of some decrease in light fastness. Moreover, in the event of the dyeing needing subsequent correction, alkylated sulphur dyeings are difficult to strip and attempted removal will often entail destruction of the dye chromogen. Two special problems in dyeing with sulphur dyes are acid tendering and bronziness. In severe conditions of heat and humidity, some sulphur dyeings, notably black, can generate a small amount of sulphuric acid within the cellulosic fibres, leading to tendering. AATCC Test Method 26-1994 (Ageing of sulphur dyed textiles) can be used to determine whether the sulphur dyed textile material will deteriorate under normal storage conditions [253]. Bronziness and other problems in sulphur dyeing and their possible causes are summarised in Appendix J.
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15. PROBLEMS IN DYEING WITH VAT DYES

Vat dyes remain the primary choice where the highest fastness to industrial laundering, weathering and light are required [254]. Several primers [255257] and reviews have been published on progress in their development [258265], and their application by batch [266270] as well as by continuous processes [271, 272]. This section gives briefly some fundamentals of vat dyeing and reviews various problems in the dyeing of cotton with vat dyes in an endeavour to consolidate the previous work done in this regard [273276]. Vat dyes are insoluble pigments, available in different forms [277]. Based on the temperature and the amount of caustic soda, hydrosulphite and salt used in dyeing, vat dyes can be classified into four main groups [278]: IN dyes require high temperature and a large amount of caustic soda and sodium hydrosulphite; IW dyes require medium temperature and a medium amount of caustic soda and sodium hydrosulphite with salt added; IK dyes require low temperature and a small amount of caustic soda and sodium hydrosulphite with salt added; and IN Special dyes require more caustic soda and higher temperature than IN dyes. Generally, vat dyes have a very rapid strike, a good degree of exhaustion and a very low rate of diffusion within the fibre. Vat dyes of different chemical structure may differ in the solubility of their sodium leuco-vat, stability towards over-reduction, stability towards over-oxidation, substantivity and rate of diffusion. Commercial competitive dyes have fairly equal particle sizes. Large particle sizes give dispersions of poor stability. For some vat dyes, colour yield decreases with increasing particle size. The effect is generally dye-specific [279]. The main stages in the dyeing of cotton with vat dyes are as follows: Conversion of insoluble vat pigment into soluble sodium leuco-vat anions [reduction] Diffusion of sodium leuco-vat anions into cellulosic fibres Removal of excess alkali and reducing agents by washing off Oxidation of the soluble dye into insoluble pigmentary form within the cellulosic fibres Soaping, during which the isolated molecules of vat pigments are re-orientated and associate into a different, more crystalline form
Important requirements of vat dye reducing agents are a level of reducing power (reduction potential) sufficient to reduce all commercial vat dyes to their watersoluble form quickly and economically, and conversion of the vat dyes into products from which the original pigment can be restored (no over-reduction). Various reducing systems for vat dyes have been proposed and used [280282]. The most common type of reducing agent used for dyeing with vat dyes is sodium hydrosulphite, commonly known as hydros but more correctly known as sodium dithionite, which has the chemical formula Na2S2O4. Although a part of the hydros is used up in the reduction of vat dyes, a large part of it may be destroyed by its reaction with oxygen in the air (oxidation), particularly at higher temperatures. The rate of reduction of vat dyes depends upon various factors, such as the particle size of the dye, the temperature, time and pH during reduction and access of the reducing agent. The stability of alkaline solutions of reducing agents may decrease with increased temperature, greater exposure to air, greater agitation and lower concentration of the reducing agent. Vat
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dyes of the indanthrene type may produce duller or greener shades at dyeing temperatures higher than 60 C, due to over-reduction. Over-reduction can be prevented by the use of sodium nitrite if the reducing agent is hydrosulphite. In the case of thiourea oxide, over-reduction cannot be prevented by nitrite. The factors influencing the rate of dyeing with vat dyes include the type of substrate, temperature, liquor ratio and concentration of dye and electrolyte. Mercerized cotton gives a higher rate of dyeing compared with un-mercerized cotton, which in turn gives a higher rate than grey material. At low temperature, the rate of exhaustion is low, which might promote levelness but the rate of diffusion is also low. At high temperature, the rate of exhaustion is high, which might decrease levelness but the rate of diffusion is high. Maximum exhaustion, penetration and levelness can be obtained by starting the dyeing at low temperatures in the leuco stage and slowly raising the temperature. Some dyes may not be stable to very high temperatures, so the stability of dyes to temperature must be taken into account. The reducing efficiency of sodium hydrosulphite in caustic soda solutions at high temperatures decreases rapidly in the presence of air. The higher the liquor ratio, the slower is the rate of dyeing. Most of the dyes exhaust more rapidly at low concentrations, increasing the risk of unlevel dyeing in light shades. Some have the same rate of dyeing irrespective of the concentration. The higher the concentration of electrolyte, the higher is the rate of dyeing. The purpose of rinsing before oxidation is to remove any loose dye, excess of reducing agent and alkali to lower the pH and establish conditions favourable for oxidation. The higher the temperature and/or pH of the rinsing bath, the lower is the colour strength. Very high pH and temperature during rinsing may also result in dulling of the shade. The ideal is to do rinsing thoroughly at low temperature at a rinsing bath pH value of 7. The purpose of oxidation is to convert the water-soluble leuco form of the vat dye, back into the insoluble pigment form. Important variables for the oxidizing step are the type and concentration of oxidising agent, the type of pH regulator and pH during oxidation, and temperature during oxidation. The oxidizing agent must provide a level of oxidation potential sufficient to oxidize the reduced vat dye into insoluble pigment, with no over-oxidation, i.e. beyond the oxidation state of the original pigmentary form of the dye. Some criteria for selecting oxidising agents and a comparison of different oxidising agents are given by Tigler [283]. Poor control of pH during oxidation may result in uneven oxidation and a lower temperature may result in slower oxidation. A pH below 7.5 should be avoided to prevent the possible formation of acid leuco forms of vat dyes. The optimum pH for oxidation is 7.58.5. The acid leuco form of vat dye is difficult to oxidize, has little affinity for fibre and is easily rinsed out. The higher the temperature, the faster is the oxidation, the optimum temperature being 120140 F. The purpose of soaping after oxidation is to remove any dye that is not diffused into the fibre and to stabilise the final shade. This results in improved fastness properties and resistance to any shade change caused by a resin or other finish, or to consumer use. Important soaping parameters are time, temperature and type and concentration of soaping auxiliaries. Even when no detergent is used, the dyeings exhibit good colour strength and good fastness properties. Washing with water alone tends to give
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a slightly higher colour yield. It is best to carry out soaping without any detergent at boiling temperature [284]. After soaping, the fabric is rinsed and dried. Both exhaust and continuous dyeing methods are used to apply vat dyes. Exhaust dyeing processes are mainly used for dyeing of loose stock, yarn and knitted fabrics [285]. Woven fabrics can also be dyed by the exhaust method but for large batch sizes, the continuous method is mostly uses. Pad dyeing methods [286, 287] are usually a preference in the case of woven fabrics, particularly if these are in large batches. The commonly used pad dyeing methods are pad-jig, pad-steam and pad-Thermosol [288]. The most popular method for dyeing woven fabrics in a continuous manner is the pad-dry-pad-steam method [289292], consisting of the following key steps: Impregnating the fabric in a bath containing vat dye, dispersing agent, antimigrant and a non-foaming wetting agent Squeezing the impregnated fabric to a given pick-up level Drying the fabric to achieve a uniform distribution of the vat pigment throughout the fabric Impregnating the fabric with a solution of caustic soda and sodium hydrosulphite, with the optional use of salt Expressing the impregnated fabric to a given pick-up level Steaming the fabric to bring about reduction of the dye to the soluble leuco form and to promote diffusion of the dye into the cellulosic fibres Rinsing, oxidation, soaping, rinsing and drying the fabric
Intermediate drying is one of the most important steps in the pad-dry-pad-steam process where the most common problem, migration, can take place [293, 294]. Important factors on which migration depends are: dye constitution; dye formulation; pick-up; additives in the dye padder; residues of wetting agents and lubricants on the fabric; fabric structure; and drying conditions. After drying, the fabric is padded with an alkaline solution of sodium hydrosulphite, after which the fabric undergoes steaming. Almost 40 % of vat dyeing problems are related to improper steaming conditions [295]. Ideal steaming conditions are controlled temperature and moisture [296], freedom from air [297], and sufficient dwell time. After steaming, the fabric undergoes rinsing, oxidation and soaping. The most important control steps in vat dyeing are reduction, absorption and oxidation. The reduction and oxidation can best be controlled by metered addition of chemicals [298]. The advantages of metered addition of hydrosulphite [299, 300] are as follows: Better levelling by slower vatting No need of levelling agent Protection from over-reduction Control of initial rate of dyeing (strike) Possibility of warm pre-pigmentation to give optimum fabric/liquor movement Good reproducibility Reduction of sulphite/sulphate effluent pollution Automatic monitoring of vat state and redox potential by means of measuring and regulating technology
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Controlled dosage of hydrogen peroxide in the oxidation tank, together with the measurement and control of pH can result in obtaining sufficient peroxide for the oxidation of the dye as well as achieving an optimised dyeing procedure due to the control of speed of oxidation [301]. A summary of problems in dyeing with vat dyes is given in Appendix K.
16. PROBLEMS IN DYEING WITH AZOIC DYES

Azoic dyes are the least commonly used dyes for dyeing cotton materials due to disadvantages such as their complicated and time-consuming application procedure [302], the limitations of hue selection and difficulties in calculating recipes [303]. Azoic dyes, unlike other dyes, are formed directly within the fibres by reacting suitable diazo and coupling components inside the fibre [304]. The most commonly used method for dyeing cotton materials with azoic dyes consists of treatment with naphthol, intermediate treatment, development and after-treatment [305, 306]. Naphthols are insoluble in water, but their sodium salts (naphtholates) are watersoluble or can be prepared as stable dispersions. When cotton is immersed in the naphtholate solution, exhaustion takes place according to the substantivity of the naphtholate ion. Low substantivity naphthols are mainly used for application by the continuous method [307]. Naphthols of moderate substantivity can be applied by both continuous or batch methods, adjusting the application conditions appropriately. Naphthols of high substantivity are particularly suitable for batchwise methods. The main components of a naphtholate solution are: surfactants, caustic soda, formaldehyde and common salt or Glaubers salt. The caustic soda converts the insoluble naphthol into a water-soluble naphtholate. The presence of formaldehyde, together with excess of caustic soda, provides good protection against the formation of free naphthol, which may develop on exposure to atmospheric carbon dioxide or in acid steam. The addition of electrolyte increases the exhaustion of naphthols and is recommended for long-liquor applications but not in continuous methods where high substantivity is undesirable. The exhaustion of naphthol decreases with increase of temperature, so batchwise application is normally carried out at 2030 C, and sometimes at 50 C when improved wetting and penetration is necessary. The treated substrate contains absorbed naphtholate as well as loosely-retained naphtholate present only on the surface. It is imperative to remove this looselyretained naphtholate in order to achieve maximum fastness. The amount of looselyretained naphtholate can be reduced by hydroextraction, suction, squeezing, wringing and/or rinsing, depending upon the form of the material. In continuous dyeing it is advantageous to express the water on a pad mangle and then pass the fabric into a hot-flue dryer. The naphtholated substrate is sensitive to light and, if the treated substrate is exposed much to light before development, it may result in unlevelness and change in the hue on subsequent development. After naphtholation and intermediate treatment, the material is passed into a development bath containing a dilute solution of a diazonium salt. This is produced either by diazotization of a fast colour base, or by dissolving a fast colour salt. The majority of fast colour salts result in developing baths of correct pH but, if required, acetic acid is used to adjust the pH of the developing bath. The applied concentration of a fast colour base or salt is related to the applied depth of naphthol and the liquor ratio.
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After-treatment includes rinsing, acidification after development, and alkaline soaping followed by rinsing. The after-treatment eliminates loose dyestuff and the residues of the development component. Moreover, the final colour shade and optimised fastness properties are achieved [308, 309]. A summary of problems in dyeing with azoic dyes is given in Appendix L.
17. POOR REPRODUCIBILITY IN DYEING OF COTTON

Poor shade reproducibility is one of the main causes of loss in productivity and profits. It frequently occurs when a shade does not repeat properly and requires corrective action such as dye or chemical additions, extra run time, boiling down, stripping, re-dyeing and/or over-dyeing. Corrective/repair procedures require extra time and processing, increasing the risk of physical damage. Practices such as stripping or additions, increase also the risk of uneven dyeing and bath instability. All this not only adds to the cost of production but also causes loss in productivity and profits. Table 10 gives an idea of the relative increase in cost and loss in productivity and profits for corrections over a right-first-time dyeing [197]. Just a small corrective addition may entail up to a 10% increase in cost and a 20% decrease in productivity, and slash the profits to about a half as compared to the right-first-time dyeing.
Table 10 The Cost of Non-conformance Process Blind dyeing (RFT) Small addition Large addition Strip and redye Cost 100 110 135 206 Productivity 100 80 64 48 Profit 100 48 45 375
There are three key areas where a good degree of reproducibility is a pre-requisite to avoiding extra costs of dyeing, loss in productivity and, thereby, loss in profits: (i) A recipe should give the same shade every time it is repeated in the lab (within lab reproducibility or lab-to-lab reproducibility) (ii) A recipe developed in the lab should give the same shade in the bulk dyeings as it gives in the laboratory dyeings (lab-to-bulk reproducibility) (iii) A recipe should give the same shade, all the time it is repeated in the bulk dyeings In order to attain the desired degree of reproducibility, there are quite a large number of factors that must be taken into account, thoroughly observed and carefully controlled. It might be convenient to describe these factors with reference to materials and inputs, machinery and equipment, process conditions, and methods and practices. Table 11 gives a summary of these factors [310321]. Table 12 gives factors affecting dye selection and evaluation [311]. Table 13 shows the factors for reproducibility that can be monitored by lab checks and those that can be controlled by standard operating procedures (S.O.Ps). Some routinely performed tests for the evaluation of dyes are: moisture content; strength as measured by reflectance values of dyeings or transmission of dye solutions
doi:10.1533/tepr.2005.0001 Table 11
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Factors Affecting Reproducibility and Right-First-Time Dyeing Process Conditions Liquor to goods ratio Fill water temperature Fixation temperature Rate of rise of temperature/ temperature gradient Concentration of dye, electrolyte, alkali and other auxiliaries Addition profile of dye Addition profile of electrolyte/salt dosing Conductivity Addition profile of alkali/ alkali dosing Fixation pH Addition profile of auxiliaries Time (total time; before and after the addition of electrolyte; before and after the addition of alkali; before and after the addition of fixative or any other auxiliary) Load size Liquor level Machine flow and liquor reversal sequence Method/conditions of washing-off Method/conditions of drying Methods and Practices Frequent change of suppliers Spurious supply of dyes Improper storage of dyes Improper labelling of dyes Accuracy of weighing Improper location of balance, where there is turbulence Loss of the dye in the pan of the weighing balance Spillage of solid dye prior to dissolution or after Cross-contamination of vessels/materials Age of the dye solutions Selection of wrong method for dye strength evaluation Blowing-out pipettes Improper colour preparation Calculation errors Accuracy of dye recipe formulation Dispensing methods for dyes and chemicals Auxiliaries taken on the weight of the fabric Improper substitution of Glaubers salt with common salt Dye application method Manner of drying the sample for colour assessment Conditioning of the sample before colour assessment Target shade too small or soiled Target shade for textiles in paper/plastic Dots/fluff in the area scanned Colour judgment Type of colorimeter and formula used Database preparation for computer colour matching Make-up and geometry of specimenhomogeneity, geometry and thickness Post dyeing operations Poor housekeeping Lack of training/ understanding, negligence, wrong attitude, wrong practice
Substrate Quality/characteristics of cotton Quality/characteristics of yarn Pre-treatment Absorbency pH Residual alkalinity Residual peroxide Whiteness/colorimetric coordinates Dyeability Validity with respect to database Moisture content Conditioning Weight Dyestuff Selection of dyes Standardisation of dyes Source of the dye sample Moisture content of dyes Strength of dyes Weight of dyes Adulteration of dyes/ impurities in dyes Sensitivity of dyes to changes in process conditions Compatibility of dyes Reactivity of dyes Distance of the dye colour from the target colour Number of dyes in the recipe Distance of the colour to be matched and the colour of the dye used in the recipe Metameric index of the recipe Auxiliaries Types of auxiliaries Strength of auxiliaries Impurities in auxiliaries Amount/weight of auxiliaries Water Impurities in water supply Volume of dyebath Steam Impurities in steam supply
Machine and Equipment Leaking valves: steam, drain Circulating pump or heatexchanger performance at operating temperature Location and integrity of temperature sensor Location and evenness of steam injection for heating Accuracy and calibration of: Pressure indicators and controller Flow indicators and controller Level gauge Temperature indicator and controller Weighing balances Spectrophotometer: inter and intra instrument calibration Glassware such as pipettes, beakers, etc.
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Table 12 Factors Affecting Dye Selection and Evaluation Standardisation Homogeneity Absorption in solution Analysis and identification Storage stability Variation in moisture content Storage conditions Solubility and physical form Aqueous solubility Crystal modification Particle size Commercial form Health and safety Dustiness Trace metals Eye and skin irritation Acute toxicity Long-term hazards Biodegradation Sludge adsorption Fish toxicity Cost-effectiveness Shade area Colour value Build-up reproducibility Dye application properties Levelling and migration Substantivity and diffusion Reactivity and fixation Sensitivity to temperature pH and redox potential Compatibility Cross-staining Transfer and vapour pressure Efficiency of wash-off In-service requirements Coverage Penetration Fastness Tendering of substrate Influence of finishes
Table 13 Factors that can be Monitored by Lab Check and Those Controlled by Standard Operating Procedures Factor Water quality Substrate dyeability Substrate preparation Substrate Dye selection Dye combination Dye moisture content Dye standardization Dye and chemical weighing and dispensing Dyebath additives Liquor ratio pH Machine flow and reversal Time/temperature profile Colour assessment method Monitor by Lab Check X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X Control by SOP
[322]; paper or thin layer chromatography; build-up test; pH sensitivity test; reactive dye fixation; thermo migration; strike-migration test; SDC migration test; temperature strike test; dusting [323]; solubility and solution stability [324]; electrolyte stability of reactive dyes [325]; cold water solubility [326]; coverage properties; and fastness. A good quality-control scheme for dyes usually consists of [311]: OSHA Form 20;
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manufacturers technical data; physical standards; satisfactory laboratory evaluation; retention of samples for future references; and proper documentation. Table 14 presents the permissible limits of variation of some of the factors for reproducibility [314]. Some other limits of accuracy are given in Table 15 [314]
Table 14 Variation Permissible to Achieve Reproducibility to Within E 1 Unit Factor Moisture content of dye Moisture content of substrate Weighing of substrate Weighing of dyes and chemicals Dye standardization pH of the dyebath Variation 3.5% 0.5% 0.5% <0.5% <2.5% 0.35 units
Table 15 Factor
Limits of Accuracy for Right-First-Time Dyeing E (JPC 79) 0.30.5 2.0 3.0 3.05.0 <1.0 2.5 0.15 0.2 0.8 (trained technician with class A glassware) 0.2 (untrained operative with automation) 0.050.2
Matching tolerance Cotton variability in dyeing Variability in water supply Instability of dye solution Computer prediction Variation in weighing of 5% Repeat knitting or card-wrapping for assessment Batch levelness Lab dyeing reproducibility Spectrophotometer reproducibility
18. DYEING PROCESSES FOR COTTON

There are three main types of processes for the dyeing of cotton textile materials: batch, continuous and semi-continuous. Batch dyeing is sometimes called exhaust dyeing because the dye is gradually transferred from a relatively large volume dyebath to the material being dyed over a relatively long period of time. The dye is said to exhaust from the dyebath to the substrate. The choice of a dyeing process depends upon many factors including type of material (fibre, yarn, fabric, fabric construction, garment), size of dyeing lots and quality requirements in the dyed material [327]. Modern dyeing machinery for the dyeing of cotton materials is based on three principles: (1) circulation of the dye solution through the fibre, (2) circulation of the fibre through the dye solution and (3) padding the dye solution onto the fibre. The machinery for the exhaust processes is based upon the principles 1 and 2. Package and beam dyeing machines are based upon the first principle while beck, jigger and jet dyeing machines utilize the second principle. Pad-steam, pad-Thermosol, and pad-exhaust machines such as pad-jig are based on the third principle [328]. This section briefly gives the most common processes for the dyeing of cotton textile
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materials, which are: package dyeing (for yarn), jet dyeing (for knitwear), and jigger and pad dyeing for woven materials. The term package dyeing usually refers to the dyeing of yarn that has been wound on perforated cores so that dye liquor can be forced through the package, which may be a tube, cheese or cone type. The yarn packages are placed on perforated spindles on a frame which fits into a pressure vessel where dyeing takes place. The dye formulation is pumped through the perforations in the spindles and package cores into the yarn. The flow of liquor can be either from inside-to-outside of the package or outside-to-inside. Periodic reversal of the flow results in better levelness of the dyeing. A heat exchanger using high pressure steam as the heat source heats the dye liquor in a package dye machine. An earlier review of developments in package dyeing has been given by Fleming and Gaunt [329]. Types of package dyeing machines [330, 331] and later refinements in package dyeing have been reviewed by Turner [332] and some recent progress has been given by Tsui [333]. The most important dyeing parameters in a package dyeing machine are as follows [334]: Liquor differential pressure (in-out and out-in) Liquor flow rate Liquor volume and liquor ratio Liquor temperature Circulation pump speed Static pressure Dyestuff and chemical preparation conditions Injection times and sequence of dyes and chemicals Liquor preparation and transfer times and sequences from/to reverse tank Liquor heating and cooling gradient Dyeing cycle times and sequences
The parameters given above are inter-related and must all be controlled carefully for optimum dyeing to be achieved. Package dyeing, in spite of being simple and controllable [335], is very prone to unlevelness. Success in attaining a good degree of levelness is very much a direct result of package density and other theoretical considerations [336]. A jigger or jig consists of a trough for the dye or chemical liquor. Fabric from a roll on one side of the machine is run through the liquor in the trough and wound on a roll on the opposite side of the jig. When the second roll is full, the drive is reversed, and the fabric is transferred through the liquor back to the first roll. Live steam injected into the bottom of the trough through a perforated pipe across the width of the jig heats the liquor. Some modern jigs also have heat exchangers for indirect heating. Covering the top of the jig minimises the heat loss to the atmosphere, keeps the temperature uniform on all parts of the fabric and minimises exposure of the liquor and the cloth to air. Minimising exposure to air is important when using sulphur or vat dyes since these dyes can be oxidized by atmospheric oxygen. Jigs exert considerable lengthwise tension on the fabric and are more suitable for the dyeing of woven than knitted fabrics. Since the fabric is handled in open-width, a jig is very suitable for fabrics which crease when dyed in rope form. Some typical problems that may be encountered in conventional jig machines are as follows:
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Temperature control from side-to-side and end-to-end of the roll Tension control from end-to-end Constant speed control from end-to-end Prevention of creases Prevention of air
Although these problems have been overcome by many manufacturers [337345], expert monitoring is required to obtain quality dyeing in jig dyeing. Continuous dyeing is usually defined as a dyeing method where a relatively concentrated dye solution is applied evenly across the entire width of the fabric passing through it in a continuous manner. The application of colorant solution is usually accomplished by padding but also may be done by other means. Padding is followed by subsequent fixation of the dye by chemical or thermal means. Continuous dyeing is predominantly used for woven fabrics. However, machinery is also available for both open width and tubular knits. When processing knits, the fabric must be subjected to low and uniform tension for maintaining the desired aesthetics. Padding techniques must be altered to properly handle tubular knit goods because edge lines can occur if good dye penetration is not obtained or if the hardness of the pad rolls is not correct. In the pad batch method, the fabric ready-for-dyeing is impregnated with dye liquor, excess liquor is squeezed out on a mangle, the fabric is batched onto rolls or held in boxes for 212 hours, and then covered with plastic film to prevent adsorption of carbon dioxide from air or evaporation of water. Subsequently, the fabric is washed off in any of the conventional ways, depending upon the available equipment. Typical problems encountered in pad dyeing are lengthwise shade variation (also called tailing or ending) [346349] and widthways shade variation (also known as listing or side-centre-side shade variation) [350353]. The dyeing problems occurring in a continuous dyeing range may be attributable to the dye padder, pre-drying, the Thermosol unit, the chemical padder, the steamer, and the wash boxes [354, 355].
19. SUMMARY
This monograph describes various key stages for the manufacture of dyed cotton materials and reviews possible problems introduced at each stage. Dyed cotton materials are not produced in a straightforward one-step process but there are many processes involved, each with a number of variations and each variation with a number of variables. In addition, textile dyeing is characterized by a large number of variables, each with a distinct degree of effect on the final outcome of the process. The assortment of so many variables, as well as the inter-relation among these factors, makes rightfirst-time dyeing quite demanding, and troubleshooting faulty dyeings even more exacting and arduous. By experience, a trouble-shooter can reduce the number of probable causes of problems, but confirmation of the exact cause can be difficult. A best estimate, possible through a process of elimination, requires answers to a series of questions and/or actual laboratory tests. Although some of the defects can be analyzed by the practical dyer, in many cases, they can be analyzed only by a special textile laboratory, set-up for this purpose, with qualified personnel and special equipment. A satisfactory diagnosis entails: a well-equipped testing laboratory, extensive experience in testing,
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and expert knowledge about several textile processing stages, the interaction between the process variables, and the structural features that determine the properties of the material; as well as a knack of problem-solving. Defects in dyed cotton materials can be attributed to innumerable causes ranging from poor quality of fibre, faulty spinning, inappropriate yarn package formation, improper weaving or knitting, impurities in water, poor standardisation of dyes and chemicals, lack of control of the variables in the processes involved, machine malfunctions to human errors. This monograph addresses the most common problems in the dyeing of cotton textile materials in various forms. An overview of various textile operations for cotton is given and various key stages and factors involved in the production of dyed cotton textile materials are examined in detail and problems originating at each stage are summarised. As quality requirements are becoming more stringent in textiles, human expertise in such a specialized area as dyeing is becoming more limited and expensive. We are aware that sufficient weight was not given to all aspects of production and coloration, and additional detailed examination of techniques would be required to understand the underlying cause of specific problems. However, we hope that readers will find this monograph a useful source of information for the troubleshooting of common problems in the dyeing of cotton-based textile substrates.
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[284] D. Fiebig. New findings on the after-treatment of vat dyeings on cotton taking the leuco processes as an example, Melliand Textilberichte, 12, E17 (1995). [285] H. Schluter. Optimisation of dyeing of cotton and polyester cotton fabrics using vat dyes, International Dyer, 3, 20 (1983). [286] Continuous dyeing, Textile Asia, 1, 96100 (1980). [287] Vat Dyeing of Cotton Pieces, 2nd Edition, ICI Dyestuffs Division, ICI, 1959. [288] S.B. Guha, B.M. Patel and H.H. Mehta. Study (of) the effect of thermofixation in vat dyeing of cotton fabric, Colourage, 5, 2022 (1988). [289] P. Salzmann and W. Schindler. The combined application of vat dye and reducing agent during continuous dyeing without intermediate drying, Melliand English, 6, E218219 (1993). [290] J.N. Etters. Conservation of sodium hydrosulphite in continuous vat dyeing, Colourage Annual, 7782 (1997). [291] G. Rosch. Auxiliaries in the padding process, Melliand English, 1, 8592 (1985). [292] H. Schluter. Ecological demands on dyeing systems parameters for vat dyeing system, Melliand English, 3, E41E43 (1995). [293] D. Hildebrand and W. Marschner. Theory and practice of the continuous dyeing of polyester/cotton blends, Textile Praxis International, 8, XXVXXVIII (1980). [294] Northern Piedmont Section. Processes involved in particulate dye migration, Textile Chemist and Colorist, 11, 192201 (1975). [295] C.L. Boyd. Problem solving in continuous dyeing of cotton and cotton/polyester fabrics with vat and disperse dyes, Textile Chemist and Colorist, 8, 2325 (1992). [296] W.C. Wilcoxson. Ideal steamer conditions, washing, oxidation procedures and soaping, American Dyestuff Reporter, 5, 1621 (1984). [297] J.C. Isarin and R.B.M. Holweg. Controlling the amount of air in steamers Journal of Society of Dyers and Colourists, 1, 2831 (1993). [298] F. Latham and B. Kramrisch. Vat dyes and redox potential, International Dyer, 5, 27, 1991. [299] W. Schrott and B. Stetter. Vat dyeing: present and future, Knitting Technology, 1, 2628 (2001). [300] G. Golzinger, G. Ruppert and W. Schrott. Striving for excellence in cotton dyeing and finishing Textile Month, 1, 1013 (1999). [301] D.W. Ravensbergen. Control of dosage of hydrogen peroxide by the oxidation of vat dyes, Melliand English, 4, E47E48 (2002). [302] H. Broglin and H. Muller. One-bath dyeing of naphthanilides and fast bases, American Dyestuff Reporter, 12, 5059 (1974). [303] R. Klein and P. Heinisch. A sophisticated method of calculating recipes for dyeing with Naphthol AS combinations, Textil Praxis International Foreign Edition with English Supplement, 6, VVIII (1986). [304] H.B. Moore. Dyeing with Azoic Dyes, Textile Chemist and Colorist, 7, 3031 (1980). [305] J. Shore. Cellulosic dyeing, Society of Dyers and Colourists, 1995. [306] B. Moore. Applied Naphthol dyeing, American Dyestuff Reporter, B, 5759 (1979). [307] P. Frey. Continuous dyeing with Naphthol AS dyestuffs on fabrics made from cellulosic fibres, Textil Praxis International Foreign Edition with English Supplement, 6, XXIXXIII (1993). [308] P. Frey. Dyeing yarns from cellulosic fibres with Naphthol AS dyestuffs, Textil Praxis International Foreign Edition with English Supplement, 6, XIVXVI (1994). [309] L.T. Holst and D.H. Abrahams. Crock-fast Naphthol dyeing, American Dyestuff Reporter, 9, 2324 (1977). [310] K. Parton. Right-first-time dyeing the dye manufacturers role, Journal of Society of Dyers and Colourists, 1, 45 (1994). [311] J. Park and J. Shore. The importance of dye standardisation, Colourage Annual, 105108 (1998). [312] M.J. Bradbury P.S. Collishaw and S. Moorhouse. Exploiting technology to gain competitive advantage, International Dyer, 4, 1323 (1996). [313] M. Capponi. Optimising exhaust dyeing process, Textile Praxis International. Foreign edition with English supplement, 12, IXXXXI (1988). [314] J. Park. Laboratory-to-bulk reproducibility, Journal of Society of Dyers and Colourists, 56, 193196 (1991). [315] B. Smith. Troubleshooting in dyeing Part 1: General, American Dyestuff Reporter, 3, 1726 (1987). [316] H. Leube. Reproducibility of dyeings in the textile laboratory ways to achieve greater accuracy, Melliand English, 1, E2224 (1990). [317] A.N. Lee. Why is right-first-time so important?, International Dyer, 4, 3942 (1995). [318] P.L. Adamczyk. Moisture content: How it affects powder dyes, Textile Chemist and Colorist, 8, 3839 (1974). [319] D. Hildebrand and F. Hoffmann. Lab-to-bulk reproducibility in exhaust dyeing processes, Textile Chemist and Colorist, 4, 24 (1993). [320] H.H. Sumner. Random errors in dyeing the relative importance of dyehouse variables in the reproduction of dyeings, Journal of Society of Dyers and Colourists, 3, 8499 (1976). [321] R.A. Nickson and H.H. Sumner. Random errors in dyeing Part II: The effect of dye selection on the
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sensitivity of a recipe to weighing errors, Journal of Society of Dyers and Colourists, 11, 493495 (1978). R. Brossman, N. Kleinemeier, M. Krayer, H.P. Oesch, B.T. Groebel, R. Kuehni and A.T. Leaver. Determination of relative colour strength in solution, Journal of Society of Dyers and Colourists, 1, 38 42 (1987). A. Berger-Schunn, J. Geisenberger, M. Krayer, A.T. Leaver, H.P. Oesch, D.B. Russell, H. Uhrig. Determination of dusting behaviour of dyes, Journal of Society of Dyers and Colourists, 78, 270273 (1991). A. Berger-Schunn, N. Kollodzeiski, H.P. Oesch, D. Phillips, F. Thomi, H. Uhrig, R.D. Wagner. Determination of the solubility and solution stability of water soluble dyes, Journal of Society of Dyers and Colourists, 3, 138139 (1987). A. Berger-Schunn, N. Kollodzeiski, H.P. Oesch, D. Phillips, F. Thomi, H. Uhrig, R.D. Wagner. Determination of electrolyte stability of reactive dyes, Journal of Society of Dyers and Colourists, 78, 272274 (1987). A. Berger-Schunn, N. Kollodzeiski, H.P. Oesch, D. Phillips, F. Schlaeppi, H. Uhrig. Determination of cold water solubility of water soluble dyes, Journal of Society of Dyers and Colourists, 3, 140141 (1987). W.S. Perkins. A review of textile dyeing processes, Textile Chemist and Colorist, 8, 2327 (1991). S.V. Kulkarni, V. Shrikant. Textile Dyeing Operations: Chemistry, Equipment, Procedures and Environmental Aspects. Park Ridge, N.J., U.S.A. Noyes Publications, 1986. R. Fleming and J.F. Gaunt. Developments in package dyeing, Review of Progress in Coloration and Related Topics, 8, 4759 (1997). Anon. Package dyeing: horizontal and vertical options, International Dyer, 8, 29 (1996). Anon. Horizontal yarn package dyeing, Textile Month, 4, 55 (1986). G.R. Turner. Package dyeing updated, Textile Chemist and Colorist, 8, 2325 (1989). W. Tsui. Progress in package dyeing. International Dyer, 1, 2325 + 29 (2000). R. Carabelli. Quick response in large batches, International Dyer, 2, 2526 (1991). E. Bocus. Automation of yarn package dyeing, Journal of Society of Dyers and Colourists, 56, 201 204 (1991). S. Sundaram and S.V. Musale. New developments and theoretical considerations in package dyeing, Colourage, 17, 2328 (1987). I. Ceolotto. Evolution of the modern dye jigger, Textile Month, 3, 39 (1990). Kusters Prozesstechnik GmbH. Conticon a microprocessor control system for process automation of jiggers, Textil Praxis International Foreign edition with English supplement, 6, IXX (1988). IN. TES. The jigger of the third generation, International Textile Bulletin, 1, 42 (1995). IN. TES. Third generation jigger machine, International Dyer, 2, 3031 (1995). J. Hildon. The Jigger a highly topical dyeing machine enjoying renaissance, International Textile Bulletin. Dyeing/Printing/Finishing, 2, 3740 (1996). ITS-charts-jigger, International Textile Bulletin. Dyeing/Printing/Finishing, 2, 4243 (1996). Refined jigger technology, International Dyer, 8, 29 (1998). Jigger revival continues, International Dyer, 11, 20 + 23 + 26 (2000). Goller Textilmaschinen. Modern dyeing jigger for small lots, Melliand English, 9, E183-E184 (2000). F.P. Tolksdorf, R. Tuxen and H. Bernhardt. Tailing in cold pad-batch dyeing and the Econtrol process, Melliand English, 5, E66E70 (2002). F.P. Tolksdorf, R. Tuxen and H. Bernhardt. Tailing in cold pad-batch dyeing and the Econtrol process. Melliand International, 9, 208211 (2002). N.D. Bremerhaven. Can tailing be avoided when dyeing by the cold pad-batch method on padders without liquor circulation?, Melliand English, 2, E64E66 (1988). M. Capponi and R.C. Senn. Relation between some physiochemical properties of reactive dyes and their behaviour in padding process, Journal of Society of Dyers and Colourists, 1, 814 (1966). V.D. Eltz. Widthways shade variations can they be overcome?, International Textile Bulletin. Dyeing/ Printing/Finishing, 2, 97186 (1980). C.W. Meyer. Shade variations in dyeing of lining, Melliand English, 5, E88E90 (1998). A. Kretschmer. Measurements with a textile clock prior to dyeing reduce listing in pad dyeing, Melliand English, 10, 815818 (1985). T. Guschlbauer. Shade variation in continuous dyeing and material density differences in fabric can online colorimetry help?, Melliand English, 12, E413E415 (1993). L.R. Smith and O.E. Melton. Troubleshooting in continuous dyeing, Textile Chemist and Colorist, 5, 38 42 (1982). B. Smith and L. Moser. Troubleshooting in dyeing Part III: Continuous dyeing, American Dyestuff Reporter, 5, 3651 (1987).
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USEFUL TERMS AND DEFINITIONS

Affinity: The quantitative expression of substantivity. It is the difference between the chemical potential of the dye in its standard state in the fibre and the corresponding potential in the dyebath. Note: Affinity is usually expressed in units of calories (joules) per mole. Use of this term in a qualitative sense, synonymous with substantivity, is deprecated. Batchwise processing: Processing of material as lots or batches in which the whole of each batch is subjected to one stage of the process at a time. It is the opposite of continuous processing. Beam dyeing: Dyeing of textile material wound onto a hollow perforated roller (beam) through the perforations of which dye-liquor is circulated. Beck/winch: An open vessel, formerly made of wood or iron, nowadays of stainless steel, for the wet processing of textile materials. Bleaching: The procedure of improving the whiteness of textile material, with or without the removal of natural colouring matter and/or extraneous substances, by a bleaching agent. Bleaching agent: A chemical reagent capable of destroying partly or completely the natural colouring matter of textile fibres, yarns, or fabrics, and leaving them white or considerably lighter in colour. Examples are oxidizing and reducing agents. Amongst the former, hydrogen peroxide is widely used. Chromophore: The part of a molecular structure of an organic dye or pigment responsible for colour. Colour yield: The depth of colour obtained when a standard weight of colorant is applied to a substrate under specified conditions. Desizing: The removal of size from fabrics. Diffusion: Movement of the dye molecules from the surface of the fibre to the interior of the fibre. Exhaustion: The proportion of dye or other substrate taken up by a substrate at any stage of a process to the amount originally available. Fastness: The property of resistance to an agency named (e.g. washing, light, rubbing, crocking, gas-fumes). Note: On the standard scale, five grades are usually recognized, from 5, signifying unaffected, to 1, grossly changed. For lightness, eight grades are used, 8 representing the highest degree of fastness. Fixation: Immobilization of the dye molecules inside the fibre. Note: Different methods include insolubilization (e.g. for vat and sulfur dyes in cotton; polymeric binders with pigments), chemical bonds (e.g. hydrogen bonding for direct dyes in cotton), ionic bonding (e.g. acid dyes in wool and nylon, and basic dyes in acrylic), covalent bonding (e.g. reactive dyes in cotton) and solubility in the fibre (e.g. disperse dyes in polyester, nylon and acetate).
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Grey (greige): Woven or knitted fabrics as they leave the loom or knitting machine, i.e. before any bleaching, dyeing or finishing treatment has been given to them. Some of these fabrics, however, may contain dyed or finished yarns. Note: In some countries, particularly in the Northern American continent, the term greige is used. For woven goods, the term loomstate is frequently used as an alternative. In the linen and lace trades, the term brown goods is used. Jet-dyeing machine: (a) A machine for dyeing fabric in rope form in which the fabric is carried through a narrow throat by dye-liquor circulated at a high velocity. (b) A machine for dyeing garments in which the garments are circulated by jets of liquid rather than by mechanical means. Jig/jigger: A machine in which fabric in open width is transferred repeatedly back and forth from one roller to another and passes each time through a dyebath or other liquid of relatively small volume. Jigs are frequently used for dyeing, scouring, bleaching and finishing. Levelness: Uniformity of dye or chemical distribution across the substrate. Lustre (luster, US): The display of different intensities of light, reflected both specularly and diffusely from different parts of a surface exposed to the same incident light. High lustre is associated with gross differences of this kind, and empirical measurements of lustre depend on the ratio of the intensities of reflected light for specified angles of incidence and viewing. Note: This definition makes these differences in intensity of light the keypoint, since these form the chief subjective impression on the observer of lustre. Both specular and diffuse light must be present together, for, if diffuse light only is present, the surface is matt, not lustrous, whereas, if specular light only is present, the surface is mirror-like, and again not lustrous. The phrase exposed to the same incident light has been included to rule out shadow effects, which have no part in lustre proper. The general term surface is intended to apply to fibres, yarns, and fabrics, and indeed to other surfaces, e.g. that of a pearl (though there the differently reflecting parts are very close together). In the second sentence of the definition, lustre is regarded as a positive function of the differences, the appropriate adjective of intensification being high. Mercerization: The treatment of cellulosic textiles in yarns or fabric form with a concentrated solution of caustic alkali whereby the fibres are swollen, the strength and dye affinity of the materials are increased, and the handle is modified. The process takes its name from its discoverer, John Mercer (1884). Mote: There are two broad categories: (a) Fuzzy motes. The largest of this type of mote consists of whole aborted or immature seeds covered with fuzz fibers and sometimes also with very short lint fibres, the development of which has ceased at a very early stage. Small fuzzy motes originate as either undeveloped or fully grown seeds, which are broken in ginning and disintegrate still further in the opening, cleaning and carding processes. (b) Bearded motes. Pieces of seed coat with fairly long lint fibres attached. Note 1: Both classes of mote become entangled with the lint cotton and, when they are present in quantity, their complete elimination is impossible except by combing.
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Note 2: Fuzzy and bearded motes carrying only a small piece of barely visible seedcoat are frequently termed seed-coat neps. Package dyeing: A method of dyeing in which the liquor is circulated radially through a wound package. Note: Wound packages include slubbing in top form and cheeses or cones of yarn. Piece-dyeing: Dyeing in fabric form. Pilling: Small accumulations of fibres on the surface of a fabric. Pills can develop during wear, are held to the fabric by an entanglement with the surface fibers of the material, and are usually composed of the same fibres as those from which the fabric is made. Reactive dye: A dye that, under suitable conditions, is capable of reacting chemically with a substrate to form a covalent dyesubstrate linkage. Resist: (a) A substance applied to a substrate to prevent the uptake or fixation of a dye in a subsequent operation. Note: The substance functions by forming a mechanical barrier, by reacting chemically with the dye or substrate, or by altering conditions (e.g. pH value) locally so that development cannot occur. Imperfect preparation of the substrate may cause a resist as a fault. (b) In printing plate or roller making, a coating of, for example, light-hardened gelatin which protects from the action of the etching solution those areas of the plate or roller which are not required to be etched. Scouring: The treatment of textile materials in aqueous or other solutions in order to remove natural fats, waxes, proteins and other constituents, as well as dirt, oil and other impurities. Sequestering agents: A chemical capable of reacting with metallic ions so that they become part of a complex anion. The principle is used to extract calcium ions from hard water, iron (II) and copper ions from peroxide bleach liquors and various metallic ions from dyebaths, by forming a water-soluble complex in which the metal is held in a non-ionizable form. Shade: (a) A common term loosely employed to broadly describe a particular colour or depth, e.g., pale shade, 2% shade, mode shade and fashion shade. (b) To bring about relatively small modifications in the colour of a substrate in dyeing by adding further small amount of dye, especially with the object of matching more accurately with a given pattern. Singeing: To remove, by burning against a hot plate, in a flame, or by infra-red radiation, unwanted surface hairs or filaments. The operation is usually performed as a preliminary to bleaching and finishing. Stripping: Destroying or removing the dye or finish from a fibre. Size: A gelatinous film-forming substance, in solution or dispersion, applied normally to warps but sometimes to wefts, generally before weaving. Note 1: The main types are carbohydrates and their derivatives, gelatin, and animal glues, although other substances, such as linseed oil, poly (acrylic acid), and poly (vinyl alcohol) are also used.
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Note 2: The objects of sizing prior to weaving are to protect the yarns from abrasion in healds and reed and against each other; to strengthen them; and by the addition of oils and fats, to lubricate them. Note 3: A size may be applied to carpets (e.g. starch) and occasionally to wool fabrics (e.g. animal glue). Sizing: A process in which warp yarns are sized during transfer from warpers beams to loom beams. Two or more size boxes may be used in parallel and/or in tandem if the warp sheet is too dense for effective sizing in one box, or if it contains yarns with different fugitive tints. Slasher sizing is also known as slashing. Slashing: See sizing Substantivity: The attraction between a substrate and a dye or other substrate under the precise conditions of test whereby the latter is selectively extracted from the application medium by the substrate. Surfactant/Surface Active Agent: An agent, soluble or dispersible in a liquid, which reduces the surface tension of the liquid.
CHEMICAL SYMBOLS OF SOME OF THE REAGENTS

Chlorine Dioxide (ClO2) Hypochlorous Acid (HClO) Sodium Hypochlorite (NaOCl) Hydrogen Peroxide (H2O2) Potassium Citrate Monohydrate (C6H5O7K3.H2O) Potassium Oxalate (K2[C2O4]) Sodium Acetate (CH3COONa.3H2O) Sodium Bromite (NaBrO2) Sodium Chlorate (NaClO3) Sodium Chlorite (NaClO2) Sodium Citrate Dihydrate (C6H5O7Na3.2H2O) Sodium Nitrate (NaNO3) Sodium Perborate (NaBO3.H2O) Sodium Persulphate (Na2S2O8) Sodium Phosphate (NaH2PO42H2O)
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APPENDIX A: Summary and Solutions to Problems Originating from Cotton Fibre

Problem Acid tendering Possible Cause Inadequate washing/ neutralisation of the dyed fabric Countermeasure 1. Thorough washing/neutralisation of the fabric after dyeing Rinsing well before oxidation and soaping after oxidation 2. Use of alkaline bath in the final rinse 3. Use of sodium acetate and soda ash for neutralisation 4. Storing the fabric at low temperature and humidity 5. Resin finishing 1. Optimum quantity of sodium sulphide 2. Good quality control of sodium sulphide 3. Optimum concentration of salt 4. Optimum concentration of alkali 5. No long exposure of dyed goods to air before being after-treated 6. Optimum liquor ratio 7. Optimum temperature during dyeing 8. Use of soft water or appropriate sequestrants 9. Demineralisation of cotton or use of appropriate sequestrants 10. Removal of excess liquor before dyeing 11a. Excess quantity of sodium sulphide 11b. Exclusion of air from inside the machine 12. Use of dyes with high tinctorial strength 1. Good pre-treatment 2. Good pre-treatment and washing after pre-treatment 3. Water purification or use of sequestrants 4. Good quality control of commodity chemicals 5. Good housekeeping and use of liquid dyes if appropriate 6. Use of compatible dyebath assistants 7a. Good dispersion stability 7b. Optimum control of temperature, pH, etc. The Textile Institute
Bronziness
1. Insufficient quantity of sodium sulphide 2. Degraded quality of sodium sulphide 3. Too high concentration of salt 4. Too high concentration of alkali 5. Too long exposure of dyed goods to air before being aftertreated 6. Too short liquor ratio 7. Too high temperature during dyeing 8. Water hardness 9. Presence of calcium or magnesium in cotton 10. Failure to remove excess liquor before dyeing 11. Premature oxidation of reduced dye 12. Excessively heavy shade
Dye spots/resist spots/ stains/blotches/ filtering/dark coloured areas
1. Poor pre-treatment 2. Residual contaminants in the substrate 3. Water contamination 4. Contaminants in salt, alkali, etc. 5. Soiling of material by air-borne particles of powdered dyes 6. Incompatibility of dyebath assistants 7. Poor stability of dye dispersion
doi:10.1533/tepr.2005.0001 Problem Possible Cause
Critical Solutions in the Dyeing of Cotton Countermeasure 8. Optimum process control 9. Optimum liquor ratio 10. Good quality control of the substrate
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8. Too high rate of dye strike on the substrate 9. Short liquor ratio 10. More dense/compact yarn areas appearing dark due to less scattering of light 11. Improper rinsing/washingoff after dyeing Poor washing fastness 1. Inadequate rinsing of the fabric before oxidation 2. Premature or over-oxidation of the dye 3. Poor washing-off aftertreatment 1. Dye substantivity, too high 2. Dyes of low diffusion coefficient 3. Short liquor ratio of the washing bath 4. Low temperature of the washing liquor 5. High electrolyte concentration in the washing bath 6. Water hardness 7. Inadequate washing time 8. Inadequate number of wash cycles/wash baths 9. Low mechanical action 10. Misuse of dyebath assistants Poor rubbing fastness 1. Dyes of poor rubbing fastness 2. Catalytic damage of the material 3. Presence of polyvalent ions 4. Too high moisture in the test material 5. Improper use of finishing agents 6. Un-Mercerized cotton 7. Incomplete diffusion and fixation 8. Incomplete washing-off Shade change/ inconsistent shade 1. Residual peroxide, alkalinity or other contaminants in the substrate 2. Water hardness
11. Optimum rinsing/washing-off after dyeing 1. Thorough rinsing of the fabric before oxidation 2. Optimum oxidation 3. Thorough washing-off (see below the cause of poor washing-off) 1. Use of dyes of optimum substantivity 2. Use of dyes of optimum diffusion coefficient 3. Optimum liquor ratio of the washing bath 4. Optimum temperature of the washing liquor 5a. Use of low salt dyes 5b. Optimum rinsing cycle/ sequence 6. Use of soft water and/or sequestrants 7. Optimum washing time 8. Optimum number of wash cycles/wash baths 9. Optimum mechanical action 10. Compatible dyebath assistants 1. Use of dyes of good rubbing fastness 2. No catalytic damage of the material 3. Use of appropriate complexing agents 4. Proper conditioning of the test material 5. Proper use of finishing agents 6. Use of Mercerized cotton 7. Use of optimum dyeing conditions 8. Optimum washing-off 1. Substrate free from contamination before dyeing 2. Use of soft water or appropriate sequestrants
Poor washing off
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Textile Progress Possible Cause 3. Contamination of dyebath with calcium, magnesium, chlorine or heavy metals 4. Improper use of dyebath assistants, e.g. surfactants, sequestrants, fixatives, lubricating agents
doi:10.1533/tepr.2005.0001 Countermeasure 3. Use of appropriate sequestrants 4. Use of compatible dyebath assistants
Problem
Poor levelling/uneven dyeing
1. Low dye diffusion 2. High dye affinity 3. Dyes of poor migration 4. Improper reduction of the dye 5. Too much salt 6. Rate of dyeing too high 7. Rapid rate of rise of temperature 8. Low liquor flow rate 9. Low mechanical action 10. Poor rinsing before oxidation 11. Improper oxidation of the reduced dye 12. Uneven washing/soaping after-treatments 13. Presence of iron/copper 14. Improper use of surfactants
1. Use of dyes of good diffusion 2. Use of dyes of optimum affinity 3. Use of dyes of good migration 4. Optimum reduction of the dye 5. Optimum concentration of salt 6. Optimum rate of dyeing 7. Optimum rate of rise of temperature 8. Optimum liquor flow rate 9. Optimum mechanical action 10. Thorough rinsing before oxidation 11. Optimum oxidation of the reduced dye 12. Thorough and uniform washing/soaping after-treatments 13. Use of appropriate complexing agents 14. Use of compatible surfactants 1. Good pre-treatment 2. Use of dyes of optimum substantivity 3. Use of dyes of good diffusion coefficient 4. Use of optimum dyeing conditions 1. Good pre-treatment 2. No residual peroxide in the substrate 3. Optimum reduction of the dye 4. Use of dyes of optimum substantivity 5. Optimum concentration of electrolyte 6. Optimum dye concentration 7. Optimum liquor ratio 8. Optimum dyeing time 9. Optimum oxidation of the reduced dye 10. Optimum use of surfactants 11. Careful weighing/dispensing of dyes and chemicals 12. Use of soft water or appropriate sequestrants The Textile Institute
Low diffusion/ penetration
1. Poor pre-treatment 2. Dye substantivity too high 3. Dyes of poor diffusion coefficient
Poor colour yield
1. Poor pre-treatment 2. Residual peroxide in the substrate 3. Incomplete or over-reduction of the dye 4. Too low dye substantivity 5. Too low concentration of electrolyte 6. Too low dye concentration 7. Too high liquor ratio 8. Too short dyeing time 9. Incomplete or over-oxidation of the reduced dye 10. Improper use of surfactants 11. Loss of dye or chemicals during weighing/dispensing 12. Water hardness
doi:10.1533/tepr.2005.0001 Problem Physical damage Possible Cause
Critical Solutions in the Dyeing of Cotton Countermeasure 1. Right First Time Dyeing 2. Optimum mechanical or hydraulic action 3. Optimum temperature
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1. Too long dyeing time (due to corrective/repair procedures) 2. Too high mechanical or hydraulic action 3. Too high temperature (increases the sensitivity of the material to physical damage) 1. Low dyeing temperature 2. Low concentration of electrolyte 1. Too high mechanical action 2. Improper surfactant 3. Too high concentration of surfactant 4. Introduction of air into the dyeing machine 1. Too high dye concentration 2. Too high electrolyte content 3. Too low temperature 4. Poor stability of dye dispersion The presence of broken fibres on the surface at the damaged portions leads to stronger scattering of light causing them to appear lighter 1. Incomplete reduction of dyes 1. A surface knot of entangled immature fibres is flattened during processing and takes on a glazed, shiny appearance. 2. Clumps of immature fibres loosely attached to the yarns that are poorly penetrated by the dye, move or knock loose to reveal the white or lightly dyed area 3. Dead cotton of poor dyeability 4. Immature cotton of poor dyeability
Slow rate of exhaustion Foaming
1. Optimum dyeing temperature 2. Optimum concentration of electrolyte 1. Optimum mechanical action 2. Use of low-foaming surfactant 3. Optimum concentration of surfactant 4. Prevention of air entry into the dyeing machine 1. Optimum dye concentration 2. Optimum electrolyte content 3. Optimum temperature 4. Good stability of dye dispersion (by ensuring optimum temperature, pH, etc.) 1. Good quality control of the substrate 2. Optimum singeing
Dye aggregation
Light coloured areas/ spots on the yarn
Dull shades White or lightcoloured specks in otherwise deep dyed material
1. Optimum reduction of dye 1a. Swelling treatment (Mercerization or ammonia treatment) before or after dyeing 1b. Selection of dyes with good coverage properties 2a. Increase in dye penetration 2b. Swelling treatment (Mercerization or ammonia treatment) before dyeing 3. Selection of dyes with better coverage properties 4a. Swelling treatment (Mercerization or ammonia treatment) before dyeing 4b. Selection of dyes with better coverage properties 1. Use of sequestering agents 2. Demineralisation
Incomplete removal of size in enzymatic desizing The Textile Institute
Heavy metals
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Textile Progress Possible Cause Alkaline earth metals
doi:10.1533/tepr.2005.0001 Countermeasure 1. Use of sequestering agents 2. Demineralisation
Problem Less removal of oils and fats due to breaking of emulsions (Improper scouring) Less stability of peroxide bath due to blockage of stabilisers (Improper bleaching) Harsh handle of the substrate due to deposition of insoluble alkaline earth salts Lowering of whiteness due to formation of insoluble products with optical brighteners Low solubility of dyes Dye stains due to formation of insoluble dye products Change in the tone of dyeing Low washing fastness of reactive dyes due to hindrance in the removal of hydrolysed dye Decrease in fibre strength (Bleaching damage) Dyeability variation
Alkaline earth metals and/or heavy metals
1. Use of sequestering agents 2. Demineralisation
Alkaline earth metals
Alkaline earth metals and/or heavy metals
Alkaline earth metals and/or heavy metals Alkaline earth metals
1. Use of sequestering agents 2. Demineralisation 1. Use of sequestering agents 2. Demineralisation 1. Use of sequestering agents 2. Demineralisation 1. Use of sequestering agents 2. Demineralisation
Alkaline earth metals and/or heavy metals Alkaline earth metals
Heavy metals
1. Use of sequestering agents 2. Demineralisation 1. Obtaining the substrate from a single source wherever possible 2. Use of dyes with minimum sensitivity to dyeability variation Good fibre preparation and cleaning (during spinning) 1. Careful handling and storage 2. Good fibre preparation, cleaning and pre-treatment
Substrate obtained from different sources
General impairment Resist spots
Seed capsules, leaves, branches, etc. and /or Neps 1. Foreign fibres 2. Residues from insecticide, growth regulators, defoliants, etc. 3. Dirt, dust from storage
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APPENDIX B: Summary and Solutions to Problems in Yarn Winding

Problem Channelling Unlevel dyeing Swelled or puffy package shoulders White or light yarn streaks in otherwise deep dyed yarn Leakage or poor liquor flow through the edges of the dye package Package deformation Possible Cause 1. Uneven package density 2. Too soft package winding Uneven package density 1. Too soft package winding 2. Foaming in the bath 1. Too soft package winding 2. Foaming in the bath 1. Differences in the package densities 2. Unsatisfactory spacer sealing 1. Differences in package density from package to package, and within a package 2. Improperly wound packages 3. All the perforations of the dye tube not covered with yarn 4. Pressed density of the compressed tubes not same 5. Damaged tubes 6. Faulty spacers 7. Defective locking caps 8. Shrinkage and deformation of plastic tubes subjected to high temperature 9. Too high liquor flow Too high a winding or pressing density, or high residual shrinkage Non-uniform winding and/or pressing density Countermeasure 1. Uniform package density 2. Optimum package winding Uniform package density 1. Optimum package winding 2. Use of anti-foaming agent 1. Optimum package winding 2. Use of anti-foaming agent 1. Uniform package densities 2. Optimum spacer sealing 1. Uniform package density from package to package, and within a package 2. Optimum package winding 3. All the perforations of the dye tube covered with yarn 4. Similar pressed density of the compressed tubes 5. No damaged tubes 6. No faulty spacers 7. No defective locking caps 8. Use of good quality dye tubes 9. Optimum liquor flow Optimum winding and pressing density and no residual shrinkage Uniform winding and pressing density
Pressure or lustre marks on inner yarn layers Different shades in the inner, middle and outer layers of a package
APPENDIX C: Summary and Solutions to Problems Caused by Poor Water Quality

Problem Poor removal of starch sizes Possible Cause 1. Water hardness 2. Heavy metals The Textile Institute Countermeasure 1. Appropriate water treatment prior to use in processing 2. Use of suitable sequestrants during processing
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Textile Progress Possible Cause 1. Water hardness 2. Alkaline and alkaline earth metals 3. High solid content in the rinsing water
doi:10.1533/tepr.2005.0001 Countermeasure 1. Appropriate water treatment prior to use in processing 2. Use of suitable sequestrants during processing
Problem Harsh handle of the substrate
Inconsistent absorbency after scouring
1. Water hardness 2. Alkaline and alkaline earth metals
1. Appropriate water treatment prior to use in processing 2. Use of suitable sequestrants during processing 1. Appropriate water treatment prior to use in processing 2. Use of suitable sequestrants during processing 1. Appropriate water treatment prior to use in processing 2. Use of suitable sequestrants during processing 1. Appropriate water treatment prior to use in processing 2. Use of suitable sequestrants during processing 1. Appropriate water treatment prior to use in processing 2. Use of suitable sequestrants during processing
Tendency of the substrate to attract soil
1. Water hardness 2. Alkaline and alkaline earth metals 3. Greasy contaminants
Decreased solubility and rate of dissolution of surfactants Decreased wash-removal ability of surfactants
1. Water hardness 2. Alkaline and alkaline earth metals 1. Water hardness 2. Alkaline and alkaline earth metals
Catalytic decomposition of hydrogen peroxide leading to fibre degradation, loss in fibre strength, increase in fluidity and reduction in whiteness Inconsistent shade
Transition metal ions (iron, copper, manganese, zinc, nickel, cobalt and chromium) Alkaline earth metals (other than magnesium)
Chlorine Iron, copper or other metals Chelates such as EDTA, DTPA, NTA, and HEDTA Calcium and magnesium (hardness) in the process water Acidity or alkalinity in water Fluorescent brighteners in water Sediments, alum or other residual flocking agents left over from water treatment, from organic contaminants, from metal hydroxides (copper and iron), or from fatty acid/hardness metal complexes
1. Appropriate water treatment prior to use in processing 2. Use of suitable sequestrants during processing
Inconsistent shade and blotches due to inconsistent and uneven washing off
1. Appropriate water treatment prior to use in processing 2. Use of suitable sequestrants during processing
doi:10.1533/tepr.2005.0001 Problem Filtering in package dyeing Dye resists, stains and/or spots Possible Cause
Critical Solutions in the Dyeing of Cotton Countermeasure
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High solid content in the rinsing water High solid content in the rinsing water Water hardness Heavy metals Sulphates, sulphites, sulphides, or chlorides Silica Calcium ions
Appropriate water treatment prior to use in processing 1. Appropriate water treatment prior to use in processing 2. Use of suitable sequestrants during processing
Loss of colour depth
1. Appropriate water treatment prior to use in processing 2. Use of suitable sequestrants during processing 1. Appropriate water treatment prior to use in processing 2. Use of suitable sequestrants during processing 1. Appropriate water treatment prior to use in processing 2. Use of suitable sequestrants during processing Appropriate water treatment prior to use in processing Appropriate water treatment prior to use in processing
Difficulty in the removal of hydrolysed dye
Calcium ions
Decrease in the wet fastness
Calcium ions
Foaming Corrosion or rusting of machine parts
Surfactants in water Dissolved carbon dioxide, dissolved oxygen
APPENDIX D: Summary and Solutions to Problems in Singeing

Problem Incomplete singeing Possible Cause 1. Too low flame intensity 2. Too fast fabric speed 3. Too far distance between the fabric and the burner 4. Inappropriate singeing position (not severe enough) 5. Too much moisture in the fabric incoming for singeing 1. Non-uniform moisture content across the fabric width 2. Non-uniform flame intensity across the fabric width 3. Uneven distance between the burner and the fabric Countermeasure 1. Optimum flame intensity 2. Optimum fabric speed 3. Optimum distance between the fabric and the burner 4. Optimum singeing position 5. No excess moisture in the fabric incoming for singeing 1. Uniform moisture content across the fabric width 2. Uniform flame intensity across the fabric width 3. Uniform distance between the fabric and the burner
Uneven singeing (widthways)
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Textile Progress Possible Cause 1. Non-uniform moisture content along the fabric length 2. Non-uniform flame intensity along the fabric length 3. Change in fabric speed during singeing 4. Change in the distance between the fabric and the burner along the length 1. Too high flame intensity 2. Too slow fabric speed 3. Too close distance between the fabric and the burner 4. Inappropriate singeing position (too severe)
doi:10.1533/tepr.2005.0001 Countermeasure 1. Uniform moisture content along the fabric length 2. Uniform flame intensity along the fabric length 3. Uniform fabric speed during singeing 4. Uniform distance between the fabric and the burner along the length 1. Optimum flame intensity 2. Optimum fabric speed 3. Optimum distance between the fabric and the burner 4. Optimum singeing position
Problem Uneven singeing (lengthways)
Thermal damage or Reduction in tear strength
APPENDIX E: Summary and Solutions to Problems in Desizing

Problem Incomplete desizing Cause 1. Inappropriate desizing bath pH 2. Inappropriate desizing-bath temperature 3. Insufficient fabric pick-up 4. Insufficient digestion time 5. Poor enzyme activity 6. Deactivation of enzyme due to presence of metals or other contaminants 7. Ineffective wetting agent 8. Incompatible wetting agent Uneven desizing (widthways) 1. Uneven pad pressure (across the width) 2. Non-uniform pad temperature 3. Non-uniform chemical concentration in the bath 1. Uneven pick-up (along the length) 2. Preferential drying of outer layers of the batch 3. Temperature variation during digestion Countermeasure 1. Optimum pH 2. Optimum temperature 3a. Optimum squeeze pressure 3b. Use of wetting agent 4. Optimum digestion time 5. Use of good enzymes 6a. Use of soft water 6b. Use of appropriate sequestering agents 7. Use of good and effective wetting agent 8. Use of compatible wetting agent 1. Uniform squeeze pressure 2. Uniform bath temperature 3. Uniform chemical concentration 1. Uniform pick-up along the fabric length 2a. Covering the batch with polythene or other suitable sheet 2b. Keep the batch rolling 3a. Covering the batch with polythene or other suitable sheet 3b. Keep the batch rolling The Textile Institute
Uneven desizing (lengthways)
doi:10.1533/tepr.2005.0001 Problem Uneven desizing (random) Cause
Critical Solutions in the Dyeing of Cotton Countermeasure 1. Use of effective and compatible wetting agent 2. Optimum bath temperature
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1. Poor wetting agent 2. Inappropriate bath temperature 3. Foaming in the bath 4. Improper use of defoamer 5. Uneven liquor distribution during padding 6. Non-uniform washing after desizing
3. Use of appropriate defoamers 4. Use of appropriate defoamers 5. Uniform liquor distribution during padding 6. Thorough and uniform washing after desizing
APPENDIX F: Summary and Solutions to Problems in Scouring

Problem Inadequate scouring or Inadequate absorbency or High residual impurities (batch scouring of yarn or fabric) Possible Cause 1. Too low concentration of scouring chemicals 2. Incompatible or ineffective surfactant/wetting agent 3. Too low scouring temperature 4. Inadequate scouring time 5. Inadequate washing after scouring 1. Too low concentration of scouring chemicals 2. Incompatible or ineffective surfactant/wetting agent 3. Too low steaming temperature 4. Inadequate steaming time 5. Inadequate washing after scouring 1. Poor stability of surfactant/ wetting agent (cloud point below application temperature) 2. Water hardness or ineffective chelating agents 3. Non-uniform and/or ineffective washing after scouring 4. Improper use of defoamer (all above causes for random unevenness when scouring in fabric form, and) 1. Uneven package density 2. Yarn variations Countermeasure 1. Optimum concentration of scouring chemicals 2. Compatible and effective surfactant/wetting agent 3. Optimum scouring temperature 4. Optimum scouring time 5. Optimum washing after scouring 1. Optimum concentration of scouring chemicals 2. Compatible and effective surfactant/wetting agent 3. Optimum steaming temperature 4. Optimum steaming time 5. Optimum washing after scouring 1. Suitable selection and proper use of surfactant/wetting agent 2. Use of soft water or effective chelating agents 3. Uniform and thorough washing after scouring 4. Suitable selection and proper use of defoamer
Inadequate scouring or Inadequate absorbency or High residual impurities (Pad-steam scouring of fabric)
Uneven scouring (random unevenness when scouring in fabric form)
Uneven scouring (random unevenness when scouring yarn in package form)
1. Uniform package density 2. No yarn variations (Good quality control of incoming yarn)
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Problem
Textile Progress Possible Cause 1. Uneven pad pressure 2. Non-uniform temperature across the bath 3. Non-uniform chemical concentration across the bath 1. Variation in the concentration of scouring chemicals with time 2. Variation in the moisture content of the incoming fabric along the length Complete loss of natural oils/ fats due to too high alkali concentration 1. Deposits of insoluble salts of surfactants 2. Redeposition of impurities
doi:10.1533/tepr.2005.0001 Countermeasure 1. Uniform pad pressure 2. Uniform bath temperature 3. Uniform chemical concentration in the bath 1. Uniform concentration of scouring chemicals with time 2. Uniform moisture content in the incoming fabric along the length Optimum concentration of alkali during scouring 1. Use of soft water or appropriate chelating agents 2a. Careful selection of scouring auxiliaries 2b. Thorough washing after scouring 1. Optimum alkali concentration 2. Optimum dwell time 1a. Exclusion of air 1b. Use of mild reducing agent 2a. Water purification 2b. Use of appropriate complexing agent 2c. Demineralisation (if iron present in the textile material)
Uneven scouring (widthways unevenness in pad-steam scouring)
Uneven scouring (lengthways unevenness in pad-steam scouring)
Harsh handle
Resist marks
Yellowing of the goods
1. Too high alkali concentration 2. Too long dwell time
Tendering or damage or loss in strength
1. Presence of air in the machine, leading to the formation of oxycellulose 2. Contamination of iron
APPENDIX G: Summary and Solutions to Problems in Bleaching

Problem Low degree of whiteness (Bleaching yarn or fabric in batch form) Possible Cause 1. Inadequate concentration of hydrogen peroxide 2. Inadequate alkali concentration 3. Too low bleaching pH 4. Too short bleaching time 5. Too low bleaching temperature 6. Residual sodium acetate after neutralization 1. Inadequate concentration of hydrogen peroxide Countermeasure 1. Optimum concentration of hydrogen peroxide 2. Optimum alkali concentration 3. Optimum bleaching pH 4. Optimum bleaching time 5. Optimum bleaching temperature 6. Thorough rinsing after neutralization 1. Optimum concentration of hydrogen peroxide The Textile Institute
Low degree of whiteness (Bleaching fabric by pad-
doi:10.1533/tepr.2005.0001 Problem steam process) Possible Cause
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2. Inadequate alkali concentration 3. Inadequate pick-up 4. Too low bleaching pH 5. Too short steaming time 6. Too low steaming temperature 7. Residual sodium acetate after neutralization
2. Optimum alkali concentration 3a. Optimum pick-up 3b. Use of good wetting agents 4. Optimum bleaching pH 5. Optimum steaming time 6. Optimum steaming temperature 7. Thorough rinsing after neutralization 1. Appropriate/compatible surfactants 2. Soft water or use of sequestering agents 3. Optimum chemical feeding 4. Optimum steaming conditions 5. Appropriate use of defoamer 6. Appropriate use of defoamer 7. Thorough and uniform washing after bleaching 1. Uniform pick-up with time 2. Uniform chemical concentration with time 3. Uniform steaming conditions with time 4. Uniform fabric speed 1. Uniform pad pressure (across the fabric width) 2. Uniform bath temperature 3. Uniform chemical concentration 1a. Use of organic stabilisers 1b. Optimum control of pH (low pH reduces silicate solubility) 1c. Thorough washing after bleaching 2. Optimum concentration of alkali 3. Optimum bleaching/steaming temperature 1a. Demineralisation to remove metals from the fibre 1b. Treatment of water to remove metal contaminants 1c. Use of appropriate complexing agents
Uneven whiteness (random)
1. Use of inappropriate surfactants 2. Water hardness 3. Irregular chemical feeding 4. Condensation or water marks 5. Foaming in the bath 6. Inappropriate use of defoamer 7. Ineffective and/or nonuniform washing after bleaching
Uneven whiteness (lengthways) (bleaching of fabrics by pad steam process)
1. Non-uniform pick-up with time 2. Variation in chemical concentration with time 3. Variation in steaming conditions with time 4. Variation in the fabric speed 1. Uneven pad pressure (across the fabric width) 2. Non-uniform bath temperature 3. Non-uniform chemical concentration 1. Silicate deposits
Uneven whiteness (widthways) (bleaching of fabrics by pad steam process)
Harsh handle
2. Too high concentration of alkali 3. Too high bleaching/steaming temperature Fibre degradation OR Reduction in fibre strength 1. Metal contaminants
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Problem
Textile Progress Possible Cause 2. Unstabilised hydrogen peroxide 3. Too high bleaching pH 4. Extreme condition of time, temperature, and concentration of peroxide
doi:10.1533/tepr.2005.0001 Countermeasure 2. Use of appropriate stabiliser(s) 3. Optimum bleaching pH 4. Optimum condition of time, temperature, and concentration of peroxide 1a. Demineralisation to remove metals from the fibre 1b. Treatment of water to remove metal contaminants 1c. Use of appropriate complexing agents/ stabiliser(s) 1. Optimum bleaching pH/ alkalinity 2. Adequate softening of motes during scouring 1a. Use of alternative stabiliser(s) 1b. Appropriate ratio of Na2O:SiO2 1c. Optimum pH during bleaching and washing after bleaching 2a. Proper stabilisation of the bleaching liquor 2b. Optimum bleaching conditions 2c. Use of appropriate complexing agents for metal contaminants Optimum alkalinity in the bleach liquor Optimum alkalinity in the bleach liquor Optimum bleaching temperature and alkalinity
Pinholes, broken yarns, tears
1. Localised fibre degradation usually due to heavy metal presence
Inadequate mote removal
1. Too low bleaching pH/ alkalinity 2. Inadequate softening of motes during scouring 1. Silicate deposits
Resist spots
2. Oxycellulose formation
Loss in voluminous character of the material Decrease in the elasticity of the material Low sewability of the material
Too high alkalinity in the bleach liquor Too high alkalinity in the bleach liquor Too high bleaching temperature and/or alkalinity
APPENDIX H: Summary and Solutions to Problems in Mercerization

Problem Incomplete mercerization Possible Cause 1. Low concentration of sodium hydroxide 2. Inappropriate wetting agent 3. Inappropriate temperature of the incoming fabric or the padder 4. Low pick-up 5. Insufficient contact time Countermeasure 1. Optimum concentration of sodium hydroxide 2. Appropriate wetting agent 3. Appropriate temperature of the incoming fabric or the padder 4. Optimum pick-up 5. Optimum contact time The Textile Institute
doi:10.1533/tepr.2005.0001 Problem Low increase in lustre Possible Cause
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1. Low concentration of sodium hydroxide 2. Inappropriate temperature of the incoming fabric or the padder 3. Low pick-up 4. Insufficient contact time 5. Insufficient fabric stretching while on the frame 6. Too much caustic on the fabric as it comes off the frame 1. Uneven pad temperature 2. Non-uniform bath temperature 3. Non-uniform alkali concentration in the bath 4. Non-uniform moisture in the fabric across the width 1. Dilution of the bath with time 2. Increase in bath temperature with time 3. Length-wise variation in the moisture content of the fabric 4. Variation in the pad pressure during the process 5. Variation in pick-up along the fabric length
1. Optimum concentration of sodium hydroxide 2. Appropriate temperature of the incoming fabric or the padder 3. Optimum pick-up 4. Optimum contact time 5. Optimum fabric stretching while on the frame 6. Removal of excess caustic from the fabric before it comes off the frame 1. Even pad temperature 2. Uniform bath temperature 3. Uniform alkali concentration in the bath 4. Uniform moisture in the fabric across the width 1. Uniform moisture content in the fabric 2. No variation in bath temperature with time 3. No length-wise variation in the moisture content of the fabric 4. No variation in the pad pressure during the process 5. No variation in pick-up along the fabric length 1. Use of effective and compatible wetting agent 1. Optimum concentration of sodium hydroxide 2. Optimum pick-up 1. Optimum fabric stretching while on the frame 2. Removal of excess caustic from the fabric before it comes off the frame
Uneven mercerization (width-wise)
Uneven mercerization (length-wise)
Uneven mercerization (random) Tearing of the fabric
1. Ineffective and/or incompatible wetting agent 1. Low concentration of sodium hydroxide 2. Low pick-up 1. Insufficient fabric stretching while on the frame 2. Too much caustic on the fabric as it comes off the frame
Poor shrinkage control
APPENDIX I: Summary and Solutions to Problems in Dyeing with Direct and Reactive Dyes
Problem Dye spots/resist spots/ stains/blotches/ filtering/dark coloured areas Possible Cause 1. Poor pre-treatment 2. Residual contaminants in the substrate 3. Water contamination Countermeasure 1. Good pre-treatment 2. Good pre-treatment and washing after pre-treatment 3. Water purification or use of sequestrants
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Problem
Textile Progress Possible Cause 4. Contaminants in salt, alkali, etc. 5. Soiling of material by airborne particles of powdered dyes 6. Incompatibility of dyebath assistants 7. Too high rate of dye strike on the substrate (due to too high reactivity) 8. Short liquor ratio 9. More dense/compact yarn areas appearing dark due to less scattering of light 10. Improper rinsing/washing-off after dyeing 11. Dye aggregation
doi:10.1533/tepr.2005.0001 Countermeasure 4. Good quality control of commodity chemicals 5. Good housekeeping and use of liquid dyes if appropriate 6. Use of compatible dyebath assistants 7. Optimum process control 8. Optimum liquor ratio 9. Good quality control of the substrate 10. Optimum rinsing/washing-off after dyeing 11. See causes of the problem Dye aggregation below 1 & 2. Optimum washing off (See causes of Poor washing-off below) 3. Use of cationic fixing agents or other fastness improving aftertreatment 1. Use of dyes of optimum substantivity 2. Use of dyes of optimum diffusion coefficient 3. Optimum liquor ratio of the washing bath 4. Optimum temperature of the washing liquor 5a. Use of low salt dyes 5b. Optimum rinsing cycle/ sequence 6. Use of soft water and/or sequestrants 7. Optimum washing time 8. Optimum number of wash cycles/wash baths 9. Optimum mechanical action 10. Compatible dyebath assistants 11a. Use of alternative dyes if possible or 11b. Use of more severe washingoff 1. Use of dyes of good rubbing fastness 2. No catalytic damage of the material 3. Use of appropriate complexing agents The Textile Institute
Poor washing fastness
1. Inadequate washing-off of hydrolysed dye (in case of reactive dyes) 2. Inadequate removal of loosely retained dye (for direct dyes) 3. Inherent low fastness properties of the dyes 1. Dye substantivity, too high 2. Dyes of low diffusion coefficient 3. Short liquor ratio of the washing bath 4. Low temperature of the washing liquor 5. High electrolyte concentration in the washing bath 6. Water hardness 7. Inadequate washing time 8. Inadequate number of wash cycles/wash baths 9. Low mechanical action 10. Misuse of dyebath assistants 11. Disazo, 1:2 Metal Complex, and Phthalocyanine dyes are difficult to wash-off
Poor washing off
Poor rubbing fastness
1. Dyes of poor rubbing fastness 2. Catalytic damage of the material 3. Presence of polyvalent ions
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4. Too high moisture in the test material 5. Improper use of finishing agents 6. Un-mercerized cotton 7. Incomplete diffusion and fixation 8. Incomplete washing-off Shade change/ inconsistent shade 1. Residual peroxide, alkalinity or other contaminants in the substrate 2. Water hardness 3. Contamination of dyebath with calcium, magnesium, chlorine or heavy metals 4. Improper use of dyebath assistants, e.g. surfactants, sequestrants, fixatives, lubricating agents Poor levelling/uneven dyeing 1. Poor dye solubility 2. Low dye diffusion 3. High dye affinity 4. Dyes of poor migration 5. Too much salt 6. Rate of dyeing too high 7. Rapid rate of rise of temperature 8. Rapid shift of dyebath pH 9. Low liquor flow rate 10. Low mechanical action 11. Alkali added too soon 12. Metal complex or Phthalocyanine dyes 13. Presence of iron/copper 14. Improper use of surfactants Low diffusion/ penetration 1. Poor pre-treatment 2. Dye substantivity, too high 3. Poor dye solubility 4. Dyes of poor diffusion coefficient Poor colour yield 1. Poor pre-treatment 2. Residual peroxide in the substrate 3. Dye hydrolysis (only in case of reactive dyes) 4. Too low dye substantivity
4. Proper conditioning of the test material 5. Proper use of finishing agents 6. Use of mercerized cotton 7. Use of optimum dyeing conditions 8. Optimum washing-off 1. Substrate free from contamination before dyeing 2. Use of soft water or appropriate sequestrants 3. Use of appropriate sequestrants 4. Use of compatible dyebath assistants
1. Use of dyes of good solubility 2. Use of dyes of good diffusion 3. Use of dyes of optimum affinity 4. Use of dyes of good migration 5. Optimum concentration of salt 6. Optimum rate of dyeing 7. Optimum rate of rise of temperature 8. Optimum pH control 9. Optimum liquor flow rate 10. Optimum mechanical action 11. Alkali added optimally 12. Use of alternative dyes or optimum dyeing conditions 13. Use of appropriate complexing agents 14. Use of compatible surfactants 1. Good pre-treatment 2. Use of dyes of optimum substantivity 3. Use of dyes of good solubility 4. Use of dyes of good diffusion coefficient 5. Use of optimum dyeing conditions 1. Good pre-treatment 2. No residual peroxide in the substrate 3a. Careful storage of dyes 3b. Use of freshly prepared dye solution 3c. Optimum dyeing conditions 4. Use of dyes of optimum substantivity
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Problem
Textile Progress Possible Cause 5. Too low concentration of electrolyte 6. Too low concentration of alkali 7. Too low dye concentration 8. Too high liquor ratio 9. Too short dyeing time 10. Improper use of surfactants 11. Loss of dye or chemicals during weighing/dispensing 12. Water hardness
doi:10.1533/tepr.2005.0001 Countermeasure 5. Optimum concentration of electrolyte 6. Optimum concentration of alkali 7. Optimum dye concentration 8. Optimum liquor ratio 9. Optimum dyeing time 10. Optimum use of surfactants 11. Careful weighing/dispensing of dyes and chemicals 12. Use of soft water or appropriate sequestrants 1. Right first time dyeing 2. Optimum mechanical or hydraulic action 3. Optimum temperature
Physical damage
1. Too long dyeing time (due to corrective/repair procedures) 2. Too high mechanical or hydraulic action 3. Too high temperature (increases the sensitivity of the material to physical damage) 1. Low dye solubility 2. Low dyeing temperature 3. Low concentration of electrolyte 1. Too high mechanical action 2. Improper surfactant 3. Too high concentration of surfactant 4. Introduction of air into the dyeing machine 1. 2. 3. 4. Too high dye concentration Too high electrolyte content Too low temperature Lower dye solubility
Slow rate of exhaustion
1. Good dye solubility 2. Optimum dyeing temperature 3. Optimum concentration of electrolyte 1. Optimum mechanical action 2. Use of low-foaming surfactant 3. Optimum concentration of surfactant 4. Prevention of air entry into the dyeing machine 1. 2. 3. 4. Optimum dye concentration Optimum electrolyte content Optimum temperature Good dye solubility
Foaming
Dye aggregation
The presence of broken fibres on the surface at the damaged portions leads to stronger scattering of light causing them to appear lighter Metal complex dyes containing copper possess rather dull shades 1. High substantivity dyes 2. Low temperature 3. High concentration of electrolyte
1. Good quality control of the substrate 2. Optimum singeing
Dull shades Lower dye solubility
Use of alternative dyes 1. Use of dyes of optimum substantivity 2. Optimum temperature 3. Optimum concentration of electrolyte
doi:10.1533/tepr.2005.0001
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APPENDIX J: Summary and Solutions to Problems in Dyeing with Sulphur Dyes

Problem Acid tendering Possible Cause Inadequate washing/neutralisation of the dyed fabric Countermeasure 1. Thorough washing/ neutralisation of the fabric after dyeing Rinsing well before oxidation, and soaping after oxidation 2. Use of alkaline bath in the final rinse 3. Use of sodium acetate and soda ash for neutralisation 4. Storing the fabric at low temperature and humidity 5. Resin finishing 1. Optimum quantity of sodium sulphide 2. Good quality control of sodium sulphide 3. Optimum concentration of salt 4. Optimum concentration of alkali 5. No long exposure of dyed goods to air before being aftertreated 6. Optimum liquor ratio 7. Optimum temperature during dyeing 8. Use of soft water or appropriate sequestrants 9. Demineralisation of cotton or use of appropriate sequestrants 10. Removal of excess liquor before dyeing 11a. Excess quantity of sodium sulphide 11b. Exclusion of air from inside the machine 12. Use of dyes with high tinctorial strength 1. Good pre-treatment 2. Good pre-treatment and washing after pre-treatment 3. Water purification or use of sequestrants 4. Good quality control of commodity chemicals 5. Good housekeeping and use of liquid dyes if appropriate 6. Use of compatible dyebath assistants 7a. Good dispersion stability 7b. Optimum control of temperature, pH, etc.
Bronziness
1. Insufficient quantity of sodium sulphide 2. Degraded quality of sodium sulphide 3. Too high concentration of salt 4. Too high concentration of alkali 5. Too long exposure of dyed goods to air before being aftertreated 6. Too short liquor ratio 7. Too high temperature during dyeing 8. Water hardness 9. Presence of calcium or magnesium in cotton 10. Failure to remove excess liquor before dyeing 11. Premature oxidation of reduced dye 12. Excessively heavy shade
Dye spots/resist spots/ stains/blotches/ filtering/dark coloured areas
1. Poor pre-treatment 2. Residual contaminants in the substrate 3. Water contamination 4. Contaminants in salt, alkali, etc. 5. Soiling of material by airborne particles of powdered dyes 6. Incompatibility of dyebath assistants 7. Poor stability of dye dispersion
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Problem
Textile Progress Possible Cause 8. Too high rate of dye strike on the substrate 9. Short liquor ratio 10. More dense/compact yarn areas appearing dark due to less scattering of light 11. Improper rinsing/washing-off after dyeing
doi:10.1533/tepr.2005.0001 Countermeasure 8. Optimum process control 9. Optimum liquor ratio 10. Good quality control of the substrate 11. Optimum rinsing/washing-off after dyeing 1. Thorough rinsing of the fabric before oxidation 2. Optimum oxidation 3. Thorough washing-off (see below the cause of Poor washing-off) 1. Use of dyes of optimum substantivity 2. Use of dyes of optimum diffusion coefficient 3. Optimum liquor ratio of the washing bath 4. Optimum temperature of the washing liquor 5a. Use of low salt dyes 5b. Optimum rinsing cycle/ sequence 6. Use of soft water and/or sequestrants 7. Optimum washing time 8. Optimum number of wash cycles/wash baths 9. Optimum mechanical action 10. Compatible dyebath assistants 1. Use of dyes of good rubbing fastness 2. No catalytic damage of the material 3. Use of appropriate complexing agents 4. Proper conditioning of the test material 5. Proper use of finishing agents 6. Use of mercerized cotton 7. Use of optimum dyeing conditions 8. Optimum washing-off 1. Substrate free from contamination before dyeing 2. Use of soft water or appropriate sequestrants 3. Use of appropriate sequestrants The Textile Institute
1. Inadequate rinsing of the fabric before oxidation 2. Premature or over-oxidation of the dye 3. Poor washing-off aftertreatment 1. Dye substantivity, too high 2. Dyes of low diffusion coefficient 3. Short liquor ratio of the washing bath 4. Low temperature of the washing liquor 5. High electrolyte concentration in the washing bath 6. Water hardness 7. Inadequate washing time 8. Inadequate number of wash cycles/wash baths 9. Low mechanical action 10. Misuse of dyebath assistants
Poor washing off
Poor rubbing fastness
1. Dyes of poor rubbing fastness 2. Catalytic damage of the material 3. Presence of polyvalent ions 4. Too high moisture in the test material 5. Improper use of finishing agents 6. Un-mercerized cotton 7. Incomplete diffusion and fixation 8. Incomplete washing-off
Shade change/ inconsistent shade
1. Residual peroxide, alkalinity or other contaminants in the substrate 2. Water hardness 3. Contamination of dyebath with
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calcium, magnesium, chlorine or heavy metals 4. Improper use of dyebath assistants, e.g. surfactants, sequestrants, fixatives, lubricating agents Poor levelling/uneven dyeing 1. Low dye diffusion 2. High dye affinity 3. Dyes of poor migration 4. Improper reduction of the dye 5. Too much salt 6. Rate of dyeing too high 7. Rapid rate of rise of temperature 8. Low liquor flow rate 9. Low mechanical action 10. Poor rinsing before oxidation 11. Improper oxidation of the reduced dye 12. Uneven washing/soaping after-treatments 13. Presence of iron/copper 14. Improper use of surfactants Low diffusion/ penetration 1. Poor pre-treatment 2. Dye substantivity too high 3. Dyes of poor diffusion coefficient
4. Use of compatible dyebath assistants
1. Use of dyes of good diffusion 2. Use of dyes of optimum affinity 3. Use of dyes of good migration 4. Optimum reduction of the dye 5. Optimum concentration of salt 6. Optimum rate of dyeing 7. Optimum rate of rise of temperature 8. Optimum liquor flow rate 9. Optimum mechanical action 10. Thorough rinsing before oxidation 11. Optimum oxidation of the reduced dye 12. Thorough and uniform washing/soaping after-treatments 13. Use of appropriate complexing agents 14. Use of compatible surfactants 1. Good pre-treatment 2. Use of dyes of optimum substantivity 3. Use of dyes of good diffusion coefficient 4. Use of optimum dyeing conditions 1. Good pre-treatment 2. No residual peroxide in the substrate 3. Optimum reduction of the dye 4. Use of dyes of optimum substantivity 5. Optimum concentration of electrolyte 6. Optimum dye concentration 7. Optimum liquor ratio 8. Optimum dyeing time 9. Optimum oxidation of the reduced dye 10. Optimum use of surfactants 11. Careful weighing/dispensing of dyes and chemicals 12. Use of soft water or appropriate sequestrants
Poor colour yield
1. Poor pre-treatment 2. Residual peroxide in the substrate 3. Incomplete or over-reduction of the dye 4. Too low dye substantivity 5. Too low concentration of electrolyte 6. Too low dye concentration 7. Too high liquor ratio 8. Too short dyeing time 9. Incomplete or over-oxidation of the reduced dye 10. Improper use of surfactants 11. Loss of dye or chemicals during weighing/dispensing 12. Water hardness
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Problem
Textile Progress Possible Cause 1. Too long dyeing time (due to corrective/repair procedures) 2. Too high mechanical or hydraulic action 3. Too high temperature (increases the sensitivity of the material to physical damage) 1. Low dyeing temperature 2. Low concentration of electrolyte 1. Too high mechanical action 2. Improper surfactant 3. Too high concentration of surfactant 4. Introduction of air into the dyeing machine 1. Too high dye concentration 2. Too high electrolyte content 3. Too low temperature 4. Poor stability of dye dispersion
doi:10.1533/tepr.2005.0001 Countermeasure 1. Right First Time Dyeing 2. Optimum mechanical or hydraulic action 3. Optimum temperature
Physical damage
Dye aggregation
The presence of broken fibres on the surface at the damaged portions leads to stronger scattering of light causing them to appear lighter 1. Incomplete reduction of dyes 2. Presence of heavy metals
Dull shades
1. Optimum reduction of dye 2a. Use of appropriate complexing agents 2b. Demineralisation, if metals present in the substrate 1. Prevention of air inside the machine 2. Optimum amount of sodium sulphide and/or alkali
Premature oxidation
1. Presence of air inside the machine 2. Insufficient amount of sodium sulphide and/or alkali
APPENDIX K: Summary and Solutions to Problems in Dyeing with Vat Dyes

Problem Dye spots/resist spots/ stains/blotches/ filtering/dark coloured areas Possible Cause 1. Poor pre-treatment 2. Residual contaminants in the substrate 3. Water contamination Countermeasure 1. Good pre-treatment 2. Good pre-treatment and washing after pre-treatment 3. Water purification or use of sequestrants The Textile Institute
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4. Contaminants in salt, alkali, etc. 5. Soiling of material by airborne particles of powdered dyes 6. Incompatibility of dyebath assistants 7. Poor stability of dye dispersion 8. Too high rate of dye strike on the substrate 9. Short liquor ratio 10. More dense/compact yarn areas appearing dark due to less scattering of light 11. Improper rinsing/washing-off after dyeing Poor washing fastness 1. Inadequate rinsing of the fabric before oxidation 2. Premature or over-oxidation of the dye 3. Poor washing-off aftertreatment 1. Dye substantivity, too high 2. Dyes of low diffusion coefficient 3. Short liquor ratio of the washing bath 4. Low temperature of the washing liquor 5. High electrolyte concentration in the washing bath 6. Water hardness 7. Inadequate washing time 8. Inadequate number of wash cycles/wash baths 9. Low mechanical action 10. Misuse of dyebath assistants Poor rubbing fastness 1. Dyes of poor rubbing fastness 2. Catalytic damage of the material 3. Presence of polyvalent ions 4. Too high moisture in the test material 5. Improper use of finishing agents The Textile Institute
4. Good quality control of commodity chemicals 5. Good housekeeping and use of liquid dyes if appropriate 6. Use of compatible dyebath assistants 7a. Good dispersion stability 7b. Optimum control of temperature, pH, etc. 8. Optimum process control 9. Optimum liquor ratio 10. Good quality control of the substrate 11. Optimum rinsing/washing-off after dyeing 1. Thorough rinsing of the fabric before oxidation 2. Optimum oxidation 3. Thorough washing-off (see below the cause of Poor washing-off) 1. Use of dyes of optimum substantivity 2. Use of dyes of optimum diffusion coefficient 3. Optimum liquor ratio of the washing bath 4. Optimum temperature of the washing liquor 5a. Use of low salt dyes 5b. Optimum rinsing cycle/ sequence 6. Use of soft water and/or sequestrants 7. Optimum washing time 8. Optimum number of wash cycles/wash baths 9. Optimum mechanical action 10. Compatible dyebath assistants 1. Use dyes of good rubbing fastness 2. No catalytic damage of the material 3. Use of appropriate complexing agents 4. Proper conditioning of the test material 5. Proper use of finishing agents
Poor washing off
80
Problem
Textile Progress Possible Cause 6. Un-mercerized cotton 7. Incomplete diffusion and fixation 8. Incomplete washing-off
doi:10.1533/tepr.2005.0001 Countermeasure 6. Use of mercerized cotton 7. Use of optimum dyeing conditions 8. Optimum washing-off 1. Substrate free from contamination before dyeing 2. Use of soft water or appropriate sequestrants 3. Use of appropriate sequestrants 4. Use of compatible dyebath assistants
1. Residual peroxide, alkalinity or other contaminants in the substrate 2. Water hardness 3. Contamination of dyebath with calcium, magnesium, chlorine or heavy metals 4. Improper use of dyebath assistants, e.g. surfactants, sequestrants, fixatives, lubricating agents
1. Low dye diffusion 2. High dye affinity 3. Dyes of poor migration 4. Improper reduction of the dye 5. Too much salt 6. Rate of dyeing too high 7. Rapid rate of rise of temperature 8. Low liquor flow rate 9. Low mechanical action 10. Poor rinsing before oxidation 11. Improper oxidation of the reduced dye 12. Uneven washing/soaping after-treatments 13. Presence of iron/copper 14. Improper use of surfactants
1. Use of dyes of good diffusion 2. Use of dyes of optimum affinity 3. Use of dyes of good migration 4. Optimum reduction of the dye 5. Optimum concentration of salt 6. Optimum rate of dyeing 7. Optimum rate of rise of temperature 8. Optimum liquor flow rate 9. Optimum mechanical action 10. Thorough rinsing before oxidation 11. Optimum oxidation of the reduced dye 12. Thorough and uniform washing/soaping aftertreatments 13. Use of appropriate complexing agents 14. Use of compatible surfactants 1. Good pre-treatment 2. Use of dyes of optimum substantivity 3. Use of dyes of good diffusion coefficient 4. Use of optimum dyeing conditions 1. Good pre-treatment 2. No residual peroxide in the substrate 3. Optimum reduction of the dye 4. Use of dyes of optimum substantivity The Textile Institute
Low diffusion/penetration
1. Poor pre-treatment 2. Dye substantivity, too high 3. Dyes of poor diffusion coefficient
Poor colour yield
1. Poor pre-treatment 2. Residual peroxide in the substrate 3. Incomplete or over-reduction of the dye 4. Too low dye substantivity
81
5. Too low concentration of electrolyte 6. Too low dye concentration 7. Too high liquor ratio 8. Too short dyeing time 9. Incomplete or over-oxidation of the reduced dye 10. Improper use of surfactants 11. Loss of dye or chemicals during weighing/dispensing 12. Water hardness Physical damage 1. Too long dyeing time (due to corrective/repair procedures) 2. Too high mechanical or hydraulic action 3. Too high temperature (increases the sensitivity of the material to physical damage) 1. Low dyeing temperature 2. Low concentration of electrolyte 1. Too high mechanical action 2. Improper surfactant 3. Too high concentration of surfactant 4. Introduction of air into the dyeing machine 1. Too high dye concentration 2. Too high electrolyte content 3. Too low temperature 4. Poor stability of dye dispersion
5. Optimum concentration of electrolyte 6. Optimum dye concentration 7. Optimum liquor ratio 8. Optimum dyeing time 9. Optimum oxidation of the reduced dye 10. Optimum use of surfactants 11. Careful weighing/dispensing of dyes and chemicals 12. Use of soft water or appropriate sequestrants 1. Right First Time Dyeing 2. Optimum mechanical or hydraulic action 3. Optimum temperature
Dye aggregation
The presence of broken fibres on the surface at the damaged portions leads to stronger scattering of light causing them to appear lighter 1. Incomplete reduction of dyes 2. Presence of heavy metals
Dull shades
1. Optimum reduction of dye 2a. Use of appropriate complexing agents 2b. Demineralisation, if metals present in the substrate 1. Prevention of air inside the machine 2. Optimum amount of sodium dithionite and/or alkali
Premature oxidation
1. Presence of air inside the machine 2. Insufficient amount of sodium dithionite and/or alkali
82
Textile Progress
doi:10.1533/tepr.2005.0001
APPENDIX L: Summary and Solutions to Problems in Dyeing with Azoic Dyes

Problem Dye spots/resist spots/ stains/blotches/ filtering/dark coloured areas Possible Cause 1. Poor pre-treatment 2. Residual contaminants in the substrate 3. Water contamination 4. Contaminants in salt, alkali, etc. 5. Soiling of material by airborne particles of powdered dyes 6. Incompatibility of dyebath assistants 7. Too high rate of dye strike on the substrate (due to too high reactivity) 8. Short liquor ratio 9. More dense/compact yarn areas appearing dark due to less scattering of light 10. Improper rinsing/washing-off after dyeing 11. Aggregation of naphthol Countermeasure 1. Good pre-treatment 2. Good pre-treatment and washing after pre-treatment 3. Water purification or use of sequestrants 4. Good quality control of commodity chemicals 5. Good housekeeping and use of liquid dyes if appropriate 6. Use of compatible dyebath assistants 7. Optimum process control 8. Optimum liquor ratio 9. Good quality control of the substrate 10. Optimum rinsing/washing-off after dyeing 11a. Proper preparation of solution 11b. Optimum electrolyte concentration (as little as possible) 11c. Good agitation/mechanical action 1. Optimum removal of loosely retained naphtholate before development 2. Optimum removal of loosely retained dye after development 1. Use of naphthols of optimum substantivity 2. Use of naphthols of optimum diffusion coefficient 3. Optimum liquor ratio of the washing bath 4. Optimum temperature of the washing liquor 5. Optimum rinsing cycle/ sequence 6. Use of soft water and/or sequestrants 7. Optimum washing time 8. Optimum number of wash cycles/wash baths 9. Optimum mechanical action 10. Compatible dyebath assistants The Textile Institute
1. Inadequate removal of loosely retained naphtholate before development 2. Inadequate removal of loosely retained dye after development 1. Naphthol substantivity, too high 2. Naphthol of low diffusion coefficient 3. Short liquor ratio of the washing bath 4. Low temperature of the washing liquor 5. High electrolyte concentration in the washing bath 6. Water hardness 7. Inadequate washing time 8. Inadequate number of wash cycles/wash baths 9. Low mechanical action 10. Misuse of dyebath assistants
Poor washing off
doi:10.1533/tepr.2005.0001 Problem Poor rubbing fastness Possible Cause
83
1. Dyes of poor rubbing fastness 2. Catalytic damage of the material 3. Presence of polyvalent ions 4. Too high moisture in the test material 5. Improper use of finishing agents 6. Un-mercerized cotton 7. Incomplete diffusion and fixation 8. Inadequate removal of loosely retained naphtholate before development 9. Inadequate removal of loosely retained dye after development
1. Use of dyes of good rubbing fastness 2. No catalytic damage of the material 3. Use of appropriate complexing agents 4. Proper conditioning of the test material 5. Proper use of finishing agents 6. Use of mercerized cotton 7. Use of optimum dyeing conditions 8. Optimum removal of loosely retained naphtholate before development 9. Optimum removal of loosely retained dye after development 1. Substrate free from contamination before dyeing 2. Use of soft water or appropriate sequestrants 3. Use of appropriate sequestrants 4. Use of compatible dyebath assistants
1. Residual peroxide, alkalinity or other contaminants in the substrate 2. Water hardness 3. Contamination of dyebath with calcium, magnesium, chlorine or heavy metals 4. Improper use of dyebath assistants, e.g. surfactants, sequestrants, fixatives, lubricating agents, etc.
1. Exposure of naphtholated substrate to light before development 2. Use of mixtures of fast colour salts and bases together 3. Too much salt 4. Rate of dyeing too high 5. Rapid rate of rise of temperature 6. Rapid shift of dyebath pH 7. Low liquor flow rate 8. Low mechanical action 9. Presence of iron/copper 10. Improper use of surfactants
1. No/little exposure of naphtholated substrate to light before development 2. No use of mixtures of fast colour salts and bases together 3. Optimum concentration of salt 4. Optimum rate of dyeing 5. Optimum rate of rise of temperature 6. Optimum pH control 7. Optimum liquor flow rate 8. Optimum mechanical action 9. Use of appropriate complexing agents 10. Use of compatible surfactants 1. Good pre-treatment 2. No residual peroxide in the substrate 3. Use of naphthol of optimum substantivity 4. Optimum concentration of electrolyte
Poor colour yield
1. Poor pre-treatment 2. Residual peroxide in the substrate 3. Use of low substantivity naphthol 4. Too low concentration of electrolyte
84
Textile Progress Possible causes 5. Too low concentration of alkali 6. Too long liquor ratio 7. Insufficient time for naphthol application and development 8. Improper use of surfactants 9. Loss of chemicals during weighing/dispensing 10. Water hardness
doi:10.1533/tepr.2005.0001 Countermeasures 5. Optimum concentration of alkali 6. Optimum liquor ratio 7. Optimum application/ development time 8. Optimum use of surfactants 9. Careful weighing/dispensing of chemicals 10. Use of soft water or appropriate sequestrants 1. Right First Time Dyeing 2. Optimum mechanical or hydraulic action 1. Good naphthol solubility 2. Optimum dyeing temperature 3. Optimum concentration of electrolyte 1. Optimum mechanical action 2. Use of low-foaming surfactant 3. Optimum concentration of surfactant 4. Prevention of air entry into the dyeing machine Optimum electrolyte concentration 1. Good quality control of the substrate 2. Optimum singeing
Problems
Physical damage
1. Too long dyeing time (due to corrective/repair procedures) 2. Too high mechanical or hydraulic action 1. Low naphthol solubility 2. Low dyeing temperature 3. Low concentration of electrolyte 1. Too high mechanical action 2. Improper surfactant 3. Too high concentration of surfactant 4. Introduction of air into the dyeing machine Too high electrolyte concentration The presence of broken fibres on the surface at the damaged portions leads to stronger scattering of light causing them to appear lighter Presence of heavy metals
Slow rate of exhaustion
Foaming
Aggregation of naphthol Light coloured areas/ spots on the yarn
Dull shades
1a. Use of appropriate complexing agents 1b. Demineralisation, if metals present in the substrate

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CRITICAL SOLUTIONS IN THE DYEING OF COTTON TEXTILE MATERIALS

R. Shamey and T. Hussein

General steps in manufacturing cotton textile goods.

Knitting (Weft or Warp)

General steps in yarn and fabric formation.

The Textile Institute