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MF 9260 POLYMER AND COMPOSITE MATERIALS

UNIT 1 PROPERTIES OF POLYMERS
POLYMER CHEMISTRY
Polymer chemistry or macromolecular chemistry is a multidisciplinary science that deals with
the chemical synthesis and chemical properties of polymers or macromolecules. According to IUPAC
recommendations, macromolecules refer to the individual molecular chains and are the domain of
chemistry. Polymers describe the bulk properties of polymer materials and belong to the field of polymer
physics as a subfield of physics.
Polymer chemistry is that branch of one, which deals with the study of synthesis and properties of
macromolecules.
Biopolymers produced by living organisms:
o structural proteins: collagen, keratin, elastin
o chemically functional proteins: enzymes, hormones, transport proteins
o structural polysaccharides: cellulose, chitin
o storage polysaccharides: starch, glycogen
o nucleic acids: DNA, RNA
Synthetic polymers used for plasticsfibers, paints, building materials, furniture, mechanical
parts, adhesives:
o thermoplastics: polyethylene, Teflon, polystyrene, polypropylene, polyester,
polyurethane, polymethyl methacrylate, polyvinyl chloride, nylon, rayon, celluloid,
silicone
o thermosetting plastics: vulcanized rubber, Bakelite, Kevlar, epoxy
Polymers are formed by polymerization of monomers. A polymer is chemically described by its
degree of polymerisation, molar mass distribution, tacticity, copolymer distribution, the degree of
branching, by its end-groups, crosslinks, crystallinity and thermal properties such as its glass transition
temperature and melting temperature. Polymers in solution have special characteristics with respect to
solubility, viscosity and gelation.
CLASSIFICATION OF POLYMERS:
Polymers may be classified as follows, according to the mechanical response at elevated temperatures
1. Thermoplasts
2. Thermosets
THERMOPLASTS:
Thermoset polymers soften when heated and harden when cooled. Simultaneous application of
heat and pressure is required to fabricate these materials.
On the molecular level, when the temperature is raised, secondary bonding forces are diminished
so that the relative movement of adjacent chains is facilitated when a stress is applied.
2

Most Linear polymers and those having branched structures with flexible chains are
thermoplastics.
Thermoplastics are very soft and ductile.
The commercial available thermoplasts are
Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC) and Polystyrene
Polymethyl methacrylate
Polystyrene
B) Thermosets:
Thermosetting polymers become soft during their first heating and become permanently hard
when cooled. They do not soften during subsequent heating. Hence, they cannot be
remolded/reshaped by subsequent heating.
In thermosets, during the initial heating, covalent cross-links are formed between adjacent
molecular chain. These bonds anchor the chains together to resist the vibration and rotational
chain motions at high temperatures. Cross linking is usually extensive in that 10 to 15% of the
chain mer units are cross linked. Only heating to excessive temperatures will cause severance of
these crosslink bonds and polymer degradation.
Thermoset polymers are harder, stronger, more brittle than thermoplastics and have better
dimensional stability.
They are more usable in processes requiring high temperatures
Most of the cross linked and network polymers which include
o Vulcanized rubbers
o Epoxies
o Phenolic
o Polyester resins
are thermosetting.
Thermosets cannot be recycle, do not melt, are usable at higher temperatures than thermoplastics,
and are more chemically inert
THERMOPLASTIC
A thermoplastic, also known as a thermosoftening plastic, is a polymer that turns to a liquid
when heated and freezes to a very glassy state when cooled sufficiently. Most thermoplastics are high-
molecular-weight polymers whose chains associate through weak Van der Waals forces (polyethylene);
stronger dipole-dipole interactions and hydrogen bonding (nylon); or even stacking of aromatic rings
(polystyrene). Thermoplastic polymers differ from thermosetting polymers (Bakelite) in that they can be
remelted and remoulded. Many thermoplastic materials are addition polymers; e.g., vinyl chain-growth
polymers such as polyethylene and polypropylene.
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Theory

Stress strain graph of thermoplastic material.
Thermoplastics are elastic and flexible above a glass transition temperature T
g
, specific for each
onethe midpoint of a temperature range in contrast to the sharp melting point of a pure crystalline
substance like water. Below a second, higher melting temperature, T
m
, also the midpoint of a range, most
thermoplastics have crystalline regions alternating with amorphous regions in which the chains
approximate random coils. The amorphous regions contribute elasticity and the crystalline regions
contribute strength and rigidity, as is also the case for non-thermoplastic fibrous proteins such as silk.
(Elasticity does not mean they are particularly stretchy; e.g., nylon rope and fishing line.) Above T
m
all
crystalline structure disappears and the chains become randomly inter dispersed. As the temperature
increases above T
m
, viscosity gradually decreases without any distinct phase change.
Some thermoplastics normally do not crystallize: they are termed amorphous plastics and are
useful at temperatures below the T
g
. They are frequently used in applications where clarity is important.
Some typical examples of amorphous thermoplastics are PMMA, PS and PC. Generally, amorphous
thermoplastics are less chemically resistant and can be subject to environmental stress cracking.
Thermoplastics will crystallize to a certain extent and are called semi-crystalline for this reason.
Typical semi-crystalline thermoplastics are PE, PP, PBT and PET. The speed and extent to which
crystallization can occur depends in part on the flexibility of the polymer chain. Semi-crystalline
thermoplastics are more resistant to solvents and other chemicals. If the crystallites are larger than the
wavelength of light, the thermoplastic is hazy or opaque.
Semi-crystalline thermoplastics become less brittle above T
g
. If a plastic with otherwise desirable
properties has too high a T
g
, it can often be lowered by adding a low-molecular-weight plasticizer to the
melt before forming (Plastics extrusion; molding) and cooling. A similar result can sometimes be
achieved by adding non-reactive side chains to the monomers before polymerization. Both methods make
the polymer chains stand off a bit from one another. Before the introduction of plasticizers, plastic
automobile parts often cracked in cold winter weather. Another method of lowering T
g
(or raising T
m
) is
to incorporate the original plastic into a copolymer, as with graft copolymers of polystyrene, or into a
composite material. Lowering T
g
is not the only way to reduce brittleness. Drawing (and similar processes
that stretch or orient the molecules) or increasing the length of the polymer chains also decrease
brittleness.
Thermoplastics can go through melting/freezing cycles repeatedly and the fact that they can be
reshaped upon reheating gives them their name. This quality makes thermoplastics recyclable. The
processes required for recycling vary with the thermoplastic. The plastics used for soda bottles are a
common example of thermoplastics that can be and are widely recycled. Animal horn, made of the protein
-keratin, softens on heating, is somewhat reshapable, and may be regarded as a natural, quasi-
thermoplastic material.
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Although modestly vulcanized natural and synthetic rubbers are stretchy, they are elastomeric
thermosets, not thermoplastics. Each has its own T
g
, and will crack and shatter when cold enough so that
the crosslinked polymer chains can no longer move relative to one another. But they have no T
m
and will
decompose at high temperatures rather than melt. Recently, thermoplastic elastomers have become
available.
TERMI NOLOGY
The literature on thermoplastics is huge, and can be quite confusing, as the same chemical can be
available in many different forms (for example, at different molecular weights), which might have quite
different physical properties. The same chemical can be referred to by many different tradenames, by
different abbreviations; two chemical compounds can share the same name; a good example of the latter
is the word Teflon which is used to refer to a specific polymer (PTFE); to related polymers such as
PFA, and generically to fluoropolymers.
TESTI NG
Testing of thermoplastics can take various forms.
Tensile testsISO 527 -1/-2 and ASTM D 638 set out the standardized test methods. These standards are
technically equivalent. However they are not fully comparable because of the difference in testing speeds.
The modulus determination requires a high accuracy of 1 micrometer for the dilatometer.
Flexural tests3-points flexural tests are among the most common and classic methods for semi rigid
and rigid plastics.
Pendulum impact testsimpact tests are used to measure the behavior of materials at higher
deformation speeds. Pendulum impact testers are used to determine the energy required to break a
standardized specimen by measuring the height to which the pendulum hammer rises after impacting the
test piece.
PROPERTIES OF THERMOPLASTICS:
Typical values of some common thermoplastics can be found in the table below.
Thermoplastic
Specific
Gravity
Tensile
Yield
Strength
(10
3
psi)
Tensile
Modulus
(10
3
psi)
Coefficients
of
Linear
Expansion
(10
6
in/in
o
F)
Thermal
Conductivity
(Btu in /h ft
2

o
F)
Specific
Heat
(Btu/lb
o
F)
Maximum
Temperature
Limit
(
o
F/
o
C)
ABS 1.08 7.0 340 60 1.35 0.34 180/80
PVC 1.4 8.0 410 30 1.1 0.25 150/65
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CPVC 1.54 8.0 420 35 1.0 0.20 210/100
PE 0.95 3.2 120 90 3.2 0.55 160/70
PEX 0.94 2.8 . 90 3.2 0.55 210/100
PB 0.92 4.2 55 72 1.5 0.45 210/100
PVDF 1.76 7.0 220 70 1.5 0.29 300/150
1 psi (lb/in
2
) = 6,894.8 Pa (N/m
2
) Note! You can use the pressure unit converter on this page to
switch to Pa (N/m
2
) units.
1 (Btu/lb
o
F) = 4,186.8 (J/kg K) = 1 (kcal/kg
o
C)
TENSILE YIELD STRENGTH
Tensile yield strength is the maximum engineering stress in psi (or Pa) at which a permanent non-
elastic deformation of the thermoplastic material begins.
YIELD POINT
Yield point is the first point where the specimen yields, where the specimens cross-sectional area
begins to contract significantly, or where the strain can increase without increase in the stress.
ULTIMATE TENSILE STRENGTH
Ultimate tensile strength is the maximum stress the thermoplastic material can withstand before
failing, whichever occurs at the higher stress level.
TENSILE MODULUS
Tensile modulus or Youngs Modulus is the ratio of stress to strain within the elastic region of the
stress-strain curve before the yield point.
THERMOPLASTIC CHARACTERISTICS
ABS Acrylonitrile Butadiene Styrene
strong and rigid
resistant to a variety of bases and acids
some solvents and chlorinated hydrocarbons may damage the material
maximum usable temperature 160
o
F (71
o
C)
common as DEV Drainage, Waste and Vent pipes
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PB Polybutylene
flexible pipe
used for pressurized water systems
usable for hot and cold water
only compression and banded type joints used
PE Polyethylene
flexible pipe
used for pressurized water systems sprinkler..
not usable for hot water
PEX Polyethylene Cross Linked
flexible pipe
used for pressurized water systems sprinkler..
PP Polypropylene
lightweight
temperature up to 180
o
F (82
o
C)
highly resistant to acids, bases and many solvents
usable in laboratory plumbing
PVC Polyvinyl Chloride
strong and rigid
resistant to a variety of acids and bases
may be damaged by some solvents and chlorinated hydrocarbons
maximum usable temperature 140
o
F (60
o
C)
usable for water, gas and drainage systems
not useable in hot water systems
CPVC Chlorinated Polyvinyl Chloride
similar to PVC but designed for water up to 180
o
F (82
o
C)
PVDF Polyvinylidene Fluoride
strong and very tough material
resistant to abrasion, acids, bases, solvents and much more
usable to 280
o
F (138
o
C)
usable in laboratory plumbing

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THERMOSETTING PLASTICS
A thermosetting plastic, also known as a thermoset, is polymer material that irreversibly cures.
The cure may be done through heat (generally above 200 C (392 F)), through a chemical reaction (two-
part epoxy, for example), or irradiation such as electron beam processing.
Thermoset materials are usually liquid or malleable prior to curing and designed to be molded
into their final form, or used as adhesives. Others are solids like that of the molding compound used in
semiconductors and integrated circuits (IC).
According to IUPAC recommendation: A thermosetting polymer is a prepolymer in a soft solid or
viscous state that changes irreversibly into an infusible, insoluble polymer network by curing. Curing can
be induced by the action of heat or suitable radiation, or both. A cured thermosetting polymer is called a
thermoset.
PROCESS
The curing process transforms the resin into a plastic or rubber by a cross-linking process. Energy
and/or catalysts are added that cause the molecular chains to react at chemically active sites (unsaturated
or epoxy sites, for example), linking into a rigid, 3-D structure. The cross-linking process forms a
molecule with a larger molecular weight, resulting in a material with a higher melting point. During the
reaction, the molecular weight has increased to a point so that the melting point is higher than the
surrounding ambient temperature, the material forms into a solid material.
Uncontrolled reheating of the material results in reaching the decomposition temperature before
the melting point is obtained. Therefore, a thermoset material cannot be melted and re-shaped after it is
cured. This implies that thermosets cannot be recycled, except as filler material.
STATI STI CS
Thermoset materials are generally stronger than thermoplastic materials due to this 3-D network
of bonds (cross-linking), and are also better suited to high-temperature applications up to the
decomposition temperature. However, they are more brittle.
ECOLOGY
Many thermosetting polymers are difficult to recycle.
EXAMPLES
Some examples of thermosets are:
Polyester fiberglass systems: (SMC Sheet molding compounds and BMC Bulk molding
compounds)
Vulcanized rubber
Bakelite, a phenol-formaldehyde resin (used in electrical insulators and plasticware)
Duroplast, light but strong material, similar to Bakelite (used for making car parts)
Urea-formaldehyde foam (used in plywood, particleboard and medium-density fibreboard)
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Melamine resin (used on worktop surfaces)
Epoxy resin (used as the matrix component in many fibre reinforced plastics such as glass
reinforced plastic and graphite-reinforced plastic)
Polyimides (used in printed circuit boards and in body parts of modern airplanes)
Cyanate Esters or Polycyanurates for electronics applications with high demands on dielectric
properties and high glass temperature requirements in composites
Mold or Mold Runners (the black plastic part in Integrated Circuits (IC) or semiconductors)
Some methods of molding thermosets are:
Reactive injection molding (used for objects such as milk bottle crates)
Extrusion molding (used for making pipes, threads of fabric and insulation for electrical cables)
Compression molding (used to shape most thermosetting plastics)
Spin casting (used for producing fishing lures and jigs, gaming miniatures, figurines, emblems as
well as production and replacement parts)
WHAT IS THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN THERMOSETTING AND THERMOPLASTICS?
The difference between thermoplastics and thermosetting plastics is that thermoplastics become
soft, remoldable and weldable when heat is added. Thermosetting plastics however, when heated, will
chemically decompose, so they can not be welded or remolded. On the other hand, once a thermosetting is
cured it tends to be stronger than a thermoplastic.
BENEFITS IN THERMOSETTING PLASTICS AND REACTIVE RESINS
The unique structure of Neuburg Siliceous Earth gives rise, in addition to the product characteristics
mentioned, to further benefits with respect to:
Special rheological properties: depending on requirements, self-running as well as dimensionally
stable coatings can be formulated
Good physical properties: tear resistance, tensile strength, moduli
Good scratch and abrasion resistance
Good weather resistance
Good chemical resistance
Excellent surface finish
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UNIT 2 PROCESSING OF POLYMERS
EXTRUSION
Extrusion is a process used to create objects of a fixed cross-sectional profile. A material is
pushed or drawn through a die of the desired cross-section. The two main advantages of this process over
other manufacturing processes are its ability to create very complex cross-sections and work materials
that are brittle, because the material only encounters compressive and shear stresses. It also forms finished
parts with an excellent surface finish.
Extrusion may be continuous (theoretically producing indefinitely long material) or semi-
continuous (producing many pieces). The extrusion process can be done with the material hot or cold.
Commonly extruded materials include metals, polymers, ceramics, concrete and foodstuffs.
Hollow cavities within extruded material cannot be produced using a simple flat extrusion die,
because there would be no way to support the center barrier of the die. Instead, the die assumes the shape
of a block with depth, beginning first with a shape profile that supports the center section. The die shape
then internally changes along its length into the final shape, with the suspended center pieces supported
from the back of the die.
Process

Extrusion of a round blank through a die.
The process begins by heating the stock material (for hot or warm extrusion). It is then loaded
into the container in the press. A dummy block is placed behind it where the ram then presses on the
material to push it out of the die. Afterward the extrusion is stretched in order to straighten it. If better
properties are required then it may be heat treated or cold worked.
The extrusion ratio is defined as the starting cross-sectional area divided by the cross-sectional
area of the final extrusion. One of the main advantages of the extrusion process is that this ratio can be
very large while still producing quality parts.
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HOT EXTRUSION
Hot extrusion is a hot working process, which means it is done above the material's
recrystallization temperature to keep the material from work hardening and to make it easier to push the
material through the die. Most hot extrusions are done on horizontal hydraulic presses that range from
230 to 11,000 metric tons (250 to 12,000 short tons). Pressures range from 30 to 700 MPa (4,400 to
100,000 psi), therefore lubrication is required, which can be oil or graphite for lower temperature
extrusions, or glass powder for higher temperature extrusions. The biggest disadvantage of this process is
its cost for machinery and its upkeep.
Hot extrusion temperature for various metals
[1]

Material Temperature [C (F)]
Magnesium 350-450 (650-850)
Aluminium 350-500 (650-900)
Copper 600-1100 (1200-2000)
Steel 1200-1300 (22002400)
Titanium 700-1200 (1300-2100)
Nickel 1000-1200 (19002200)
Refractory alloys up to 2000 (4000)
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The extrusion process is generally economical when producing between several kilograms
(pounds) and many tons, depending on the material being extruded. There is a crossover point where roll
forming becomes more economical. For instance, some steels become more economical to roll if
producing more than 20,000 kg (50,000 lb).
COLD EXTRUSION
Cold extrusion is done at room temperature or near room temperature. The advantages of this
over hot extrusion are the lack of oxidation, higher strength due to cold working, closer tolerances, good
surface finish, and fast extrusion speeds if the material is subject to hot shortness.
Materials that are commonly cold extruded include: lead, tin, aluminum, copper, zirconium,
titanium, molybdenum, beryllium, vanadium, niobium, and steel.
Examples of products produced by this process are: collapsible tubes, fire extinguisher cases,
shock absorber cylinders, automotive pistons, and gear blanks.
WARM EXTRUSION
Warm extrusion is done above room temperature, but below the recrystallization temperature of
the material the temperatures ranges from 800 to 1800 F (424 to 975 C). It is usually used to achieve the
proper balance of required forces, ductility and final extrusion properties.
EQUIPMENT
A horizontal hydraulic press for hot aluminum extrusion (loose dies and scrap visible in
foreground)
There are many different variations of extrusion equipment. They vary by four major characteristics:
1. Movement of the extrusion with relation to the ram. If the die is held stationary and the ram
moves towards it then its called "direct extrusion". If the ram is held stationary and the die moves
towards the ram its called "indirect extrusion".
2. The position of the press, either vertical or horizontal.
3. The type of drive, either hydraulic or mechanical.
4. The type of load applied, either conventional (variable) or hydrostatic.
A single or twin screw auger, powered by an electric motor, or a ram, driven by hydraulic pressure
(often used for steel and titanium alloys), oil pressure (for aluminum), or in other specialized processes
such as rollers inside a perforated drum for the production of many simultaneous streams of material.
Typical extrusion presses cost more than $100,000, whereas dies can cost up to $2000.
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Forming internal cavities


Two-piece aluminum extrusion die set (parts shown separated.) The male part (at right) is for
forming the internal cavity in the resulting round tube extrusion.
There are several methods for forming internal cavities in extrusions. One way is to use a hollow
billet and then use a fixed or floating mandrel. A fixed mandrel, also known as a German type, means it is
integrated into the dummy block and stem. A floating mandrel, also known as a French type, floats in
slots in the dummy block and aligns itself in the die when extruding. If a solid billet is used as the feed
material then it must first be pierced by the mandrel before extruding through the die. A special press is
used in order to control the mandrel independently from the ram. The solid billet could also be used with
a spider die, porthole die or bridge die. All of these types of dies incorporate the mandrel in the die and
have "legs" that hold the mandrel in place. During extrusion the metal divides and flows around the legs,
leaving weld lines in the final product.
Direct extrusion

Plot of forces required by various extrusion processes.
Direct extrusion, also known as forward extrusion, is the most common extrusion process. It
works by placing the billet in a heavy walled container. The billet is pushed through the die by a ram or
screw. There is a reusable dummy block between the ram and the billet to keep them separated. The major
disadvantage of this process is that the force required to extrude the billet is greater than that need in the
indirect extrusion process because of the frictional forces introduced by the need for the billet to travel the
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entire length of the container. Because of this the greatest force required is at the beginning of process and
slowly decreases as the billet is used up. At the end of the billet the force greatly increases because the
billet is thin and the material must flow radially to exit the die. The end of the billet (called the butt end)
is not used for this reason.
INDIRECT EXTRUSION
In indirect extrusion, also known as backwards extrusion, the billet and container move together
while the die is stationary. The die is held in place by a "stem" which has to be longer than the container
length. The maximum length of the extrusion is ultimately dictated by the column strength of the stem.
Because the billet moves with the container the frictional forces are eliminated. This leads to the
following advantages:
A 25 to 30% reduction of friction, which allows for extruding larger billets, increasing speed, and
an increased ability to extrude smaller cross-sections
There is less of a tendency for extrusions to crack because there is no heat formed from friction
The container liner will last longer due to less wear
The billet is used more uniformly so extrusion defects and coarse grained peripherals zones are
less likely.
The disadvantages are:
Impurities and defects on the surface of the billet affect the surface of the extrusion. These defects
ruin the piece if it needs to be anodized or the aesthetics are important. In order to get around this
the billets may be wire brushed, machined or chemically cleaned before being used.
This process isn't as versatile as direct extrusions because the cross-sectional area is limited by
the maximum size of the stem.
HYDROSTATIC EXTRUSION
In the hydrostatic extrusion process the billet is completely surrounded by a pressurized liquid, except
where the billet contacts the die. This process can be done hot, warm, or cold, however the temperature is
limited by the stability of the fluid used. The process must be carried out in a sealed cylinder to contain
the hydrostatic medium. The fluid can be pressurized two ways:
1. Constant-rate extrusion: A ram or plunger is used to pressurize the fluid inside the container.
2. Constant-pressure extrusion: A pump is used, possibly with a pressure intensifier, to pressurize
the fluid, which is then pumped to the container.
The advantages of this process include:
No friction between the container and the billet reduces force requirements. This ultimately
allows for faster speeds, higher reduction ratios, and lower billet temperatures.
Usually the ductility of the material increases when high pressures are applied.
An even flow of material.
Large billets and large cross-sections can be extruded.
No billet residue is left on the container walls.
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The disadvantages are:
The billets must be prepared by tapering one end to match the die entry angle. This is needed to
form a seal at the beginning of the cycle. Usually the entire billet needs to be machined to remove
any surface defects.
Containing the fluid under high pressures can be difficult.
DRIVES
Most modern direct or indirect extrusion presses are hydraulically driven, but there are some
small mechanical presses still used. Of the hydraulic presses there are two types: direct-drive oil presses
and accumulator water drives.
Direct-drive oil presses are the most common because they are reliable and robust. They can
deliver over 35 MPa (5000 psi). They supply a constant pressure throughout the whole billet. The
disadvantage is that they are slow, between 50 and 200 mm/s (28 ips).
Accumulator water drives are more expensive and larger than direct-drive oil presses, and they
lose about 10% of their pressure over the stroke, but they are much faster, up to 380 mm/s (15
ips). Because of this they are used when extruding steel. They are also used on materials that
must be heated to very hot temperatures for safety reasons.
Hydrostatic extrusion presses usually use castor oil at pressure up to 1400 MPa (200 ksi). Castor
oil is used because it has good lubricity and high pressure properties.
EXTRUSION DEFECTS
Surface cracking - When the surface of an extrusion splits. This is often caused by the extrusion
temperature, friction, or speed being too high. It can also happen at lower temperatures if the
extruded product temporarily sticks to the die.
Pipe - A flow pattern that draws the surface oxides and impurities to the center of the product.
Such a pattern is often caused by high friction or cooling of the outer regions of the billet.
Internal cracking - When the center of the extrusion develops cracks or voids. These cracks are
attributed to a state of hydrostatic tensile stress at the centerline in the deformation zone in the
die. (A similar situation to the necked region in a tensile stress specimen)
Surface lines - When there are lines visible on the surface of the extruded profile. This depends
heavily on the quality of the die production and how well the die is maintained, as some residues
of the material extruded can stick to the die surface and produce the embossed lines.
MATERI ALS
METAL
Metals that are commonly extruded include:
Aluminium is the most commonly extruded material. Aluminium can be hot or cold extruded. If
it is hot extruded it is heated to 575 to 1100 F (300 to 600 C). Examples of products include
profiles for tracks, frames, rails, mullions, and heat sinks.
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Copper (1100 to 1825 F (600 to 1000 C)) pipe, wire, rods, bars, tubes, and welding electrodes.
Often more than 100 ksi (690 MPa) is required to extrude copper.
Lead and tin (maximum 575 F (300 C)) pipes, wire, tubes, and cable sheathing. Molten lead
may also be used in place of billets on vertical extrusion presses.
Magnesium (575 to 1100 F (300 to 600 C)) aircraft parts and nuclear industry parts.
Magnesium is about as extrudable as aluminum.
Zinc (400 to 650 F (200 to 350 C)) rods, bar, tubes, hardware components, fitting, and
handrails.
Steel (1825 to 2375 F (1000 to 1300 C)) rods and tracks. Usually plain carbon steel is extruded,
but alloy steel and stainless steel can also be extruded.
Titanium (1100 to 1825 F (600 to 1000 C)) aircraft components including seat tracks, engine
rings, and other structural parts.
Magnesium and aluminium alloys usually have a 0.75 m (30 in) RMS or better surface finish.
Titanium and steel can achieve a 3 micrometres (120 in) RMS.
In 1950, Ugine Sjournet, of France, invented a process which uses glass as a lubricant for extruding
steel. The Ugine-Sejournet, or Sejournet, process is now used for other materials that have melting
temperatures higher than steel or that require a narrow range of temperatures to extrude. The process
starts by heating the materials to the extruding temperature and then rolling it in glass powder. The glass
melts and forms a thin film, 20 to 30 mils (0.5 to 0.75 mm), in order to separate it from chamber walls
and allow it to act as a lubricant. A thick solid glass ring that is 0.25 to 0.75 in (6 to 18 mm) thick is
placed in the chamber on the die to lubricate the extrusion as it is forced through the die. A second
advantage of this glass ring is its ability to insulate the heat of the billet from the die. The extrusion will
have a 1 mil thick layer of glass, which can be easily removed once it cools.
Another breakthrough in lubrication is the use of phosphate coatings. With this process, in
conjunction with glass lubrication, steel can be cold extruded. The phosphate coat absorbs the liquid glass
to offer even better lubricating properties.
PLASTIC
Plastics extrusion commonly uses plastic chips or pellets, which are usually dried in a hopper
before going to the feed screw. The polymer resin is heated to molten state by a combination of heating
elements and shear heating from the extrusion screw. The screw forces the resin through a die, forming
the resin into the desired shape. The extrudate is cooled and solidified as it is pulled through the die or
water tank. In some cases (such as fibre-reinforced tubes) the extrudate is pulled through a very long die,
in a process called pultrusion.
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A multitude of polymers are used in the production of plastic tubing, pipes, rods, rails, seals, and
sheets or films.
CERAMIC
Ceramic can also be formed into shapes via extrusion. Terracotta extrusion is used to produce
pipes. Many modern bricks are also manufactured using a brick extrusion process.
FOOD
Extrusion has application in food processing. Products such as certain pastas, many breakfast
cereals, Fig Newtons, premade cookie dough, Murukku, Sevai, Idiappam, jalebi, some french fries,
certain baby foods, dry pet food and ready-to-eat snacks are mostly manufactured by extrusion. In the
extrusion process, raw materials are first ground to the correct particle size (usually the consistency of
coarse flour). The dry mix is passed through a pre-conditioner, where other ingredients are added (liquid
sugar, fats, dyes, meats and water depending on the product being made), steam is injected to start the
cooking process. The preconditioned mix is then passed through an extruder, and then forced through a
die where it is cut to the desired length. The cooking process takes place within the extruder where the
product produces its own friction and heat due to the pressure generated (1020 bar). The process can
induce both protein denaturation and starch gelatinization, depending on inputs and parameters. Extruders
using this process have a capacity from 125 tonnes per hour depending on design.
As with other forms of cooking, extrusion achieves the following nutritionally:
Inactivation of raw food enzymes
Destruction of certain naturally occurring toxins
Diminishing of microorganisms in the final product
Slight increase of iron-bioavailability
Creation of insulin-desensitizing starches, which are a risk-factor for developing diabetes
Loss of the essential amino: lysine, which is essential to developmental growth and nitrogen
management
Simplification of complex starches, increasing rates of tooth decay
Marked increase of processed foods' glycemic indexes
Destruction of Vitamin A (beta-carotene)
18

Extrusion is also used to modify starch and to pellet animal feed.
DRUG CARRIERS
Extrusion through nano-porous, polymeric filters is being used to manufacture suspensions of
lipid vesicles liposomes or Transfersomes for use in pharmaceutical products. The anti-cancer drug
Doxorubicin in liposome delivery system is formulated by extrusion, for example.
BIOMASS BRIQUETTES
The extrusion production technology of fuel briquettes is the process of extrusion screw wastes
(straw, sunflower husks, buckwheat, etc.) or finely shredded wood waste (sawdust) under high pressure
when heated from 160 to 350 C. The resulting fuel briquettes do not include any of the binders, but one
natural - the lignin contained in the cells of plant wastes. The temperature during compression, causes
melting of the surface of bricks, making it more solid, which is important for the transportation of
briquettes.
DESI GN
The design of an extrusion profile has a large impact on how readily it can be extruded. The
maximum size for an extrusion is determined by finding the smallest circle that will fit around the cross-
section, this is called the circumscribing circle. This diameter, in turn, controls the size of the die
required, which ultimately determines if the part will fit in a given press. For example, a larger press can
handle 60 cm (24 in) diameter circumscribing circles for aluminium and 55 cm (22 in). Diameter circles
for steel and titanium.
The complexity of an extruded profile can be roughly quantified by calculating the shape factor,
which is the amount of surface area generated per unit mass of extrusion. This affects the cost of tooling
as well as the rate of production.
Thicker sections generally need an increased section size. In order for the material to flow
properly legs should not be more than ten times longer than their thickness. If the cross-section is
asymmetrical, adjacent sections should be as close to the same size as possible. Sharp corners should be
avoided; for aluminium and magnesium the minimum radius should be 0.4 mm (1/64 in) and for steel
corners should be 0.75 mm (0.030 in) and fillets should be 3 mm (0.12 in). The following table lists the
minimum cross-section and thickness for various materials.
Material Minimum cross-section [cm (sq. in.)] Minimum thickness [mm (in.)]
Carbon steels 2.5 (0.40) 3.00 (0.120)
Stainless steel 3.0-4.5 (0.45-0.70) 3.00-4.75 (0.120-0.187)
Titanium 3.0 (0.50) 3.80 (0.150)
Aluminium <2.5 (0.40) 1.00 (0.040)
19

Magnesium <2.5 (0.40) 1.00 (0.040)

INJECTION MOULDING PROCESS
Injection molding (British English: moulding) is a manufacturing process for producing parts
from both thermoplastic and thermosetting plastic materials. Material is fed into a heated barrel, mixed,
and forced into a mold cavity where it cools and hardens to the configuration of the mold cavity.
[1]
After a
product is designed, usually by an industrial designer or an engineer, molds are made by a moldmaker (or
toolmaker) from metal, usually either steel or aluminum, and precision-machined to form the features of
the desired part. Injection molding is widely used for manufacturing a variety of parts, from the smallest
component to entire body panels of cars.
PROCESS CHARACTERI STI CS
Utilizes a ram or screw-type plunger to force molten plastic material into a mold cavity
Produces a solid or open-ended shape that has conformed to the contour of the mold
Uses thermoplastic or thermoset materials
Produces a parting line, sprue, and gate marks
Ejector pin marks are usually present
APPLI CATI ONS
Injection molding is used to create many things such as wire spools, packaging, bottle caps,
automotive dashboards, pocket combs, and most other plastic products available today. Injection molding
is the most common method of part manufacturing. It is ideal for producing high volumes of the same
object. Some advantages of injection molding are high production rates, repeatable high tolerances, the
ability to use a wide range of materials, low labor cost, minimal scrap losses, and little need to finish parts
after molding. Some disadvantages of this process are expensive equipment investment, potentially high
running costs, and the need to design moldable parts.
EXAMPLES OF POLYMERS BEST SUI TED FOR THE PROCESS
Most polymers may be used, including all thermoplastics, some thermosets, and some elastomers.
In 1995 there were approximately 18,000 different materials available for injection molding and that
number was increasing at an average rate of 750 per year. The available materials are alloys or blends of
previously developed materials meaning that product designers can choose from a vast selection of
materials, one that has exactly the right properties. Materials are chosen based on the strength and
function required for the final part, but also each material has different parameters for molding that must
be taken into account. Common polymers like epoxy and phenolic are examples of thermosetting plastics
while nylon, polyethylene, and polystyrene are thermoplastic.
20

EQUI PMENT

An injection molding machine
Injection molding machines consist of a material hopper, an injection ram or screw-type plunger,
and a heating unit. They are also known as presses, they hold the molds in which the components are
shaped. Presses are rated by tonnage, which expresses the amount of clamping force that the machine can
exert. This force keeps the mold closed during the injection process. Tonnage can vary from less than 5
tons to 6000 tons, with the higher figures used in comparatively few manufacturing operations. The total
clamp force needed is determined by the projected area of the part being molded. This projected area is
multiplied by a clamp force of from 2 to 8 tons for each square inch of the projected areas. As a rule of
thumb, 4 or 5 tons/in
2
can be used for most products. If the plastic material is very stiff, it will require
more injection pressure to fill the mold, thus more clamp tonnage to hold the mold closed. The required
force can also be determined by the material used and the size of the part, larger parts require higher
clamping force.
MOLD
Mold or die are the common terms used to describe the tooling used to produce plastic parts in
molding.
Since molds have been expensive to manufacture, they were usually only used in mass production
where thousands of parts were being produced. Typical molds are constructed from hardened steel, pre-
hardened steel, aluminum, and/or beryllium-copper alloy. The choice of material to build a mold from is
primarily one of economics; in general, steel molds cost more to construct, but their longer lifespan will
offset the higher initial cost over a higher number of parts made before wearing out. Pre-hardened steel
molds are less wear-resistant and are used for lower volume requirements or larger components. The
typical steel hardness is 3845 on the Rockwell-C scale.
Hardened steel molds are heat treated after machining. These are by far the superior in terms of wear
resistance and lifespan. Typical hardness ranges between 50 and 60 Rockwell-C (HRC). Aluminum
molds can cost substantially less, and, when designed and machined with modern computerized
equipment, can be economical for molding tens or even hundreds of thousands of parts. Beryllium copper
is used in areas of the mold that require fast heat removal or areas that see the most shear heat generated.
21

The molds can be manufactured either by CNC machining or by using Electrical Discharge Machining
processes
Injection molding die with side pulls

"A" side of die for 25% glass-filled acetal with 2 side pulls.

Close up of removable insert in "A" side.

"B" side of die with side pull actuators.

Insert removed from die.
22

MOLD DESIGN

Standard two plates tooling core and cavity are inserts in a mold base "family mold" of five different
parts
The mold consists of two primary components, the injection mold (A plate) and the ejector mold
(B plate). Plastic resin enters the mold through a sprue in the injection mold, the sprue bushing is to seal
tightly against the nozzle of the injection barrel of the molding machine and to allow molten plastic to
flow from the barrel into the mold, also known as the cavity. The sprue bushing directs the molten plastic
to the cavity images through channels that are machined into the faces of the A and B plates. These
channels allow plastic to run along them, so they are referred to as runners. The molten plastic flows
through the runner and enters one or more specialized gates and into the cavitygeometry to form the
desired part.
The amount of resin required to fill the sprue, runner and cavities of a mold is a shot. Trapped air
in the mold can escape through air vents that are ground into the parting line of the mold. If the trapped
air is not allowed to escape, it is compressed by the pressure of the incoming material and is squeezed into
the corners of the cavity, where it prevents filling and causes other defects as well. The air can become so
compressed that it ignites and burns the surrounding plastic material. To allow for removal of the molded
part from the mold, the mold features must not overhang one another in the direction that the mold opens,
unless parts of the mold are designed to move from between such overhangs when the mold opens
(utilizing components called Lifters).
Sides of the part that appear parallel with the direction of draw (The axis of the cored position
(hole) or insert is parallel to the up and down movement of the mold as it opens and closes)
[16]
are
typically angled slightly with (draft) to ease release of the part from the mold. Insufficient draft can cause
deformation or damage. The draft required for mold release is primarily dependent on the depth of the
cavity: the deeper the cavity, the more draft necessary. Shrinkage must also be taken into account when
determining the draft required. If the skin is too thin, then the molded part will tend to shrink onto the
cores that form them while cooling, and cling to those cores or part may warp, twist, blister or crack when
the cavity is pulled away. The mold is usually designed so that the molded part reliably remains on the
ejector (B) side of the mold when it opens, and draws the runner and the sprue out of the (A) side along
with the parts. The part then falls freely when ejected from the (B) side. Tunnel gates, also known as
submarine or mold gate, is located below the parting line or mold surface. The opening is machined into
the surface of the mold on the parting line. The molded part is cut (by the mold) from the runner system
on ejection from the mold. Ejector pins, also known as knockout pin, is a circular pin placed in either half
of the mold (usually the ejector half), which pushes the finished molded product, or runner system out of
a mold.
23

The standard method of cooling is passing a coolant (usually water) through a series of holes
drilled through the mold plates and connected by hoses to form a continuous pathway. The coolant
absorbs heat from the mold (which has absorbed heat from the hot plastic) and keeps the mold at a proper
temperature to solidify the plastic at the most efficient rate.
To ease maintenance and venting, cavities and cores are divided into pieces, called inserts, and
sub-assemblies, also called inserts, blocks, or chase blocks. By substituting interchangeable inserts, one
mold may make several variations of the same part.
More complex parts are formed using more complex molds. These may have sections called
slides, that move into a cavity perpendicular to the draw direction, to form overhanging part features.
When the mold is opened, the slides are pulled away from the plastic part by using stationary angle pins
on the stationary mold half. These pins enter a slot in the slides and cause the slides to move backward
when the moving half of the mold opens. The part is then ejected and the mold closes. The closing action
of the mold causes the slides to move forward along the angle pins.
Some molds allow previously molded parts to be reinserted to allow a new plastic layer to form
around the first part. This is often referred to as overmolding. This system can allow for production of
one-piece tires and wheels.
Two-shot or multi-shot molds are designed to "overmold" within a single molding cycle and must
be processed on specialized injection molding machines with two or more injection units. This process is
actually an injection molding process performed twice. In the first step, the base color material is molded
into a basic shape. Then the second material is injection-molded into the remaining open spaces. That
space is then filled during the second injection step with a material of a different color.
A mold can produce several copies of the same parts in a single "shot". The number of
"impressions" in the mold of that part is often incorrectly referred to as cavitation. A tool with one
impression will often be called a single impression(cavity) mold. A mold with 2 or more cavities of the
same parts will likely be referred to as multiple impression (cavity) mold. Some extremely high
production volume molds (like those for bottle caps) can have over 128 cavities.
In some cases multiple cavity tooling will mold a series of different parts in the same tool. Some
toolmakers call these molds family molds as all the parts are related.
EFFECTS ON THE MATERIAL PROPERTIES
The mechanical properties of a part are usually little affected. Some parts can have internal
stresses in them. This is one of the reasons why it is desirable to have uniform wall thickness when
molding. One of the physical property changes is shrinkage. A permanent chemical property change is the
material thermoset, which can't be remelted to be injected again.
TOOL MATERIALS
Tool steel or beryllium-copper are often used. Mild steel, aluminum, nickel or epoxy are suitable
only for prototype or very short production runs. Modern hard aluminum (7075 and 2024 alloys) with
proper mold design, can easily make molds capable of 100,000 or more part life.
24

GEOMETRICAL POSSIBILITIES
The most commonly used plastic molding process, injection molding, is used to create a large
variety of products with different shapes and sizes. Most importantly, they can create products with
complex geometry that many other processes cannot. There are a few precautions when designing
something that will be made using this process to reduce the risk of weak spots. First, streamline your
product or keep the thickness relatively uniform. Second, try and keep your product between 2 to
20 inches.
The size of a part will depend on a number of factors (material, wall thickness, shape,process
etc.). The initial raw material required may be measured in the form of granules, pellets or powders. Here
are some ranges of the sizes:

Method Raw materials Maximum size Minimum size
Injection molding (thermo-plastic) Granules, pellets, powders 700 oz. Less than 1 oz.
Injection molding (thermo-setting) Granules, pellets, powders 200 oz. Less than 1 oz.
MACHINING
Molds are built through two main methods: standard machining and EDM. Standard machining,
in its conventional form, has historically been the method of building injection molds. With technological
development, CNC machining became the predominant means of making more complex molds with more
accurate mold details in less time than traditional methods.
The electrical discharge machining (EDM) or spark erosion process has become widely used in
mold making. As well as allowing the formation of shapes that are difficult to machine, the process
allows pre-hardened molds to be shaped so that no heat treatment is required. Changes to a hardened mold
by conventional drilling and milling normally require annealing to soften the mold, followed by heat
treatment to harden it again. EDM is a simple process in which a shaped electrode, usually made of
copper or graphite, is very slowly lowered onto the mold surface (over a period of many hours), which is
immersed in paraffin oil. A voltage applied between tool and mold causes spark erosion of the mold
surface in the inverse shape of the electrode.
COST
The cost of manufacturing molds depends on a very large set of factors ranging from number of
cavities, size of the parts (and therefore the mold), complexity of the pieces, expected tool longevity,
surface finishes and many others. The initial cost is great, however the piece part cost is low, so with
greater quantities the overall price decreases.
25

I NJ ECTI ON PROCESS

Small injection molder showing hopper, nozzle and die area
With injection molding, granular plastic is fed by gravity from a hopper into a heated barrel. As
the granules are slowly moved forward by a screw-type plunger, the plastic is forced into a heated
chamber, where it is melted. As the plunger advances, the melted plastic is forced through a nozzle that
rests against the mold, allowing it to enter the mold cavity through a gate and runner system. The mold
remains cold so the plastic solidifies almost as soon as the mold is filled.
INJECTION MOLDING CYCLE
The sequence of events during the injection mold of a plastic part is called the injection molding
cycle. The cycle begins when the mold closes, followed by the injection of the polymer into the mold
cavity. Once the cavity is filled, a holding pressure is maintained to compensate for material shrinkage. In
the next step, the screw turns, feeding the next shot to the front screw. This causes the screw to retract as
the next shot is prepared. Once the part is sufficiently cool, the mold opens and the part is ejected.
Although most injection molding processes are covered by the conventional process description above,
there are several important molding variations including:
Co-injection (sandwich) molding
Fusible (lost, soluble) core injection molding
Gas-assisted injection molding
In-mold decoration and in mold lamination
Injection-compression molding
Insert and outsert molding
Lamellar (microlayer) injection molding
Low-pressure injection molding
Metal injection molding
Microinjection molding
Microcellular molding
Multicomponent injection molding
Multiple live-feed injection molding
Powder injection molding
Push-Pull injection molding
Reaction injection molding
Resin transfer molding
Rheomolding
26

Structural foam injection molding
Structural reaction injection molding
Thin-wall molding
Vibration gas injection molding
Water assisted injection molding
Rubber injection
Injection_molding_of_liquid_silicone_rubber
PROCESS TROUBLESHOOTI NG
Optimal process settings are critical to influencing the cost, quality, and productivity of plastic injection
molding. The main trouble in injection molding is to have a box of good plastics parts contaminated with
scrap. For that reason process optimization studies have to be done and process monitoring has to take
place. First article inspection of internal and external geometry including imperfections such as porosity
can be completed using Industrial CT Scanning a 3D x-ray technology. For external geometry verification
only a Coordinate-measuring machine or white light scanner can be used.
To have a constant filling rate in the cavity the switch over from injection phase to the holding phase can
be made based on a cavity pressure level.
Having a stable production window the following issues are worth to investigate:

The Metering phase can be optimized by varying screw turns per minute and backpressure.
Variation of time needed to reload the screw gives an indication of the stability of this phase.
Injection speed can be optimized by pressure drop studies between pressure measured in the
Nozzle (alternatively hydraulic pressure) and pressure measured in the cavity. Melted material with a
lower viscosity has less pressure loss from nozzle to cavity than material with a higher viscosity. Varying
the Injection speed changes the shear rate. Higher speed = higher shear rate = lower viscosity. Pay
attention increasing the mold and melt temperature lowers the viscosity but lowers the shear rate too.
Gate seal or gate freeze / sink mark / weight and geometry studies have the approach to
prevent sink marks and geometrical faults. Optimizing the high and duration of applied holding pressure
based on cavity pressure curves is the appropriate way to go. The thicker the part the longer the holding
pressure applied. The thinner the part the shorter the holding pressure applied.
Cooling time starts once the injection phase is finished. The hotter the melted plastics the
longer the cooling time the thicker the part produced the longer the cooling time.
MOLDING TRIAL
When filling a new or unfamiliar mold for the first time, where shot size for that mold is
unknown, a technician/tool setter usually starts with a small shot weight and fills gradually until the mold
is 95 to 99% full. Once this is achieved a small amount of holding pressure will be applied and holding
time increased until gate freeze off (solidification time) has occurred.
Gate freeze off time can be determined by increasing the hold time and then weighing the part
when the weight of the part does not change we then know that the gate has frozen and no more material
is injected into the part. Gate solidification time is important as it determines cycle time and the quality
and consistency of the product, which itself is an important issue in the economics of the production
process.
27

Holding pressure is increased until the parts are free of sinks and part weight has been achieved.
Once the parts are good enough and have passed any specific criteria, a setting sheet is produced for
people to follow in the future. The method to setup an unknown mold the first time can be supported by
installing cavity pressure sensors. Measuring the cavity pressure as a function of time can provide a good
indication of the filling profile of the cavity. Once the equipment is set to successfully create the molded
part, modern monitoring systems can save a reference curve of the cavity pressure. With that it is possible
to reproduce the same part quality on another molding machine within a short setup time.
MOLDING DEFECTS
Injection molding is a complex technology with possible production problems. They can be caused either
by defects in the molds or more often by part processing (molding)
Molding
Defects
Alternative
name
Descriptions Causes
Blister Blistering
Raised or layered
zone on surface of
the part
Tool or material is too hot, often caused by a lack
of cooling around the tool or a faulty heater
Burn marks
Air burn/gas
burn/dieseling
Black or brown burnt
areas on the part
located at furthest
points from gate or
where air is trapped
Tool lacks venting, injection speed is too high
Color streaks
(US)
Colour streaks
(UK)
Localized change of
color/colour
Masterbatch isn't mixing properly, or the material
has run out and it's starting to come through as
natural only. Previous colored material
"dragging" in nozzle or check valve.
Delamination

Thin mica like layers
formed in part wall
Contamination of the material e.g. PP mixed with
ABS, very dangerous if the part is being used for
a safety critical application as the material has
very little strength when delaminated as the
materials cannot bond
Flash Burrs
Excess material in
thin layer exceeding
normal part geometry
Mold is over packed or parting line on the tool is
damaged, too much injection speed/material
injected, clamping force too low. Can also be
caused by dirt and contaminants around tooling
surfaces.
Embedded Embedded Foreign particle Particles on the tool surface, contaminated
28

contaminates particulates (burnt material or
other) embedded in
the part
material or foreign debris in the barrel, or too
much shear heat burning the material prior to
injection
Flow marks Flow lines
Directionally "off
tone" wavy lines or
patterns
Injection speeds too slow (the plastic has cooled
down too much during injection, injection speeds
must be set as fast as you can get away with at all
times)
Jetting

Deformed part by
turbulent flow of
material
Poor tool design, gate position or runner.
Injection speed set too high.
Knit lines Weld lines
Small lines on the
backside of core pins
or windows in parts
that look like just
lines.
Caused by the melt-front flowing around an
object standing proud in a plastic part as well as at
the end of fill where the melt-front comes
together again. Can be minimized or eliminated
with a mold-flow study when the mold is in
design phase. Once the mold is made and the gate
is placed, one can minimize this flaw only by
changing the melt and the mold temperature.
Polymer
degradation

Polymer breakdown
from hydrolysis,
oxidation etc.
Excess water in the granules, excessive
temperatures in barrel
Sink marks [sinks]
Localized depression
(In thicker zones)
Holding time/pressure too low, cooling time too
short, with sprueless hot runners this can also be
caused by the gate temperature being set too high.
Excessive material or thick wall thickness.
Short shot
Non-fill / Short
mold
Partial part
Lack of material, injection speed or pressure too
low, mold too cold, lack of gas vents
Splay marks
Splash mark /
Silver streaks
Circular pattern
around gate caused
by hot gas
Moisture in the material, usually when
hygroscopic resins are dried improperly. Trapping
of gas in "rib" areas due to excessive injection
velocity in these areas. Material too hot.
Stringiness Stringing
String like remain
from previous shot
transfer in new shot
Nozzle temperature too high. Gate hasn't frozen
off
29

Voids

Empty space within
part (Air pocket)
Lack of holding pressure (holding pressure is
used to pack out the part during the holding time).
Filling too fast, not allowing the edges of the part
to set up. Also mold may be out of registration
(when the two halves don't center properly and
part walls are not the same thickness).
Weld line
Knit line / Meld
line / Transfer
line
Discolored line
where two flow
fronts meet
Mold/material temperatures set too low (the
material is cold when they meet, so they don't
bond). Point between injection and transfer (to
packing and holding) too early.
Warping Twisting Distorted part
Cooling is too short, material is too hot, lack of
cooling around the tool, incorrect water
temperatures (the parts bow inwards towards the
hot side of the tool) Uneven shrinking between
areas of the part
Methods such as industrial CT scanning can help with finding these defects externally as well as
internally.
TOLERANCES AND SURFACES
Molding tolerance is a specified allowance on the deviation in parameters such as dimensions, weights,
shapes, or angles, etc. To maximize control in setting tolerances there is usually a minimum and
maximum limit on thickness, based on the process used. Injection molding typically is capable of
tolerances equivalent to an IT Grade of about 914. The possible tolerance of a thermoplastic or a
thermoset is 0.008 to 0.002 inches. Surface finishes of two to four microinches or better can be
obtained. Rough or pebbled surfaces are also possible.
Molding Type Typical [in] Possible [in]
Thermoplastic 0.008 0.002
Thermoset 0.008 0.002
LUBRI CATI ON AND COOLI NG
Obviously, the mold must be cooled in order for the production to take place. Because of the heat
capacity, low cost, and availability of water, water is used as the primary cooling agent. To cool the mold,
water can be channeled through the mold to account for quick cooling times. Usually a colder mold is
more efficient because this allows for faster cycle times. However, this is not always true because
crystalline materials require the opposite: a warmer mold and lengthier cycle time.
30

POWER REQUI REMENTS
The power required for this process of injection molding depends on many things and varies between
materials used. Manufacturing Processes Reference Guide states that the power requirements depend on
"a material's specific gravity, melting point, thermal conductivity, part size, and molding rate." Below is a
table from page 243 of the same reference as previously mentioned that best illustrates the characteristics
relevant to the power required for the most commonly used materials.
Material Specific gravity Melting point (F)
Epoxy 1.12 to 1.24 248
Phenolic 1.34 to 1.95 248
Nylon 1.01 to 1.15 381 to 509
Polyethylene 0.91 to 0.965 230 to 243
Polystyrene 1.04 to 1.07 338
I NSERTS
Metal inserts can also be injection molded into the workpiece. For large volume parts the inserts
are placed in the mold using automated machinery. An advantage of using automated components is that
the smaller size of parts allows a mobile inspection system that can be used to examine multiple parts in a
decreased amount of time. In addition to mounting inspection systems on automated components,
multiple axial robots are also capable of removing parts from the mold and place them in latter systems
that can be used to ensure quality of multiple parameters. The ability of automated components to
decrease the cycle time of the processes allows for a greater output of quality parts.
Specific instances of this increased efficiency include the removal of parts from the mold
immediately after the parts are created and use in conjunction with vision systems. The removal of parts is
achieved by using robots to grip the part once it has become free from the mold after in ejector pins have
been raised. The robot then moves these parts into either a holding location or directly onto an inspection
system, depending on the type of product and the general layout of the rest of the manufacturer's
production facility. Visions systems mounted on robots are also an advancement that has greatly changed
the way that quality control is performed in insert molded parts. A mobile robot is able to more precisely
determine the accuracy of the metal component and inspect more locations in the same amount of time as
a human inspector.
Blow molding (also known as blow moulding or blow forming) is a manufacturing process by
which hollow plastic parts are formed. In general, there are three main types of blow molding: extrusion
blow molding, injection blow molding, and stretch blow molding. The blow molding process begins with
melting down the plastic and forming it into a parison or preform. The parison is a tube-like piece of
plastic with a hole in one end in which compressed air can pass through.
31

The parison is then clamped into a mold and air is pumped into it. The air pressure then pushes
the plastic out to match the mold. Once the plastic has cooled and hardened the mold opens up and the
part is ejected.
TYPOLOGI ES OF BLOW MOLDI NG
EXTRUSION BLOW MOLDING
In extrusion blow molding (EBM), plastic is melted and extruded into a hollow tube (a parison). This
parison is then captured by closing it into a cooled metal mold. Air is then blown into the parison,
inflating it into the shape of the hollow bottle, container or part. After the plastic has cooled sufficiently,
the mold is opened and the part is ejected. Continuous and Intermittent are two variations of Extrusion
Blow Molding. In Continuous Extrusion Blow Molding the parison is extruded continuously and the
individual parts are cut off by a suitable knife. In Intermittent blow molding there are two processes:
straight intermittent is similar to injection molding whereby the screw turns, then stops and pushes the
melt out. With the accumulator method, an accumulator gathers melted plastic and when the previous
mold has cooled and enough plastic has accumulated, a rod pushes the melted plastic and forms the
parison. In this case the screw may turn continuously or intermittently.

fig 1 extrusion blow moulding
Extrusion-blow moulding of polymers:
1. reciprocating screw
2. compressed air;
3. hopper;
4. granules;
5. barrel;
6. heaters;
7. grinding, mixing;
8. actuator's hydraulic generator;
9. draw plate;
10. core/punch.
EBM processes may be either continuous (constant extrusion of the parison) or intermittent. Types of
EBM equipment may be categorized as follows:

32

Continuous extrusion equipment
rotary wheel blow molding systems
shuttle machinery
I ntermittent extrusion machinery
reciprocating screw machinery
accumulator head machinery
Examples of parts made by the EBM process include dairy containers, shampoo bottles, hoses/pipes, and
hollow industrial parts such as drums.
INJECTION BLOW MOLDING
The process of injection blow molding (IBM) is used for the production of hollow glass and
plastic objects in large quantities. In the IBM process, the polymer is injection molded onto a core pin;
then the core pin is rotated to a blow molding station to be inflated and cooled. This is the least-used of
the three blow molding processes, and is typically used to make small medical and single serve bottles.
The process is divided into three steps: injection, blowing and ejection.
The injection blow molding machine is based on an extruder barrel and screw assembly which
melts the polymer. The molten polymer is fed into a manifold where it is injected through nozzles into a
hollow, heated preform mold. The preform mold forms the external shape and is clamped around a
mandrel (the core rod) which forms the internal shape of the preform. The preform consists of a fully
formed bottle/jar neck with a thick tube of polymer attached, which will form the body.


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The preform mold opens and the core rod is rotated and clamped into the hollow, chilled blow
mold. The core rod opens and allows compressed air into the preform, which inflates it to the finished
article shape.
After a cooling period the blow mold opens and the core rod is rotated to the ejection position.
The finished article is stripped off the core rod and leak-tested prior to packing. The preform and blow
mold can have many cavities, typically three to sixteen depending on the article size and the required
output. There are three sets of core rods, which allow concurrent preform injection, blow molding and
ejection.
STRETCH BLOW MOLDING PROCESS
In the stretch blow molding (SBM) process, the plastic is first molded into a "preform" using the
injection molding process. These preforms are produced with the necks of the bottles, including threads
(the "finish") on one end. These preforms are packaged, and fed later (after cooling) into a reheat stretch
blow molding machine. In the SBM process, the preforms are heated (typically using infrared heaters)
above their glass transition temperature, then blown using high pressure air into bottles using metal blow
molds. Usually the preform is stretched with a core rod as part of the process. In the single-stage process
both preform manufacture and bottle blowing are performed in the same machine.
The stretching of some polymers, such as PET (polyethylene terephthalate) results in strain
hardening of the resin, allowing the bottles to resist deforming under the pressures formed by carbonated
beverages, which typically approach 60 psi.The main applications are bottles, jars and other containers.
Stretch blow molding


Advantages of blow molding include: low tool and die cost; fast production rates; ability to mold complex
part; produces recyclable parts
Disadvantages of blow molding include: limited to hollow parts, wall thickness is hard to control.
COMPRESSION MOLDING
Compression molding is a method of molding in which the molding material, generally
preheated, is first placed in an open, heated mold cavity. The mold is closed with a top force or plug
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member, pressure is applied to force the material into contact with all mold areas, while heat and pressure
are maintained until the molding material has cured.
The process employs thermosetting resins in a partially cured stage, either in the form of
granules, putty-like masses, or preforms. Compression molding is a high-volume, high-pressure method
suitable for molding complex, high-strength fiberglass reinforcements. Advanced composite
thermoplastics can also be compression molded with unidirectional tapes, woven fabrics, randomly
oriented fiber mat or chopped strand. The advantage of compression molding is its ability to mold large,
fairly intricate parts.
Also, it is one of the lowest cost molding methods compared with other methods such as transfer
molding and injection molding; moreover it wastes relatively little material, giving it an advantage when
working with expensive compounds. However, compression molding often provides poor product
consistency and difficulty in controlling flashing, and it is not suitable for some types of parts. Fewer knit
lines are produced and a smaller amount of fiber-length degradation is noticeable when compared to
injection molding.

Compression-molding is also suitable for ultra-large basic shape production in sizes beyond the
capacity of extrusion techniques. Materials that are typically manufactured through compression molding
include: Polyester fiberglass resin systems (SMC/BMC), Torlon, Vespel, Poly(p-phenylene sulfide)
(PPS), and many grades of PEEK.
Compression molding was first developed to manufacture composite parts for metal replacement
applications, compression molding is typically used to make larger flat or moderately curved parts. This
method of molding is greatly used in manufacturing automotive parts such as hoods, fenders, scoops,
spoilers, as well as smaller more intricate parts. The material to be molded is positioned in the mold
cavity and the heated platens are closed by a hydraulic ram.
Bulk molding compound (BMC) or sheet molding compound (SMC), are conformed to the mold
form by the applied pressure and heated until the curing reaction occurs. SMC feed material usually is cut
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to conform to the surface area of the mold. The mold is then cooled and the part removed. Materials may
be loaded into the mold either in the form of pellets or sheet, or the mold may be loaded from a
plasticating extruder. Materials are heated above their melting points, formed and cooled. The more
evenly the feed material is distributed over the mold surface, the less flow orientation occurs during the
compression stage.
Thermoplastic matrices are commonplace in mass production industries e.g. automotive
applications where the leading technologies are Long Fibre reinforced Thermoplastics (LFT) and Glass
fiber Mat reinforced Thermoplastics (GMT).
In compression molding there are six important considerations that an engineer should bear in mind
Determining the proper amount of material.
Determining the minimum amount of energy required to heat the material.
Determining the minimum time required to heat the material.
Determining the appropriate heating technique.
Predicting the required force, to ensure that shot attains the proper shape.
Designing the mold for rapid cooling after the material has been compressed into the mold.
Process definition
Compression molding is a forming process in which a plastic material is placed directly into a
heated metal mold, then is softened by the heat, and forced to conform to the shape of the mold as the
mold closes.
Process characteristics
The use of thermoset plastic compounds characterizes this molding process from many of the
other molding processes. These thermosets can be in either preform or granule shapes. Unlike some of the
other processes we find that the materials are usually preheated and measured before molding. This helps
to reduce excess flash. Inserts, usually metallic, can also be molded with the plastic. As a side note,
remember not to allow any undercuts on the shape, it will make ejection especially difficult.
Thermoplastic matrices with an inherent indefinite shelf-life and shorter cycle moulding times are widely
used.
Process schematic
The compression molding starts, with an allotted amount of plastic or gelatin placed over or
inserted into a mold. Afterward the material is heated to a pliable state in and by the mold. Shortly there
after the hydraulic press compresses the pliable plastic against the mold, resulting in a perfectly molded
piece, retaining the shape of the inside surface of the mold. After the hydraulic press releases, an ejector
pin in the bottom of the mold quickly ejects the finish piece out of the mold and then the process is
finished. Also depending on the type of plunger used in the press there will or won't be excess material on
the mold.
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Workpiece geometry
This process is commonly used for manufacturing electrical parts, dinnerware, and gears. This
process is also used to produce buttons, buckles, knobs, handles, appliance housing, radio cases, and large
containers.
Setup and equipment
Compression mold presses are manufactured in a wide variety of sizes. Most presses utilize a
hydraulic ram in order to produce sufficient force during the molding operation. The tools consist of a
male mold plunger and a female mold.
Typical tools and geometry produced
Three types of molds used are the flash plunger-type, straight plunger-type, and the "landed"
plunger-type molds. The flash type mold must have an accurate charge of plastic and produces a
horizontal flash (this is excess material that protrudes out of the mold). The straight plunger-type mold
allows for some inaccuracy in the charge of plastic and produces a vertical flash. The landed plunger type
mold must have an accurate charge of plastic, and no flash is produced.

TRANSFER MOLDING
Transfer molding, like compression molding, is a process where the amount of molding material
(usually a thermoset plastic) is measured and inserted before the molding takes place. The molding
material is preheated and loaded into a chamber known as the pot. A plunger is then used to force the
material from the pot through channels known as a sprue and runner system into the mold cavities. The
mold remains closed as the material is inserted and is opened to release the part from the sprue and
runner. The mold walls are heated to a temperature above the melting point of the mold material; this
allows a faster flow of material through the cavities.
TRANSFER MOLDI NG.
This is an automated operation that combines compression-, molding, and transfer-molding
processes. This combination has the good surface finish, dimensional stability, and mechanical properties
obtained in compression molding and the high-automation capability and low cost of injection molding
and transfer molding. Transfer Molding is having a "piston and cylinder"-like device built into the mold
so that the rubber is squirted into the cavity through small holes. A piece of uncured rubber is placed into
a portion of the transfer mold called the "pot." The mold is closed and under hydraulic pressure the rubber
or plastic is forced through a small hole (the "gate") into the cavity. The mold is held closed while the
plastic or rubber cures. The plunger is raised up and the "transfer pad" material may be removed and
thrown away. The transfer mold is opened and the part can be removed. The flash and the gate may need
to be trimmed. Another key point is that a premeasured amount of thermosetting plastic in powder,
preform, and even granular form can be placed into the heating chamber.
The molds in both compression and transfer molding remain closed until the curing reaction
within the material is complete. Ejector pins are usually incorporated into the design of the molding tool
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and are used to push the part from the mold once it has hardened. These types of molding are ideal for
high production runs as they have short production cycles. Transfer molding, unlike compression molding
uses a closed mold, so smaller tolerances and more intricate parts can be achieved. The fixed cost of the
tooling in transfer molding is greater than in compression molding and as both methods produce waste
material, whether it be flash or the material remaining in the sprue and runners, transfer molding is the
more expensive process.

Transfer molding (TM) (or resin transfer molding, RTM) differs from compression molding in
that in TM the resin is inserted into the mold (or tool) which contains the layers of fibres or a preform,
whereas in compression molding prepregs or molding compounds are in the mold which is then heated
and pressure is applied. No further pressure is applied in TM.
In RTM the resin is injected or drawn into a mold, which contains the fibres, from a homogeniser
under low pressure. The mold can be made from composites for low production cycles or with aluminium
or steel for larger production. The differences between the two types being that metal has better heat
transfer, hence quicker cycle times; metal lasts longer and deforms less, but at a higher cost. The main
problem with this production route is that air can be trapped in mold and hence a method must be
incorporated for allowing this air to escape.
A number of solutions to the problem exist including extending one level of reinforcement
beyond the cavity (with a 25% resin loss), appropriate vents and creating a vacuum in the mold (which
also improves quality). Larger structures, better properties (less movement of fibres), increased flexibility
of design and lower cost are some of the advantage this process has over compression molding due
mainly to the low pressure injection. Other benefits include rapid manufacture, not labour intensive,
ability to vary reinforcements easily or include cores such as foam and produce low and high quality
products.
In the semiconductor industry, package encapsulation is usually done with transfer molding due
to the high accuracy of transfer molding tooling and low cycle time of the process.
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However, the drive to introduce "Green" manufacturing is becoming a mandatory process in most
semicon assembly operations. New transfer mold designs integrated with suitable surface treatments like
CrN, MiCC and H Cr plating are becoming more popular in the industry.
Some common products are utensil handles, electric appliance parts, electronic component, and
connectors. Transfer molding is widely used to enclose or encapsulate items such as coils, integrated
circuits, plugs, connectors, and other components.

CASTING PROCESS:
Casting is a manufacturing process by which a liquid material is usually poured into a mold, which
contains a hollow cavity of the desired shape, and then allowed to solidify. The solidified part is also
known as a casting, which is ejected or broken out of the mold to complete the process. Casting materials
are usually metals or various cold setting materials that cure after mixing two or more components
together; examples are epoxy, concrete, plaster and clay. Casting is most often used for making complex
shapes that would be otherwise difficult or uneconomical to make by other methods.

Casting is a 6000 year old process. The oldest surviving casting is a copper frog from 3200 BC.
Types
Metal
Metal casting is one of the most common casting processes.
Plaster, concrete, or plastic resin
Plaster itself may be cast, as can other chemical setting materials such as concrete or plastic resin
- either using single-use waste molds as noted above or multiple-use 'piece' molds, or molds made of
small ridged pieces or of flexible material such as latex rubber (which is in turn supported by an exterior
mold). When casting plaster or concrete, the finished product is, unlike marble, unattractive, lacking in
transparency, and so it is usually painted, often in ways that give the appearance of metal or stone.
Alternatively, the first layers cast may contain colored sand so as to give an appearance of stone. By
casting concrete, rather than plaster, it is possible to create sculptures, fountains, or seating for outdoor
use. A simulation of high-quality marble may be made using certain chemically-set plastic resins (for
example epoxy or polyester) with powdered stone added for coloration, often with multiple colors worked
in. The latter is a common means of making attractive washstands, washstand tops and shower stalls, with
the skilled working of multiple colors resulting in simulated staining patterns as is often found in natural
marble or travertine.
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Casting Defects
There are a number of defects that can occur in castings and may include shrinkage defects, gas
porosity, pouring metal defects, and metallurgical defects. Some of these defects can be measured and
analysed by x-ray computed tomography methods such as industrial CT scanning.
Thermoforming
A vacuum/pressure assist thermoforming machine with molds visible in the lower right.
Thermoforming is a manufacturing process where a plastic sheet is heated to a pliable forming
temperature, formed to a specific shape in a mold, and trimmed to create a usable product. The sheet, or
"film" when referring to thinner gauges and certain material types, is heated in an oven to a high-enough
temperature that it can be stretched into or onto a mold and cooled to a finished shape.
In its simplest form, a small tabletop or lab size machine can be used to heat small cut sections of
plastic sheet and stretch it over a mold using vacuum. This method is often used for sample and protoype
parts. In complex and high-volume applications, very large production machines are utilized to heat and
form the plastic sheet and trim the formed parts from the sheet in a continuous high-speed process, and
can produce many thousands of finished parts per hour depending on the machine and mold size and the
size of the parts being formed.

Thermoforming process
Thermoforming differs from injection molding, blow molding, rotational molding, and other
forms of processing plastics. Thin-gauge thermoforming is primarily the manufacture of disposable cups,
containers, lids, trays, blisters, clamshells, and other products for the food, medical, and general retail
40

industries. Thick-gauge thermoforming includes parts as diverse as vehicle door and dash panels,
refrigerator liners, utility vehicle beds, and plastic pallets.
In the most common method of high-volume, continuous thermoforming of thin-gauge products,
plastic sheet is fed from a roll or from an extruder into a set of indexing chains that incorporate pins, or
spikes, that pierce the sheet and transport it through an oven for heating to forming temperature. The
heated sheet then indexes into a form station where a mating mold and pressure-box close on the sheet,
with vacuum then applied to remove trapped air and to pull the material into or onto the mold along with
pressurized air to form the plastic to the detailed shape of the mold. (Plug-assists are typically used in
addition to vacuum in the case of taller, deeper-draw formed parts in order to provide the needed material
distribution and thicknesses in the finished parts.) After a short form cycle, a burst of reverse air pressure
is actuated from the vacuum side of the mold as the form tooling opens, commonly referred to as air-eject,
to break the vacuum and assist the formed parts off of, or out of, the mold. A stripper plate may also be
utilized on the mold as it opens for ejection of more detailed parts or those with negative-draft, undercut
areas. The sheet containing the formed parts then indexes into a trim station on the same machine, where
a die cuts the parts from the remaining sheet web, or indexes into a separate trim press where the formed
parts are trimmed. The sheet web remaining after the formed parts are trimmed is typically wound onto a
take-up reel or fed into an inline granulator for recycling.
Most thermoforming companies recycle their scrap and waste plastic, either by compressing in a
baling machine or by feeding into a granulator (grinder) and producing ground flake, for sale to
reprocessing companies or re-use in their own facility. Frequently, scrap and waste plastic from the
thermoforming process is converted back into extruded sheet for forming again.
Thin and thick gauge thermoforming
There are two general thermoforming process categories. Sheet thickness less than 1.5 mm
(0.060 inches) is usually delivered to the thermoforming machine from rolls or from a sheet extruder.
Thin-gauge roll-fed or inline extruded thermoforming applications are dominated by rigid or semi-rigid
disposable packaging. Sheet thicknesses greater than 3 mm (0.120 inches) is usually delivered to the
forming machine by hand or an auto-feed method already cut to final dimensions. Heavy, or thick-gauge,
cut sheet thermoforming applications are primarily used as permanent structural components. There is a
small but growing medium gauge market that forms sheet 1.5 mm to 3 mm in thickness.
Heavy-gauge forming utilizes the same basic process as continuous thin-gauge sheet forming,
typically draping the heated plastic sheet over a mold. Many heavy-gauge forming applications use
vacuum only in the form process, although some use two halves of mating form tooling and include air
pressure to help form. Aircraft windscreens and machine gun turret windows spurred the advance of
heavy-gauge forming technology during WWII. Heavy gauge parts are used as cosmetic surfaces on
permanent structures such as automobiles, refrigerators, spas, and shower enclosures, and electrical and
electronic equipment.
Unlike most thin-gauge thermoformed parts, heavy-gauge parts are often hand-worked after
forming for trimming to final shape or for additional drilling, cutting, or finishing, depending on the
product. Heavy-gauge products typically are of a "permanent" end use nature, while thin-gauge parts are
more often designed to be disposable or recyclable and are primarily used to package or contain a food
item or product.
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Engineering
Thermoforming has benefited from applications of engineering technology, although the basic
forming process is very similar to what was invented many years ago. Microprocessor and computer
controls on more modern machinery allow for greatly increased process control and repeatability of same-
job setups from one production run to the next, usually with the ability to save oven heater and process
timing settings between jobs. The ability to place formed sheet into an inline trim station for more precise
trim registration has been hugely improved due to the common use of electric servo motors for chain
indexing versus air cylinders, gear racks, and clutches on older machines.
Electric servo motors are also used on some modern and more sophisticated forming machines for
actuation of the machine platens where form and trim tooling are mounted, rather than air cylinders which
have traditionally been the industry standard, giving more precise control over closing and opening
speeds and timing of the tooling. Quartz and radiant-panel oven heaters generally provide more precise
and thorough sheet heating over older cal-rod type heaters, and better allow for zoning of ovens into areas
of adjustable heat.
An integral part of the thermoforming process is the tooling which is specific to each part that is
to be produced. Thin gauge thermoforming as described above is almost always performed on in-line
machines and typically requires molds, plug assists, pressure boxes and all mounting plates as well as the
trim tooling and stacker parts that pertain to the job. Thick or heavy gauge thermoforming also requires
tooling specific to each part, but because the part size can be very large, the molds can be cast aluminum
or some other composite material as well as machined aluminum as in thin gauge. Typically thick gauge
parts must be trimmed on CNC routers or hand trimmed using saws or hand routers. Even the most
sophisticated thermoforming machine is limited to the quality of the tooling. Some large thermoforming
manufacturers choose to have design and tool making facilities in house while others will rely on outside
tool-making shops to build the tooling.

GENERAL MACHINING PROPERTIES OF PLASTICS
A material's property is an intensive, often quantitative property of a material, usually with a unit
that may be used as a metric of value to compare the benefits of one material versus another to aid in
materials selection.
A material property may be a constant or may be a function of one or more independent variables,
such as temperature. Material's properties often vary to some degree according to the direction in the
material in which they are measured; a condition referred to as anisotropy. Materials properties that relate
two different physical phenomena often behave linearly or approximately so in a given operating range
and may then be modeled as a constant for that range. This linearization can significantly simplify the
differential constitutive equations that the property describes.
Some material's properties are used in relevant equations to determine the attributes of a system a
priori. For example, if a material of a known specific heat gains or loses a known amount of heat, the
temperature change of that material can be determined. Materials properties may be determined by
standardized test methods. Many such test methods have been documented by their respective user
communities and published through ASTM International.
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Mechanical properties
Compressive strength
Ductility
Fatigue limit
Flexural modulus
Flexural strength
Fracture toughness
Hardness
Poisson's ratio
Shear modulus
Shear strength
Softness
Specific modulus
Specific weight
Tensile strength
Yield strength
Young's modulus
Density
Shear strain
Electrical properties
*Electrical conductivity
Permittivity
Permeability
*Dielectric constant
Dielectric strength
Piezoelectric constants
Seebeck coefficient
conductivity
Thermal properties
Thermal conductivity
Thermal diffusivity
Thermal expansion
Seebeck coefficient
Emissivity
Coefficient of thermal expansion
Specific heat
Heat of vaporization
Heat of fusion
Pyrophoricity
Flammability
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Vapor Pressure
Phase diagram
Binary phase diagram
Autoignition temperature
Inversion temperature
Critical temperature
Glass transition temperature
Eutectic point
Melting point
Vicat softening point
Boiling point
Triple point
Flash point
Curie point
Chemical properties
pH
Hygroscopy
Surface energy
Surface tension
Specific internal surface area
Reactivity
Corrosion resistance
Magnetic properties
Permeability
Hysteresis
Curie Point
Diamagnetism
Optical properties
Absorptivity
Reflectivity
Refractive index
Color
Photosensitivity
Transmittance
Luminosity
Scattering
Acoustical properties
Acoustical absorption
Speed of sound
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Radiological properties
Neutron cross-section
Specific activity
Environmental properties
Embodied energy
Embodied water
RoHS compliance
There are a variety of other properties to consider in an environmental impact assessment that effect the
ecological or human environment that may be difficult to quantify (unlike most of the properties listed on
this page) including pollution (extraction, transportation, manufacture), scarcity/abundance, habitat
destruction, renewability, recyclability, wars fought over materials, labor exploitation, etc. These can be
subjective, dependent on context, or inadequately measured.
Atomic properties
Atomic number - applies to pure elements only
Atomic weight - applies to individual isotopes or specific mixtures of isotopes of a given element.
Manufacturing properties
Machining speeds and feeds
Machinability rating
Hardness
Extruding temperature and pressure
Castability
Sensorial properties
Smell
Brightness
Softness
Warmth
MACHINING PARAMETERS AND THEIR EFFECTS
Metal cutting is one of the most significant manufacturing processes in the area of material
removal Black defined metal cutting as the removal of metal chips from a work piece in order to obtain a
finished product with desired attributes of
1. Size,
2. Shape, and
3. Surface roughness.
The imperative objective of the science of metal cutting is the solution of practical problems
associated with the efficient and precise removal of metal from work piece. It has been recognized that
the reliable quantitative predictions of the various technological performance measures, preferably in the
45

form of equations, are essential to develop optimization strategies for selecting cutting conditions in
process planning.The progress in the development of predictive models, based on cutting theory, has not
yet met the objective; the most essential cutting performance measures, such as,
1. Tool life,
2. Cutting force,
3. Roughness of the machined surface,
4. Energy consumption, etc.,
should be defined using experimental studies. Therefore, further improvement and optimization for the
technological and economic performance of machining operations depend on a well based experimental
methodology. Unfortunately, there is a lack of information dealing with test methodology and data
evaluation in metal cutting experiments
JOINING PLASTIC
There are several techniques for joining plastic parts. Equipment cost and labor for each
method vary considerably. Most techniques have limits on the sizes and types of plastic that can
be joined.

Mechanical fastening:
The simplest way to join plastic parts is to design a fastening element (hinge, latch, detent)
into the parts. Only stronger plastics are suitable for this method since the joint must survive the
strain of assembly, service load, and possible repeated use. This form of fastening is suitable only
for lightly loaded, nonrigid assemblies where precision is not critical.
Mechanical fasteners (screws, rivets, pins, sheet-metal nuts) are the most common joining
method. They require a plastic that can withstand the strain of fastener insertion and subsequent
high stress around the fastener. Conventional machine screws are rarely used except with
extremely strong plastic.
There are a number of fasteners designed for use with plastics. Threaded fasteners work best on
thick sections. Thread-forming screws are preferred for softer materials, while thread-cutting
screws work best on harder plastics. Push-on locknuts and clips may be better for thinner
sections. If a fastener has to be removed a number of times, metal inserts are recommended. They
may be molded in place, forced, glued or expanded into holes, or inserted ultrasonically.

46


Fusion bonding:
Plastic parts too complex or large to be fabricated on available molding equipment are
sometimes made as subcomponents and welded together by fusion bonding. Holding fixtures
ensure accurate mating and alignment of the parts to be joined.
To plasticize the part edges, the fixtures press the parts against a heating platen. As the platen
melts the part surface, the plastic material is displaced while the fixture maintains part pressure
against the platen. This initial fusing produces a smooth surface by removing surface
imperfections, warps, or small sinks. Melted material continues to be displaced until "melt stops"
on the platen contact the holding fixtures. Material is then no longer displaced and the parts are
held against the platen until each part edge is plasticized to a predetermined depth. Melt depth is
regulated by contact time, which is usually from 3 to 6 sec.
After part edges are plasticized, the fixtures open and the platen is withdrawn. The fixtures then
reclose, forcing the parts together until "seal stops" on the fixtures come into contact. The parts
are held together under pressure as the melted material cools, bonding them together.
Usually, fusion bonding joins thermoplastics such as polyethylene, polypropylene, and ABS.
However, with slight changes, the process can be used to join both filled and unfilled nylon.
To fuse unfilled nylon, a thin, nickel-chrome blade, rather than a platen, is heated to about
1,100F. The heated blade is brought to within 0.0005 in. of the material in a brief heating cycle.
The blade is then removed and the part conventionally fixtured. Glass-filled nylon can be
softened using direct heat, if care is taken to clean the blade or platen with a steel brush between
each cycle.
Cooling time normally is the same as melt time -- from 3 to 6 sec. When cooling is complete, the
gripping mechanism in one of the holding fixtures releases the part, the fixtures open and the
finished part is removed manually or automatically. Total machine time from start to finish is
generally about 15 sec, well within the range of the injection-molding systems often used in
conjunction with fusion bonding.
Hot-gas welding:
This is a low-speed process for fabricating large structural parts from sheet stock. A
thermoplastic rod is heated with the parts to be joined until they soften and can be pushed
together. The heat source is usually an inert gas. Top speed on long, straight welds is about 40
in./min. Intricate parts require more time. Operator skill is critical for both weld strength and
appearance.
Vibration welding:
Vibration welding produces pressure-tight joints in circular, rectangular, or irregularly
shaped parts made from almost any thermoplastic material -- even in dissimilar materials having a
melt-temperature spread as great as 100F. The process is particularly suited for hollow,
container-type components having the weld joint in a single plane.
The parts are frictionally heated by pressing them together and vibrating one of the parts at 120 to
240 Hz, in the plane of the joint.
47

After 2 to 3 sec, vibration is stopped at the exact required relative position of the two pieces.
Pressure is maintained briefly while the softened plastic cools. Joint strength is very near that of
the parent material. Cycle time, including manual loading and unloading, ranges between 5 and 8
sec for most parts. The process is adaptable to fully automated systems.
Vibration welding accommodates large parts that are impossible or impractical to weld by other
methods. Parts can be rectangular or irregular, as long as the weld joint is in a single plane and a
small amount of motion (at least 0.12 in.) in that plane is possible. Components with weld
surfaces as long as 20 in. have been successfully joined.
Solvent bonding:
Plastics are softened by coating them with a solvent, then clamped or pressed together.
The plastic molecules mix together, and the parts bond when the solvent evaporates. This process
is limited to thermoplastics. Fusion time is a function of the solvent's evaporation rate and may be
shortened by heating.
Pure solvents provide the simplest, lowest-cost bond. Doped solvents, which cost more, contain
solutions of the plastic being bonded to fill gaps in imperfectly fitting parts. Next in complexity
and cost come monomer and polymerizing solvents. These materials contain catalysts and
promoters added to doped solvents to produce polymerization at room temperature or a
temperature below the softening point of the thermoplastic.
Solvent-bonded parts must be pressed together for 10 to 30 sec before the joined parts can be
handled. Pressure is critical, as too much pressure causes parts to distort. A day or more at room
temperature or several hours at elevated temperature may be needed to cure the bond.
Ultrasonic welding:
Pulses are transmitted to the part by a resonant vibrating tool called a horn, causing two
plastic materials to vibrate against each other. Vibration heats and fuses the parts together. Plastic
products including blends or alloys of different resin families can be joined by ultrasonic welding.
Such dissimilar parts should be designed carefully, and both the resin and equipment suppliers
should become involved early to ensure that ultrasonic techniques can produce a suitable bond.
Ultrasonic assembly is often done at 20 kHz to achieve the vibrational amplitude and power
needed to melt thermoplastics. However, higher frequencies that produce less vibration can also
join thermoplastics, especially engineering thermoplastics such as reinforced polymers. For some
applications, use of 40 kHz means less material degradation. Tooling used for 40-kHz welding is
smaller than that used for 20 kHz; therefore, the welds produced at 40 kHz are generally smaller.
Pressure is critical. Too much causes the parts to vibrate as an integral structure with no heating.
Too little does not provide enough contact friction or heating.
Ultrasonic welding is fast. Assembly rates of more than 25 parts/min are possible with a single
station. There are no secondary operations, such as coating, inserting, or cleaning. The process
requires fairly rigid materials. Dissimilar-material sonic welds can be made, but the melting
temperatures of both materials must be quite close, otherwise only the lower-melting material will
soften and a bond will not form.
Ultrasonics can also be used to insert metal components into plastic, stake metal and plastic parts
together, or spot-weld plastic sections.

48


I nduction welding:
Induction welding can be done by pressing two pieces of plastic material together around
a metal insert. When passed through a magnetic field, the encased metal is heated, and the
compression produces a fusion weld. The metal remains sealed inside the part.
Thermoplastic bonding agents filled with either electromagnetic or ferrite materials may also be
used in induction welding. The material, in the form of a preformed ring or strip, or as a hot melt,
for instance, is inserted between the mating parts before induction heating. If metallic particles
are used, the alternating magnetic field induces current flow within the particles, generating heat.
When ferrite is used, no current is produced. Instead, heat is produced by molecular friction as the
particles try to retain their magnetic charge when the fields are reversed.
To eliminate the need to add metal to the joint, metal powder can be added to the original plastic
molding, but a much higher frequency is needed.
Induction welding is a high-cost technique and is suitable for difficult-to-weld plastics such as
polypropylene, and for shapes that cannot be fitted into an ultrasonic welding machine. The
process is best suited for bonding most polypropylene, polyethylene, styrene, ABS, polyester and
nylon in high-volume, highly automated joining operations.
Heat-resistant polypropylenes that cannot be joined with adhesives or other welding techniques
may be successfully joined using induction welding. Bonding agents heated inductively reach
temperatures of 300F in 0.1 sec to fuse with the heat-resistant substances.
Dielectric welding:
Dielectric welding is used on films and thin sheets up to about 60 mil, primarily in
packaging. The technique uses the breakdown of plastic under high voltages and frequencies (13
to 120 MHz) to produce dielectric heating and fuse the plastic. Welding speed is a function of
dielectric-loss factor, material thickness, and the area subjected to the voltage. Dielectric welding
is ideal for PVC materials.
MECHANICAL FASTNERS:
The simplest way to join plastic parts is to design a fastening element (hinge, latch, detent) into
the parts. Only stronger plastics are suitable for this method since the joint must survive the strain of
assembly, service load, and possible repeated use. This form of fastening is suitable only for lightly
loaded, nonrigid assemblies where precision is not critical.
Mechanical fasteners (screws, rivets, pins, sheet-metal nuts) are the most common joining
method. They require a plastic that can withstand the strain of fastener insertion and subsequent
high stress around the fastener. Conventional machine screws are rarely used except with
extremely strong plastic.
There are a number of fasteners designed for use with plastics. Threaded fasteners work best on
thick sections. Thread-forming screws are preferred for softer materials, while thread-cutting
screws work best on harder plastics. Push-on locknuts and clips may be better for thinner
sections. If a fastener has to be removed a number of times, metal inserts are recommended. They
may be molded in place, forced, glued or expanded into holes, or inserted ultrasonically.
49


THERMAL BONDING OF NONWOVEN FABRICS
INTRODUCTION
There are three major bonding types: chemical bonding / thermal bonding/ mechanical bonding. The
development of the past few years has shown that the share of thermally bonded webs is growing steadily.
The first thermally bonded nonwovens were produced in 1940s. Initial products used rayon as the carrier
fiber and plasticized cellulose acetate (PCA) or vinyl chloride (PVC) as the binder fiber. The viability of
the thermal bonding process is rooted in the price advantage obtained by lower energy costs. However,
the thermal bonding process also addresses the demanding quality requirements of the market place. The
development of new raw materials, better web formation technologies and higher production speeds have
made thermal bonding a viable process for the manufacture of both durable and disposable nonwovens.


BINDERS
Many materials that can be used as a binder for thermally bonded nonwovens.
Binding fibers
Binding powder
Binding web
The following are the essential characteristics of the binder polymer:
Efficient melt flow
Good adhesion to the carrier fiber
Lower melting point than the carrier fiber
Desired stiffness or elasticity.
BINDING FIBERS
50

Single-component and bi-component fibers, as binder fibers, are most widely used in thermal
bonding of nonwovens. Single-component fibers are the least sophisticated and most economical because
the fibers are often already in existence and low in cost. The type bond that is formed is dependent on
several factors including fiber chemistry, morphology, linear density, staple length, crimp, and processing
conditions. The major disadvantage encountered when using 100 percent single-component fibers is the
narrow temperature range that is necessary when thermal bonding. If the temperature is too low, there is
inadequate bond strength. If the temperature is too high, the web will melt excessively and lose its
identity as a web.
When bi-component fibers are used to produce thermal bonded nonwoven, the acceptable
temperature range for bonding may be as great as 25C. When thermal bonding, the high melting portion
of the fiber maintains the integrity of the web, while the low melting point portion melts and will bond
with other fibers at the fiber crossover points. The product produced tends to have bulk and exceptional
softness.
BINDING POWDER
Powdered polymers are sometimes used in thermal bonding of nonwovens. The most prevalent
use is powdered polyethylene. The powder can be applied between layers of fibers when cross-laying, air
laying, or as an after treatment. A short exposure in an oven is sufficient to melt and fuse the powder. It is
often used when a light weight and open structure is required with a soft hand or when a reinforced,
molded product is necessary.
BINDING WEB
A very open-structured, low-melting-point thermoplastic fabric is placed between the webs and,
during thermal bonding between the calender rolls, the fabric melts completely bonding the webs
together. The nonwoven produced by this technique is soft and bulky. Thermoplastic coatings and hot
melt print bonding have been used to a limited extent in controlled porosity filters, impermeable
membranes and other items. However, the use of this method of bonding is not expected to achieve a high
level of importance.
METHODS OF THERMAL BONDING
Hot calendering
Belt calendering
Through-air thermal bonding
Ultrasonic bonding
Radiant-heat bonding, etc.
HOT CALENDERING
There are three main types of hot calendering.
1. Area bonding
51

2. Point bonding
3. Embossing.
AREA BONDING
This process involves the use of a calender with a hot metal roll opposed by a wool felt, cotton or
special composition roll. Two, three or four roll calenders can be used, depending on the weight of the
web to be bonded and the degree of bonding desired. The three-roll calender has the heated roll in the
middle while the four-roll configuration has the heated rolls on the top and bottom, with the two
composition roll in the middle.
The amorphous or co-polymeric binder fibers used in this process provide bonding at all cross-
over points between the carrier and binder fibers. The resultant product - commonly used in electrical
insulation and coating substrates - is smooth, thin and stiff. The material is always two sided, but this
effect is most apparent in material processed through two and three roll calenders. Four roll calenders
minimize this effect.
The application of heat from the outside produces a material whose inner area is less bonded than
its outer surface. This becomes more pronounced as the product weight increases beyond 35 g/m
2
and can
become detrimental unless corrective measures are taken. These include increasing heat, slowing speed,
or increasing the binder/carrier fiber ratio. The two-roll calender is used for low-to-medium weight
products with light-to- medium bonding. The three-roll calender is used for special bonding and finish
effects on a single surface. The four roll calender produces the widest weight range of materials because it
provides more flexibility in the application of heat. .
Area-bond hot calendering is influenced by five factors:
Heat
Bonding occurs at the surface of the metal roll, which obtains its heat by conduction from heated
oil circulated through its center or from restrictive heating. The composition rolls obtain their heat
from contact with the heated metal roll. Before the start of a production run, the roll stacks are
operated until the composition rolls achieve dynamic heat equilibrium.
Pressure
Bonding occurs through simultaneous application of heat and pressure. The heat causes the fiber
binder to become thermoplastic. The pressure enhances mechanical bonding by forcing the binder
polymer to flow in and around the carrier fibers.
Speed
The speed at which the nonwoven passes through the calender, combined with heat and pressure
conditions, determines the degree of bonding in the nonwoven. It also determines the throughput
rate of the entire nonwoven line and is a critical factor in product cost. The faster the rate, the
lower is the cost. This is the primary reason for the recent development of lower melting binders.
Roll combination.
52

The only practical roll combination for area bonding is a metal roll-felt roll. The metal roll
applies the heat. The surface resilience of the felt roll enables uniform application of pressure to
all the minute surface thickness variations throughout the product.
Cooling rolls
The product is warm and thermoplastic as it leaves the calender nip. If the product were to be
wound while it was still hot, the tension applied to eliminate wrinkles would stretch the web and
introduce unrelieved stresses. This would lead to shrinkage whenever post-heat treatments were
used. A set of two cooling rolls placed immediately after the calendering stage eliminates these
unwanted side effects.
POINT BONDING
Point-bond hot calendering is the main method of thermally bonding in disposables as diaper,
sanitary products, and medical products. This method involves the use of a two-roll nip consisting of a
heated male patterned metal roll and a smooth or patterned metal roll (fig 1 a, b, c & d). This second roll
may or may not be heated, depending on the application. In a typical production line, the web is fed by an
apron leading to a calender nip and the fiber temperature is raised to the point at which tackiness and
melting cause fiber segments caught between the tips of engraved points and the smooth roll to adhere
together.
The heating time is typically of the order of milliseconds [3]. The fabric properties are dependent
on the process temperature and pressure and other parameters like the contact time, quench rate and
calender pattern. Experimental results show that for a given nip line pressure and calendering speed, the
breaking strength reaches a maximum at a critical bonding temperature (fig1e); on keeping the nip line
pressure constant, the critical temperature was found to be a function of the calendering speed. Fig. 1A,B,
C and D Showing details of point bonding
The maximum strength achieved is influenced by the nip line pressure. This influence depends on
the melting behavior of the fiber. If the maximum occurs in the softening region, higher pressure yields
higher strength. On the other hand, if maximum occurs in the early melting region, a low calendering
pressure is desirable. The degree of product bonding depends on the pattern of bond points on the roll
surface. Bonded areas are compressed and densely compacted. Unbonded area is very open, breathable
and porous. The products formed range from thin, closed, inelastic, strong, and stiff to open, bulky, weak,
flexible and elastic depending on the number density, the size and the pattern of the bond points

Fig. 1e: Stress-strain curves for various bonding temp (PP)
53

EMBOSSING
This method is a figured or sculptured area-bond hot calendering. In this case, though, the area
bonding is three-dimensional. A "bulky but thin" product can be made in any pleasing or functional
construction, depending on the faces of the embossing rolls. The calender roll combination has a male
patterned heatable metal roll and a matching female patterned felt roll.
BELT CALENDERING
Belt calendering is a modified form of hot roll calendering. The two main differences are the time in
the nip and the degree of pressure applied. In belt calendering, time in the nip is 1-10 seconds. The
pressure applied is about 1/10th of the pressure applied in the hot calendering process. The belt bonder
consists of a heated roll and a rubber blanket. The nonwoven fabric is heat bonded by running it between
the roll and the blanket. Pressure is applied by varying:
a. The tension on the blanket against the heated roll
b. The pressure on the exit guide roll inside the rubber blanket.
Belt calendered products are much less dense and papery compared to hot roll calendering. The belt
bonder facilitates the use of binders with sharp melting and flow properties. Such binders can present
difficulties in a hot roll calendering process.
THROUGH-AIR BONDING
Through-air thermal bonding involves the application of hot air to the surface of the nonwoven
fabric. The hot air flows through holes in a plenum positioned just above the nonwoven. However, the air
is not pushed through the nonwoven, as in common hot air ovens. Negative pressure or suction, pulls the
air through the open conveyor apron that supports the nonwoven as it passes thorough the oven. Pulling
the air through the nonwoven fabric allows much more rapid and even transmission of heat and minimizes
fabric distortion. (See Fig.2)

Fig. 2: Through-air bonding
54

Binders used in through-air thermal bonding include crystalline binder fibers, bi-component
binder fibers, and powders. When using crystalline binder fibers or powders, the binder melts entirely and
forms molten droplets throughout the nonwoven's cross-section. Bonding occurs at these points upon
cooling.
In the case of sheath/core binder fibers, the sheath is the binder and the core is the carrier fiber.
Products manufactured using through-air ovens tend to be bulky, open, soft, strong, extensible, breathable
and absorbent. Through-air bonding followed by immediate cold calendering results in thicknesses
between a hot roll calendered product and one that has been though-air bonded without compression.
Even after cold calendering, this product is softer, more flexible and more extensible than area-bond hot-
calendered material.
ULTRASONIC BONDING
This process involves the application of rapidly alternating compressive forces to localized areas
of fibers in the web. The stress created by these compressive forces is converted to thermal energy, which
softens the fibers as they are pressed against each other. Upon removal from the source of ultrasonic
vibration, the softened fibers cool, solidifying the bond points. This method is frequently used for spot or
patterned bonding of mechanically bonded materials.
No binder is necessary when synthetic fibers are used since these are self-bonding. To bond
natural fibers, some amount of synthetic fiber must be blended with the natural fiber. Fabrics produced by
this technique are soft, breathable, absorbent, and strong. This bonding method is used to make patterned
composites and laminates, such as quilts and outdoor jackets.
RADIANT HEAT BONDING
Radiant heat bonding takes place by exposing the web or mat to a source of radiant energy in the
infrared range. The electromagnetic energy radiated from the source is absorbed by the web, increasing its
temperature. The application of radiant heat is controlled so that it melts the binder without affecting the
carrier fiber. Bonding occurs when the binder resolidifies upon removal of the source of radiant heat.
Lower energy and equipment costs make this a favored method for processing powder-bonded
nonwovens.
Versatility and lower shipping costs are also factors. Post-calendered rolls can be shipped in thin,
compacted form and rebulked by reapplication of heat, without pressure or restraints, to the desired state
at the time of use. Powder bonded products made in this manner are soft, open, and absorbent with low-
to-medium strength. They also can be reactivated by heat for use in the manufacture of laminated
composites.
ADVANTAGES AND ENERGY COMPARISION
Compared to other bonding processes, thermal bonding and the products thus obtained offer a number of
advantages :
1. Quality of product soft and textile-like.
2. High economic efficiency as compared to chemical bonding with binder agents because no water
evaporation is required, i.e., considerable energy saving results. In comparison with chemical
55

bonding, thermal bonding only has a heat energy requirement of 1/4 to 1/6 (also in this respect
ecologically beneficial).
3. Less expensive machinery. The capital expenditure, maintenance and operating costs are often
lower because no binder preparation station and no binder application units are required.
4. It is possible to bond even thicker webs uniformly and thoroughly to the core that cannot be
achieved by spraying. While a regular bonding effect across the web cross- section can be
achieved for a web with a homogeneous distribution of the binding fibers, spraying only produces
a bonding effect in the outer layers of the web.
5. No binder agents are required and no curing process is needed. Hence, there is no exhaust air or
wastewater problem. Objections against certain chemicals can be dropped. Thus, thermal bonding
is non-polluting. (Note: New developments of the binder producers in the meantime have put on
the market new dispersions, which also can be considered ecologically harmless).
6. As pure polymer fibers or blends can be used for thermal bonding processes, recyclability is
100% in practice.
7. Fiber properties can be influenced in an ideal manner (e.g. flame-retardence, nonwovens with
high bulk and excellent resilience owing to fiber crimping, heat-insulating characteristics due to
hollow fiber, etc.).
It has to be mentioned, however, that not all nonwovens can be processed by thermal bonding in such a
way that the product obtains the requested properties. It can be assumed therefore that binder bonding can
also secure its market share because the binder producers are trying to develop polymer dispersions which
are biodegradable and, in connection with the fiber polymers using the same polymer basis, allow
recycling of the respective nonwovens.
APPLICATIONS OF THERMOBONDED WEBS
Type of Web formation Weight range Applications Bonding Type
gram/sq.meter
Card or aerodynamic 18-25 coverstock calender
Light weight sanitary webs incl. Bico & blends
Disposables through air bonding
Spunbonded 10-25 coverstock calender
Light weight sanitary webs
Disposables
Card or aerodynamic 25-150 Interlinings Calender
Through air bonding
Card or aerodynamic 100-1000 Filter webs Through air bonding
Bulky or needled
Card or aerodynamic 80-100 Geotextiles Through air bonding
And Spunbonded
Spunbonded 150-200 Carpet backing Through air bonding

56

Card or aerodynamic 80-2000 Technical textiles Through air bonding
Insulation, decoration
Wall cover, upholstery
Card or aerodynamic 80-2000 Wadding Through air bonding
Fiberfill webs
Card or aerodynamic 100-250 Wiping cloth Through air bonding

Card or aerodynamic 80-3000 Waste fiber web Through air bonding
For various uses
Card or aerodynamic 300-600 Needle web Through air bonding
Food covering
Card or aerodynamic 150-350 Bitumen carrier webs Through air bonding
With fiber heat set
Wet forming machine 20-200 Decoration Through air bonding
Tea bag paper
Dry-laid paper 25-150 Wiping cloth Through air bonding
Sanitary webs
Technical products

CONCLUSION
Thermal bonding is much less energy intensive, kinder to the environment and more economical than
latex bonding. A wide range of products can be made with thermal bonding, depending on the options
used for processing. The bonding method has a significant effect on product properties. Depending on the
bonding method, product properties can vary from nonporous, thin, nonextensible, and nonabsorbent to
open, bulk, extensible and absorbent. All thermal bonding methods provide strong bond points that are
resistant to hostile environment and to many solvents too.
PRESS-FI TTI NGS
This technique provides joints with high strength at low-cost. In general, suggested interferences
are larger between thermoplastic parts than metal parts because of the lower elastic modulus. The
increased interference can produce production savings due to greater latitude in production tolerances.
The effects of thermal cycling and stress relaxation on the strength of the joint mustbe carefully
evaluated.

SNAP-FI TS
Snap fitting provides a simple, inexpensive and rapid means of assembling plastic parts.
Basically, a molded undercut on one part engages a mating lip on the other. This method of assembly is
uniquely suited to thermo plastic materials due to flexibility, high elongation and ability to be molded into
complex shapes.
57



58




59


UNIT III INTRODUCTION TO FIBRES AND COMPOSITE MATERIALS
FIBRES
Fiber (also spelled fibre) is a class of materials that are continuous filaments or are in discrete
elongated pieces, similar to lengths of thread.
They are very important in the biology of both plants and animals, for holding tissues together.
Human uses for fibers are diverse. They can be spun into filaments, string or rope, used as a
component of composite materials, or matted into sheets to make products such as paper or felt. Fibers are
often used in the manufacture of other materials. The strongest engineering materials are generally made
as fibers, for example carbon fiber and Ultra-high-molecular-weight polyethylene.
Synthetic fibers can often be produced very cheaply and in large amounts compared to natural
fibers, but for clothing natural fibers can give some benefits, such as comfort, over their man-made
counterparts.
Textile fiber
A unit in which many complicated textile structures are built up is said to be textile fiber.
Natural fibers
Natural fibers include those produced by plants, animals, and geological processes. They are
biodegradable over time. They can be classified according to their origin:
Vegetable fibers are generally based on arrangements of cellulose, often with lignin: examples
include cotton, hemp, jute, flax, ramie, and sisal. Plant fibers are employed in the manufacture of
paper and textile (cloth), and dietary fiber is an important component of human nutrition.
Wood fiber, distinguished from vegetable fiber, is from tree sources. Forms include groundwood,
thermomechanical pulp (TMP) and bleached or unbleached kraft or sulfite pulps. Kraft and
sulfite, also called sulphite, refer to the type of pulping process used to remove the lignin bonding
the original wood structure, thus freeing the fibers for use in paper and engineered wood products
such as fiberboard.
Animal fibers consist largely of particular proteins. Instances are spider silk, sinew, catgut, wool
and hair such as cashmere, mohair and angora, fur such as sheepskin, rabbit, mink, fox, beaver,
etc.
Mineral fibers comprise asbestos. Asbestos is the only naturally occurring long mineral fiber.
Short, fiber-like minerals include wollastonite, attapulgite and halloysite.
Man-made fibers
Synthetic or man-made fibers generally come from synthetic materials such as petrochemicals.
But some types of synthetic fibers are manufactured from natural cellulose, including rayon, modal, and
60

the more recently developed Lyocell. Cellulose-based fibers are of two types, regenerated or pure
cellulose such as from the cupro-ammonium process and modified cellulose such as the cellulose acetates.
Fiber classification in reinforced plastics falls into two classes: (i) short fibers, also known as
discontinuous fibers, with a general aspect ratio (defined as the ratio of fiber length to diameter) between
20 to 60, and (ii) long fibers, also known as continuous fibers, the general aspect ratio is between 200 to
500.
Cellulose fibers
Cellulose fibers are a subset of man-made fibers, regenerated from natural cellulose. The
cellulose comes from various sources. Modal is made from beech trees, bamboo fiber is a
cellulose fiber made from bamboo, seacell is made from seaweed, etc.
Mineral fibers
Mineral fibers can be particular strong because they are formed with a low number of surface defects.
Fiberglass, made from specific glass, and optical fiber, made from purified natural quartz, are also
man-made fibers that come from natural raw materials, silica fiber, made from sodium silicate
(water glass) and basalt fiber made from melted basalt.
Metallic fibers can be drawn from ductile metals such as copper, gold or silver and extruded or
deposited from more brittle ones, such as nickel, aluminum or iron.
Carbon fibers are often based on oxydized and via pyrolysis carbonised polymers like PAN, but
the end product is almost pure carbon.
Silicon carbide fibers, where the basic polymers are not hydrocarbons but polymers, where about
50% of the carbon atoms are replaced by silicon atoms, so-called poly-carbo-silanes. The
pyrolysis yields an amorphous silicon carbide, including mostly other elements like oxygen,
titanium, or aluminium, but with mechanical properties very similar to those of carbon fibers.
Polymer fibers
Polymer fibers are a subset of man-made fibers, which are based on synthetic chemicals (often
from petrochemical sources) rather than arising from natural materials by a purely physical
process. These fibers are made from:
o polyamide nylon,
o PET or PBT polyester
o phenol-formaldehyde (PF)
o polyvinyl alcohol fiber (PVA)
o polyvinyl chloride fiber (PVC)
o polyolefins (PP and PE)
o acrylic polyesters, pure polyester PAN fibers are used to make carbon fiber by roasting
them in a low oxygen environment. Traditional acrylic fiber is used more often as a
synthetic replacement for wool. Carbon fibers and PF fibers are noted as two resin-based
fibers that are not thermoplastic, most others can be melted.
o Aromatic polyamids (aramids) such as Twaron, Kevlar and Nomex thermally degrade at
high temperatures and do not melt. These fibers have strong bonding between polymer
chains
61

o polyethylene (PE), eventually with extremely long chains / HMPE (e.g. Dyneema or
Spectra).
o Elastomers can even be used, e.g. spandex although urethane fibers are starting to replace
spandex technology.
o polyurethane fiber
Coextruded fibers have two distinct polymers forming the fiber, usually as a core-sheath or side-
by-side. Coated fibers exist such as nickel-coated to provide static elimination, silver-coated to
provide anti-bacterial properties and aluminum-coated to provide RF deflection for radar chaff.
Radar chaff is actually a spool of continuous glass tow that has been aluminum coated. An
aircraft-mounted high speed cutter chops it up as it spews from a moving aircraft to confuse radar
signals.
Microfibers
Microfibers in textiles refer to sub-denier fiber (such as polyester drawn to 0.5 dn). Denier and
Detex are two measurements of fiber yield based on weight and length. If the fiber density is known you
also have a fiber diameter, otherwise it is simpler to measure diameters in micrometers. Microfibers in
technical fibers refer to ultra fine fibers (glass or meltblown thermoplastics) often used in filtration.
Newer fiber designs include extruding fiber that splits into multiple finer fibers. Most synthetic fibers are
round in cross-section, but special designs can be hollow, oval, star-shaped or trilobal. The latter design
provides more optically reflective properties. Synthetic textile fibers are often crimped to provide bulk in
a woven, non woven or knitted structure. Fiber surfaces can also be dull or bright. Dull surfaces reflect
more light while bright tends to transmit light and make the fiber more transparent.
Very short and/or irregular fibers have been called fibrils. Natural cellulose, such as cotton or
bleached kraft, show smaller fibrils jutting out and away from the main fiber structure.
[4]

Fiber Fabrication
There are two basic techniques used in the fabrication of optical fibers:
1) Fibers can be drawn directly from melts of silica in crucibles.
2) Vapor phase oxidation.
DOUBLE CRUCIBLE METHOD
The double crucible method can be used to make both silica and halide glass fibers. The
technique is simple and straightforward. One glass rod is made from silica powders for the core and one
for the cladding. The rods are then used as feedstock for each of two concentric crucibles. The inner
contains the molten core, while the outer contains the cladding. In a continuous process, the fiber is drawn
from the molten state. The disadvantage of this method is the possibility of introducing contaminants
during the melting process. Figure 2 illustrates the double-crucible drawing process.
62


Figure 2: Double-crucible fiber drawing process
VAPOR PHASE OXIDATION
With direct drawing, it is difficult to get pure and homogeneous fibers; therefore this method is not
commonly used. The vapor phase oxidation processes have proven to be more successful. These
processes are usually done in two steps:
1) The first being the preparation of the preform.
2) The second being the drawing of the fiber.
PREPARATION OF THE PREFORM

Figure 3: Preform
As shown in the Figure3 a perform is a cylinder of silica composition 10 to 25 mm in diameter
and about 60 to 120 cm long. This preform consists of a core surrounded by a cladding with a desired
63

refractive-index profile, a given attenuation, and other characteristics; in other words, this is a desired
optical fiber, but on a much larger scale.
The main reason a preform is prepared is to have a "drawable" material that is clean, low in OH
concentration, low in metallic-ion contaminants, and inexpensive. Many techniques have been developed
to prepare these preforms. Some common commercially used methods are Outside Vapor-Deposition,
Modified Chemical Vapor Deposition, Vapor Phase Axial Deposition, and Plasma Chemical Vapor
Deposition. They differ mainly by the way the soot is deposited.
The preform is made by vapor-phase oxidation, in which two gases, SiCl
4
and O
2
, are mixed at a
high temperature to produce silicon dioxide (SiO
2
):

Silicon dioxide, or pure silica, is usually obtained in the form of small particles (about 0.1 m)
called "soot." This soot is deposited on the target rod or tube. The depositing of the silica soot, layer upon
layer, forms a homogeneous transparent cladding material. To change the value of a cladding's refractive
index, some dopants are used. For example, fluorine (F) is used to decrease the cladding's refractive index
in a depressed-cladding configuration.
The soot for the core material is made by mixing three gases: SiCl
4
, GeCl
4
, and O
2
which results
in a mixture of SiO
2
and GeO
2
. The degree of doping is controlled by simply changing the amount of
GeCl
4
gas added to the mixture. The same principle is used for doping other materials.
Since deposition is made by the application of silica layers top one another, the manufacturer can
control the exact amount of dopants added to each layer, thus controlling the refractive-index profile.
Figure1 explains the role of several widely used dopants.
The vapor-phase oxidation process produces extremely pure material whose characteristics are
under the absolute control of the manufacturer.
OUTSIDE VAPOR-DEPOSITION
Outside Vapor Deposition (OVD), also called the "soot process", was first developed by Corning
Incorporated. This fiber was the first to have a loss of less then 20dB/km. The three main steps involved
are laydown (Figure4-a), consolidation (Figure4-b), and drawing. In the laydown process, several
materials such as SiCl
4
, GeCl
4
, BCl
3
and O2 are allowed to react in a hot flame to produce soot (Figure 5).
The soot is in turn deposited into a rotating ceramic rod known as a mandrel. Initially the core
material is deposited, followed by the cladding. The soot builds up on the rod, and layer-by-layer, a
cylindrical preform is built up. In preparing the preform, many characteristics like glass composition,
refractive index, and the dimensions of the core and cladding can be controlled. Next, the deposited
preform is removed from the rod and placed in a consolidation furnace.
This high temperature furnace removes any water vapor that may be in the preform. The resulting
product is a solid, dense, glass blank. Now the blank is ready to be placed in a draw tower where a
continuous fiber is made into a strand. It is during the draw process, discussed in more detail below, that
the hole in the tube collapses and a perfectly symmetrical fiber is formed.
64

Either step or graded index performs can be made.

Figure 4: Two phases of the OVD process: (a) Laydown; (b) consolidation.

Figure 5: Outside Vapor-Deposition
Vapor phase axial deposition
Another similar method of producing preforms is vapor phase axial deposition (VAD). In VAD,
the SiO2 particles are formed in the same manner as in OVD. The particles are deposited onto the end of
a glass rod, which is in turn attached in the upright position to a motor. A porous preform is grown axially
as a pulling machine rotates the rod upward. The preform is then made into a solid rod by zone melting.
The preform is ready to be drawn into a fiber. This method is done completely inside a closed deposition
65

chamber. It therefore has the advantage of a clean environment. Also, there is no central hole created, as
is the case for OVD. Finally, VAD has proven to be cost effective because the preform can be made in
continuous lengths. This method is shown in Figure 6.

Figure 6: Vapor phase axial deposition
MODIFIED CHEMICAL VAPOR DEPOSITION
Modified Chemical Vapor Deposition, or MCVD, is a process that was developed at AT&T Bell
Laboratories in the 1970's. It was so successful that AT&T used it to mass-produce optical fiber in the
1980's. It provided a simple and straightforward means of manufacturing high-quality optical fibers.
MCVD differs from OVD in that the deposition occurs inside of a fuse-quartz tube instead of on the
outside, hence the term modified.
The process works as follows: Reactants (SiCl
4
+ O2) are introduced at one end of the rotating
tube while an exhaust is located on the other end. A burner that traverses back and forth along the length
of the tube sinters the deposited SiO2 particles to a clear glass layer. When the desired thickness is
achieved, a valve is closed to stop the flow of reactants. As one might expect, the flow of reactants and
the speed of the traversing oxy-hydrogen burner have to be closely monitored using a video camera.
Finally, the temperature of the burner is increased so that the rod collapses onto itself resulting in
a solid preform. An advantage of this method is that it is an inherently clean process since the reaction
occurs inside of the tube. According to The Journal of Lightwave Technology, this method produces the
highest quality product under factory conditions. Other advantage this method has is the ability to mass-
produce the fiber quickly under various design requirements while using the same equipment. This
method is shown in Figure 7.
66


Figure 7: Modified Chemical Vapor Deposition
PLASMA CHEMICAL VAPOR DEPOSITION
Scientists at Phillips Research invented plasma Chemical Vapor Deposition, or PCVD. Clear
glass instead of soot is also deposited inside a silica tube as is done in the MCVD process. Non-
isothermal plasma in the microwave frequency range (2.45GHz) is used instead of a torch or flame. The
plasma makes the reaction proceed at about 1000 to 1200C. This results in very thin layers being
deposited inside the tube. Although this method allows us to grow layers at relatively low temperatures,
the deposition rate is rather slow in comparison to other methods. This method is shown in Figure 8.

Figure 8: Plasma Chemical Vapor Deposition





67

FIBER DRAWING

Figure 1: Schematic of a typical drawing process.

The major steps of a typical drawing process are shown in Figure 1. The preform is put into a
draw furnace, where the bottom tip is heated to melting. This molten piece now starts to fall, forming a
fiber with a 125-m outer diameter. Diameter-monitoring equipment controls the actual fiber diameter by
changing, if necessary, the rate of drawing that is executed by a tractor assembly. A coating applicator
applies a coating over the cladding. Concentricity-monitoring equipment controls this parameter. The
coating is cured by ultraviolet lamps or some other heat source. The coated fiber is then wound onto
ready-to-ship reels.
From this oversimplified description you might get the impression that drawing a fiber is very
simple. It is not. It took many years of intensive, costly research and development efforts and the
brainpower of thousands of scientists and engineers to make this process commercially possible. Critical
to the process, of course, is the rate of drawing. And herein lies a dilemma. On the one hand, the slower
the drawing, the better the manufacturer can control fiber quality. On the other hand, the faster the
drawing, the more fiber one can produce in a given amount of time.
It's clear, then, that there can be no "best" rate in an industrial operation, where both quality and
productivity are demanded. So one has to find an acceptable compromise. Each of the processes described
here has its own advantages and drawbacks associated with the drawing rate at which it runs. To give you
68

some sense of how widely the numbers vary, the draw rate can run from 200 m/min to 2,000 m/min. To
reach such a speed, all rotating parts of the drawing mechanism must be manufactured to extremely tight
tolerances and the tension level to which the optical fiber is subjected must be controlled with a high
degree of accuracy.
Even though Figure 9 shows only diameter-measuring equipment, the manufacturer actually
measures and controls many of the fiber's characteristics during the fiber-draw stage, when some serious
problems can crop up. Among them are internal problems, such as bubbles, contamination, and
discontinuity, and external problems, like neck-downs, lumps, and flaws. Control of the external
problems is very important because they can weaken a fiber. This is why manufacturers not only detect
them constantly but also compare their size with threshold values.
If you analyze Figure 9 closely, you will find many problems that need to be resolved at each
particular step and for the entire process.
Both stages of fiber manufacturing are fully automated and are performed in a clean, climate-
controlled room. Obviously, the manufacturers use high-precision measuring equipment to automatically
control each step of the fabrication process. For example, preform analyzers measure the critical
characteristics of the optical-fiber preform. Also, specific measurement systems control fiber geometry,
the refractive-index profile, and the coating geometry.
BORON
Boron is the chemical element with atomic number 5 and the chemical symbol B. Boron is a
metalloid. A low-abundance element in both the solar system and the Earth's crust, boron is concentrated
on Earth by the water-solubility of its more common naturally-occurring compounds, the borate minerals.
These are mined industrially as evaporate ores, such as borax and kernite.
Elemental boron is not found naturally. Industrially, very pure isolated boron is produced with
difficulty, as boron tends to form refractory materials containing small amounts of carbon or other
elements. Several allotropes of boron exist: amorphous boron is a brown powder and crystalline boron is
black, extremely hard (about 9.5 on Mohs' scale), and a poor conductor at room temperature. Elemental
boron is used as a dopant in the semiconductor industry.

The major uses of boron compounds are in sodium perborate bleaches, and the borax component
of fiberglass insulation. Boron compounds play specialized roles as high-strength lightweight structural
and refractory materials. They are used in glasses and ceramics to give them resistance to thermal shock.
Boron-containing reagents are used for the synthesis of organic compounds, and as an intermediate in the
synthesis of pharmaceuticals that do not contain boron.
In biology, borates have low toxicity in mammals (similar to table salt), but much more so to
many arthropods. A boron-containing natural antibiotic is known. Small amounts of boron compounds
play a strengthening role in the cell walls of all plants, making boron a necessary element in soils.
Experiments indicate a role for boron as an ultratrace element in animals, but the nature of its role in
animal physiology is unknown.
69

Boron compounds were known thousands of years ago. Borax was known from the deserts of
western Tibet, where it received the name of tincal, derived from the Sanskrit. Borax glazes were used in
China from AD300, and some tincal even reached the West, where the Arabic alchemist Jbir ibn Hayyn
seems to mention it in 700. Marco Polo brought some glazes back to Italy in the 13th century. Agricola,
around 1600, reports the use of borax as a flux in metallurgy. In 1777, boric acid was recognized in the
hot springs (soffioni) near Florence, Italy, and became known as sal sedativum, with mainly medical uses.
The rare mineral is called sassolite, which is found at Sasso, Italy. Sasso was the main source of European
borax from 1827 to 1872, at which date American sources replaced it.
[8][9]

Boron was not recognized as an element until it was isolated by Sir Humphry Davy
[10]
and by
Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac and Louis Jacques Thnard
[11]
in 1808 through the reaction of boric acid and
potassium. Davy called the element boracium.
[12]
Jns Jakob Berzelius identified boron as an element in
1824.Pure boron was arguably first produced by the American chemist Ezekiel Weintraub in 1909.
Characteristics
Boron is similar to carbon in its capability to form stable covalently bonded molecular networks.
Even nominally disordered (amorphous) boron contains regular boron icosahedra which are, however,
bonded randomly to each other without long-range order. Crystalline boron is a very hard, black material
with a high melting point of above 2000 C. It exists in four major polymorphs: , , and T. Whereas ,
and T phases are based on B
12
icosahedra, the -phase can be described as a rocksalt-type arrangement
of the icosahedra and B
2
atomic pairs.
It can be produced by compressing other boron phases to 1220 GPa and heating to 1500
1800 C; it remains stable after releasing the temperature and pressure. The T phase is produced at similar
pressures, but higher temperatures of 18002200 C. As to the and phases, they might both coexist at
ambient conditions with the phase being more stable. Compressing boron above 160 GPa produces a
boron phase with an as yet unknown structure, and this phase is a superconductor at temperatures 612 K.
Boron phase T
Symmetry Rhombohedral Rhombohedral Orthorhombic Tetragonal
Atoms/unit cell 12 ~105 28

Density (g/cm
3
) 2.46 2.35 2.52 2.36
Vickers hardness (GPa) 42 45 5058

Bulk modulus (GPa) 185 224 227

Bandgap (eV) 2 1.6 2.1

70

Chemistry of the element
Elemental boron is rare and poorly studied because the material is extremely difficult to prepare.
Most studies on "boron" involve samples that contain small amounts of carbon. Chemically, boron
behaves more closely to silicon than to aluminium. Crystalline boron is chemically inert and resistant to
attack by boiling hydrofluoric or hydrochloric acid. When finely divided, it is attacked slowly by hot
concentrated hydrogen peroxide, hot concentrated nitric acid, hot sulfuric acid or hot mixture of sulfuric
and chromic acids.
The rate of oxidation of boron depends upon the crystallinity, particle size, purity and
temperature. Boron does not react with air at room temperature, but at higher temperatures it burns to
form boron trioxide:
4 B + 3 O
2
2 B
2
O
3


Ball-and-stick model of tetraborate anion, [B
4
O
5
(OH)
4
]
2
, as it occurs in crystalline borax,
Na
2
[B
4
O
5
(OH)
4
] 8H
2
O. Boron atoms are pink, with bridging oxygens in red, and four hydroxyl hydrogens
in white. Note two borons are trigonally bonded sp
2
with no formal charge, while the other two borons are
tetrahedrally bonded sp
3
, each carrying a formal charge of 1. The oxidation state of all borons is III. This
mixture of boron coordination numbers and formal charges is characteristic of natural boron minerals.
Boron undergoes halogenation to give trihalides, for example,:
2 B + 3 Br
2
2 BBr
3

These trihalides in practice are usually made from the oxides.
Carbon is the chemical element with symbol C and atomic number 6. As a member of group 14
on the periodic table, it is nonmetallic and tetravalentmaking four electrons available to form covalent
chemical bonds. There are three naturally occurring isotopes, with
12
C and
13
C being stable, while
14
C is
radioactive, decaying with a half-life of about 5730 years.
[9]
Carbon is one of the few elements known
since antiquity. The name "carbon" comes from Latin carbo, coal.
71

There are several allotropes of carbon of which the best known are graphite, diamond, and
amorphous carbon. The physical properties of carbon vary widely with the allotropic form. For example,
diamond is highly transparent, while graphite is opaque and black. Diamond is among the hardest
materials known, while graphite is soft enough to form a streak on paper (hence its name, from the Greek
word "to write"). Diamond has a very low electrical conductivity, while graphite is a very good
conductor. Under normal conditions, diamond has the highest thermal conductivity of all known
materials. All the allotropic forms are solids under normal conditions but graphite is the most
thermodynamically stable.
All forms of carbon are highly stable, requiring high temperature to react even with oxygen. The
most common oxidation state of carbon in inorganic compounds is +4, while +2 is found in carbon
monoxide and other transition metal carbonyl complexes. The largest sources of inorganic carbon are
limestones, dolomites and carbon dioxide, but significant quantities occur in organic deposits of coal,
peat, oil and methane clathrates. Carbon forms more compounds than any other element, with almost ten
million pure organic compounds described to date, which in turn are a tiny fraction of such compounds
that are theoretically possible under standard conditions.
Carbon is the 15th most abundant element in the Earth's crust, and the fourth most abundant
element in the universe by mass after hydrogen, helium, and oxygen. It is present in all known life forms,
and in the human body carbon is the second most abundant element by mass (about 18.5%) after oxygen.
This abundance, together with the unique diversity of organic compounds and their unusual polymer-
forming ability at the temperatures commonly encountered on Earth, make this element the chemical
basis of all known life.
COMPOSITE MATERIALS
Composite materials, often shortened to composites, are engineered or naturally occurring
materials made from two or more constituent materials with significantly different physical or chemical
properties which remain separate and distinct at the macroscopic or microscopic scale within the finished
structure.
The most visible applications is pavement in roadways in the form of either steel and aggregate
reinforced Portland cement or asphalt concrete. Those composites closest to our personal hygiene form
our shower stalls and bathtubs made of fibreglass. Imitation granite and cultured marble sinks and
countertops are widely used. The most advanced examples perform routinely on spacecraft in demanding
environments.
Composition
Wood is a natural composite of Cellulose fibres in a matrix of lignin.
[1][2]
The earliest man-made
composite materials were straw and mud combined to form bricks for building construction. The ancient
brick-making process can still be seen on Egyptian tomb paintings in the Metropolitan Museum of Art.
Composites are made up of individual materials referred to as constituent materials. There are
two categories of constituent materials: matrix and reinforcement. At least one portion of each type is
required. The matrix material surrounds and supports the reinforcement materials by maintaining their
relative positions. The reinforcements impart their special mechanical and physical properties to enhance
the matrix properties. A synergism produces material properties unavailable from the individual
72

constituent materials, while the wide variety of matrix and strengthening materials allows the designer of
the product or structure to choose an optimum combination.
Engineered composite materials must be formed to shape. The matrix material can be introduced
to the reinforcement before or after the reinforcement material is placed into the mould cavity or onto the
mould surface. The matrix material experiences a melding event, after which the part shape is essentially
set. Depending upon the nature of the matrix material, this melding event can occur in various ways such
as chemical polymerization or solidification from the melted state.
A variety of moulding methods can be used according to the end-item design requirements. The
principal factors impacting the methodology are the natures of the chosen matrix and reinforcement
materials. Another important factor is the gross quantity of material to be produced. Large quantities can
be used to justify high capital expenditures for rapid and automated manufacturing technology. Small
production quantities are accommodated with lower capital expenditures but higher labour and tooling
costs at a correspondingly slower rate.
Most commercially produced composites use a polymer matrix material often called a resin
solution. There are many different polymers available depending upon the starting raw ingredients. There
are several broad categories, each with numerous variations. The most common are known as polyester,
vinyl ester, epoxy, phenolic, polyimide, polyamide, polypropylene, PEEK, and others. The reinforcement
materials are often fibres but also commonly ground minerals. The various methods described below have
been developed to reduce the resin content of the final product, or the fibre content is increased. As a rule
of thumb, lay up results in a product containing 60% resin and 40% fibre, whereas vacuum infusion gives
a final product with 40% resin and 60% fibre content. The strength of the product is greatly dependent on
this ratio.
METAL
A metal is a chemical element that is a good conductor of both electricity and heat and forms
cations and ionic bonds with non-metals.
In chemistry, a metal (from Greek "" mtallon, "mine") is an element, compound, or
alloy characterized by high electrical conductivity. In a metal, atoms readily lose electrons to form
positive ions (cations). Those ions are surrounded by delocalized electrons, which are responsible for the
conductivity. The solid thus produced is held by electrostatic interactions between the ions and the
electron cloud, which are called metallic bonds.
Metals are sometimes described as an arrangement of positive ions surrounded by a sea of
delocalized electrons. They are one of the three groups of elements as distinguished by their ionization
and bonding properties, along with the metalloids and non-metals.
Metals occupy the bulk of the periodic table, while non-metallic elements can only be found on
the right-hand-side of the Periodic Table of the Elements. A diagonal line, drawn from boron (B) to
polonium (Po), separates the metals from the nonmetals. Most elements on this line are metalloids,
sometimes called semiconductors. This is because these elements exhibit electrical properties common to
both conductors and insulators. Elements to the lower left of this division line are called metals, while
elements to the upper right of the division line are called nonmetals.
73

An alternative definition of metal refers to the band theory. If one fills the energy bands of a
material with available electrons and ends up with a top band partly filled then the material is a metal.
This definition opens up the category for metallic polymers and other organic metals, which have been
made by researchers and employed in high-tech devices. These synthetic materials often have the
characteristic silvery gray reflectiveness (luster) of elemental metals.
ASTRONOMY
In the specialized usage of astronomy and astrophysics, the term "metal" is often used to refer
collectively to all elements other than hydrogen or helium, including substances as chemically non-
metallic as neon, fluorine, and oxygen. Nearly all the hydrogen and helium in the Universe was created in
Big Bang nucleosynthesis, whereas all the "metals" were produced by nucleosynthesis in stars or
supernovae. The Sun and the Milky Way Galaxy are composed of roughly 74% hydrogen, 24% helium,
and 2% "metals" (the rest of the elements; atomic numbers 3118) by mass.
The concept of a metal in the usual chemical sense is irrelevant in stars, as the chemical bonds
that give elements their properties cannot exist at stellar temperatures.
Properties
Chemical
Metals are usually inclined to form cations through electron loss,
[2]
reacting with oxygen in the air
to form oxides over changing timescales (iron rusts over years, while potassium burns in seconds).
Examples:
4 Na + O
2
2 Na
2
O (sodium oxide)
2 Ca + O
2
2 CaO (calcium oxide)
4 Al + 3 O
2
2 Al
2
O
3
(aluminium oxide)
The transition metals (such as iron, copper, zinc, and nickel) take much longer to oxidize. Others,
like palladium, platinum and gold, do not react with the atmosphere at all. Some metals form a barrier
layer of oxide on their surface which cannot be penetrated by further oxygen molecules and thus retain
their shiny appearance and good conductivity for many decades (like aluminium, magnesium, some
steels, and titanium). The oxides of metals are generally basic, as opposed to those of nonmetals, which
are acidic.
Painting, anodizing or plating metals are good ways to prevent their corrosion. However, a more
reactive metal in the electrochemical series must be chosen for coating, especially when chipping of the
coating is expected. Water and the two metals form an electrochemical cell, and if the coating is less
reactive than the coatee, the coating actually promotes corrosion.
Physical
Metals in general have high electrical conductivity, thermal conductivity, luster and density, and
the ability to be deformed under stress without cleaving. While there are several metals that have low
74

density, hardness, and melting points, these (the alkali and alkaline earth metals) are extremely reactive,
and are rarely encountered in their elemental, metallic form. Optically speaking, metals are opaque, shiny
and lustrous. This is because visible lightwaves are not readily transmitted through the bulk of their
microstructure. The large number of free electrons in any typical metallic solid (element or alloy) is
responsible for the fact that they can never be categorized as transparent materials.
The majority of metals have higher densities than the majority of nonmetals. Nonetheless, there is
wide variation in the densities of metals; lithium is the least dense solid element and osmium is the
densest. The metals of groups I A and II A are referred to as the light metals because they are exceptions
to this generalization. The high density of most metals is due to the tightly packed crystal lattice of the
metallic structure. The strength of metallic bonds for different metals reaches a maximum around the
center of the transition metal series, as those elements have large amounts of delocalized electrons in tight
binding type metallic bonds. However, other factors (such as atomic radius, nuclear charge, number of
bonding orbitals, overlap of orbital energies, and crystal form) are involved as well.
Electrical
The electrical and thermal conductivity of metals originate from the fact that in the metallic bond,
the outer electrons of the metal atoms form a gas of nearly free electrons, moving as an electron gas in a
background of positive charge formed by the ion cores. Good mathematical predictions for electrical
conductivity, as well as the electrons' contribution to the heat capacity and heat conductivity of metals can
be calculated from the free electron model, which does not take the detailed structure of the ion lattice
into account.
When considering the exact band structure and binding energy of a metal, it is necessary to take
into account the positive potential caused by the specific arrangement of the ion cores which is periodic
in crystals. The most important consequence of the periodic potential is the formation of a small band gap
at the boundary of the Brillouin zone. Mathematically, the potential of the ion cores can be treated by
various models, the simplest being the nearly free electron model.
Mechanical
Mechanical properties of metals include ductility, which is largely due to their inherent capacity for
plastic deformation. Reversible elasticity in metals can be described by Hooke's Law for restoring forces,
where the stress is linearly proportional to the strain. Forces larger than the elastic limit, or heat, may
cause a permanent (irreversible) deformation of the object, known as plastic deformation or plasticity.
This irreversible change in atomic arrangement may occur as a result of:
The action of an applied force (or work). An applied force may be tensile (pulling) force,
compressive (pushing) force, shear, bending or torsion (twisting) forces.
A change in temperature (or heat). A temperature change may affect the mobility of the structural
defects such as grain boundaries, point vacancies, line and screw dislocations, stacking faults and
twins in both crystalline and non-crystalline solids. The movement or displacement of such
mobile defects is thermally activated, and thus limited by the rate of atomic diffusion.
75



Hot metal work from a blacksmith.
Viscous flow near grain boundaries, for example, can give rise to internal slip, creep and fatigue
in metals. It can also contribute to significant changes in the microstructure like grain growth and
localized densification due to the elimination of intergranular porosity. Screw dislocations may slip in the
direction of any lattice plane containing the dislocation, while the principal driving force for "dislocation
climb" is the movement or diffusion of vacancies through a crystal lattice.
In addition, the nondirectional nature of metallic bonding is also thought to contribute
significantly to the ductility of most metallic solids. When the planes of an ionic bond slide past one
another, the resultant change in location shifts ions of the same charge into close proximity, resulting in
the cleavage of the crystal; such shift is not observed in covalently bonded crystals where fracture and
crystal fragmentation occurs.
[4]

Alloys
An alloy is a mixture of two or more elements in solid solution in which the major component is a
metal. Most pure metals are either too soft, brittle or chemically reactive for practical use. Combining
different ratios of metals as alloys modifies the properties of pure metals to produce desirable
characteristics. The aim of making alloys is generally to make them less brittle, harder, resistant to
corrosion, or have a more desirable color and luster. Of all the metallic alloys in use today, the alloys of
iron (steel, stainless steel, cast iron, tool steel, alloy steel) make up the largest proportion both by quantity
and commercial value. Iron alloyed with various proportions of carbon gives low, mid and high carbon
steels, with increasing carbon levels reducing ductility and toughness. The addition of silicon will produce
cast irons, while the addition of chromium, nickel and molybdenum to carbon steels (more than 10%)
results in stainless steels.
Other significant metallic alloys are those of aluminium, titanium, copper and magnesium.
Copper alloys have been known since prehistorybronze gave the Bronze Age its nameand have many
applications today, most importantly in electrical wiring. The alloys of the other three metals have been
developed relatively recently; due to their chemical reactivity they require electrolytic extraction
processes.
76

The alloys of aluminium, titanium and magnesium are valued for their high strength-to-weight
ratios; magnesium can also provide shielding. These materials are ideal for situations where high
strength-to-weight ratio is more important than material cost, such as in aerospace and some automotive
applications.
Alloys specially designed for highly demanding applications, such as jet engines, may contain
more than ten elements.
Ceramic
A ceramic is an inorganic, nonmetallic solid prepared by the action of heat and subsequent
cooling. Ceramic materials may have a crystalline or partly crystalline structure, or may be amorphous
(e.g., a glass). Because most common ceramics are crystalline, the definition of ceramic is often restricted
to inorganic crystalline materials, as opposed to the noncrystalline glasses.
The earliest ceramics were pottery objects made from clay, either by itself or mixed with other
materials, hardened in fire. Later ceramics were glazed and fired to create a colored, smooth surface.
Ceramics now include domestic, industrial and building products and art objects. In the 20th century, new
ceramic materials were developed for use in advanced ceramic engineering; for example, in
semiconductors.
The word "ceramic" comes from the Greek word (keramikos), "of pottery" or "for
pottery", from (keramos), "potter's clay, tile, pottery".The earliest mention on the root "ceram-"
is the Mycenaean Greek ke-ra-me-we, "workers of ceramics", written in Linear b syllabic script.
[4]

"Ceramic" may be used as an adjective describing a material, product or process; or as a singular noun,
or, more commonly, as a plural noun, "ceramics".
Types of ceramic products
For convenience, ceramic products are usually divided into four sectors; these are shown below with
some examples:
Structural, including bricks, pipes, floor and roof tiles
Refractories, such as kiln linings, gas fire radiants, steel and glass making crucibles
Whitewares, including tableware, wall tiles, pottery products and sanitary ware
Technical, is also known as engineering, advanced, special, and in Japan, fine ceramics. Such
items include tiles used in the Space Shuttle program, gas burner nozzles, ballistic protection,
nuclear fuel uranium oxide pellets, biomedical implants, coatings of jet engine turbine blades,
missile nose cones, bearing (mechanical). Frequently, the raw materials do not include clays.
Examples of whiteware ceramics
Earthenware, which is often made from clay, quartz and feldspar.
Stoneware
Porcelain, which is often made from kaolin
Bone china
77

Classification of technical ceramics
Technical ceramics can also be classified into three distinct material categories:
Oxides: alumina, beryllia, ceria, zirconia
Nonoxides: carbide, boride, nitride, silicide
Composite materials: particulate reinforced, fiber reinforced, combinations of oxides and
nonoxides.
Each one of these classes can develop unique material properties because ceramics tend to be crystalline.
Other applications of ceramics
Knife blades: the blade of a ceramic knife will stay sharp for much longer than that of a steel
knife, although it is more brittle and can be snapped by dropping it on a hard surface.
Vehicle ceramic brake discs are resistant to abrasion at high temperatures.
Advanced composite ceramic and metal matrices have been designed for most modern armoured
fighting vehicles because they offer superior penetrating resistance against shaped charges such
as high explosive antitank (HEAT) rounds and kinetic energy penetrators.
Ceramics such as alumina and boron carbide have been used in ballistic armored vests to repel
large-calibre rifle fire. Such plates are known commonly as small arms protective inserts (SAPIs).
Similar material is used to protect cockpits of some military airplanes, because of the low weight
of the material.
Ceramic balls can be used to replace steel in ball bearings. Their higher hardness means they are
much less susceptible to wear and can offer more than triple lifetimes. They also deform less
under load, meaning they have less contact with the bearing retainer walls and can roll faster. In
very high speed applications, heat from friction during rolling can cause problems for metal
bearings, which are reduced by the use of ceramics. Ceramics are also more chemically resistant
and can be used in wet environments where steel bearings would rust. In some cases, their
electricity-insulating properties may also be valuable in bearings. The two major drawbacks to
using ceramics are a significantly higher cost and susceptibility to damage under shock loads.
In the early 1980s, Toyota researched production of an adiabatic engine using ceramic
components in the hot gas area. The ceramics would have allowed temperatures of over 3000F
(1650C). The expected advantages would have lighter materials, no or reduced cooling system,
and hence a major weight reduction. The expected increase of fuel efficiency of the engine
(caused by the higher temperature, as shown by Carnot's theorem) could not be verified
experimentally; it was found that the heat transfer on the hot ceramic cylinder walls is higher than
the transfer to a cooler metal wall. Obviously the cooler gas film on the metal surface works as a
thermal insulator. Thus, despite all of these desirable properties, such engines have not succeeded
in production because of costs for the ceramic components and the limited advantages. (Small
imperfections in the ceramic material with its low fracture toughness lead to cracks, which can
lead to potentially dangerous equipment failure.) Such engines are possible in laboratory settings,
but mass production is not feasible with current technology.
78

Work is being done in developing ceramic parts for gas turbine engines. Currently, even blades
made of advanced metal alloys used in the engines' hot section require cooling and careful
limiting of operating temperatures. Turbine engines made with ceramics could operate more
efficiently, giving aircraft greater range and payload for a set amount of fuel.
Recent advances have been made in ceramics which include bioceramics, such as dental implants
and synthetic bones. Hydroxyapatite, the natural mineral component of bone, has been made
synthetically from a number of biological and chemical sources and can be formed into ceramic
materials. Orthopedic implants coated with these materials bond readily to bone and other tissues
in the body without rejection or inflammatory reactions so are of great interest for gene delivery
and tissue engineering scaffolds. Most hydroxyapatite ceramics are very porous and lack
mechanical strength, and are used to coat metal orthopedic devices to aid in forming a bond to
bone or as bone fillers. They are also used as fillers for orthopedic plastic screws to aid in
reducing the inflammation and increase absorption of these plastic materials. Work is being done
to make strong, fully dense nano crystalline hydroxyapatite ceramic materials for orthopedic
weight bearing devices, replacing foreign metal and plastic orthopedic materials with a synthetic,
but naturally occurring, bone mineral. Ultimately, these ceramic materials may be used as bone
replacements or with the incorporation of protein collagens, synthetic bones.
High-tech ceramic is used in watchmaking for producing watch cases. The material is valued by
watchmakers for its light weight, scratch resistance, durability and smooth touch. IWC is one of
the brands that initiated the use of ceramic in watchmaking. The case of the IWC 2007 Top Gun
edition of the Pilot's Watch double chronograph is crafted in black ceramic.
Types of ceramic materials


A low magnification SEM micrograph of an advanced ceramic material, the properties of
ceramics make fracturing an important inspection method.
A ceramic material is often understood as restricted to inorganic "crystalline" oxide material. It is
solid and inert. Ceramic materials are brittle, hard, strong in compression, weak in shearing and tension.
They withstand chemical erosion that occurs in other materials subjected to acidic or caustic
environments. Ceramics generally can withstand very high temperatures, such as temperatures that range
from 1,000 C to 1,600 C (1,800 F to 3,000 F). Exceptions include inorganic materials that do not
include oxygen, such as silicon carbide or silicon nitride. A glass is often not understood as a ceramic
because of its amorphous (noncrystalline) character. However, glass making involves several steps of the
ceramic process and its mechanical properties are similar to ceramic materials.
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Traditional ceramic raw materials include clay minerals such as kaolinite, whereas more recent
materials include aluminium oxide, more commonly known as alumina. The modern ceramic materials,
which are classified as advanced ceramics, include silicon carbide and tungsten carbide. Both are valued
for their abrasion resistance, and hence find use in applications such as the wear plates of crushing
equipment in mining operations. Advanced ceramics are also used in the medicine, electrical and
electronics industries.
Crystalline ceramics
Crystalline ceramic materials are not amenable to a great range of processing. Methods for
dealing with them tend to fall into one of two categories either make the ceramic in the desired shape,
by reaction in situ, or by "forming" powders into the desired shape, and then sintering to form a solid
body. Ceramic forming techniques include shaping by hand (sometimes including a rotation process
called "throwing"), slip casting, tape casting (used for making very thin ceramic capacitors, e.g.),
injection molding, dry pressing, and other variations. Details of these processes are described in the two
books listed below. A few methods use a hybrid between the two approaches.
Noncrystalline ceramics
Noncrystalline ceramics, being glasses, tend to be formed from melts. The glass is shaped when
either fully molten, by casting, or when in a state of toffee-like viscosity, by methods such as blowing to a
mold. If later heat treatments cause this glass to become partly crystalline, the resulting material is known
as a glass-ceramic, widely used as cooktop.
UNIT IV PROCESSING OF POLYMER MATRIX COMPOSITES
OPEN MOULD PROCESS
In general, the reinforcing and matrix materials are combined, compacted and processed to
undergo a melding event. After the melding event, the part shape is essentially set, although it can deform
under certain process conditions. For a thermoset polymeric matrix material, the melding event is a curing
reaction that is initiated by the application of additional heat or chemical reactivity such as an organic
peroxide. For a thermoplastic polymeric matrix material, the melding event is a solidification from the
melted state. For a metal matrix material such as titanium foil, the melding event is a fusing at high
pressure and a temperature near the melt point.
For many moulding methods, it is convenient to refer to one mould piece as a "lower" mould and
another mould piece as an "upper" mould. Lower and upper refer to the different faces of the moulded
panel, not the mould's configuration in space. In this convention, there is always a lower mould, and
sometimes an upper mould. Part construction begins by applying materials to the lower mould. Lower
mould and upper mould are more generalized descriptors than more common and specific terms such as
male side, female side, a-side, b-side, tool side, bowl, hat, mandrel, etc. Continuous manufacturing
processes use a different nomenclature.
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Open mould process
The moulded product is often referred to as a panel. For certain geometries and material
combinations, it can be referred to as a casting. For certain continuous processes, it can be referred to as a
profile. Applied with a pressure roller, a spray device or manually. This process is generally done at
ambient temperature and atmospheric pressure. Two variations of open moulding are Hand Layup and
Spray-up.
BAG MOULDING PROCESS
Definition: A method of forming and curing reinforced plastic laminates employing a flexible
bag or mattress to apply pressure uniformly over one surface of the laminate. A preform comprising a
fibrous sheet impregnated with an A- or B-stage resin is placed over or in a rigid mold forming one
surface of the article. The bag is applied to the other surface, then pressure is applied by a vacuum, an
autoclave, a press or by inflating the bag. Heat may be applied by steam in the autoclave or through the
rigid mold portion. When an autoclave is used the process is also known as AUTOCLAVE.
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COMPRESSION MOULDING WITH BMC
Sheet Moulding Compound is usually compression moulded. But also other compounds such
as Bulk Moulding Compound (BMC) and Continuous Impregnated Compound (CIC) are often moulded
in a tool / press under compression moulding.

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Basic requirements on a SMC press
Important is the right press force. We recommend around 1000 tons per square meter. A
parallelism control is advisable to protect mould, to safe material and to maintain a minimal clearance at
die stops and to improve surface quality. It will help to maintain a uniform thickness reduce war page and
save material. The use of process control to maintain closing speed profile during flow of material is also
basic.
For critical parts process control for maintaining pressure profile during material flow and
material densification is needed. To de-mould the part air ejector capabilities build into press control
system are very helpful.
Heating control system to achieve at least 160C for the largest mould is a must and it should
be precise enough to maintain + - 2C on surface.
For Class A the parallelism control is also a must !
Using vacuum to reduce cavities and pinholes is nowadays state of the art for exterior
automotive body panels. And for In Mould Coating capabilities build into press control system is often
helpful.
The moulding process
1. First optimize charge size and placement at break in and try out phase.
2. Use always the same charge pattern and placement. Use placement lines (cut in steel or
laser) to indicate charge placement. Use always the same process parameters.
3. If SMC edges are dry cut them off and talk to your material supplier.
4. Use cutting machines rather than manual cutting or use templates to help in charge
cutting.
5. Make sure every cycle is identical in geometry (Charge size, weight and charge
placement on mould).
6. Make sure every cycle is identical in time (from placement of charge to mould close) and
process parameters.
7. Maintain uniform mould surface temperature +-2C.
COMPRESSION MOULDING

Make the part come off easy at de-moulding. If this is not the case please check for ejector pins and
undercuts. Check parallelism of ejector plate too.
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Take off the part carefully and place part in cooling fixture to cool down in well defined position
(nominal part contour, no clamping) and shape.
Compression moulding cycle

If all these advice are taken care off the only thing you need to make sure is to order the right material
from Menzolit.
When closing the press speed of upper mould half should be programmed to obtain a constant
velocity of materials flow front. If this is not possible or not desired we recommend a constant press
speed of 8 mm/s. Immediately before densification starts change press control from velocity control mode
to force control mode.
Typical velocity sequence:
t before mould hits material: 10mm/s
t when mould hits material: 8mm/s
t the next 3 mm
t the next 2 mm
t when 1 mm before final close set press control to force control mode.
Low pressure and high pressure IMC
Powder coating is not used for painted automotive parts because of waviness but for exterior parts to
decrease influence of weathering.
Low pressure IMC covers basically horizontal areas only.
Flash on edges and parallelism may cause problems.
High pressure IMC covers vertical areas as well .
IMC should act as a primer and should provide enough electrical conductivity for ESTA painting.
Vacuum moulding for Class A parts
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Vacuum moulding is applied for critical Class A body panels. When the mould is closed but top
layer of material is not touched yet by the mould and the shear edges not engaged cavity surrounding is
sealed and vacuum drawn.
Proper level of vacuum is 0,6 to 0,8 bar (0,4 to 0,2 bar of absolute pressure) . If vacuum is smaller
pressure brownish areas may occur.
When required pressure is established (less then 3 seconds) the vacuum is switched off at final
close of mould. All entrapped air is pulled out of tool and the risk of porosity is minimized.

FILAMENT WIDING PROCESS
Filament winding is a fabrication technique for creating composite material structures.
The process involves winding filaments under varying amounts of tension over a male mould or
mandrel. The mandrel rotates while a carriage moves horizontally, laying down fibers in the
desired pattern. The most common filaments are carbon or glass fiber and are coated with
synthetic resin as they are wound. Once the mandrel is completely covered to the desired
thickness, the mandrel is placed in an oven to solidify (set) the resin. Once the resin has cured,
the mandrel is removed, leaving the hollow final product.
Filament winding is well suited to automation, where the tension on the filaments can be
carefully controlled. Filaments that are applied with high tension results in a final product with
higher rigidity and strength; lower tension results in more flexibility. The orientation of the
filaments can also be carefully controlled so that successive layers are plied or oriented
differently from the previous layer. The angle at which the fiber is laid down will determine the
properties of the final product.
Filament winding process

A high angle "hoop" will provide crush strength, while a lower angle pattern (known as a
closed or helical) will provide greater tensile strength.
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Products currently being produced using this technique range from golf clubs, pipes, oars,
bicycle forks, power and transmission poles, pressure vessels to missile casings, aircraft
fuselages and lamp posts and yacht masts.
Fiberglass Laminating
Filament Winding can also be described as the manufacture of parts with high fiber volume
fractions and controlled fiber orientation. Fiber tows are immersed in a resin bath where they are
coated with low or medium molecular weight reactants. The impregnated tows are then literally
wound around a mandrel (mold core) in a controlled pattern to form the shape of the part. After
winding, the resin is then cured, typically using heat. The mold core may be removed or may be
left as an integral component of the part(Rosato, D.V.).This process is primarily used for hollow,
generally circular or oval sectioned components, such as pipes and tanks. Pressure vessels, pipes
and drive shafts have all been manufactured using filament winding. It has been combined with
other fiber application methods such as hand layup, pultrusion, and braiding. Compaction is
through fiber tension and resin content is primarily metered. The fibers may be impregnated with
resin before winding (wet winding), pre-impregnated (dry winding) or post-impregnated. Wet
winding has the advantages of using the lowest cost materials with long storage life and low
viscosity. The pre-impregnated systems produce parts with more consistent resin content and can
often be wound faster.
Materials
Glass fibre is the fibre most frequently used for filament winding, carbon and aramid fibres are
also used. Most high strength critical aerospace structures are produced with epoxy resins, with
either epoxy or cheaper polyester resins being specified for most other applications. The ability
to use continuous reinforcement without any breaks or joins is a definite advantage, as is the high
fibre volume fraction that is obtainable, about 60% to 80%. Only the inner surface of a filament
wound structure will be smooth unless a secondary operation is performed on the outer surface.
The component is normally cured at high temperature before removing the mandrel. Finishing
operations such as machining or grinding are not normally necessary (Furness, J., Azom.com).
Options
Resins: Any, e.g. epoxy, polyester, vinylester, phenolic.
Fibers: Glass, aramid, carbon and boron fibers. The fibers are used straight from a creel
and not woven or stitched into a fabric form.
Cores: Any, although components are usually single skin.
Process
Uses a continuous length of fiber strand, roving, or tape
Results in a shell of materials with a high strength-to-weight ratio
Requires thermal curing of workpieces
Patterns may be longitudinal, circumferential, or helical
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PULTRUSION
Pultrusion is a continuous process of manufacturing of composite materials with constant cross-
section whereby reinforced fibers are pulled through a resin, possibly followed by a separate preforming
system, and into a heated die, where the resin undergoes polymerization. Many resin types may be used in
pultrusion including polyester, polyurethane, vinylester and epoxy.
But the technology isn't limited to thermosetting resins. More recently, pultrusion has also been
successfully used with thermoplastic matrices such as polybutylene terephthalate (PBT) either by powder
impregnation of the glass fiber or by surrounding it with sheet material of the thermoplastic matrix which
is then molten up.
PROCESS
Diagram of the pultrusion process.
1 - Continuous roll of reinforced fibers/woven fiber mat
2 - Tension roller
3 - Resin bath
4 - Resin soaked fiber
5 - Die and heat source
6 - Pull mechanism
7 - Finished hardened fiber reinforced polymer
History
The term is a portmanteau word, combining "pull" and "extrusion".
The first pultrusion patent in the United States was issued in 1951. W. Brandt Goldsworthy is
widely regarded as the inventor of pultrusion.
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Equipment
The design of pultrusion machines varies. Two often used types are reciprocating (hand-over-
hand) and continuous (cat-track).
CENTRIFUGAL CASTING
Centrifugal casting or rotocasting is a casting technique that is typically used to cast thin-walled
cylinders. It is noted for the high quality of the results attainable, particularly for precise control of their
metallurgy and crystal structure. Unlike most other casting techniques, centrifugal casting is chiefly used
to manufacture stock materials in standard sizes for further machining, rather than shaped parts tailored to
a particular end-use.

Centrifugal casting
Process
In centrifugal casting, a permanent mold is rotated continuously about its axis at high speeds (300
to 3000 rpm) as the molten metal is poured. The molten metal is centrifugally thrown towards the inside
mold wall, where it solidifies after cooling. The casting is usually a fine-grained casting with a very fine-
grained outer diameter, owing to chilling against the mould surface. Impurities and inclusions are thrown
to the surface of the inside diameter, which can be machined away.
Casting machines may be either horizontal or vertical-axis.
[1]
Horizontal axis machines are
preferred for long, thin cylinders, vertical machines for rings.
Most castings are solidified from the outside first. This may be used to encourage directional
solidification of the casting, and thus give useful metallurgical properties to it. Often the inner and outer
layers are discarded and only the intermediary columnar zone is used.
[2]

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Features of Centrifugal Casting
Castings can be made in almost any length, thickness and diameter.
Different wall thicknesses can be produced from the same size mold.
Eliminates the need for cores.
Resistant to atmospheric corrosion, a typical situation with pipes.
Mechanical properties of centrifugal castings are excellent.
Only cylindrical shapes can be produced with this process.
Size limits are up to 3 m (10 feet) diameter and 15 m (50 feet) length.
Wall thickness range from 2.5 mm to 125 mm (0.1 - 5.0 in).
Tolerance limit: on the OD can be 2.5 mm (0.1 in) on the ID can be 3.8 mm (0.15 in).
Surface finish ranges from 2.5 mm to 12.5 mm (0.1 - 0.5 in) rms.
Benefits
Cylinders and shapes with rotational symmetry are most commonly cast by this technique. "Tall"
castings (in the direction of the settling force acting, usually gravity) are always more difficult than short
castings. In the centrifugal casting technique the radius of the rotation, along which the centrifugal force
acts, replaces the vertical axis. The casting machine may be rotated to place this in any convenient
orientation, relative to gravity's vertical. Horizontal and vertical axis machines are both used, simply to
place the casting's longest dimension conveniently horizontal.
Thin-walled cylinders are difficult to cast by other means, but centrifugal casting is particularly
suited to them. To the rotation radius, these are effectively shallow flat castings and are thus simple.
Centrifugal casting is also applied to the casting of disk and cylindrical shaped objects such as
railway carriage wheels or machine fittings where the grain, flow, and balance are important to the
durability and utility of the finished product.
Providing that the shape is relatively constant in radius, non circular shapes may also be cast.
Materials
Typical materials that can be cast with this process are iron, steel, stainless steels, glass, and
alloys of aluminum, copper and nickel.
Two materials can be cast together by introducing a second material during the process.
Applications
Typical parts made by this process are pipes, boilers, pressure vessels (see autofrettage),
flywheels, cylinder liners and other parts that are axi-symmetric. It is notably used to cast cylinder liners
and sleeve valves for piston engines, parts which could not be reliably manufactured otherwise.
POLYMER MATRIX COMPOSITES (PMC):

Polymer Matrix Composites (PMCs) are the most common composites, and are also known as
FRP - Fiber Reinforced Polymers (or Plastics). These materials use a polymer-based resin as the matrix,
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and a variety of fibers such as glass, carbon and aramid as the reinforcement. Matrix materials are either
thermosetting or thermoplastic polymers. Reinforcing fibers are either continuous or chopped. In general,
polymer composites processing includes contracting of polymer and fibers, shaping, controlled heating
and/or reactions, and cooling. The technology ofpolymer composites has been driven to a large extent
byaerospace and militaryapplications.



ADVANTAGES OF POLYMER COMPOSITES
Polymer composites make the largest and most diverse use of composites due to ease of fabrication, low
cost and good properties. Also, they have:

High specific strength properties (20-40% weight savings)
Ability to fabricate directional mechanical properties
Outstanding corrosion resistance
Excellent Fatigue and fracture resistance
Lower tooling cost alternatives
Lower thermal expansion properties
Simplification of manufacturing by parts integration
Potential for rapid process cycles
Ability to meet stringent dimensional stability requirements

Glass-fiber reinforced composites (GFRC) are strong, corrosion resistant and lightweight, but not
very stiff and cannot be used at high temperatures. Applications include auto and boat bodies, aircraft
components. Carbon-fiber reinforced composites (CFRC) use carbon fibers, which have thehighest
specific module (module divided by weight). CFRC are strong, inert, allow high temperature use.
Applications include fishing rods, golf clubs, and aircraft components.
According to the Classification of composites:
Polymer Matrix Composite (PMC) is the material consisting of a polymer (resin) matrix
combined with a fibrous reinforcing dispersed phase. Polymer Matrix Composites are very popular due to
their low cost and simple fabrication methods.
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Use of non-reinforced polymers as structure materials is limited by low level of their mechanical
properties: tensile strength of one of the strongest polymers - epoxy resin is 20000 psi (140 MPa). In
addition to relatively low strength, polymer materials possess low impact resistance.
PROPERTI ES:
High tensile strength;
High stiffness;
High Fracture Toughness;
Good abrasion resistance;
Good puncture resistance;
Good corrosion resistance;
Low cost.
The main disadvantages of Polymer Matrix Composites (PMC) are:
Low thermal resistance;
High coefficient of thermal expansion.
Two types of polymers are used as matrix materials for fabrication composites: Thermosets (epoxies,
phenolics) and Thermoplastics (Low Density Polyethylene (LDPE), High Density Polyethylene (HDPE),
polypropylene, nylon, acrylics).
According to the reinforcement material the following groups of Polymer Matrix Composites (PMC)
are used:
Fiberglasses Glass Fiber Reinforced Polymers;
Carbon Fiber Reinforced Polymer Composites;
Kevlar (aramid) fiber reinforced polymers.
Reinforcing fibers may be arranged in different forms:
Unidirectional fibers;
Rovings;
Veil mat: thin pile of randomly orientated and looped continuous fibers;
Chopped strands: thin pile of randomly orientated and looped short (3-4 inches) fibers;
Woven fabric.
Properties of Polymer Matrix Composites are determined by:
Properties of the fibers;
Orientation of the fibers;
Concentration of the fibers;
Properties of the matrix.


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APPLICATIONS:
1. Secondary load-bearing aerospace structures,
2. Boat bodies,
3. Canoes,
4. Kayaks,
5. Automotive parts,
6. Radio controlled vehicles,
7. Sport goods (golf clubs, skis, tennis racquets, fishing rods),
8. Bullet-proof vests and
9. Other armor parts brake and clutch linings.
RECYCLING OF POLYMER MATRIX COMPOSITES
Carbon fiber reinforced polymer matrix composites (PMCs) are materials with superior strength-
to-weight ratios. Finding increased applications in the aerospace industry, PMCs are now being
evaluatedfor possible use in automobile construction. The materials high cost, however, along
with concerns about whether the PMCs will be recyclable when the vehicles reach the end of their
useful lives, are barriers to its widespread use. With funding provided by the U.S. Department of
Energys Vehicle Technologies Program (formerly called the Office of Advanced Transportation
Technologies), Argonne is developing an efficient and cost-effective process to recover these
valuable carbon fibers.
Argonne developed and tested a thermal treatment process to degrade the polymer substrate and
recover the carbon fibers from the composites with minimal impact on the properties of the
carbon fibers. Testing was conducted on scrap PMCs as well as on controlled samples in order to
compare the properties of the fibers before and after treatment. Economic analysis of the process
indicates that it has a potential payback period of less than two years. We also tested a chemical
treatment method that will enable the recovery of thermoplastic substrates in addition to the
carbon fibers.
Argonne has designed, built, and tested a continuous thermal reactor capable of treating 5
kilograms of PMC material per hour. Work performed has demonstrated that the recovery of
carbon fibers from PMC scrap is technically feasible and potentially economical.







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UNIT V PROCESSING OF - METAL MATRIX COMPOSITES AND CERAMIC MATRIX
COMPOSITES
DIFFUSION BONDING
I NTRODUCTI ON
Diffusion bonding is a solid-state joining process capable of joining a wide range of metal and
ceramic combinations to produce both small and large components. The process is dependent on a
number of parameters, in particular, time, applied pressure, bonding temperature and method of heat
application. Other examples of solid-state joining include cold pressure welding, friction welding,
magnetically impelled arc butt (MIAB) welding and explosive welding.
Diffusion bonding itself can be categorised into a number of variants, dependent on the form of
pressurisation, the use of interlayers and the formation of a transient liquid phase. Each finds specific
application for the range of materials and geometries that need to be joined.

PROCESS MECHANI SM
In its simplest form, diffusion bonding involves holding pre-machined components under load at
an elevated temperature usually in a protective atmosphere or vacuum. The loads used are usually below
those which would cause macrodeformation of the parent material(s) and temperatures of 0.5-0.8Tm
(where Tm = melting point in K) are employed. Times at temperature can range from 1 to 60+ minutes,
but this depends upon the materials being bonded, the joint properties required and the remaining bonding
parameters. Although the majority of bonding operations are performed in vacuum or an inert gas
atmosphere, certain bonds can be produced in air.
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An examination of the sequence of bonding ( Fig.1) emphasises the importance of the original
surface finish. To form a bond, it is necessary for two, clean and flat surfaces to come into atomic contact,
with microasperities and surface layer contaminants being removed from the bonding faces during
bonding. Various models have been developed to provide an understanding of the mechanisms involved
in forming a bond. First they consider that the applied load causes plastic deformation of surface
asperities reducing interfacial voids. Bond development then continues by diffusion controlled
mechanisms including grain boundary diffusion and power law creep.
Fig.1. The mechanism of diffusion bonding
a) Initial 'point' contact, showing residual oxide contaminant layer
b) Yielding and creep, leading to reduced voids and thinner contaminant layer
c) Final yielding and creep, some voids remain with very thin contaminant layer
d) Continued vacancy diffusion, eliminates oxide layer, leaving few small voids
e) Bonding is complete.

a)

b)

c)
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d)

e)
Solid phase diffusion bonding
Bonding in the solid phase is mainly carried out in vacuum or a protective atmosphere, with heat
being applied by radiant, induction, direct or indirect resistance heating. Pressure can be applied
uniaxially or isostatically. In the former case, a low pressure (3-10MPa) is used to prevent
macrodeformation of the parts (i.e. no more than a few percent). This form of the process therefore
requires a good surface finish on the mating surfaces as the contribution to bonding provided by plastic
yielding is restricted. Typically surface finishes of better than 0.4m RA are recommended and in
addition the surfaces should be as clean as practical to minimise surface contamination.
In hot isostatic pressing, much higher pressures are possible (100-200MPa) and therefore surface
finishes are not so critical, finishes of 0.8m RA and greater can be used. A further advantage of this
process is that the use of uniform gas pressurisation allows complex geometries to be bonded, as against
the generally simple butt or lap joints possible with uniaxial pressurisation.
Where dissimilar materials need to be joined in the solid phase (and in particular metal to ceramic
joints), it is possible to introduce single or multiple interlayers of other materials to aid the bonding
process and to modify post-bond stress distribution.
Liquid phase diffusion bonding/diffusion brazing
This technique is applicable only to dissimilar material combinations or to 'like' materials where a
dissimilar metal insert is used. Solid state diffusional processes lead to a change of composition at the
bond interface and the bonding temperature is selected as the temperature at which this phase melts.
Alternatively, with the dissimilar metal insert, it melts at a lower temperature than the parent
material. Thus a thin layer of liquid spreads along the interface to form a joint at a lower temperature than
the melting point of either of the parent materials. A reduction in bonding temperature leads to
solidification of the melt, and this phase can subsequently be diffused away into the parent materials by
holding at temperature, Fig.2.
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Fig.2 Schematic illustration of the steps involved in making a
diffusion-brazed joint
The technique has been used particularly for the bonding of aluminium alloys where eutectics can
be formed with copper, silver or zinc to assist in the break-up of the stable aluminium surface oxide.
SUPERPLASTIC FORMING/DIFFUSION BONDING
This technique has been developed specifically within the aerospace industry, and its industrial
importance is such that it should be considered separately here. The process is used commercially for
titanium and its alloys, this material being one that exhibits superplastic properties at elevated
temperatures within defined strain rate conditions.
These conditions of temperature and pressure coincide with the conditions required for bonding,
and therefore the two processes have been combined into one manufacturing operation either in sequence
or together. The process (known as SPF/DB or more correctly DB/SPF) is used to produce stiff sandwich
structures for airframe parts, or the wide chord, hollow fan blades for aeroengines. Both these involve
skins with internally bonded structures as reinforcing elements.
POWDER METALLURGY
Powder metallurgy is the process of blending fine powdered materials, pressing them into a
desired shape (compacted), and then heating the compressed material in a controlled atmosphere to bond
the material (sintering). The powder metallurgy process generally consists of four basic steps: (1) powder
manufacture, (2) powder mixing and blending,(3) compacting, (4) sintering. Compacting is generally
performed at room temperature, and the elevated-temperature process of sintering is usually conducting at
atmospheric pressure. Optional secondary processing often follows to obtain special properties or
enhanced precision.
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Two main techniques used to form and consolidate the powder are sintering and metal injection
molding. Recent developments have made it possible to use rapid manufacturing techniques which use
the metal powder for the products. Because with this technique the powder is melted and not sintered,
better mechanical strength can be accomplished.
POWDER PRODUCTI ON TECHNI QUES
Any fusible material can be atomized. Several techniques have been developed which permit
large production rates of powdered particles, often with considerable control over the size ranges of the
final grain population. Powders may be prepared by comminution, grinding, chemical reactions, or
electrolytic deposition. Several of the melting and mechanical procedures are clearly adaptable to
operations in space or on the Moon.
Powders of the elements titanium, vanadium, thorium, niobium, tantalum, calcium, and uranium
have been produced by high-temperature reduction of the corresponding nitrides and carbides. Iron,
nickel, uranium, and beryllium submicrometre powders are obtained by reducing metallic oxalates and
formates. Exceedingly fine particles also have been prepared by directing a stream of molten metal
through a high-temperature plasma jet or flame, simultaneously atomizing and comminuting the material.
On Earth various chemical- and flame-associated powdering processes are adopted in part to prevent
serious degradation of particle surfaces by atmospheric oxygen.
ATOMIZATION:
Atomization is accomplished by forcing a molten metal stream through an orifice at moderate
pressures. A gas is introduced into the metal stream just before it leaves the nozzle, serving to create
turbulence as the entrained gas expands (due to heating) and exits into a large collection volume exterior
to the orifice. The collection volume is filled with gas to promote further turbulence of the molten metal
jet. On Earth, air and powder streams are segregated using gravity or cyclonic separation. Most atomized
powders are annealed, which helps reduce the oxide and carbon content. The water atomized particles are
smaller, cleaner, and nonporous and have a greater breadth of size, which allows better compacting.
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Simple atomization techniques are available in which liquid metal is forced through an orifice at a
sufficiently high velocity to ensure turbulent flow. The usual performance index used is the Reynolds
number R = fvd/n, where f = fluid density, v = velocity of the exit stream, d = diameter of the opening,
and n = absolute viscosity. At low R the liquid jet oscillates, but at higher velocities the stream becomes
turbulent and breaks into droplets.

Pumping energy is applied to droplet formation with very low efficiency (on the order of 1%) and
control over the size distribution of the metal particles produced is rather poor. Other techniques such as
nozzle vibration, nozzle asymmetry, multiple impinging streams, or molten-metal injection into ambient
gas are all available to increase atomization efficiency, produce finer grains, and to narrow the particle
size distribution. Unfortunately, it is difficult to eject metals through orifices smaller than a few
millimeters in diameter, which in practice limits the minimum size of powder grains to approximately 10
m. Atomization also produces a wide spectrum of particle sizes, necessitating downstream classification
by screening and remelting a significant fraction of the grain boundary.
CENTRIFUGAL DISINTEGRATION
Centrifugal disintegration of molten particles offers one way around these problems. Extensive
experience is available with iron, steel, and aluminium. Metal to be powdered is formed into a rod which
is introduced into a chamber through a rapidly rotating spindle. Opposite the spindle tip is an electrode
from which an arc is established which heats the metal rod. As the tip material fuses, the rapid rod
rotation throws off tiny melt droplets which solidify before hitting the chamber walls. A circulating gas
sweeps particles from the chamber. Similar techniques could be employed in space or on the Moon. The
chamber wall could be rotated to force new powders into remote collection vessels,
[9]
and the electrode
could be replaced by a solar mirror focused at the end of the rod.
An alternative approach capable of producing a very narrow distribution of grain sizes but with
low throughput consists of a rapidly spinning bowl heated to well above the melting point of the material
to be powdered. Liquid metal, introduced onto the surface of the basin near the center at flow rates
adjusted to permit a thin metal film to skim evenly up the walls and over the edge, breaks into droplets,
each approximately the thickness of the film.
98

PLASMA SPRAY PROCESS

Schematic Diagram of the Plasma Spray Process
The Plasma Spray Process is basically the spraying of molten or heat softened material onto a
surface to provide a coating. Material in the form of powder is injected into a very high temperature
plasma flame, where it is rapidly heated and accelerated to a high velocity. The hot material impacts on
the substrate surface and rapidly cools forming a coating. This plasma spray process carried out correctly
is called a "cold process" (relative to the substrate material being coated) as the substrate temperature can
be kept low during processing avoiding damage, metallurgical changes and distortion to the substrate
material.
The plasma spray gun comprises a copper anode and tungsten cathode, both of which are water
cooled. Plasma gas (argon, nitrogen, hydrogen, helium) flows around the cathode and through the anode
which is shaped as a constricting nozzle. The plasma is initiated by a high voltage discharge which causes
localised ionisation and a conductive path for a DC arc to form between cathode and anode. The
resistance heating from the arc causes the gas to reach extreme temperatures, dissociate and ionise to form
a plasma. The plasma exits the anode nozzle as a free or neutral plasma flame (plasma which does not
carry electric current) which is quite different to the Plasma Transferred Arc coating process where the
arc extends to the surface to be coated. When the plasma is stabilised ready for spraying the electric arc
extends down the nozzle, instead of shorting out to the nearest edge of the anode nozzle. This stretching
of the arc is due to a thermal pinch effect. Cold gas around the surface of the water cooled anode nozzle
being electrically non-conductive constricts the plasma arc, raising its temperature and velocity. Powder
is fed into the plasma flame most commonly via an external powder port mounted near the anode nozzle
exit. The powder is so rapidly heated and accelerated that spray distances can be in the order of 25 to 150
mm.
The plasma spray process is most commonly used in normal atmospheric conditions and referred
as APS. Some plasma spraying is conducted in protective environments using vacuum chambers normally
back filled with a protective gas at low pressure, this is referred as VPS or LPPS.
Plasma spraying has the advantage that it can spray very high melting point materials such as
refractory metals like tungsten and ceramics like zirconia unlike combustion processes. Plasma sprayed
coatings are generally much denser, stronger and cleaner than the other thermal spray processes with the
exception of HVOF and detonation processes. Plasma spray coatings probably account for the widest
range of thermal spray coatings and applications and makes this process the most versatile.
Disadvantages of the plasma spray process are relative high cost and complexity of process.
99

MANUFACTURING AND FORMING METHODS OF MMC

MMC manufacturing can be broken into three types: solid, liquid, and vapor.

Solid state methods
Powder blending and consolidation (powder metallurgy): Powdered metal and
discontinuous reinforcement are mixed and then bonded through a process of compaction,
degassing, and thermo-mechanical treatment (possibly via hot isostatic pressing (HIP) or
extrusion).
Foil diffusion bonding: Layers of metal foil are sandwiched with long fibers, and then
pressed through to form a matrix.

Liquid state methods

Electroplating / Electroforming: A solution containing metal ions loaded with reinforcing
particles is co-deposited forming a composite material.
Stir casting: Discontinuous reinforcement is stirred into molten metal, which is allowed to
solidify.
Squeeze casting: Molten metal is injected into a form with fibers preplaced inside it.
Spray deposition: Molten metal is sprayed onto a continuous fiber substrate.
Reactive processing: A chemical reaction occurs, with one of the reactants forming the matrix
and the other the reinforcement.

Vapor deposition
Physical vapor deposition: The fiber is passed through a thick cloud of vaporized metal,
coating it.


In situ fabrication technique
Controlled unidirectional solidification of a eutectic alloy can result in a two-phase
microstructure with one of the phases, present in lamellar or fiber form, distributed in the matrix.
CHEMICAL VAPOR INFILTRATION
Chemical vapor infiltration (CVI) is a variant on Chemical Vapor Deposition (CVD).
CVD implies deposition onto a surface, whereas CVI implies deposition within a body.
Chemical vapor infiltration is widely used as a means of fabricating Ceramic Matrix Composites
(CMCs) such as alumina/alumina (alumina fiber reinforced alumina), in which a chemical vapor
consisting of AlCl
3
-H
2
-CO
2
is deposited onto porous alumina fibers or preforms, or SiC/SiC
(silicon carbide fiber reinforced silicon carbide).
The CVI-process was designed and first experimented by Professor Roger Naslain from
the University of Bordeaux 1 on carbon fiber reinforced SiC composites for aerospace
applications.
100


Chemical Vapor Infiltration method of Ceramic Matrix Composites fabrication is a
process, in which reactant gases diffuse into an isothermal porous preform, made of long
continuous fibers, and form a deposition. Deposited material is a result of chemical reaction
occurring on the fibers surface.
The deposition fills the space between the fibers, forming composite material in which
matrix is the deposited material and dispersed phase is the fibers of the preform.
Chemical Vapor Infiltration (CVI) is similar to Chemical Vapor Deposition (CVD), in
which deposition forms when vapor gases react on the outer substrate surface.
Chemical Vapor Infiltration is widely used for fabrication of silicon carbide matrix
composites reinforced by silicon carbide long (continuous) fibers.
Silicon carbide (SiC) matrix is formed from a mixture of methyltrichlorosilane and
Hydrogen.
The process (isothermal CVI) is very slow because of low diffusion rate.
There are three modifications of CVI process with enhanced deposition rate:
Temperature Gradient CVI (TG-CVI) is a CVI process in which deposition rate is
increased due a temperature gradient in the preform.
Forcedflow CVI is a CVI process in which deposition rate is increased due to pressure
gradient forcing the reactant gases to penetrate into the preform.
Pressure pulsed CVI (P-CVI) is a CVI process, which involves application of
alternating pressure of the reactant gases, resulting in multilayer structure of the
deposition.
101

The process combines both temperature gradient and pressure gradient for reduction of
densification time.
Temperature gradient in preform is achieved by heating the top region of it when the bottom
region is cooled.
Pressure gradient is determined by the difference in the pressures of the entering and
exhausting gases.
SOL GEL
The sol-gel process, also known as chemical solution deposition, is a wet-chemical
technique widely used in the fields of materials science and ceramic engineering. Such methods
are used primarily for the fabrication of materials (typically a metal oxide) starting from a
chemical solution (or sol) that acts as the precursor for an integrated network (or gel) of either
discrete particles or network polymers. Typical precursors are metal alkoxides and metal
chlorides, which undergo various forms of hydrolysis and polycondensation reactions.
In this chemical procedure, the 'sol' (or solution) gradually evolves towards the formation
of a gel-like diphasic system containing both a liquid phase and solid phase whose morphologies
range from discrete particles to continuous polymer networks. In the case of the colloid, the
volume fraction of particles (or particle density) may be so low that a significant amount of fluid
may need to be removed initially for the gel-like properties to be recognized. This can be
accomplished in any number of ways. The simplest method is to allow time for sedimentation to
occur, and then pour off the remaining liquid. Centrifugation can also be used to accelerate the
process of phase separation.

Sol gel technologies and their products
102

Removal of the remaining liquid (solvent) phase requires a drying process, which is
typically accompanied by a significant amount of shrinkage and densification. The rate at which
the solvent can be removed is ultimately determined by the distribution of porosity in the gel.
The ultimate microstructure of the final component will clearly be strongly influenced by
changes imposed upon the structural template during this phase of processing.
Afterwards, a thermal treatment, or firing process, is often necessary in order to favor
further polycondensation and enhance mechanical properties and structural stability via final
sintering, densification and grain growth. One of the distinct advantages of using this
methodology as opposed to the more traditional processing techniques is that densification is
often achieved at a much lower temperature.
The precursor sol can be either deposited on a substrate to form a film (e.g., by dip
coating or spin coating), cast into a suitable container with the desired shape (e.g., to obtain
monolithic ceramics, glasses, fibers, membranes, aerogels), or used to synthesize powders (e.g.,
microspheres, nanospheres). The sol-gel approach is a cheap and low-temperature technique that
allows for the fine control of the products chemical composition. Even small quantities of
dopants, such as organic dyes and rare earth elements, can be introduced in the sol and end up
uniformly dispersed in the final product. It can be used in ceramics processing and
manufacturing as an investment casting material, or as a means of producing very thin films of
metal oxides for various purposes. Sol-gel derived materials have diverse applications in optics,
electronics, energy, space, (bio)sensors, medicine (e.g., controlled drug release), reactive
material and separation (e.g., chromatography) technology.
The interest in sol-gel processing can be traced back in the mid-1980s with the
observation that the hydrolysis of tetraethyl orthosilicate (TEOS) under acidic conditions led to
the formation of SiO
2
in the form of fibers and monoliths. Sol-gel research grew to be so
important that in the 1990s more than 35,000 papers were published worldwide on the process.
LIQUID STATE FABRICATION OF METAL MATRIX COMPOSITES AND ITS
METHODS
Liquid state fabrication of Metal Matrix Composites involves incorporation of
dispersed phase into a molten matrix metal, followed by its Solidification.
In order to provide high level of mechanical properties of the composite, good interfacial
bonding (wetting) between the dispersed phase and the liquid matrix should be obtained.
Wetting improvement may be achieved by coating the dispersed phase particles (fibers).
Proper coating not only reduces interfacial energy, but also prevents chemical interaction
between the dispersed phase and the matrix.
The methods of liquid state fabrication of Metal Matrix Composites:
Stir Casting
103

Infiltration
Gas Pressure Infiltration
Squeeze Casting Infiltration
Pressure Die Infiltration
Stir Casting
Stir Casting is a liquid state method of composite materials fabrication, in which a dispersed
phase (ceramic particles, short fibers) is mixed with a molten matrix metal by means of
mechanical stirring.
Stir Casting is the simplest and the most cost effective method of liquid state fabrication.
The liquid composite material is then cast by conventional casting methods and may also be
processed by conventional Metal forming technologies.
Stir Casting is characterized by the following features:
Content of dispersed phase is limited (usually not more than 30 vol.%).
Distribution of dispersed phase throughout the matrix is not perfectly homogeneous:
1. There are local clouds (clusters) of the dispersed particles (fibers);
2. There may be gravity segregation of the dispersed phase due to a difference in the densities of
the dispersed and matrix phase.
The technology is relatively simple and low cost.
Distribution of dispersed phase may be improved if the matrix is in semi-solid condition.
The method using stirring metal composite materials in semi-solid state is called Rheocasting.
High viscosity of the semi-solid matrix material enables better mixing of the dispersed phase.
Infiltration
I nfiltration is a liquid state method of composite materials fabrication, in which a
preformed dispersed phase (ceramic particles, fibers, woven) is soaked in a molten matrix metal,
which fills the space between the dispersed phase inclusions.
The motive force of an infiltration process may be either capillary force of the dispersed
phase (spontaneous infiltration) or an external pressure (gaseous, mechanical, electromagnetic,
centrifugal or ultrasonic) applied to the liquid matrix phase (forced infiltration).
104


Infiltration is one of the methods of preparation of tungsten-copper composites.
The principal steps of the technology are as follows:
Tungsten Powder preparation with average particle size of about 1-5 mkm.
Optional step: Coating the powder with nickel. Total nickel content is about 0.04%.
Mixing the tungsten powder with a polymer binder.
Compacting the powder by a molding method (Metal injection molding, die pressing, isostatic
pressing). Compaction should provide the predetermined porosity level (apparent density) of
the tungsten structure.
Solvent debinding.
Sintering the green compact at 2200-2400F (1204-1315C) in Hydrogen atmosphere for 2 hrs.
Placing the sintered part on a copper plate (powder) in the infiltration/sintering furnace.
Infiltration of the sintered tungsten sceleton porous structure with copper at 2100-2300F (110-
1260C) in either hydrogen atmosphere or vacuum for 1 hour.
Gas Pressure Infiltration
Gas Pressure I nfiltration is a forced infiltration method of liquid phase fabrication of
Metal Matrix Composites, using a pressurized gas for applying pressure on the molten metal and
forcing it to penetrate into a preformed dispersed phase.


Gas Pressure Infiltration method is used for manufacturing large composite parts.
The method allows using non-coated fibers due to short contact time of the fibers with
the hot metal.
In contrast to the methods using mechanical force, Gas Pressure Infiltration results in low
damage of the fibers.


105

Squeeze Casting Infiltration
Squeeze Casting I nfiltration is a forced infiltration method of liquid phase fabrication of
Metal Matrix Composites, using a movable mold part (ram) for applying pressure on the molten
metal and forcing it to penetrate into a performed dispersed phase, placed into the lower fixed
mold part.
Squeeze Casting Infiltration method is similar to the Squeeze casting technique used for
metal alloys casting.

Squeeze Casting I nfiltration process has the following steps:
A preform of dispersed phase (particles, fibers) is placed into the lower fixed mold half.
A molten metal in a predetermined amount is poured into the lower mold half.
The upper movable mold half (ram) moves downwards and forces the liquid metal to infiltrate
the preform.
The infiltrated material solidifies under the pressure.
The part is removed from the mold by means of the ejector pin.
The method is used for manufacturing simple small parts (automotive engine pistons from
aluminum alloy reinforced by alumina short fibers).
Pressure Die Infiltration
Pressure Die I nfiltration is a forced infiltration method of liquid phase fabrication of
Metal Matrix Composites, using a Die casting technology, when a preformed dispersed phase
(particles, fibers) is placed into a die (mold) which is then filled with a molten metal entering the
die through a sprue and penetrating into the preform under the pressure of a movable piston
(plunger).
106


INFILTERATION
Infiltration is the process by which water on the ground surface enters the soil. Infiltration
rate in soil science is a measure of the rate at which soil is able to absorb rainfall or irrigation. It
is measured in inches per hour or millimeters per hour. The rate decreases as the soil becomes
saturated. If the precipitation rate exceeds the infiltration rate, runoff will usually occur unless
there is some physical barrier. It is related to the saturated hydraulic conductivity of the near-
surface soil. The rate of infiltration can be measured using an infiltrometer.
Infiltration is governed by two forces: gravity and capillary action. While smaller pores
offer greater resistance to gravity, very small pores pull water through capillary action in
addition to and even against the force of gravity.

Infiltration process
107

The rate of infiltration is affected by soil characteristics including ease of entry, storage
capacity, and transmission rate through the soil. The soil texture and structure, vegetation types
and cover, water content of the soil, soil temperature, and rainfall intensity all play a role in
controlling infiltration rate and capacity. For example, coarse-grained sandy soils have large
spaces between each grain and allow water to infiltrate quickly. Vegetation creates more porous
soils by both protecting the soil from pounding rainfall, which can close natural gaps between
soil particles, and loosening soil through root action. This is why forested areas have the highest
infiltration rates of any vegetative types.
The top layer of leaf litter that is not decomposed protects the soil from the pounding
action of rain, without this the soil can become far less permeable. In chapparal vegetated areas,
the hydrophobic oils in the succulent leaves can be spread over the soil surface with fire, creating
large areas of hydrophobic soil. Other conditions that can lower infiltration rates or block them
include dry plant litter that resists re-wetting, or frost. If soil is saturated at the time of an intense
freezing period, the soil can become a concrete frost on which almost no infiltration would
occur. Over an entire watershed, there are likely to be gaps in the concrete frost or hydrophobic
soil where water can infiltrate.
Once water has infiltrated the soil it remains in the soil, percolates down to the ground
water table, or becomes part of the subsurface runoff process.
RHEOCASTING:
A technique used for MMC in which the liquid metal or alloy solidifies in a dendrite-free
structure. It has been combined with squeeze casting to produce fiber composite materials.
Rheocasting is one of the three methods of semisolid metal (SSM). In the rheocasting
route, one starts from the liquid state, and the thixotropic slurry is formed directly via thermal
management of cooling and solidification. A slurry is formed having the appropriate globular
structure and fed directly into a die cavity. Rheocasting is currently the favored SSM route for
processing aluminum because there is no cost premium for a billet precursor, and whatever trim
or scrap generated in the process can be recycled into new product without first being turned into
billet.

fig 1 rheo casting process
108



Rheocasting involves stirring thealloy during solidification to produce a semi-solid
slurry,then injecting the slurry directly into the die. These twofundamentally distinct approaches
are illustrated in Figure1.

The rheocasting process offers several advantages:
Reduced process complexity A multi-station heatingsystem is not required, nor is a robotic
transfersystem.
Increased shot size flexibility There are no shot sizerestrictions related to the billet height to
diameterratio.
Alloy modifications can be made in house.
Solid fraction can be tailored to the application Billetshave a narrow solid fraction
working range.
Unrestricted metal suppliers Die cast ingots arereadily available from several sources and
cost lessthan the specially prepared thixocasting billet.
In house scrap recycling Scrap can be remeltedand used again, whereas in thixocasting, the
metalmust be returned to the supplier to be recycled intonew billets.


COMPOCASTING:
Compo casting is a liquid state process in which there in forcement particles are added to
a solidifying melt while being vigorously agitated. It has been shown that the primary solid
particles already formed in the semi-solid slurry can mechanically entrap the reinforcing
particles, prevent their gravity segregation and reduce their agglomeration. These will result in
better distribution of the reinforcement particles. The lower porosity observed in the castings has
been attributed to the better wet ability between the matrix and the reinforcement particles as
well as the lower volume shrinkage of the matrix alloy.


fig 1 compo casting process
109


APPLICATIONS OF CERAMIC-MATRIX COMPOSITES (CMCS):
1. Cutting tool inserts
2. Wear-resistant parts
3. Aerospace and military applications
4. Other industrial applications, including engines and energy-related applications
This article reviews application examples in each of these four categories, with
emphasis placed on those applications/materials that have achieved commercial
viability.
5. Advanced CMCs that are now emerging from laboratories and that show potential
for high-performance applications or that are in the prototype stage are also
surveyed.