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 2HE ?EF IK A E FHE ?EF FH E L @= 2HE ?EF >E A ?E A ! AJ @= @L IJHK C FHA>H =L= = " 4A KH EL A HA =?E A # 6HE L= = FHE AH= $ =@=?E % 4 A A = =@=J= =

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"  *E A ?E A " 5E AJHE "! A E " " =@=?E "# 4A A = E E A ?E A = CHKF= K AHE E =@=J= =

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%' &$ ' '! '$  "

$  ,EHED A L FHE ?EF $ - A A JE 4A E ALA JA HE A $ ! =@=?E $ " 4 A A = =@=J= =

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% !   

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. 4 7 )7

4= K = A I= 8A LE @E =CH= E = . H K = K K A = EI K A = 2AH KJ=?E A I= =>H= A E F E?E = = =@=?E 4 A A = =@=J= =

7S-

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&  2HE AHE HA KH EL ED HA =?E = & E A=H A D CA A HA KH EL A HA =?E A I= A ?E A JE = & ! E A=H A AD CA A HA KH EL A HA =?E A I= A ?E A JE = & " *H JHE= CK =?E = LA I C F EC = &# A E IFA?E = E >H ALE = & $ =@=?E & % 4 A A = =@=J= =

4- 74 18 - 4- )+1 - . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . "#
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"

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,)*4) - 6- - . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .   - IF A ?E = = E F E?E = B H K =  5EIJA H= E EJED FHA@IJ=L E = E =JE I E L=@H=JE  ! - K AH=?E = FHE @A IJLK CHKFA  " 2=H?E = KHA A E I KF LE  # A E A K AH=JEL E FH > A E E JA HE A CH=B L=  $ =@=?E  % 4 A A = =@=J= =

  ' % " # $$ %

EJAH=JKH= . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . %% 1 @A I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . %' 5FEI= = = . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . &

2HA@C L H

 *1 )6 41+1

  \J= A J

>E =J HE =

,=JE FHA?E = E H=J= @C L H = FEJ= A \J= A J >E =J HE =  EA = 7 H= E EC= = E A ?E FA@E = = A IA FH = E I A@A = @A E?E =

>E =J HE = A @E =JA =JE A E E FHA>H ELA) I KF LA E IJHK JKHA

E FH K =L= @EI HAJ A (

= IA = A IJHK JKHA F =L K K K ILE > =IJE = =JA =JE A L= HA A E?= E E A >= = > E @C L H = F IJ=L A FEJ= A 7 EC= = FEI=JE J= A J >E =J HE?E IA = = A @A E?E A E = IA F K =L= E A IA >=LE >E =J HE = 6= IA K  = A

 >E =J HE = IA >=LE FH > A E = AC EIJA ?E A E A K AH=?E A > A =J= E IJHK JKH= E EIFK =L= K A A =@=JA KI LA  FHE =JA =JE =HE AH K  E IA >=LA >E =J HE AIJ L A @= = K =

 >E =J HE = A @E >E =J H E =HCK A JE 

L

=JA =JE A K

IA

HEIJA E FH K =L= K

2HE J A IA >E =J H E =HCK A J = A A = EL= A HA=JE H= E = A E E E JA ECA J F= = A K H A =L= K A C FH > A = A A =DJE AL= F =L= A A C F E L= C =JA =JE C =F=H=J= 2HAJD @ A @A E?E A A F K =JE E KIJH L=JE E F =I EJE I= A HAJ ED FH > A = E = IA >=LE >E =J HE = E

  \J= A J

>E =J HE =

@HA@EJE

A A A =J= E = A E

= = I KF

2 I =JH= I A@A E =@=J= A = A =@= I KF A I= n A A A =J= E E = BK ?E = f : A A A IK >E A ?E A @C L H = L FEJ= A A FH E L @ ILED >H AL= @ 1 @ n

1 2 3 (n 1) n = n!.
7 % IA = A @= A = LK B H K K  = E B H K K = >H k = ED F @I KF L= A C n = C I KF= = E @E I E =JA =JE =H *=I =H= # C @E A = L AH L=J E *H= =CKFJ= LA K AIJ LE A K ,E >E =J HE A E IA >=LE @HA EL= A >H = A A A =J= K = E I KF LE = = EL= IA A K AH=JEL = >E =J HE = 1 =I L= LA ECA A = = K EJE @= A IA = IJH= E?= = A I E A@A KC =L >=LEJE FH > A E = A K AH=JEL A >E =J HE A

-C EIJA ?E =

A A IJHK JKHA I= =@= E

IL IJLE =

,= E A CK A K J=>A K n n KFEI=JE >H ALA @ 1 @ n2 J= @= >EH >H AL= K IL= HA@K K IL= E E = > A @E =C = A >K@A KLE A EIJE 6=>A = n n I= JH= A E IL IJL IA = EL= =CE E L=@H=J HA@= n = A KJLH@EJE @= =CE E L=@H=J HA@= @L= A F IJ E =CE E L=@H=J HA@= JHE
% $ ' #  " ! & A >E F =J K IJ=H E E K FHL LE A K IJHK ?E = =CE ED L=@H=J= AF=H C HA@= E A FHALE A L= = FE

7 IHA@E K FHL C HA@= KFE A >H 1 IJ= A >H ALA KFEIK A HA@ F @E =C = E A@ F A @AI E A@ F A C HA @ F I A@ AC KFEI= C >H = ) F AK A JHA>= KFEI=JE LE >H E = E E n n L=@H=J= FHA>=?E C= K F I A@ E HA@ = A E = = E FHL C HA@= E E K FHLK K = A E = = E F I A@ A A
1

A E IFA?E = E I K = ALE LED B H K = IA FHE A LA AHA

CK FH

= E K =FEIE = E @HKC C LE A =



  \J= A J

>E =J HE = A = A AE KFEI=JE LE >H LA =K AJ A@ F A EIF @ F I A@ AC KFEI= C >H = =CE  E L=@H=J HA@= JHE F !  ! " &  $ ! # % " LE  J= >H

) AF KFEIK A
IJHKE E 

K L C = C HEJ =  ! # " &  $ ! # % " ' A

 $ ! # " =CE

 $ ! # % "

E L=@H=J HA@= FAJ @ >E A % " ! # " $    &

= C HEJ

 & # % " $ !  '  ! # '

) C HEJ E F K ED IA IJHKE K =CE E L=@H=JE F=H C HA@=  =H=L IE L=@H=J= HA@= @L= IA CK = E K $ 6E = C HEJ E IK @ IJ= F E L= E E =J ED L@A A =L @E

FJE E =?E = A A IJHK JKHA

= LE A F @I KF L= n = C I KF= A @=>H=JE J= @= E @ JED I KF L= E A I=@H = K A @ IJ= ED AI @=>H= E
= ED F @I KF L= =@= C I KF= = ED F @I KF L= A C I KF= @

E A@=

EC A@ A @= B= E E = ILED k EIFK =L= JH= A E KI L *H ILED k n A A A =J= A >E E A ?E A J

n (n 1) (n k + 2) (n k + 1) = k (k 1) 3 2 1
,= A E A JA FH L AHEJE @= A IHA@ E >E
n k

n . k
E A ?E A J
n
n 2

LA E E E A@ = @ IJ= ED 5J C= = F I =JH= B= E E A I=IJ=L A A @ ILED k = ED F @I KF L=  = k = 0, 1, . . . , n = LE A A A A =J= E = B= E E = = I=@H E ILA F @I KF LA I= n 2 A A A =J=



  \J= A J

>E =J HE = A

,= A J= B= E E = E = >H E = I= JH= A E IL IJL @ = = - = KA \FAH AH ' % C @E A 6 A A@= @ FHLED HA K J=J= A IJHA = A >E =J HE A

1IFEJEL= A @= E

A = IJHK JKH= E = A A

IL IJL

,= E IA A = I E = =?HJ=JE J= @= IA I= A@
A@=

= IA I=IJ E @ = C E E = CH=B  A L = A @E A I= F=FEH= E @= IA IL= = @K =?HJ=

@ =F =JE ED =@=J= = K EIJ HE E >E =J HE A A FH >A A ECI>AH ED IJ L= /H=@ A ECI>AHC @= =I = E E CH=@ 4KIE = IA = = E = HE A?E 2HACA = @LE A >= A E = @L= IJHL= 6= AJEHE F = IK F LA = = I= IA@= IJ L= LE@E I E K   5J= L E?E A ECI>AHC= IK A A E FH AJ=JE CH=@ J= @= FHA K ILA IJ LA = E IL= E IJ I= A@

5E =

IJ LE K

A ECI>AHCK

A KJE E C @ IK IA JHK@E E J E E A KIFE AL= @= E A J= L= AJ = K F JA CK = @C L H = J FEJ= A A @= A =H@ AH! IL= = > ED E = FH @K JEL E ED =JA =JE =H= ILED LHA A = E AJE @= A @E AJ A F F K A>EJ= = IJL=HEL= A 5J C= IL= E F LA = @E F = K A ECI>AHCK A @= A@ K J= K
2 3

2EJ= E IK IA A@= AH A A IA I @ = A FHE C ?E = KFE K

- = KA 5FAH AH '# '& A D=H@ -K AH %% %&!

  \J= A J

>E =J HE = IJ LE K

= J= = E =F= A ECI>AHC= F IJ= A CH=B = I E?E  A ECI>AHCK IK F IJ= E E E A ELE?A J C CH=B=

A A

B C B

D
5E =
/H=B E FHA@IJ=L = =FK A ECI>AHC=

5=@= A JH= A = AJ = F A ECI>AHCK K IA IL= E IJ FHA A J= A@ K IJL=HE ?HJ= A CH=B= I= I E A  J= @= IA IL= = ELE?= =?HJ= I= A@ A @E K E L K I= F=FEH= ,= A AH A FHE E AJE @= = J= L= AJ = F IJ E IL= F A E A F AJ= E E H= AJ A A F=H E >H A IJ L= F LA = I= IJ= E @E A LE = CH=@= 4= C = J A A@ IJ=L= =@= FHA A C IJ= IJEC A = @E F = E E A H= AJ A FHA A C @HKC C IJ= H= J F =FKIJEJE = E IL= C @ AJEHE J A A = CH=B= = I E?E  E = E AF=H= >H ELE?= ?HJ= A J= L C CH=B= = FEI= = E EA CK A F= J= EA CK = E A A = AJ = F A ECI>AHCK 8HE A@ IJ AH L C H A A = A K J A J @= A F JHA>= E @ L = KI L =@= J= L= AJ = A @= F IJ E K FH E L CH=BK AH A L= HA K J=J FHLE FKJ FHA A J L= $ & %!# C @E A K 2AJH CH=@I = =@A E E =K = = H=@ 5 KJE FH > A =JEI =@ CA AJHE= IEJKI FAHJE A JEI A > =L A %" C @E A 6= H=@ IA I =JH= F AJ JA HE A

CH=B L=

!

  \J= A J

>E =J HE =

2H
=

== A A = E
K LHE A@E

ELED I >E = A A

A IJHK JKHA

2=HJE?E = >H = n A KHA A = k J H = FHEH @ ED >H AL= (a1 , a2 , . . . , ak )

a1 a2 ak E a1 + a2 + + ak = n.

*H ALE a1 , a2 , . . . , ak IK @E A LE E E I=>EH?E K F=HJE?E E (a1 , a2 , . . . , ak ) 2=HJE?E A >H = n IK L= E =JA =JE E > A JE I= C = E ELED E A A EL= ED IL IJ=L= A@ @ JED IL IJ=L= A E I A@A A

5LED F=HJE?E = >H = n K AF=H A I=>EH A E = EIJ E E ILED F=HJE ?E = >H = n K H= E EJA I=>EH A = FHE AH F=HJE?E A >H = I= K H= E EJA I=>EH A IK
(8); (7, 1); (6, 2); (5, 3); (5, 2, 1); (4, 3, 1) K KF
5LED AIJ F=HJE?E = >H = I= K AF=H A I=>EH A IK AIJ F=HJE?E =.

(7, 1); (5, 3); (5, 1, 1, 1); (3, 3, 1, 1); (3, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1); (1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1).
) I= dn = E >H F=HJE?E = n K H= E EJA I=>EH A = I= on >H F=HJE?E = n K AF=H A I=>EH A J=@= A d8 = o8 = 6 ,= A dn = on = ILA FHEH @ A >H ALA n @ = = A A =H@ AH F K BK ?E = CA AH=JHEI= AH A F I =JH= B H = A IJAFA A HA@ LA nN dn xn E nN on xn E F = = A @= IK JE HA@ LE A@ = E F= IK =J E @C L=H= K E A ?E A JE K JE HA@ LE = A@ = E

1 A E FHAJD @ ED FHE AH= A = K EJE @= IK A E LHE A@ E HA K J=JE E >E =J HE A @ >E A E K LHE A A A =H@= AH= A KJE @KC LHA A = A >E =J HE = >E = = CH= E?E E A K HA HA =JEL A =JA =JE A E >E A =JA =JE A @EI?EF E A A@= @ H= C= = J IA >E =J HE = I =JH= =  = A LHE A@ E  @E A =JA =JE A A J= J K >E =J HE?E ILA @ A@=L E A >E @K> ED E@A = E JA ED JA HA = 7 AIJ J C= K >E =J HE?E F IJ E LA E E >H E@A = AJ @= E JAD E = F K ED IA CK H A =L=JE H= E FH > A E 6A JAD E A "

  \J= A J ECH= K EIJK K CK =JA =JE A

>E =J HE = K LA E A E L= A JA HA A E = K K IJ= E CH= = =

7 F I A@ ED JHE@AIAJ= C @E = >E =J HE = A @ EL A = LA E K A IF= E K E F IJ= = A H=L FH=L = I= IJ= E > =IJE = =JA =JE A 5L= = A A@= @ = L= E ED H= C= = J= IFA J= K =H= H= L F JHA>= = H A =L= A JL= FH > A = >E =J H A FHEH @A K H= E > =IJE = =JA =JE A 4E =H@ 5JA E" E ) @AHI * AH AH# K ' = K @= A >E =J HE = 2AFA KC= = E K A CK I=LH A FHEIJ= = IJ= A = ?EFA E?= FHE ?= H= K =HI ED =K = 4A K J=JE E >E =J HE A IA @= =I FHE A K K E K CE @HKCE =K = = A = FHLE F C A@ A = K C LA A I= =JA =JE CA AJE = DA E = A E = A@E?E =  = IK =@=?E E IA H A =L= K F IJ= = E ILA JA E >E =J HE = A F IK EL= = E@A A E IJ= ED > =IJE =JA A =JE A = A A E = CA >HA CA AJHE A J F CE A . . . ,= =I A I=ILE K >E = A @= IA K H A =L= K >E =J H ED FH > A = HEIJE FHE E F E L= =JA =JE E =F=H=J 8= E E = E ELE HA K J=JE A JAD E A E A@ JA H A =L= = FH > A = I= C J L AEI?HF E CK IJE = FHE A = IK A A > =IJE >E =J HE A JA HE = CH=B L= = CA>=HI = >E =J HE = >E = J H = CA AJHE = @EI HAJ = CA AJHE = . . .  FHAJL HE E K =JH= JEL A E I= IJ= A =JA =JE EA @EI?EF E A

4 5

4E?D=H@ 5J= AO '""  ) @AHI * H AH '"% 

#

L E =@=J= A K AH=JEL A

>E =J HE A

L E =@=J= A K AH=JEL A

>E =J HE A
IJE K@I C CE @HKCE

*H = A A A@ = @ = IJ=HE ED =JA =JE ED = JEL H @= 4 A =L= K E H= A FH > A A K =JA =JE?E = E E K =K = = F JHA> A @C L HEJE = I A@A A FEJ= A

E
7 L E E >H

A A A =J= E = A E
A A A =J= =

= = I KF
= =L= A I= |X |

C I KF= X

FH K =L= K AJ @A E JAD E A F K J= A I L E =@=J= A K AH=JEL A = I A@A E = E

- K AH=JEL =

>E =J HE = A @E

>E =J HE A K A IA ED IA A @C L HEJE = J FE >E =J HE A A =FEI=JE

A = A =@= E = ED I KF L= (An )nN ) A an = |An | F JHA> A @HA@EJE E ?E A ED >H AL= (an )nN 2HAJD @ E =@=J= IA A HE A EJE = LE A H= E EJED = A E E LE A =@ L =L= K ED = E = 5= A E HAJ ED FHE AH= A E KIJH L=JE = IA A @C L HEJE = I L FEJ= A A K AH=JEL A >E = J HE A

8 1 ),)6)

*H

an IA E H= E

HAJ

B H K

A@= @ = E = @= IA @C L HE = F IJ=L A FEJ= A A FH = = A A A IF E?EJ A B H K A = ILA an = FHE AH = A An I KF ILED >E A ?E = = I KFK @ n A A A =J= J=@= A an = |An | = n! = FHLE F C A@ IA E E @= A FH = = A A A IF E?EJ A B H K A = an =@=J= HE A A A KJE F A =@ A J= B H K = F E L= = E IJ C= E A @ HEIJE = LA E A >H ALA 2 C A@= I A@A E FHE AH A = A [n] = {1, 2, . . . , n} E A = A

An = {f : [n] [n]|f A >E A ?E = E = ILA i [n] LHE A@E f (i) = i}

I KF >E A ?E = = [n] 6H= A E >H A A =K I K J= K I A J= A A

>E A ?E = f : [n] [n] >A

n

an =
k=0

(1)k

n! . k!

  HA

J=

@C L H = FEJ= A E A A A =J= E = K I KFK An AIJA = E = LA E A n E A = E H= K =JE E A J >H $

L E =@=J= A K AH=JEL A

>E =J HE A

*H

an IA @HA@E FHE> E

2 A =@ K F JA E A CK A @=JE  HAJ= @C L H = FEJ= A E E = A A A =J= K A = I KFK = FHE AH JA @= A A =@ @ >EJE A IF E?EJ= @C L H = I A@A = FEJ= =

E E E E

E E E E

= = = =

ILED CHKF= HA@= n ILED F=HJE?E = >H = n AE HB ED CH=B L= I= n J A A = H= E EJED HA =?E = F HAJ = = I KFK @ n A A A =J= A AJ A HAJ @HA@EJE >H ALA an A@= @ = E = >H ALE = an A @= @HA@E ED LK FHE> E K

=@= LA @= I= = LHE A@ IJ

S= E =@= E = A IF E?EJ K B H K K = an F A =@ = K FH= IE J EA@ L A = A (an )nN E @A EI= B H K   J AIJ an A >H >E A ?E = >A I A J= A 7 =KF = =E A A IA E H= K =JE @= A

n! an = n! e

n k=1

(1)k k!

k=1

(1)k = n! k!

k=n+1

(1)k 1 . < k! n+1

6= A = K EJE @= A an = > E E ?E A E >H H= K n!/e A = HAJ H= K = A IL= = HEI E E @C L H @ A IF E?EJ A B H K A   J

E (an )nN IA FE A F

K HA KH EL A HA =?E A

2 A =@ A n JE = E = (an )nN CK A E H= K =JE B H K K K IA KLHIJE A E FHAJD @ ED = L= E = 6= L= B H K = IA = EL= HA KH EL = HA =?E = = E (an )nN SAIJ IA = H A A A A C >E =J H C FH > A = F =LA .E > = E ALE >H ALE $ 1IJ HE I E FHLE FKJ IA JE >H ALE F LA K K I= FH > A H= =L= = A AL=

= F AJ K AIA?= L A A @ >E F=H A AL= 5L= E AIA? F AL E @ @HKC C AIA?= EL J= IL= E F=H A AL= @ >E A LE F=H =@ED A AL= E A A AL= L A E =JE F I E A n AIA?E 2HAJF IJ=L = IA @= A ALE A K EHK
6

=H@ 2EI=

* C

.E>

=??E %  #

%

L E =@=J= A K AH=JEL A

>E =J HE A

*H F=H L= A AL= F I E A n AIA?E = E I= Fn 6ED Fn F=H L= A AL= IK ELE E K I A@A A AIA?K = =@A A K I A@A A AIA?K @ >EJE Fn1 F=H L= E E = K >=H @L= AIA?= EL J= 5J C= = FH E L = FHEH @= >H n LHE A@E

Fn+1 = Fn + Fn1 K F AJ A KI LA F1 = F2 = 1.
6 A HA KH EL = HA =?E = IK .E> = E ALE >H ALE F JFK A E FHLED .E> = E ALED >H AL= A = E H= K =JE FEI= E

F1 = 1, F2 = 1, F3 = 2, F4 = 3, F5 = 5, F6 = 8, F7 = 13, F9 = 21, . . . .
. H K = = F JE = E = (Fn )nN A

1 Fn = 5

1+ 5 2

1 5

1 5 2

.
HA =?E = = K F JA

J A = IA J= B H K = @ >E A E >E A LE A HE A E K I C =LE

HA KH EL E

E (an )nN0 =FE A

K BK
A

?E A CA AH=JHEI=
@ @E A EJE B H = E IJAFA E

2H E L HA@

E K >H AL= (an )nN0

F (x) =
nN0

an xn .

6= HA@ A >E = BK ?E = CA AH=JHEI= = E (an )nN0 ) = BK ?E K F (x) >H an A E H= K =JE = A ?E A J K xn K H= L K BK ?E A F (x) K HA@ ) E A = BK ?E K F (x) A IF E ?EJ E A ED IL IJ=L= HA@= F (x) IA A E LAIJE @ IJ= E A E?= E K (an )nN0 7 J HEL= K I >E = HA@= F (x) IA AIJ HEIJA HA K J=JE E @HKCED > =IJE =JA =JE A .K ?E A CA AH=JHEIA IK A@= @ FHLED FHE AH= FHE A A E@A = = CA>HA E = = E A K H A =L= K >E =J H ED FH > A = 1 @= =I IK BK ?E A CA AH=JHEIA A@ = @ = E ED JAD E = K H A = L= K FH > A = A K AH=JEL A >E =J HE A ,ALAJ= C =L= LA ECA A F ILA A = BK ?E = = CA AH=JHEIA 7 F I A@ C =LE IA = = A A A = E ELA E L= A FHE A A BK ?E = CA AH=JHEIA K H A =L= K FH > A = A K AH=JEL A >E =J HE A

&

5 8 1 241 +121 1 24-*4 )8) )

-6 ,-

 2HE ?EF IK A E FHE ?EF FH E L @=

A = A = =@=J= @HA@EJE >H A A A =J= A C = C I KF= A 2HEH @ = E@A = A J= I KF F @E A EJE K A E = ED @E A L= J= @= IA IL= E A A A J I KF= A = = E K J= A@ @ JED @E A L= ) A I KF A F @E A A = n @E A L= E = A di >H A A A =J= K i J @E A K =@=J= A HE A A 6=@= A |A| = d1 + d2 + + dn L= A@ IJ=L = E@A = IA = EL= FHE ?EF IK A

I KF LE E IK K F=H LE = @EI K J E J LHE A@E Di Dj = 6=@= A

6- 4- )

  2HE ?EF IK A

A = IK D1 , D2 , . . . , Dn = E AIJ = ILA 1 i = j n

|D1 D2 Dn | = |D1 | + |D2 | + + |Dn |.

2 A =@ A I KF A AE @HA@EJE >H A A A =J= @EHA J= FH E L @ A E = ED I KF L= *H A A A =J= K J= L I KFK @ >E = F K FHE ?EF= FH E L @=

6- 4- )

 2HE ?EF FH E L @= A = IK D1 , D2 , . . . , Dn = E I KF LE ,EHA J= FH E L @ JED I KF L= E = |D1 ||D2 | |Dn | A A A =J= @ I

|D1 D2 Dn | = |D1 ||D2 | |Dn |.
E A@

LA JA HA A A A @ = EL=JE AC A F AJE I= A IJ=L ED FHE A = FHE ?EF= IK A E FHE ?EF= FH E L @=

1

7 E A = n = 2 LE@ AJE

FHEDL=JE @= IK JLH A = J= = = @L= I KF= =JA =JE E @K ?E @ = =JE J= IJ LED JA HA = E = FH E L = >H I KF L= , = = >E =DJE AL= B H = K @A E?E K J= A J >H A A A =J= A C I KF= K !

 2HE ?EF IK A E FHE ?EF FH E L @=

2HE

AH  ! 7 K E E?E IA = = E AIJ IJK@A =J= FAJ =IEIJA =J= JHE FH BAI H= E AJEHE IA HAJ=HE?A = E = E = IA E JA K E E?A A @=>H=JE

= A@ = I >= > A@= IJK@A J A@= =IEIJA J A@= FH BAI H E A@ = IA HAJ=HE?=

4AA A

J=HE?= K K E

= E I KF LA IJK@A =J= =IEIJA =J= FH BAI H= E IA HA E?E HA@  I= A, B, C E D

= 2HE E AJE @= IK I KF LE A, B, C E D @EI K J E *EH= A A@ A I >A E K E E?A A K IJL=HE E > H A@ C A A A J= E I KF= A B C D = I LK FHE ?EF= IK A >H A A A =J= J C I KF= A

|A B C D| = |A| + |B | + |C | + |D| = 6 + 5 + 3 + 4 = 18.

> 1 > H F A@ C FHA@IJ=L E = E IL= C I KF= A E > H A@ C A A A J= E A B C D = I LK FHE ?EF= FH E L @= = K K A @= A >H CK ED E > H= A@ = |A B C D| = 6 5 3 4 = 360

2HE


FHE ?EF= IK A E FHE ?EF= FH E L @=

AH

 " 5 A@A A =@=J A J=

HE A EJE FHE

= E = E = IA = =D LI J=> E 8 8 A >E A E A@ ?H F A 1IJ FEJ= A = E I=@= JH= E F = >K@K K H= E EJE LHIJ= = E = = L=@H=J IJH= E?A n A F K FH=LED A IK F=H= A L=@H=J= F @E A A = n2 L=@H=J= IJH= E?A A@= >H L=@H=J= = J I E?E E = E = A F IJ=LEJE CKHK H= = = ! = D LI A J=> A 8 8 = =JE @ECH=JE F JA

@=>H=JE A@ @= @=>H= = A IJH= E?= = E E A K KF= A@ F A =

4AA A
 ) A C I KF ?H ED = B I KF >E A ED F = = =D LI J=> E LHE A@E |C | = |B | = 32 1 > H A@ C ?H C E A@ C >E A C F = A E > H A A A J= E C B F= A >H = E = @= IA J KH=@E A@ = 32 32 = 1024 ) =>H= E @= @=>H= = F = >K@K K EIJ LHIJE E E E J=@= ?H F A >EH= = E H= E A = 32 = E = @ >E A F A A @=>H=JE = 32 8 = 24 = E = HEIJA E FHE ?EF FH E L @= @ >E = @= A >H E > H= A JH= E A@ = 32 24 = 768

2HE ?EF >E A ?E A 2HAJF IJ=LE @= A F I =JH= E L=@H=J [0, n] [0, n] K H@E = J IEIJA K A = A S JH= A E I KF ILED L=@H=J= 5= Sk = E F @I KF @ S E E A L=@H=JE E = A IJH= E?= @KC = k = A FHE E AJEJE @= A S @EI K J = K E = I KF L= S1 , S2 , . . . , Sn L=@H=J IJH= E?A k A F JFK @HA A = = H@E =JA (i, j ) @ AC E AL C J A A = 2HE E AJE @= J= = (i, j ) A >EJE J A A J= L C L=@H=J= = E I= =

(i, j ) {0, 1, . . . , n k } {0, 1, . . . , n k }.

= I LK FHE ?EF= FH E L @= @ >E = @= A |Sk | = (n k + 1)2 5=@= EI HEIJE FHE ?EF IK A E @ >E A H A A A =@=J =

|S | = |Sn | + |Sn1 | + + |S2 | + |S1 | = 12 + 22 + + (n 1)2 + n2 , n(n + 1)(2n + 1) . 6 ! 1 IL= C @ AJEHE KC= = F = H= A IA CK F LK E F JHE F JA = E IL= C @ FHA IJ= = " F = = HK>K J=> A A IA F LK E FAJ F JA = E IJ= ED !$ F = = EIK = HK>K J=> A H= A IA A @ECH=JE F I= F JA = >E K K E AJ @A IK A E FH E L @= @ >E = @= A JH= A E >H F JA = |S | = 4 3 + 24 5 + 36 8 = 12 + 120 + 288 = 420.
@ I

2HE ?EF >E A ?E A

= EI EJA @= IA = = EJA = =KJ >KI IJ= E?E E E IK FAH E = A E >H ALE = @ 1 @ 40 ) L=I A KFEJ=  E E = =KJ >KI= = IJ= E?E  = LE FHE E AJEJA @= IK ILE FAH E =K AJE = J= = @C L H E A K @= >H EJA =KJ >KIA L F= = A A IK JE = FHE ?EF= >E A ?E A

6- 4- )

 FHE ?EF >E A ?E A ) E I KF= F IJ E >E A ?E = J=@= JE I KF LE E = K EIJE >H

A K @L= A A A =J=

7 FH= IE FHE ?EF >E A ?E A HEIJE = I A@A E = E A = A X I KF A AE @HA@EJE >H A A A =J= ) KIFE A FH = E >E A ?E K : X A E A K X E A C I KF= A A = =H@E = E >H = I LK FHAJD @ A JA HA A LHE A@E |X | = |A| E = =@=J= A HE A A 

2HE ?EF >E A ?E A

2HE

AH A = A S AFH= = = = I KF , = =JE @= A >H F @I KF L= I KF= S E E = K F=H= >H A A A =J= A@ = >H K F @I KF L= @ S E E = K AF=H= >H A A A =J= 4 A A A 7LA@E
@=>AHE FH E L I A@A A = A AF=H= }. EE

Pp (S ) = {A S : |A| F=H= } Pn (S ) = {A S : |A|

= A A A J x S E = IL= E A S @A

(A) =

A \ {x}, = A {x}, =

AxA x /A

5 KF LE A E (A) IA H= E K K = A@= A A A J F= IK |A| E |(A)| H= E EJA F=H IJE ,= A HAIJHE ?E A BK ?E A I E = K I KF Pp (S ) = Pn (S ) @ I Pn (S ) = Pp (S ). E A JA F = =JE @= A >E A ?E = @ L A FHE E AJEJE @= A E@A JE FHAI E =L= A  = I LK FHE ?EF= >E A ?E A = K K A @= A |Pp (S )| = |Pn (S )| 1 KIJHK FHE ?EF >E A ?E A A@ IJ=L =EK >E =J HE?E LA = AIJ HE JA JA HA

6- 4- )

I= A K B A |B ||A|

A = IK A E B AIJ

E I KF LE *H

ILED BK

?E =

|{f |f : A B }| = |B ||A| .

, = A

A = A A = {a1 , a2 , . . . , an } 5L= BK ?E E f : A B @ @E A EJE KHA A K n J H K (f ) A A A =J= E B

(f ) = (f (a1 ), f (a2 ), . . . , f (an )) B B B .

n FKJ=

E A JA FH L AHEJE @= A >E A ?E = E A K I KF= ILED BK ?E = I= A K B E @EHA J C FH E L @= n FE = I KF= B 5J C= A = I LK FHE ?EF= >E A ?E A E FHE ?EF= FH E L @= >H ILED BK ?E = I= A K B A@ =

{f |f : A B } = B B B = |B ||A| .
n FKJ=

) IK f : A B E g : B A J= L= FHAI E =L= = @= IK f g E g f E@A JE = = B @ I A J=@= IK f E g >E A ?E A 5FA?E = IL= = E L K?E = FHAI E =L= A f :AA = A A f f E@A JE FHAI E =L= A A >E A ?E =

2HE ?EF >E A ?E A 2HAJD @ = JA HA = IA AIJ F =L K A K I A@A A >E K

2 5

-,1+) " A = A L I KF E I=@H E s IE > = (I L=) *H H= E EJED HE A E ( E L=) @K E A k A IK I=IJ=L A A @ IE > = E L A sk

, = 4E A a = a1 a2 . . . ak E@A JE K A I= BK ?E a : [k ] L C@ A A a(i) = ai = IA FH L AHE @= A JE A FEI= = >E A ?E = E A K JH= A C I KF= HE A E E I KF= ILED BK ?E = I= [k ] K L 1 FHAJD @ A JA HA A = @= JED BK ?E = E = sk
=@= IJHKE A >E A ?E K E A K I KF= X  E E >H A A A =J= AE @HA@EJE E A C I KF= A = E = @= E = m A A A =J= = A @= I = E >E =J H E @ = @= A |X | = m S= E =@= >H A A A =J= I KF= X @HA@E E = A E @HKCE = E @ E JAHAI= A FH = E >E =J H E @ = C = E ELED FH > A =  A K E = IK E A E AHE A A E K E = IA JH= E IJHK ?E = >E A ?E A E A K @L= = = I KF= =E JAHAI L= E EJ= =? A = EK ! 7 F I A@ A FHE AHK FHE A A FHE ?EF= >E A ?E A IA >=LE F=H JE?E = = >H = n 2 @I AJE IA @= A F=HJE?E = >H = n K k @E A L= KHA A = k J H = (a1 , a2 , . . . , ak ) FHEH @ ED >H AL= J= LED @= A a1 a2 ak E a1 + a2 + + ak = n E F=HJE?E = >H = n K

2HE

AH

# , = E @= F=HJE?E = >H = n K k @E A L= E = EIJ

E = A = LA E I=>EH= A@ = k FHE AHK A >E A ?E K = = A FEI=JE CA

4AA A 7 L

AJHE I E

) A F=HJE?E = (a1 , a2 , . . . , ak ) >H = n FHA@IJ=LE A = F A @ n J= = = H=IF HA A ED K k LHIJ= a1 J= = = K FHL LHIJE a2 J= = = K @HKC a3 K JHA . . . 2HE J A IK FHLA J= A K IL= LHIJE I E ALA IJH= A F H=L =JA L= =L =FEI IA = EL= .AHAH L! @E =CH= F=HJE?E A =FHE AH .AHAH L @E =CH= F=HJE?E A (7, 5, 3, 2, 2, 2, 1, 1) A = I E?E  E AL 2HE E AJE @= .AHAH L @E =CH= F=HJE?E A E = a1 =  = LA E >H K  ) A F=HJE?E = = E = k I=>EH= = @= A A .AHAH L @E =CH= E = k LHIJ= E K A a1 = LA E I=>EH= =@= = A E LHIJA E AK A .AHAH L @E =CH= K @ >E A F=HJE?E K >H = n
3

H =

=? A @ .AHHAHI & ' '!

AJ @= @L IJHK C FHA>H =L= =

5E =

 .AHAH LE @E =CH= E = = (7, 5, 3, 2, 2, 2, 1, 1) E = (8, 6, 3, 2, 2, 1, 1)

K A = LA E I=>EH= k E = E = a1 I=>EH= = 7 = A FHE F=HJE?E = A (8, 6, 3, 2, 2, 1, 1) E A .AHAH L @E =CH= A @AI =  = A FHAI E =L= A E L K?E = FEI= E I >E A ?E K E I KF= F=HJE?E = >H = n K k I=>EH= = E F=HJE?E = >H = n E = A = I=>EH= A@ = k . H = L= >E A ?E = IA A =FEI=JE = I A@A E = E F=HJE?E = (a1 , a2 , . . . , ak ) IA I E = K (b1 , b2 , . . . , ba1 ), C@ A A bj := |{i [k ] : ai

AHK I E?E A K LA E

j }|

AJ @= @L IJHK

C FHA>H =L= =

) A A A JA A C I KF= X FHA>H E = @L= H= E EJ= = E = = E >= FKJ= J=  IL= = H= @ >EJE EIJE HA K J=J 6 A IK JE = AJ @A @L IJHK C FHA>H =L= = 2 I =JH= I A@A E A@ IJ=L= FHE AH

2HE

AH

!

E = @E =C

==K

LA I

n J KC K

A = A dn JH= A E >H @E =C = = ) A V I KF J A A = = D I KF @E =C = = K n J KC K LHE A@E |V | = n E |D| = dn 7 E I KF X = {(v, d) : v V, d D, d I=@H E v } V D. 2HE E AJE @= A IL= J A A E V I=@H = K J= n 3 @E =C = A E @= IL= = @E =C = = I=@H E J= @L= J A A = ) K F=HK (v, d) X FHL @=>AHA J A A v F= @= @E =C = K = C= I=@H E @ >E A "

4AA A

AJ @= @L IJHK C FHA>H =L= = FHL @=>AHA @E =C = K F= = E @ >E A |X | = 2dn 5J C= A @ I @= J A A

@= A |X | = n(n 3) ) A A FHEF=@= J @E =C

|X | = n(n 3) = 2dn ,

dn =

n(n 3) . 2

. H = HA

AJ @K @L IJHK

C FHA>H =L= = EI = K A

I A@A

JA

!  AJ @= @L IJHK C FHA>H =L= = A = IK @=JE I KF LE A = {a1 , a2 , . . . , an } E B = {b1 , b2 , . . . , bm } E A = A S A B ,= A A = A xi = |{(x, y ) S : x = ai }| = ILA i = 1, 2, . . . , n @ I yj = |{(x, y ) S : y = bj }| = ILA j = 1, 2, . . . , m 6=@= A
n m

6- 4- )

|S | =
i=1

xi =
j =1

yj .

, =

7 E

I A@A A F @I KF LA I KF= S

Ai = {(x, y ) S : x = ai } = i = 1, 2, . . . , n; Bj = {(x, y ) S : y = bj } = j = 1, 2, . . . , m.
2HE E AJE @= = ILA i E j LHE A@E |Ai | = xi @ I |Bj | = yj ,= A E @A E?E A I KF L= Ai  @ I Bj  = @= IK K F=H LE = @EI K J E E @= A A1 A2 An = S = B1 B2 Bm . 6LH A A JA HA A I E A@E = I -L A@ FHA>H =L= = C =@=J = LK FHE ?EF= IK A E IA A HE A EJE AJ @ =J @L IJHK A @= C

2HE

AH

! ! 7 FH IJ HE E IA = = E n K@E 2

5L= = I >= K J FH IJ HE E E = J= kF = E = 5L= = @L= L A = E IA F = K E = K r = A@ E ED F = E = 5L= = @L= L A = E IA A F = K E = K J= m = A@ E ED F = E = , = E @= J=@= LHE A@E

m(n k ) k (k r) + k m = 0.
#

AJ @= @L IJHK C FHA>H =L= = A = A x A@ = @ I >= E JA FH IJ HE A 2 I =JH= I >A x E y JA y E z IA F = K = x E z IA A F I KF = K}.

4AA A

Px = {(y, z ) :

) FHL >EH= y J A KH=@EJE = k = E = I >K z K y F = A >EH= = k1r = E =  @ k F = E = y A I EA @=>H=JE I >K x E r = A@ E ED F = E = @ x E y  6= @ >E A @= A |Px | = k (k r 1) ) FHL >EH= z AC x A F =A J A KH=@EJE = n k 1 = E 5=@= IA y  AC F = K E x E z A @=>H=JE = m = E = 5J C= A |Px | = m(n k 1) = k (k r 1), @= A = @ >E A JH= A K A@ = ! IA IJ

5 KFK S E JA HA A A @ @E A EJE n m =JHE?= [sij ] C@ A A

sij =

1, = 0, =

(ai , bj ) S (ai , bj ) /S

*H ALA xi E yj E JA HA A ! A E JAHFHAJEH=JE = >EH ILED >H AL= K i J LHIJE @ I K j J E 7 J= LK E JAHFHAJ=?E K AJ @= @L IJHK C FHA>H =L= = IA A =FEI=JE E L=
n m n m m n

i=1 j =1

sij =
i=1

xi =
j =1

yj =
j =1 i=1

sij

=H=L FHAJD @ JLH A A LHE A@E = ILA m n =JHE?A [sij ] LK L=HE = JK AJ @A @L IJHK C FHA>H =L= = HEIJE K I A@A A FHE AHK

2HE

AH ! " = = E HA= ED >H AL= E = I A@A A IL IJL >EH >E ED IA@= K =IJ F ED = L= J C E = A AC=JEL= = >EH >E ED A@= =AIJ K =IJ F ED = L= J C E = A F EJEL= >H E = LE A = L= A @= E = J= E
)

4AA A

A = A x1 , x2 , . . . , xn = @K E >E J= E E = IA@= =AIJ = L= =JHE?K 7 11

E I= FEI= E IL IJL C E >E F I =JH=JE I A@A K

" 4A KH EL A HA =?E A

x1 x2 x3 x4 x5 x6 x7
1 KI L= =@=J F EJEL= @ A CK A J I= AI =AIJ =

x2 x3 x4 x5 x6 x7 x8

x3 x4 x5 x6 x7 x8 x9

x4 x5 x6 x7 x8 x9 x10

x5 x6 x7 x8 x9 x10 x11

x6 x7 x8 x9 x10 x11 x12

x7 x8 x9 x10 x11 x12 x13

x8 x9 x10 x11 x12 x13 x14

x9 x10 x11 x12 x13 x14 x15

x10 x11 x12 x13 x14 x15 x16

x11 x12 x13 x14 . x15 x16 x17

= = @= A >EH >H AL= K IL= LHIJE JA =JHE?A A >EH >H AL= K IL= E AC=JEL= = A J = E @= = E A A E =JE IA@= =AIJ = L= E L= E E = JH= A IL IJL A

5, 5, 13, 5, 5, 5, 13, 5, 5, 13, 5, 5, 5, 13, 5, 5.

" 4A KH EL A HA =?E A
2HEI AJE IA @= (an )nN A@= @ A H KK = IL= E = B H K = IA = EL= HA HA =?E = = A LE A HE F K A E FHE A = =@=J= @HA@EJE A E E ?E A ED >H AL= =I ED = E = @= J KH=@E A @= FH = A B J C E = E H= E F K A E FHAJD @ ED 6= L= KH EL = HA =?E = = E (an )nN HA KH EL E A E >EJE K C =LE & = K L F C =L K A E @= AH= K = A = = = LA AJ @A

2HE

n A A A =J=

AH

"  >H

F @I KF L=

F @I KF L= E = I KF @

= = = >H F @I KF L= E A >EJ = FHEH @= A A A =J= F I =JH= C I KF= FHAJF IJ=LE @= >H E F @I KF LA I KF= [n] A = A An I KF ILED F @I KF L= I KF= [n] E A = A an = |An | 5LA F @I KF LA I KF= An A F @E A EJE K @LE A CHKFA I > EH =J @= E I=@H A >H n E E A = 2 @I KF LE @ [n] E A I=@H A >H n IK ILE F @I KF LE I KF= [n 1] 5J C= J= LED F @I KF L= E = an1 > 2HAI E =L= A S S \ {n} A >E A ?E = E A K F @I KF L= I KF= [n] E I=@H A n E ILED F @I KF L= I KF= [n 1] 6= I F = =E @= E ILED F @I KF L= @ [n] E I=@H A >H n E = an1 %

4AA A

" 4A KH EL A HA =?E A ,= A F FHE ?EFK IK A = ILA n > 1 LHE A@E an = 2an1 ) LK HA KH EL K HA =?E K FHE E A E @ L = >H FKJ= @ >E A an = 2n1 a1 = A a1 = 2 A = K EJE @= I KF @ n A A A =J= n E = 2 H= E EJED F @I KF L= 4A KH EL A HA =?E A IK HEI A E K =@=?E = E >E =J H A CA AJHE A -L A@ C @ = A@ IJ=L E ED FHE AH=

2HE AH " 7 H=L E IA = = E n FH=LED E E A JHE FH=LA IA A IE A K K EIJ J= E JED n FH=LED F @E A E H=L= 4 A A A 2HAJF IJ=LE

A K E = A = F=H= A ED = E @E A L= HACE =

@= IA K H=L E = = E n FH=LED = A LHE A@A FHAJF IJ=L A E =@=J = A = A an >H @E A L= = A A H=L= F @E A A = JE FH=L= =

An

A2

A1

5E =
H

2 @ A = H=L E FH=L= = EIJK J= K

A K

E = A = F=H= A ED E E

A JHE A FH = A

5=@= @ @= LK FH=LK  = I E?E J A FH=L= J= E = @ IJ= ED J= @= E @= A LHE A@A FHAJF IJ=L A L= FH=L= IE A A ILA LA F IJ A A FH=LA  A = F=H= A ED K n H= E EJED J= = = A1 , A2 , . . . , An  E A JHE A FH = A H EIJK J= K LE@E I E K 6ED n J= = = @E A A JK LK FH=LK = n + 1 @E IAC A J E E F KFH=LK 5L= E @ JED @E A L= LA FH=LA FHAI A A A@= @ LA F IJ A ED an @E A L= H=L E = @L= L= ,= A @ @=L= A LA FH=LA =IJ= A n + 1 LE HACE = A A F @ A A = H=L= &

" 4A KH EL A HA =?E A 5J C= = >H ALA (an )nN LHE A@E

an+1 = an + n + 1.
= = A a1 = 2 K = H= K = = @ >E A A A H=L= F @E A A = A@ = @= A JH= A E >H @E A L=

an =

n2 + n + 2 . 2

-L HA =?E =

A@

C =@=J =

E IA

A HE A EJE F

K HA KH EL ED

2HE AH " ! E I KF= {0, 1, 2, 3, 4} J= = A@= 4AA A

E L= @K E A n A @= IA =FH=LE @ ?EB=H= E @= IA IL= A @LE A IKI A@ A ?EBHA K E K H= E K K

A = A Xn I KF ILED JH= A ED E L= @K E A n 2 @E A E I KF Xn K JHE @E A = I KF E L= E Xn I KF E L= E Xn I KF E L= E Xn ,= A H=IK K A E =LH =L= K I= 0 E E I= 4 E =LH =L= K I= 1 E E I= 3 E =LH =L= K I= 2 = E L= = E I= An = E I= Bn I= Cn

= ) IA E E Xn =LH =L= ?EBH= = 0 E E 4 J=@= A FHAJF I A@ E >H KJ E K   @ I ! =J A |An | = |Bn1 | > ) IA E E Xn =LH =L= ?EBH  J=@= A FHAJF I A@ E >H K J E K  EE ) E E Xn =LH =L= ?EBH ! FHAJF I A@ E >H K E K A E E " =J A |Bn | = |An1 | + 2|Cn1 | FHAJF I A@ E >H K E K A 1 ? ) IA E E Xn =LH =L= ?EBH E E 3 5J C= A |Cn | = |Bn1 | @=L@A A |Bn | = |An1 | + 2|Cn1 | = 3|Bn2 | = A |B1 | = 2 = n 1 n |B2 | = 4 J A |B2n | = 3 4 E |B2n+1 | = 3 2 5=@= A

|Xn | = |An | + |Bn | + |Cn | = 2 |Bn1 | + |Bn |,

@ I

|Xn | =

14 3k1 , = n = 2k + 1 8 3k1 , = n = 2k
'

# 6HE L=

= FHE

AH=

# 6HE L=

= FHE

AH=
>E =J HE A AIJ A F JHA>

4 A =L= K E =@=J A E A K AH=JEL A @C L HEJE = I A@A = FEJ= = =

= E = E = A ILA A A A JA A C = C I KF= H= IF HA@EJE K E > = E = E = E =@= C I KF= I= n A A A =J= A K EJE ED A E J AIJ = E = E = E n = C I KF= A @=>H=JE A E F @I KF ? = E = E = E F I =JH= C I KF= I= n A A A =J= A @=>H=JE J= k A A A =J= *H ALE E IA F =LA K @C L HE = = L= FEJ= = = EL= K IA I L E >E =J H E A ?E A JE 2AH KJ=?E = A C n = C I KF= IA A @A EI=JE = H=IF HA@ ILED A A A =J= J C I KF= K E @K E A n

I KF= I= n A A A =J= A

6- 4- )

#  H=IF HA@E E E FAH KJ=?E A *H

n! = n(n 1) 3 2 1.

FAH KJ=?E =

, = A = A X = {P1 , P2 , . . . , Pn } I KF FHA@ AJ= A H=IF HA K A K E 2HAJF IJ=LE @= IK AIJ= = = H=IF HA K A A A A JA E X = A = >H ALE = E [n] 2HA@ AJ P1 A F IJ=LEJE = >E A @ JED n AIJ= HA?E = AIJ m1 [n] 5 A@A E FHA@ AJ P2 I=@= A F IJ=LEJE = n 1 FHA IJ= AIJ E [n] \ {m1 }
=@= I F IJ=LE E FHA@ AJA P1 , P2 , . . . , Pi =K AJ 5J C= FHA@ AJ Pi+1 A F IJ=LEJE = A K @ FHA ?E = = H= K = FHA@ AJ Pn A IJ=JE I= A@ 2 FHE ?EFK FH E L @= >H H=IF HA@= n FHA@ AJ= = A J= i AIJ= IJ= ED n i F E AIJ n AIJ= A

n! = n(n 1) 3 2 1.

*H
4

n! EJ=

 A B= J HE A  2 @ C L HK" I =JH=

@= A 0! = 1

6= @ C L H A > =I EJE I A@A E FHE AH ) K A H= HA@K E = m @ A = = E n @ AL E?= E = AE @= K A@ K LHIJK H=IF HA@E @A = A=K @HKCK @ AL E?A J A KH=@EJE = n!m! = E = FHE ?EF FH E L @= ) K J H= HA@K A = @ A = = J = A m = 0 @C L H = FEJ= A A n! 7 = @ C L H @= A 0! = 1 >H m!n! A E @= A H A A A =@=J =

!

# 6HE L= 2 A =@ A

= FHE

AH= EI= A =

HEIJEJE @L IJHK A B= J HE A A @A

(2n)!! = 2 4 6 (2n 2) 2n = 2n n! (2n + 1)! . 2n n! 241 -,*) # ) A < HA =?E = = I KFK X J= @= = IL= = @L= P, P X P = P LHE A@E P < P E E P < P = A @= A < E A=H= F HA@= = X E E E A=H KHA A A I KF= X (2n + 1)!! = 1 3 5 (2n 1) (2n + 1) =
2AH KJ=?E = I KF= X = {P1 , P2 , . . . , Pn } IA A E JAHFHAJEH=JE E = KHA A = n J H = = (Pi1 , Pi2 , . . . , Pin ) X n K IK ILE A A A JE H= E EJE =EIJ= = E K E =CH=@A @ >E = E Pi1 , Pi2 , . . . , Pin K A IA F =LA ILE A A A JE E X = H= E EJA A A A JA P E P E I KF= X = A @= A P < P = AKJ E K P FHE A P ,= A FAH KJ=?E = I KF= X IA A E JAHFHAJEH=JE E = E A=H KHA A A J C I KF= 6= A n! @C L H E = FEJ= A E E = H= E EJED E A=H ED KHA A = = I KFK I= n A A A =J= = FHEH @= >H r n KHA A = r J H = (Pi1 , Pi2 , . . . , Pir ) E X r K IK ILE A A A JE H= E EJE IA = EL= r FAH KJ=?E = I KF= X *H ILED r FAH KJ=?E = n = C I KF= H= K = = IE = = E = E K JA HA E # 

2 5
n

-,1+)

I KFK X = {P1 , P2 , . . . , Pn } A

# ! H FAH KJ=?E A *H

ILED r FAH KJ=?E = K

n(n 1) (n r + 1) =

n! . (n r)!

, = 2HLE A A A J Pi1 K KHA A r J H?E A @=>H=JE = n = E = - A A J Pi2 = @HKC AIJK A >EJE A E @ FHA IJ= ED n 1 A A A =J= E X 2 I A@ E A A A J Pir A A@= @ nr+1 A A A =J= E X E IA EIK F =LE E = FHLED r 1 AIJ= *H ILED r FAH KJ=?E = I KF= X @ >E A FHE A FHE ?EF= FH E L @=
8E A FAH KJ=?E = = IA A = E K AJLHJ C =LE

1 > H A E A A A =J= E =@= C I KF= A K IJL=HE E > H A C F @I KF= = FEJ= A E F @I KF L= E = I KF @ n A A A =J= I LA @C L HE E K FHE AHK "  !

# 6HE L=

= FHE

AH=

6- 4- )
J=

2n H= E EJED F @I KF L=

# " >H

F @I KF L= 5 KF @ n A A A =J= E =
@L= = E = = n BK ?E K A ai /S A ai S = E I KF E A = A

LK JA HA K A

@ = =JE =

, = A = A A = {a1 , a2 , . . . , an } FH E L P (A) = {B : B A} F=HJEJEL E I KF @ A

2HLE = E

= IL= E S A @A

EA

fS : A {0, 1} I= fS (ai ) =

0, = 1, =

6= I @A EI= E >E A ?E K A fA E A K P (A) E I KF= ILED BK ?E = I= A K {0, 1} = I LK FHE ?EF= >E A ?E A E JA HA A ! = K KA @= A |P (A)| = 2n =@= >EH= A A A JA E A = F @I KF S A = IL= E @ A A A =J= E = @LE A CK IJE ai A =EE A H= >EJE @=>H= 2HE E AJE @= A S A F JFK @HA A = = ILA ai A @ AIA @ K K @= E ai S E E ai / S 5=@= = I LK FHE ?EF= FH E L @= = K K A @= A F @I KF E A CK A @=>H=JE = 2n = E = 5=@= A FHA>H =JE = E = E = E F I =JH= @=>H=JE F @I KF A A A LA E E A C I KF= A

,HKCE = E

6- 4- )

# # >H k = ED F @I KF L= *H F @I KF L= I KF= @ n A A A =J= A

ILED k

= ED

n(n 1) (n k + 2)(n k + 1) n! = . k (k 1) 3 2 1 k !(n k )!

A = A S FH E L = I KF I= n A A A =J= 5 KF ILED k = ED , = F @I KF L= @ S = E I= S = ILE n = E I KF LE E = K EIJE k >H k = ED F @I KF L= J= >H = E I=

n k

|S | k

S k

2H= = I KF A A@E E F @I KF @ S I KF S A A@E E F @I KF I= n A A A =J= !

E E = 0 A A A =J= = ?E A E n =J A n 0 =1= n .

# 6HE L= ,= >EI

= FHE

AH=
n k

@HA@E E >H

= IL= E k F I =JH=

I KF

P = {(x, A) : A
*H A A A =J= K I KFK P FHA>H E

S , x A}. k
= @L= = E =

(i) ) FHL @=>AHA x S J A KH=@EJE = n = E = I KF A E I=@H E x JHA>= @ FK EJE I= k 1 A A A J @ n 1 FHA IJ= ED n1 E S \ {x} 6 A KH=@EJE = k1 = E (ii) ) FHL >EH= I KF A J A KH=@EJE = n = E = 5=@= k A@= A A A J x A A @=>H=JE = k = E =
6= I @ >E E @= A

n1 k1

= |P | = k

n , k

F= LHE A@E I A@A = HA KH EL = HA =?E =

n k
) LK HA =?E K FHE E A E

n n1 . k k1
@= A

k FKJ= @ >E =

n k

n(n 1) (n k + 1) n k k (k 1) 3 2 1 0

n! . k ! (n k )!

*H ALE K L

n k

IA = EL= K >E E E = I=@= A

E A ?E A JE E AIJ A ED IKIHAJ=JE @ = =JE @= LHE A@E I A@A = JA HA =

n LHE A@E = 2n .

6- 4- )
E = FH E L

#$
= FHEH @= >H
n n n + + + 0 1 n

EE

= ILA FHEH @ A >H ALA n

n k =

1 A

n1 n1 + . k1 k

!!

=@=?E

, =
(i) 2=HJEJEL E I KF @ [n] A @EI K
J = K E = I KF L=

[n] [n] [n] , ,..., . 0 1 n

6H= A = B H K = IA @ >E A F K FHE ?EF= IK A E JLH A = E JA HA = # # E # " (ii) 5LA k = A F @I KF LA @ [n] F @E A E K @LE A CHKFA 2 @I KF LE @ [n] E A I=@H A n IK J= A k = E F @I KF LE I KF= [n 1] 1 E ED E = n k 5=@= FE E >E A ?E K E A K I KF= ILED (k 1) = ED F @I KF L= @ [n 1] E I KF= k = ED F @I KF L= I KF= [n] E I=@H A >H n 6= >E A ?E = A @ @=L= A >H = n K (k 1) = A F @I KF LA @ [n 1] =J A >H k = ED F @I KF L= @ [n] E n1 I=@H A n A@ = k1 . H K= K AE @ = =JE IA I=@= @ >E A F K FHE ?EF= IK A

$ =@=?E
 7 A HAIJ H= K I K A JHE LHIJA FHA@ A = IA@= LHIJ= C =L ED A = E FAJ LHIJ= = = = E = E = IA A @=>H=JE F AJ= >H J AIJ FHA@ A C =L A E @AIAHJ = E = E = IA A @=>H=JE
ABJE E E >H @ I= @L= @E A = = C =L A H= >EJE K K A E E = AF=H ED FHEH @ ED >H AL= LA ED @  = = ED @  @ ED IK ILA ?EBHA H= E EJA ! = E = E = IA = J=> K n n A F IJ=LEJE k H= E EJED J F L= E IA A =F=@= K \J= = IK J F LE EIJE 13 51 " = J >H E A @C L H = FEJ= A = E = E = IA 1 4 A @=>H=JE FAJ =H=J= J= @= >=H A@ = =HJ= >K@A JHAB @HA@E J= = @C L H # E E = >H AL= @ 1 @ 10000 K E A IA =FEIK >=H A@ KF JHE A>E ?EBH= 1 $ *=?= K IA JHE H= E EJA ? E?A = = > , = E @= A >H H= E EJED EID @= @ ED A >EH >H AL= E IK F= E = ? E?= = = E @  A@ = F LE E >H = ILED CK ED EID @= !"

$ % & ' 

=@=?E E E = KHA A ED F=H L= (m, n) FHEH @ ED >H AL= E = A = = E = A@ E E I=@H = =? 25 37 53 E E = KHA A ED F=H L= I KF L= (A, B ) J= LED @= A A B [n] ,= E A CK A @= K A @HK JLK >H K@E I= AF=H E >H A F = E = >K@A AF=H= ,E AJA E =  ? E?A = I =C= A A IK ILA A KI > H= E EJA F =JAHE = K @HL E F =IJE = LA E E E  = A IHA@ A E LA E A > E ?HLA A F =LA A A A E KJA E > E K  HKC A JH KC =IJA L=@H=J A E FH=L KC= A 7 KF E = 96 = 2 3 4 4 ? E?= E E = ? E?= A IA @ @HLA C LA E C F =L C L=@H=J= H= E K K K J= @LE A I >E A E E = BK ?E = f : [n] [n] >A I A J= A A = A F A = B= E E = F @I KF L= = C I KF= X ) ILE I KF LE E F E = K J= k A A A =J= E = IA IL= E A A A J E X = = E K J= r I KF L= @ = E @= A |F| k = |X | r E E = FAJ ?EBHA ED FHEH @ ED >H AL= @ A ELED I= JHE E = A IHA@ = ?EBH= A@ = = 6 E E = H= E EJED m n J=>A = F FK A ED >H ALE = 1 E E 1 K E = A FH E L @ A A A =J= K IL= LHIJE E IL= E A@ = 1 5A@ ?EBHA E JA AB I E >H abcdef g A = = F= A A = A (a, b, c) = (d, e, f ) E E (a, b, c) = (e, f, g ) E E = J= LED JA A B I ED >H AL= I=IJ=L A ED @ ?EB=H= 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 = E = E = A @=>H=JE @L= F @I KF= @ [n] E = A K E = ?E A E I KF [n] E E = F=H L= IKI A@ ED >H AL= K I KFK {1000, 1001, . . . , 2000} @ E AC I=>EH= = A = FHA A = ?EB=H= , = E @= K I KFK FHEH @ ED >H AL= = ED @ E E E = A@ = >H ED E = A >EH ?EB=H= A@ =  E ED E = A >EH ?EB=H= A@ = !" *H ALA 21, 31, 41, 51, 61, 71 E 81 JHA>= F HA@=JE K E J= @= >EH IL= = AJEHE IKI A@ = >H = >K@A @ A EL I= 3 = E = E = IA J A KH=@EJE E E = KHA A ED k J H E (X1 , X2 , . . . , Xk ) F @I KF L= I KF= [n] @ ED A X1 X2 Xk = E H= E EJED H= IJH= E ED JH KC L= IA A =FH=LEJE @ @K E E A IK IJH= E?A 1, 2, . . . , n

  ! " # $ % & '  

!#

% 4 A A = =@=J= = E >H AL= K I KFK {9k : k [4000]} F E A ?EBH 9 2 =J A @= 94000 E = !&% ?EB=H= ! = I=IJ= K IA = = E 12k K@E 5L= = I >= IA HK L= = I= J= 3k + 6 IJ= ED = >E = @L= L A = = J I=IJ= K >H K@E E IA HK L= I= > E? A KLE A EIJE E A K@E >E FHEIKJ =J I=IJ= K " .= E E = F @I KF L= S = {A1 , A2 , . . . , At } I KF= [n] A IAF=H=>E = = = ILA x, y [n] F IJ E I KF Ai S J= =L @= A |Ai {x, y }| = 1. ,= A S A F HEL= K = = A IL= E x [n] I=@H = K A @ I KF L= E S E = = A A A A =J= A @= E = A = IAF=H=>E = F HEL= K = B= E E = F @I KF L= @ [n]

% 4 A A = =@=J= =
 3 7 5 = 105 @ I 3 7 + 7 5 = 56. 5 8 8 7 = 2240. 2 2 (nk +1)2 ! n2 (n 1)2 (n k + 1)2 @ I n (n1) . k! " A =HAA = =K E = IA F =LE LE A @ A@ A JHAB =HJA IA K 13 51 39 >H A LE A FKJ= 6= H A A A A 52 1 4 5 5 4 4 # 10 9 $ A = IK x y E z >H ALE E IK F= E = ? = = 2HAI E =L= A (x, y, z ) (7 x, 7 y, 7 z ) A >E A ?E = E A K EID @= @ ED A >EH = E @  E ED @ ED A J= >EH >=H  % *H ALE m E n IK > E = 2a 3b 5c C@ A A 0 a 5 0 b 7 E 0 c 3 7 >=H A@ @ m E n A IF A JE >H AL= a, b E c E = K LHE A@ IJE 5, 7 E 3 5J C= A H A A A 11 15 7 = 1155 & 3n 5L= E x [n] A K A @ @EI K J ED I KF L= A B \ A E E Bc ' A A = A m >H AKHA A ED F=H L= F = E =KJ @HK JLK E A = A d(x) >H F = E = I >A x 2 I =JH= I KF

P = {(x, {x, y }) : x E y IK K@E E J C @HK JL=

) A A A JA I KF= P FHA>H E

E IA F

= K}.

= @L= = E = @ >E A

2m = d(x) + d(y ) + d(z ) + .

=J A >H K@E I= AF=H E >H A F = E = KLE A F=H=  1 2 + 1 3 + 1 3 + 2 3 + 2 3 + 3 3 = 29

!$

% 4 A A = =@=J= =   ! " # = ILA i A f (i) [n] \ {i} F= F FHE ?EFK FH E L @= J= LED BK ?E = E = (n 1)n 2HE E A E FHE ?EF @L IJHK C FHA>H =L= = = I KF {(x, A) : x A, A F} E E ILED AJLAH ?EBHA ED E IK @ A ELE I= JHE @= A 3000 ( m 1) ( n 1) 2 6=>A K (m 1) (n 1) A F FK EJE FH E L = A A A JE K F I A@ LHIJE E E IK JE A @HA A E *H def g A =FH=LEJE = 10000 = E = IE = 10 >H AL= def g @ ED IK ILA ?EBHA EIJA = abc E = = H=IF =C= K @LE A CK IJE ,= A F IJ E 2 9990 + 10 = 19990 = F= J ELED >H AL= ) A A B = [n] = IL= E A A A J E [n] F IJ A JHE CK IJE E E A K I KFK A \ B E E A K B \ A E E K A B ,L= KHA A = F=H= (A, B ) E (B, A) @= K EIJK F @ A K [n] K @L= F @I KF= IE K I K = K =@= A A = B = [n] 4 A A A =@=J = A

$

% &

'

 

3n 1 3n + 1 +1= . 2 2 6 IK F=H LE @ ED A = E >H > E = 1abc, 1ab9, 1a99 E E 1999 C@ A IK a, b, c E {0, 1, 2, 3, 4} 5J C= A JH= A E >H 53 + 52 + 5 + 1 = 156 2HAI E =L= A A >H K a1 106 + a2 105 + a3 104 + a4 103 + a5 10+ a6 @ @E A E (9 a1 ) 106 + (9 a2 ) 105 + (9 a3 ) 104 + (9 a4 ) 103 + (9 a5 ) 10 + (9 a6 ) A >E A ?E = E A K I KF= >H AL= E = A >EH ?EB=H= A@ =  E I KF= >H AL= E = A >EH ?EB=H= !" 2HLE E FAJE @HKCE E AIJE JA JHA E E IA@ E >H E = FHE @ A A K I= ! @= K EIJE IJ=J= *H K IHA@E E H= >EJE @ A EL I= 3 E J A A E >H E I KF= {21, 51, 81} 2 A@= @ >H AL= E {31, 61} {41, 71} E FHA IJ= = @L= >H = E {21, 51, 81} E A FHL= JHE = = E = H=IF HA A E FH E L  5J C= A @C L H 3 23 3! 5L= E i E [n] A >EJE I=@H = K >E E Xj IE K ILE = 2 k n FHE ?EFK FH E L @= @C L H A (2 1) A = A Ai = {(x, y, i) : 1 x < y < i n, x + y > i}. 8HE A@E |Ai | =
7 KF= >H JH KC L= A
p(p1)(4p+1) , 6 p(p1)(4p5) , 6

(m 1)2 , = i = 2m m(m 1), = i = 2m + 1

|A4 | + |A5 | + + |An | =

= =

A n = 2p + 1 . A n = 2p

!%

% 4 A A = =@=J= = ) 9k F E A I= 9 E = EIJ ?EB=H= = E 9k1 E = A A >H k ?EB=H= K 9 = A@= LA E AC K 9k1 7 !''' H= = 91 @ 94000  >H ?EB=H= A F LA = = 3816 5J C= A >H ?EB=H= A F E K I= 9 A@ = H= K = K E E FHLK @ALAJ K 3999 3816 + 1 = 184 ! 2 I =JH= I KF

X = {(A, B, C ) : A IA HK L= B E C, B E C IA EIK HK L= E}.

5= n = E >H K@E E IA HK L= I= @L E? 5=@= A A A JA I KF= X A >H =JE = @L= = E ) FHL >EH= I >K A =JE B F= @= C KH=@EJE = 12k (3k + 6)(3k + 5 n) = E = I >K B =JE I >K C E = H= ) FHL >EH= @= JH= A ED JH E E = 12k (9k 7)n 6= A =J I KFK = L= J A CK A K A @ >E A

|X | = 12k (3k + 6)(3k + 5 n) = 12k (9k 7)n,

@ I

n=
@=L@A = K KA

(3k + 6)(3k + 5) . (12k 1)

@= A n @ A EL I= JHE E E KI L= @= A @ >E = @= A k = 3.

4n 3k 44 =k+4 ?E A E >H 3 12k 1

@= A = I=IJ= K A >E FHEIKJ !$ K@E " A = A S = {A1 , A2 , . . . , At } IAF=H=>E = F HEL= K = B= E E = = IL= E x [n] F I =JH= E (x1 , x2 , . . . , xt ) C@ A A xi = 0 = x / Ai = xi = 1 = x Ai = A S F HEL= K = B= E E = A F =L K A IA E (0, 0, . . . , 0) E =J A n 2t 1 @ I t 1 + log2 n 5 A@A = IJHK ?E = F = K A @= A CK A = E JH= A K B= E E K I= t = 1 + log2 n I KF L= 5L= E @ >H AL= x [n] =FE E K >E =H IEIJA K F =LE IA 1+ log2 n ?EB=H= ) I=@= @A E A

Ai = {x [n] : K >E =H

=FEIK x = i J

AIJK A ?EBH= 1} HEL= K =

= A FH L AHEJE @= A {A1 , A2 , . . . , At } IAF=H=>E = F B= E E =

!&

! )6- )61S ) 1 ,7 +1 )

!  2HE ?EF

=JA =JE A E @K ?E A

7 H A =L= K I L C =@=J = A K AH=JEL A >E =J HE A A F JHA > @HA@EJE E ?E A ED >H AL= (an )nN 2 A =@ A HEI  A E FHLED >H AL= K J E K E H= K =JE  = FHIJA 6 = AF E @= =I KJE J= K LHE A@ IJ = ILA an = FHE AH A = A an >EH HA?EFH ED LHE A@ IJE FH E L @= A A A =J= K ILE AFH= E F @I KF LE = @ [n]

an =
{x1 ,x2 ,...,xk }[n]

1 . x1 x2 xk

4= K = K E A

FHLED

L= E = (an )nN @ >E =

a1 = a3 =
6=

1 1 1 1 = 1 , a2 = + + = 2, 1 1 2 12

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 + + + + + + = 3. 1 2 3 12 13 23 123 A =I KJEJE @= A an = n = ILA n N

IHA@IJL F K AC AIJ = K FHAJF IJ=L K A E @ = =JE 4E A E @K ?E = A =JE I C F HE A = E = E FHA A A E E KL A A 7 =JA =JE?E HE A E @K ?E = IA HEIJE =@= IA I= HAJ ED JLH A =  = LHE A@A = A E F A@E = ED I K = AL= FHA = E = F J=  = LHE A@A = ILA I K = ALA
1

2HE ?EF

=JA =JE A E @K ?E A A

A F IA>

HEI

E J= F= AJ E A A F=@= = F= AJ

!  2HE ?EF J

=JA =JE A E @K ?E A

1F= FHE E J C K F J=L= = H= >EJE LA = FHA E =E A J A JLH A A LHE A@E = C HAJ ED I K = AL= E = A = E @= A LHE A@EJE KLE A ) A JLH A A LHE A@E = ILA FHEH @ A >H ALA = A @ E E J A = E @= LHE A@E E = E E =F C J L A = E @= LHE A@E = ILA FHEH @ A >H ALA 2 I =JH= I A@A = @L= FHE AH= = = FH E L = FHEH @= >H

n A = A Sn >H

@A

EI= I=

Sn =
1 H= K =

1 1 1 1 + + + + . 12 23 (n 1) n n (n + 1)
E FHLED FHEH @ ED >H AL=

Sn = A S1 = 1 2

S2 =

2 3

S3 =

3 4

S4 =

4 5

....

5=@= IA = A A =

K = @= A

Sn =
> A = A =@= F E

n = ILA n N. n+1
@= A

p(x) = x2 + x + 41 2HE E AJE

p(1) = 43, p(2) = 47, p(3) = 53, p(4) = 61, p(5) = 71, p(6) = 83, . . . .
,= A LHE A@ IJE F E = p(x) K A E FHLED FHEH @ ED >H AL= IK FH IJE >H ALE ,= E IK @= LHE A@ IJE F E = p(x) FH IJE >H ALE = ILA x N 6LH A A = A =EIJ= J= =E A = ILA k N LHE A@E

1 1 1 = . k (k + 1) k k+1
5J C= A

Sn = =
1 1

1 12

1 23

+ +

1 k(k+1)

+ +

1 (n1)n

1 n(n+1) 1 1

=
n n+1 .

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 + 2 3 + k + k k+1 + + n n+1 =

1 n+1 =

5= @HKCA IJH= A

K = K > A F CHA = E A FH IJ >H

p(41) = 412 + 41 + 41 = 41 43 J IL= =

"

!  2HE ?EF

=JA =JE A E @K ?E A

AB H = C L HA E FHE ?EF =JA =JE A E @K ?E A A E KIJH L=JE I A@A E FHE AH = EI E @= AJ= K E? E @= = K IKIHAJ @ = E = =K J >E = A = A FHLE =KJ >E K J E ?HLA ) = @= A F I E A IL= C ?HLA C =KJ >E = FAJ =E E =KJ >E ?HLA A > A = A = K EJE @= IK ILE =KJ >E E E = @ = A K IKIHAJ ?HLA E . H = FHE ?EF =JA =JE A E @K ?E A A EI = =JE = I A@A E = E A = A P (n) nN E JLH A = A F I =JH= A@= @ = E = @= F = A @= IK IL= JLH A = K J E K J= = A >= = E @K ?E A , = =JE @= A FHL JLH A A K J E K J=  H= E @K ?E A = FH E L = FHEH @= >H k FHAJF IJ=LE @= A J= JLH A A P (k ) K J E K HEIJA E JK FHAJF IJ=L K @ = A @= A J= E JLH A A P (k + 1) AF IHA@ E = AC= 5L= = A A@= @ H= C= A =I IJE =JA =JE A E @K ?E A E J= J IA K @ = K J= IJE P (k + 1) I E A HEIJEJE FHAJF IJ=L = J= IJE P (k ) >A @ = EL= = = A E K =JA =JE A =FEI=JE L= CE A FHE ?EF =JA =JE A E @K ?E A A

P (1) (k N) [P (k ) P (k + 1)]
5 A@A = HAIF @A ?E = = E FHE AH= I= =KJ >E E = FHLE =KJ @= A LA K E

(n N)P (n).
A K LA B H = A @A E?E A

>E A ?HLA FHL JLH A A A J=

=@= A ?HLA k JE =KJ >E =@= A A JLH A A E I A@A E =KJ >E P (k ) J= E I A@A A k + 1 A ?HLA A > A JLH A A P (k + 1) A J= ILE =KJ 7 EJAH=JKHE IA A FKJ IF A KJ= #%# >H AL= .H= AI = FHLE FHE AH FHE >E E IK ?HLA E IL= JLH A = IK J= =

FH = E @= A AJ @= =JA =JE A E @K ?E A FHLE C @E A K @ = K B H K A = >EH FHLED n AF=H ED =KH E )HEJD AJE? HK E>HE @K  6 A >EJE E A A =JA JE A E @K ?E A "

!  2HE ?EF

=JA =JE A E @K ?E A

2HE

AL= A@ = = n2

AH !   , = =JE @= A IK = FHLED n AF=H ED FHEH @ ED >H

@= A n JE AF=H E >H

4 A A A 2HE E AJE
JLH A A

2n 1

A = A P (n)

P (n) 1 + 3 + 5 + + (2n 3) + (2n 1) = n2 .

= LHE A@E 1 = 1 J A JLH A A P (1) J= E E FHLE =KJ >E AIJA ?HLA  5=@= A HEIJA E FHAJF IJ=L K @= JLH A A LHE A@E = FH E L = FHEH @= >H k F = =JE EIJE EJ IJ JLH A = = k + 1 ) A JLH A A P (k ) J= J=@= = k N LHE A@E

1 + 3 + 5 + + (2k 3) + (2k 1) = k 2 .
6K FHAJF IJ=L K >H AL= HEIJE @= E H= K = >EH FHLED k + 1 AF=H ED

1+3+ +(2k 3)+(2k 1)+(2k +1) = 1+3+ +(2k 1) +(2k +1) = =( = I

LK FHAJF IJ=L A

P (k )) = k 2 + (2k + 1) = (k + 1)2 .

,= A F = = E I @= LHE A@E (k N)(P (k ) P (k + 1)) J AIJ =@= A k JE =KJ >E ?HLA E = E = AC= A ?HLA 2 K FHE ?EF= =JA =JE A E @K ?E A = K K A @= A = ILA n N >EH FHLED n AF=H ED >H AL= A@ = n2 5=@= A IA LH=JEJE = FHE AH I= F AJ = L C F C =L =

2HE

AH ! 

, = E @= = ILA n N LHE A@E

an =
{x1 ,x2 ,...,xk }[n]

1 = n. x1 x2 xk

= n = 1 JLH A A A J= 2HAJF IJ=LE @= = A E FHEH @= >H n LHE A@E an = n ) FHE H= K = K an+1 I=>EH A CHKFE A K @L= @E A = K =LEI IJE @ J C= @= E @C L=H= K E F @I KF @ [n + 1] I=@H E n + 1 E E A @ >E =

4AA A

an+1 =
{x1 ,x2 ,...,xk }[n]

1 1 x1 x2 xk + n+1

1 n+1 {x1 ,x2 ,...,xk }[n]

1 . x1 x2 xk

"

!  2HE ?EF =@= EI

=JA =JE A E @K ?E A HEIJE E @K JEL K FHAJF IJ=L K @ >E A @= A

an+1 = n +

1 n + = n + 1. n+1 n+1

2 K FHE ?EF= =JA =JE A E @K ?E A A = A@= = E E H= K =JE >H E A=H ED KHA A = FAH KJ=?E = = I KFK @ n A A A =J=

2HE

E A=H ED KHA A = = I KFK @ n A A A =J= A A@ = n! = 1 2 3 (n 1) n

AH !  ! *H

= I KF I= A@ E A A A J JLH A A E JA HA A EC A@ LHE A@E 2HAJF IJ=LE @= A n! >H E A=H ED KHA A = = FH E L I KFK I= n A A A =J= ) A X = {x1 , x2 , . . . , xn , xn+1 } IL= E A=H = KHA A = = X A @ >EJE J= J I KF {x1 , x2 , . . . , xn } K E xi1 , xi2 , . . . , xin  2HL E A=H KHA@E = I LK E @K JEL A FHAJF IJ=L A J A KH=@EJE = n! = E =  5=@= @=>AHE F E?E K = A A A J xn+1 6= A A A J A >EJE E E EIFHA@ xi1 E E E A K xi1 E xi2 E E E A K xi2 E xi3 . . . E E E A K xin1 E xin E E E = xin ,= A F IJ E n + 1 CK A AIJ = xn+1 2 FHE ?EFK FH E L @= @ >E = @= A >H E A=H ED KHA A = = I KFK @ n + 1 A A A =J= A@ = (n + 1) n! = (n + 1)! 7 FHE A E =JA =JE A E @K ?E A JHA>= >EJE FHA E 2 =J A I A@A E FHE AH A HA J A FHE A A E @K ?E A 2 I =JH= E JLH A =

4AA A

P (n) =

= EL=@E F=IA n

= ILE

E =J

EL=@E IK EIJA > A

, =  L C  EC A@ F CHA C E = JLH A = FH L @E F K =JA =JE A E @K ?E A P (1) A IL= = J= = EI = = A I= A@= = EL=@E @= IK ILE E = EL=@E EIJA > A = E J= 2HAJF IJ=LE @= LHE A@E = FH E L = n N E F = E  @= J=@= LHE A@E E = n + 1 A = A = EL=@E n + 1 {K1 , K2 , . . . , Kn , Kn+1 } 2HLED n = {K1 , K2 , . . . , Kn } IK EIJA > A F E @K JEL FHAJF IJ=L?E 6= A E n = {K2 , K3 , . . . , Kn , Kn+1 } IK F FHAJF IJ=L?E EIJA > A = IA LE I KF LE = IE A K K2 IA = = E K >= I KF= =JA =JE "!

!  2HE ?EF E @K ?E I

=JA =JE A E @K ?E A F = = E @= IK ILE E = EL=@E EIJA > A

5LE A IA I EJE @= A H= K ILE E >EJE EIJA > A /@ A A @= CHA = K H=IK EL= K 1I = P (1) A =EIJ= J= = A KJE E F E =?E = P (1) P (2) E A J= = =EIJ= I KF LE {K1 , K2 , . . . , Kn } E {K2 , K3 , . . . , Kn , Kn+1 } IA A IE A K = n = 1 2HAL=H= A K = K K @= IA K2 = = E K >= F I =JH= = I KF= 6 AIJA J= = ILA E F E =?E A P (k ) P (k + 1) IE = k = 1 ,= A @ L A @= A@ = @ E F E =?E = P (k ) P (k + 1) A >K@A J= = F= @= A A = K EJE @= IK IL= JLH A = P (n) J= =

241

-,*) !  " 7 E

@L= IL IJL= I KF= FHEH @ ED >H AL=

(i) A@= A = = E FHEH @= >H (ii) = IL= E FHEH @ E >H n N F IJ E A@E IJLA I A@>A E n = n+1
2H IJE A HA A I KF FHEH @ ED >H AL= E = F AJ= J A >H A@=  E FHEH @ E >H ALE IK KHA A E K E J AIJ = IL= E n N IA J= = E >H A F I E A AC= E A JA = K EJE @= IA FHE ?EF =JA =JE A E @K ?E A A FHE E A EJE = ILA I KF LA EE =K IL IJL= (i) E (ii) 6= IL IJL= E = K I KF LE > E = {n Z : n m} C@ A A m FH E L = ?E A E >H 2HE ?EF =JA =JE A E @K ?E A = J= L I KFK A =FEI=JE L=

P (m)(k Z, k
6= LK IEJK=?E K IHA A

m) [P (k ) P (k + 1)]
K I A@A A FHE AHK =

(n Z, n

m)P (n).

2HE

AH !  # , = =JE @= = FH E L AJEHE LHE A@E 2n > n2

FHEH @=

>H

n LA E @

4AA A

= n = 5 JLH A A A J= 25 = 32 > 25 = 52 n 2 2HAJF IJ=LE @= A 2 > n = A E FHEH @= >H n > 4 8HE A@E

2n+1 = 22n > FHAJF  > 2n2 >  = n LA E @ 4 > n2 +2n+1 = (n+1)2 .
= I LK FHE ?EF= =JA =JE A E @K ?E A FHEH @ A >H ALA n LA A @ 4 LHE A@E 2n > n2
2

K KA

@=

= ILA

) IE = =JA =JE A E @K ?E A A @E @A E?E A I KF= FHEH @ ED >H AL= LE@ AJE ! ) A S N J= =L @= LHE A@E 1 S E = ILA n (n S ) ((n + 1) S ) J=@= A S=N

""

!  2HE ?EF

=JA =JE A E @K ?E A

,= = ILA n N, n > 4 LHE A@E 2n > n2 A @ = =JE E >E = J H 2 @I AJE IA @= A n2 >H A A A =J= K [n] [n] E @= A 2n >H F @I KF L= I KF= [n] 7HA A F=HK (a, b) [n] [n] @ @E A E I KF S(a,b) [n] = I A@A E = E Aa<b [n] \ {a, b}, = = Aa>b S(a,b) = {a, b}, {a}, = Aa=b = A FHE E AJEJE @= A = n > 4 FHAI E =L= A (a, b) S(a,b) @ >H @A EI= = E A ?E = = J FHAI E =L= A EC A@ E A >E A ?E = J I KF [n] [n] E = = A A A A =J= @ I KF= ILED F @I KF L= @ [n]

241

-,*) !  $ A = A =@= E JLH@ E (P (n))nN 7 A E I K = ALE = = @ = JLH A = P (n) JHA>= FHAJF IJ=LEJE @= IK J= A ILA FHAJD @ A JLH@ A P (1), P (2), . . . , P (n 1) 7 EJAH=JKHE IA L= FHE ?EF = EL= = = E E IJH C= E @K ?E = 6 I= E C A@= IJH E A @ =DJ AL= K  >E  E @K ?E E A IA F = =JE  =H=L =JA =JE E @K ?E  @= A = = E @K ?E = A LEL= A J = I= >E E @K ?E . H = FHE ?EF IJH CA =JA =JE A E @K ?E A IA A =FEI=JE = I A@A E = E
P (1) (k N) P (1) P (k ) P (k + 1)
-L A@ C FHE =JE A E @K ?E A HA =?E AH= K A A

(n N)P (n).
=JA

HEIJEJE LK L=HE = JK

2HE

AH !  %

A = a0 = 0 E A = A E (an )nN0 =@= I A@A

an+1 = a0 + a1 + + an + n + 1.
, = =JE @= = ILA n N LHE A@E an = 2n 1

4 A A A 2HE E AJE

@= A a1 = 1 2HAJF IJ=LE = ILA i = 1, 2, . . . , n 7 JK FHAJF IJ=L K A

@= A ai = 2i 1

an+1 = (2 1)+(22 1)+ +(2n 1)+ n +1 = 1+2+ +2n = 2n+1 1,

F= A JLH A A @ = =

"#

A A FHE

A A

=JA =JE A E @K ?E A HEIJE E E @K ?E K JHA>= F = =JE

2 A =@ @= >EI KIF A JLH A A A@ = KA

2HE

AH !  & , = E @= = ILA FHEH @ A >H ALA n > 1 LHE A@E

1 1 1 3 + + + 2 < . 22 32 n 4

4AA A )
KIF AJE 7

AIJ

K= LK A A@ = IJ @ = =JE E @K ?E =@= A F K = @ = =JE IJH E K A A@ =

A A IJ

1 1 1 + 2 + + 2 2 2 3 n

3 xn , 4

C@ A A (xn )nN A E E I= F EJEL E = LE = 2HA@ IJ @ = EL= =  = A JLH@ A A K J A J >H ALA xn A @=>H=JE I= E *EH= ED J= @= = CK A FHE A K FHE ?EF= =JA =JE A E @K ?E A ,= >E E J= IJE A A@ = IJE = n = K E E @= LHE A@E E = n + 1 >E A @ L @= A

3 1 xn + 4 (n + 1)2

3 xn+1 4

@= A

1 (n + 1)2

xn xn+1 .

1 = A FH L AHEJE @= E xn = n EIFK =L= JH= A E =DJ AL 5=@= A = =JA =JE E @K ?E @ = =JE @= = ILA n N LHE A@E

1 1 1 + 2 + + 2 2 2 3 n
6 IJ=L = A A@ = IJ = L A >K 2HE E AJE

3 1 . 4 n
=

@= A JE A @ = = = E F =

A A FHE

A A

=JA =JE A E @K ?E A
HEIJE @= >E IJHKEI= E E >A

SAIJ IA =JA =JE = E @K ?E = =J= I= =@= E IL IJL

6- 4- ) !

 2 IJ E >AI

C FH IJED >H AL=

L= JA HA = IA A @ = =JE = C = E = K IA A = E AIJ H= E EJED @ = = 5 A@A E @ = E IA FHEFEIK A -K E@K! A L AH L=J FHLE FHE AH E @EHA J A FHE A A FHE ?EF= =JA =JE A E @K ?E A
3

-K? E@

! C @E A F

"$

A A FHE

A A

=JA =JE A E @K ?E A

, = 2HAJF IJ=LE @= A I KF FH IJED >H AL= = = J AIJ @= IK p1 , p2 , . . . , pn1 , pn ILE FH IJE FHEH @ E >H ALE 7 E >H N = p1 p2 pn1 pn + 1 = A FHE E AJEJE @= E A@= FH IJ >H pi A @E A E N AH >E J=@= >H 1 = N p1 p2 pn1 pn >E @ A EL I= pi 5J C= H= @= F IJ E  LE FH IJ >H p E @E A E N = A J= FH IJ >H p H= E EJ @ ILED pi J A = = FHAJF IJ=L = J A @= E = I= n FH IJED >H AL= F CHA =
7 IK JE E K FHAJD @ JA HA E I H= @ = = E JLH A A =JA =JE A E @K ?E A

=
L IA

F IJ E n FH IJED >H AL= J=@= F IJ E E n + 1 FH IJ >H

A FHAF =JE =

=JA =JE = E @K ?E = A A =I = E K H A =L= K H= ED >E =J H CA AJHE I ED FH > A = -L A@ C @ = A@ IJ=L E ED FHE AH=

2HE

7 FH IJ HK A =@= n H=L E A ILA FH = A H EIJK AH ! J= K = E E A JHE A I=@H A EIJK FH=LK , = =JE @= JA H=L E @E A A FH IJ H = n(n 1) + 2 HACE = A = A an >H HACE = = E A FH IJ H F @E A A I= n H=L E = A FHE E AJEJE @= A a1 = 2 2HAJF IJ=LE @= A n H=L E A IA = = A K FEI= F =K F @E A E FH IJ H = n(n 1)+2 HACE = J AIJ @= A an = n(n 1)+2 5=@= @ @= LK H=L= 2HAI A LA F IJ=L A ED n H=L E I= A n FH=LED A FH = A H EIJK J= K 6ED n FH=LED A F @E A E H=L= = 2n @E A L= 5L= E @ JED @E A L= FHAI A A A@= IJ=HE HACE @ an F IJ A ED = @L= @E A = 6= A

4AA A

an+1 = an + 2n = n(n 1) + 2 + 2n = (n + 1)n + 2.

5 A@A = JA HA = A K F JA A JLH A = E FHE AH= " 0EFAHH=L= d K R A = E F JFH IJ H @E A E A d 1 5L= = DEFAHH=L= F @E A E Rd = @L= F KFH IJ H= 7 H=L E DEFAHH=L= A FH=L= K FH IJ HK A DEFAHH= L=  >E = H=L= EJ@ . . . ) CA>=HI E DEFAHH=L= K Rd A I KF H A A = AJHELE = A E A=H A A@ = E A I= d AF =JED

"%

A A FHE

A A
#

=JA =JE A E @K ?E A

6- 4- ) !
F JA F =K

A = A =@=J n DEFAHH=L E K Rd K 6ED n DEFAHH=L E A F @E A EJE Rd =

n n n n + + + + d d1 1 0

! \ A E" 

H= E EJED HACE
L A FHE E @A I= n E d

=
AH C@ A A HEIJEJE =JA =JE K E @K ?E K F @L=

A = A an,d JH= A E >H HACE = = d = 1 DEFAHH=L E IK J= A , = = n H= E EJED J= = = F @E A E FH=LK = n + 1 HACE = ILA n N n n LHE A@E an,1 = 1 + 0 2HAJF IJ=LE @= A JLH A A J= = FH E L = >H DEFAHH=L E K @E A E = = = E @ d 1 @K ?E F >H K DEFAHH=L E n @ = K A @= B H K = E JA HA A LHE A@E E = an,d A@ = DEFAHH=L= F @E A E 1 Rd = @L= @E A = F= A a1,d = 1 @= JA HA = 1 + 0 = 2 2HAJF IJ=LE LHE A@E = n 1 DEFAHH=L E K F JA F = K K Rd 5E = E K FHE AHK " =FEJ= IA = E IA an1,d F LA = @ @=L= A LA DEFAHH=L E 5LA F IJ A A DEFAHH=L E K Rd IE A K E FHAI A?E IK (d 2) @E A E = A H=L E DEFAHH=L E K  2 E @K JEL FHAJF IJ=L?E = d1 JED n1 H=L E @E A E A d2 F @E A A LK H=L= = an1,d1 HACE = 5L= E @ JED (d 1) @E A E = ED HACE = @ AIA A@= LE HACE K F @E A E Rd 5J C= LHE A@E @= A

an,d = an1,d + an1,d1 .

= I LK E @K JEL A FHAJF IJ=L A = an1,d E an1,d1 LHE A@E

an,d = an1,d + an1,d1 = n1 n1 + 2 1

1 B H K A (ii) K JA HA E

n1 + 0 + +

n1 n1 + 1 0 n1 n1 + d d1 .

# $ @ >E =

an,d =

n n n + + + . 0 1 d

4 5

K@MEC 5?D E &" &'# = F JHA>A LA JA HA A >EJE K F JA F = K = E @= A = ILA k d FHAI A >E ED k DEFAHH=L E (d k) @E A E = = F JFH IJ H @ Rd = FHAI A >E ED d + 1 DEFAHH=L E A FH= = I KF

"&

A A FHE

A A

=JA =JE A E @K ?E A HEIJE K @ = EL= K A A E ED A A@ = IJE A =

=JA =JE = E @K ?E = IA J= A AIJ @ = IJE A@ = @ = F =JE ED E = L= E A K =HEJ AJE A E CA AJHE I A IHA@E A

6- 4- ) !

A = IK x1 , x2 , . . . , xn F EJEL E HA= E >H ALE )HEJ AJE = IHA@E = JED >H AL=
A = A(x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ) = x1 + x2 + . . . + xn n

" ) / A A@ =

IJ

A KLE A LA = E E A@ = = @

AJHE I A IHA@E A G = G(x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ) = n x1 x2 xn . E I= = IK ILE xi A@ = E

FHEFEIK A E K$ E A A LEL= A J= I= ) /

ED LA CA

A@ = IJ LHE A@E = , = 2 I =JH= A A@ = IJE

P (n)

5 A@A E A AC= J= @ = IA K

E JLH A = P (n) 

= x1 , x2 , . . . , xn E R+ A x1 x2 xn

x1 + x2 + + xn n

= n = 2 JLH A A LHE A@E AH A

x1 x2

x1 + x2 2

A LEL= A J

I= (x1 x2 )2 L=HE =?E E

0.
AJ @= =JA

AF J= E AL C @ = = A K I A@A =JE A E @K ?E A ) = ILA n N LHE A@E

() P (n) P (n 1) () P (2) P (n) P (2n)

J=@= IK ILA JLH@ A P (n) J= A @ I ) / A A@ = IJ LHE A@E 2H L AHEJE @= IK E F E =?E A () E () J= A A JAD E E @E  F I = , = E JLH A A ()
n1

A = A a :=

n 1

n1 i=1

xi

6=@= A

xi
i=1

( > C P (n))

n1 i=1 xi

+a

= an ,

F= =
6

I H= EL= = I= a LHE A@E

KEI +=K?DO %&' &#%

)KCKIJE

"'

!!

=@=?E
n 1

xi
i=1

an1 =

x1 + x2 + + xn1 n1

n1

,= @ = A
2n

E F E =?E A () K E
n 2n

@= > C P (n) LHE A@E

n

xi =
i=1 i=1

xi
i=n+1

xi
i=1

xi n

2n i=n+1

xi n

5=@= EI

HEIJE
2n

FHAJF IJ=L K @= LHE A@E P (2) F= @ >E =

n

xi
i=1 i=1

xi n

2n i=n+1

xi n

2n i=1

xi 2n

2n

E A A @ = = E JLH A A () ) A x1 = x2 EC A@ A = G 7 E EIK ILE x1 , x2 , . . . , xn FHAJF IJ=LE @= LHE A@E x1 x2 xn E @= x1 < A < xn E IJ C= LHE A@E (A x1 )(xn A) > A(x1 + xn A) 5=@= A = K EJE @= A

= = xn J=@= A A KI > A@ = E A x1 < xn 6=@= A 0 @ I x1 xn <

x1 + x2 + + xn n n 2 I A@ = A A@ = IJ K FHAJD @ HA@K IA @ >E A FHE A AG A A@ = IJE = x2 , x3 , . . . , xn1 , A, x1 + xn A x1 x2 xn < x2 x3 xn1 A(x1 + xn A)

! ! =@=?E
 , = E @= = ILA n N LHE A@E

13 + 23 + + n3 = (1 + 2 + + n)2 .
FE E ILA BK ?E A f : N N J= LA @= A f (m + n) = f (m) + f (n) = ILA m, n N ! , = E *AH K E ALK A A@ = IJ = ILA x R, x 1 E = ILA n N LHE A@E (1 + x)n 1 + nx " 7 H=L E IA = = E n FH=LED n > 1 J= @= A K E = A = F= H= A ED = EJA CHA K K I A@A A H= E = K

1 @K ?E F n F = =A @= IA ILA IE A K K A@ J= E = n = 2 J A EC A@ 2HAJF IJ=LE @= JLH A A LHE A@E = n FH=LED E F I =JH= FH=LA p1 , p2 , . . . , pn , pn+1 2 FHAJF IJ=L?E p1 , p2 , . . . , pn1 , pn IA IE A K K J= E A = FH=LA p2 , p3 , . . . , pn , pn+1 IA IE A K K A J= E B = FH=LA p2 E pn I=@H A J= A A E B J A A = B F= ILA FH=LA FH = A H A@ K J= K
#

!! #

=@=?E

1 A = A a HA= = >H = E LHE A@E a + a Z , = E @= A an + a1 n J= A ?E A E >H  $ = A FHEH @ A >H ALA n LHE A@E 3n > n4 % , = E @= = ILA FHEH @ A >H ALA n LHE A@E

1 1 1 2 n + 1 2 < 1 + + + + n 2 3
& A = A n FH E L = FHEH @= >H = E ILA

2 n 1.
HE A A F E =

pn (x) = 1 +
' 

x(x + 1) x(x + 1)(x + 2) (x + n 1) x + + . 1! 2! n!

, = E @= A P K @E =C = =
1 + n+2 + + 21 n.

A = A P A E FH IJ n J KC= A K LA I= CK A F @E A EJE = JH KC LA JHE= CK EI=JE F = FH E L = FHEH @= >H n @A E A

1 1 1 1 f (n) = 1 1 2 + 3 4 + + 2n1 2n

g (n) =

1 n+1

, = E @= A f (n) = g (n) = ILA n N  , = E @= IK ILE FHEH @ E >H ALE > E =

1007, 10017, 100117, 1001117, 10011117, . . .

@ A ELE I= #! @= E A JHE EIK E A=H A  7 H=L E IA = = E 3n J= = = J= , = E @= F IJ E n @EI K J ED JH KC L= I= J A A E = K J= = = A1 , A2 , . . . , A3n  JKH EHK A K AIJL L= 2n ECH= = E IL= A ECH= I= ! = JA EI IL= E , = E @= A CK A = E n + 1 ECH= = E F HA@=JE ED K E J= @= A IL= E ECH= K J E K F >E A@E ILA ECH= A F I E A AC= " , = E @= A

3 4

(n 1) n < 3.

# \A @AIAJ E AJEHE KC E?A IK I A A K A E KJE = , L A A @=>H=JE @LE A KJE A I= p E q FJE?= p q F= E KJE A I= p KC E?= FHA>=?EJE q KC E?= K @HKCK KJE K ,= E A = J= = E CK A ILA KC E?A FHA AIJEJE K A@ K KJE K

#

! " 4 A A = =@=J= = $ 7 FH IJ HK A =@= 2n J= = = E A A @ ED IK IF A A @K E = ) A F LK A >=H n2 + 1 @K E @ = E @= F IJ A JHE @K E E E A JH KC=  % = FH E L = FHEH @= >H n @A E A p(n) = FH E L @ ?EB=H= >H = n = E ILA FHEH @ A >H ALA n = A A p(n) = n2 10n 22 & FE E ILA FHEH @ A >H ALA E IA CK =FEI=JE = >EH A E K =IJ F ED FHEH @ ED >H AL= ' A = A n FHEH @= >H LA E @ A@= A = A M I KF E JAHL= = > E = [a, b] C@ A IK a, b N 1 a < b n = E LHE A@E I A@A A = A I, I M J=@= A I I = E E I I E E I I E = LE A E JAHL= = A @= E = K M  A = A p(x) F E IJAFA = d = ILA n N @A E A q (n) = p(1) + p(2) + + p(n) , = E @= A q F E IJAFA = d + 1  2 I =JH= >AI = K =JHE?K E A IK LHIJA E A E @A IEH= A FHEH @ E >H ALE = ,= E A CK A KFEI=JE K JK =JHE?K FHEH @ A >H ALA J= @= IL= = LHIJ= E IL= = = I=@H E IL= E FHEH @ E >H J= A@ =@= E IK FHEH @ E >H ALE x1 , x2 , . . . , xm E y1 , y2 , . . . , yn J= LE @= A

x1 + x2 + + xm = y1 + y2 + + yn = s < mn.
, = E @= IA I= >A IJH= A A@ = IJE A >HEI=JE A E I=>EH= = J= @= A@ = IJ E @= A IJ= A @= LHE A@E = ED E L= FHEH @ ED >H AL= @A ! A = A R1 , R2 , . . . B= E E = EI= = I=

R1 = (1) =

A Rn1 = (x1 , x2 , . . . , xs ),

@= A

Rn = (1, 2, . . . , x1 , 1, 2, . . . , x2 , . . . , 1, 2, . . . , xs , n).
6= A R2 = (1, 2) R3 = (1, 1, 2, 3) R4 = (1, 1, 1, 2, 1, 2, 3, 4). , = E @= = ILA n > 1 LHE A@E k JE = I E AL= K Rn A 1 = E I= = A k JE = @AI = K Rn H= E EJ @ 1

! " 4 A A = =@=J= =
 1 @K ?E F n = H= E @K ?E A A @ L
2

K EJE @= A
2

1 + 2 + + n + (n + 1)
1 @K ?E cn F nNF = A

1 + 2 + + n

= (n + 1)3 .
?E A f (n) =

@= IK A@E A J= LA BK

! " 4 A A = =@=J= = ! 2 = E H= E @K ?E A (1 + x)n+1 = (1 + x)n (1 + x) (1 + nx)(1 + x) 1 + (n + 1)x " /HA = A K H= K E @K ?E A = n = 2 1 F E =?E = P (2) P (3) E A J= = # H= E @K ?E A

an+1 +
$

1 an+1

a+

1 a

an +

1 an

an1 +

1 an1

A F = =JE @= E 3n > n4 I E A@E 3n+1 > (n + 1)4 = ILA 1 F= E F E =?E A P (n) P (n + 1) LHE A@A FHEH @ A >H ALA n > 4

= ILA n 3n > n4 LHE A@E 3n % L IA n N LHE

4 1 38 = 94 @ I 38 > 84 = K K A @= A = ILA n 8 = n {2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7} IA FH L AHE @= A > n4 A @ = =JE @EHA J >A E @K ?E A 1I HEIJE @= = ILA A@E 2 2 2 1 n+1 n = < ; n n+1+ n 1 2 > . n n1 = n n+ n1
F nF = =JE @= A

31

&

A IA E @K ?E

pn (x) =

(x + 1)(x + 2) (x + n) . n!

5J C= IK 1, 2, . . . , n K A F E = pn JLH A A E @K ?E F >H K J A A = F EC = P 2 ' , = = A IJ A JHE IKI A@ = J A A = A B E C AB E BC IK ELE?A F EC = P  J= LE @= A KC= ABC = E @ FHK A C L A = K EJE = F I =JH= = = E LA I= F EC E I=@H E P ) A = A J A A X @E =C = = BX K K KJH= IJE F EC = J=@= A I= BX F EC P F @E A A = P1 E P2 A A JHE= CK EI=JE F FHAJF IJ=L?E 7 E ILA @E =C = A E J A A = B E = A L= F EC = P J=@= A AC @E =C = = K KJ=H P 7 IKFH J >E F IJ = = J A A = P = IK K KJ=H ABC H IL= J= L= J A A = F LK A FH=LA F=H= A A I= AC 6 A A X H A FH = E J= L= FH=L= = > E = B A J= L @= BX A E = E L= P J A JH=@E ?E = 6=@= IA  J E @= A  JH KC = ABC @ >E = (n 1) J KC= A IA F FHAJF IJ=L?E A JHE= CK EI=JE #!

! " 4 A A = =@=J= =  8HE A@E

f (n + 1) f (n) =

1 = g (n + 1) g (n), 2(n + 1)(2n + 1)

F= JLH A A I E A@E E @K ?E F n  2HE E AJE @= A 1007 = 53 19 4= E = @L= IKI A@ = >H = K J E K A > E = 901 10n = 53 17 10n HEIJE E @K ?E K F n 2HAJF IJ=LE @= JLH A A LHE A@E = n  E F = E @= LHE A@E E = n + 1 A = A P = = E m J KC= E I=@H E ILA =@= A J= A  LA I= J= 3n =@=JED J= = = *A I = A = F J IJE A FHAJF IJ=LEJE @= A @K A1 A2 ELE?= F EC = P @ ILED J= = = A3 , A4 , . . . , A3n+3 @=>AHE J= K Ai = K A KC= Ai A1 A2 = = E 7 F KH=L E I= CH= E? A1 Ai K EA J= = A2 IA = = E 3n J= = = 2 FHAJF IJ=L?E IA @ JED 3n J= = = A =FH=LEJE n @EI K J ED JH KC L= E A I= JH KC A1 A2 Ai E EJE n + 1 JH= A ED @EI K J ED JH KC L= ! 6LH A A @ = K A E @K ?E F n 2HAJF IJ=LE @= LHE A@E = JKH EH I= 2n ECH= = E F I =JH= JKH EH I= 2n+1 ECH= = @=>AHE ECH= = I= = LE A F > A@=  A F >E A@E >=H F = @ I >=H 2n K AI E = JKH EH= E F IJ=LE = F AJ= E = 2 E @K JEL n FHAJF IJ=L?E @ 2 ECH= = A A F > A@E A = E n+1 ECH= = E EIFK =L= K KI LA =@=J = E F HA@=JE ED E = AC= @= = IEH= n N E = ILA m n LHE A@E " 2 = = A

(m + 1) (m + 2)

(n 1) n < m + 1.

HEIJE E @K ?E K K = =@ EC A@ JLH A A LHE A@E = m = n ) FHAJF IJ=LE @= LHE A@E = m + 1 @ >E =

(m + 1) (m + 2)

n1 n<

m(m + 2) < m + 1.

@= LHE A@E ) A >H KC E?= 2n KLE A A CK A = # 2 = = A FEI= = E ILA KC E?A FHA>=?EJE K A@ K KJE K 6 @ = KA E @K ?E F n = H= E @K ?E A JHA>= F = =JE @= A IA F I E A = C @ L A ED FHAIEF= = F IJE E @= K #"

! " 4 A A = =@=J= = IL= KJE E E = F=H= >H KC E?= 6=@= IA K ILE KJE = = @LE A F @LE A KC E?A I E AFA F= FHE E A E E @K JEL K FHAJF IJ=L K $ 1 @K ?E A F = =JE I A@A A JLH A A ) IA @ F LK A ED @K E A A B H EH=JE JH KC= J=@= A >H @K E = LE A n2 A = A AB A@ = @ F LK A ED @K E = IF= = @LE A =@= A J= A A E B *H @K E A IF= = K A A @ FHA IJ= ED 2n 2 F I =JH= ED J= = = F E @K JEL FHAJF IJ=L?E A >EJE = LE A (n 1)2 = A = JH KC = A CK E A E B >EJE IF A A I= A @ FHA IJ= ED J= = = 7 KF= >H @K E A IJ C= = LE A (n 1)2 + (2n 2) + 1 = n2 % 1 @K ?E F >H K ?EB=H= @ n A F = =JE @= = ILA FHEH @ A >H ALA LHE A@E p(n) n 6= IA @ >E A @= A n 12 2H L AH @ >E = @= A n = 12 A@E E J= =L FHEH @= >H & 5L= E AF=H= >H A EC A@ CK A =FEI=JE = >EH K =IJ F ED 2n + 1 = n + (n + 1) ) A FHEH @= >H > E = n = 2m (2r + 1) J=@= A

n = (r + 1 2m ) + + (r 1) + r + (r + 1) + + (r + 2m ).
AC=JEL E >H ALE K FHAJD @ IK E IA F E F EJEL E  AC=JEL ED E = = A 6= I >EH K =IJ F ED FHEH @ ED >H AL= A@E E >H =FEI=JE = >EH A E K =IJ F ED FHEH @ m 2 = A E m N =EIJ= IL= E >H >E = JA I= >H ALE ED >H @C L=H= K E n =FEI= E = E IA A CK AL= IK > E =

k + (k + 1) + + (k + r) =

(r + 1)(2k + r) 2

E = A E AF=H= B= J H ' 1 @K ?E F n A F = =JE @= A |M | n 1 F IJAFA K d , L A F = =JE = p(x) = xd 1 F E  1 @K ?E 1 d +1 d +1 = d+1 (x + 1) x @ >E A nd E @= HEIJE FHAJ F IJ=L K E @K ?E A  1 @K ?E F n F = = A I A@A A JLH A A = IL= E n N A IJHKEI=JE =JHE?K Mn JEF= 2n N = K LHE A@E (a) 7 IL= LHIJE Mn IA IL= E FHEH @= >H F =LE J= A@ (b) 7 IL= E Mn IA IL= E FHEH @= >H F =LE = LE A A@ (c) 2 @ =JHE?A 2n 2n @ Mn CA AHEI= A I= = = k 2n + 1 k 2n + 2 . . . (k + 1)2n C@ A A k N0  IK I=IJ=L A A @ >H AL= k 2n + 1, k 2n + 2, . . . , (k + 1)2n = k N0 ##

! " 4 A A = =@=J= = EC A@ A @= =JHE?=

M1 = 1 2 3 n n + 1
EIFK =L= KI LA (a), (b) E (c) 2HAJF IJ=LE @= =JHE?=

Mn = A1 A2 A3 A4 ,
C@ A IK A1 , A2 , . . . , An , . . . =JHE?A 2n 2n EIFK =L= JH= A A =DJ ALA 5=@= K E @= E = =JHE?K

Mn+1 =

A1 A2 A3 A4 A2 A1 A4 A3

LHE A@A (a), (b) E (c) E =JHE?= Mn = A @ L = @= >E IJHEI= E =JHE?K K JH= E m J= LHIJ= JH= A A =JHE?A A A@ = = m J LHIJE =JHE?= Mn = ILA n N = A A 2n m 6LH A A @ = K A E @K ?E F m + n 1 KI L= =@=J = I E A@E m, n 2 = m + n = 4 JLH A A A EC A@ 2HAJF IJ=LE @= LHE A@E = ILA m E n J= LA @= A m + n < k E F = E @= LHE A@E E = >H ALA m E n E = A >EH A@ = k 2HAJF IJ=LE @= IK x1 E y1 = LA E I=>EH?E = E AL E @AI IJH= E E @= A x1 y1 6=@= A

(x1 y1 ) + x2 + + xm = y2 + y3 + + yn = s1 .
n1) s = A s1 = s y1 < s n < mn(n = m(n 1) = FHAJD @ K A@ = IJ A FHE E A EJE E @K JEL K FHAJF IJ=L K ! 7 E B= E E K E L= An,i = n N, 1 i n @A EI= K I=

An,1 = (1), An,n = (n), An,i = (An1,i1 , An1,i1 ).

2HE AJE 1 @K ?E @= IK = ILA n E i E LE An,i E An,ni+1 EIJA @K E A F n IA A F = =JE @= = ILA 1 i n LHE A@E

An1,i = (x1 , x2 , . . . , xt ) An,i = (1, 2, . . . , x1 , . . . , 1, 2, . . . , xt ).

1 @K ?E F n IA A @ = =JE @= A Rn = (An,1 An,2 . . . , An,n ) 1 JLH A A E =@=J = @ = K A E @K ?E F n ) A k JE = E = Rn >H u = k JE = I@AI = K J E K >H v J=@= LHE A@E u An,i u An,ni+1 ,= A IE AJHE = F = u E v C=H= JK A @= LHE A@E = A u E An1,k1 E E E An1,k  @= A v E An1,nk E E E An1,nk1  6 = E @= >H ALE u E v E = K IE AJHE A F E?E A E K Rn1 F= A EI HEIJEJE E @K JEL K FHAJF IJ=L K #$

" 2-4 76)+1 - 1 51 -641S ) /472)

"  *E A ?E A E E A ?E A
7 F C =L K # FAH KJ=?E A A C n = C I KF= X I @A EI= E = H=IF HA@A ILED A A A =J= E X = n AIJ= ) E A A A JA E I KF= X E AIJ= = = ED H=IF HA K A = E >H ALE = 1, 2, . . . , n J=@= IL= E H=IF HA@ A A A =J= I KF= X = n AIJ= E E E A=H KHA A A I KF= X  FHA@IJ=L = >E A ?E K : [n] [n] 8HE A@E E >H KJ IL= = >E A ?E = = I KFK [n] @A E A H=IF HA@ A A A =J= E X = n AIJ= 5J C= A HA E @= A FAH KJ=?E = FHA I E =L= A : [n] [n] A A >E A ?E = ,= A FAH KJ=?E = IA A @A EI=JE = H=IF HA@ n FHA@ AJ= = n AIJ= = E A=H= KHA A A = = I KFK E E = >E A ?E = = I KFK [n] F A@= @ = E = @= IA FHAC A@ K J=> E?A =FE A FAH KJ=?E = : [n] [n] A

1 2 i n (1) (2) (i) (n)

= A >E A ?E = K @ LHIJE J=>A A IA F =LA ILE >H ALE @ 1 @ n E J IL= E >H J= A@ = ILA FAH KJ=?E A I KF= [n] FHL= LHIJ= K FHAJD @ J=> E?E A KLE A EIJ= F= A FAH KJ=?E = F JFK @HA A = I= @HKC @  LHIJ 5J C= FAH KJ=?E K A =FEI=JE E = E HE A  1 2 . . . n E E = KHA A K n J H K ( (1), (2), . . . , (i), . . . , (n)) K IA F =LA ILE >H ALE @ 1 @ n

"  *E A ?E A E E A ?E A 7 JA HA E #  E FHE AHK !  ! I = I KFK [n] E = n! A A A =J= F = = E @= I KF ILED FAH KJ=?E = >H HE A  A =JE E @ A ?E A

A = A X I KF @ n A A A =J= E A = A r n A E FHEH @= 7 FHE A@>E # I @A EI= E r FAH KJ=?E K I KF= X = E x1 x2 . . . xr @K E A r K A IA = = A A KI > H= E EJE A A I KF= X ) A A A JA I KF= X = E >H ALE = E [n] = FAH KJ=?E = r FAH KJ=?E A I KF= X A E JAHFHAJEH=JE = E f : [r] [n] 5 A@A A JLH A A I LA @ = = E K F I A@E?E #!

6- 4- ) "  
*H

A = IK r E n FHEH @ E >H ALE E A = A r E A ?E = f : [r] [n] A

n(n 1) (n r + 2)(n r + 1) =
n! (nr)! .

) A r = n J=@= IK r FAH KJ=?E A I KF= @ n A A A =J= EIJ E >E A FAH KJ=?E A -L A E =@=J= = K E = IA = H A A A F =LE >H @ I r FAH KJ=?E = A C I KF=

FAH KJ=?E =

2HE


AH " 

@C L HE = I A@A = FEJ= =

E E = FAJ ?EBHA ED >H AL= E = IK ILA ?EBHA H= E EJA E E IK @ A ELE I= FAJ = E = E = AIJ K =H=?= E FAJ A = A @= IJ= A K HA@ = I >A EIJ C F = A I E K >EJE IKI A@E E E = FAH KJ=?E = f : [n] [n] @ ED A f (1) < f (2) !

4AA A
 ) A >H @ A EL I= FAJ AC L= F I A@ = ?EBH= A K = E E FAJ ) A F I A@ = ?EBH= K = J=@= IK FHLA AJEHE ?EBHA A = 4 FAH KJ=?E = I KF= [9] 6ED FAH KJ=?E = E = 9 8 7 6 = 3024. ) A F I A@ = ?EBH= J C >H = 5 FHL= A A E A A A J a E [9] \ {5}  I= CK IJE = J  2HA IJ= A JHE ?EBHA IK A = 3 FAH KJ=?E = I KF= [9] \ {a, 5} {0} 6= LED >H AL= E = 8 8 7 6 = 2688 2 FHE ?EFK IK A FAJ ?EBHA ED >H AL= @ A ELED I= FAJ E = IK ILA ?EBHA H= E EJA E = 3024 + 2688 = 5712
1

7 H= E EJAH=JKHE r FAH KJ=?E A I KF= X IK IA I KF= @ n A A A =J=

= EL= A L=HE =?E A r JA

=IA

#&

"  *E A ?E A E E A ?E A 1 KI L= =@=J = = K K A @= K =H?E IJ A = AF=H E = A A = F=H E AIJE = 4=IF HA@ K =H=?= = AF=H = AIJ= A A@ = @ 6! FAH KJ=?E = I KF= K =H?= 5 E A A = F=H = AIJ= A H=IF HA@EJE = 5! = E = 2 FHE ?EFK FH E L @= >H JH= A ED H=IF HA@= A 6! 5! ! 5LED >E A ?E = FAH KJ=?E = I KF= [n] E = n! 5L= FAH KJ=?E E f : [n] [n] @ @E A E FAH KJ=?E K f : [n] [n] @A EI= K I= f (i) = n + 1 f (i) = A FHE E AJEJE @= A FHAI E =L= A f f E L K?E = F= IJ C= E >E A ?E = ,= A LHE A@E E

f (1) < f (2) =

E I=

A f (1) > f (2).

2 FHE ?EFK >E A ?E A >H FAH KJ=?E = = A A f (1) < f (2) A A@ = >H K FAH KJ=?E = @ ED A f (1) > f (2) 5J C= J= F LE = ILED FAH KJ=?E = E = JH= A IL IJL F= A @C L H n!/2

2HE

A = A n = 2k + 1 AF=H= FHEH @= >H FAH KJ=?E = : [n] [n] = A A >EH

AH "  !

E =

| (1) 1| + | (2) 2| + | (n) n|

= IE = =

4AA A

=@= IA  I > @E  =FI KJ ED LHE A@ IJE @ >E A IA E H= I= 2n = L= @ JED 2n = L= ED n = 2k + 1 A F EJEL = A >E A ?E = IL= E >H @ 1 @ n IA K J E H= K F =LE J= @L= FKJ= 6H= A = IK = A >EJE = IE = = = IK F EJEL E >H ALE K J E H= K J A CK A LA E ,= A @= >E IK = >E = = IE = = F EJEL E >H ALE K J E H= K H= K >EJE k +2, k +3, . . . , 2k, 2k +1  ED K KF 2k AH IA IL= E F =LE @L= FKJ= E >H k + 1  E IA F =LE A@  6= @ >E = @= A E H= | (1) 1| + | (2) 2| + | (n) n| = LE A
n2 1 2 .

11 k (k +1)+(k +1)+(k +2)+ +(2k +1) = 2k (k +1) =

A = A FAH KJ=?E = = K A F I =JH= = IK = = IE = = 2 I =JH= J= A @= >K@A (k + 1) 4= E K A JHE I K = = = A = A (k + 1) = i < k + 1 6= =L >H i A @=>H=JE = k = E = ) AE @= F I =JH= = IK = >K@A = IE = = J=@= A k +1 = f (j ) = A E j > k +1 E J= j IA A @=>H=JE = k = E = #'

"

5E AJHE

= CHKF=

,= >E IK = >E = = IE = = >H ALE 1, 2, . . . , k IA I= I E = K K k + 2, k + 3, . . . , 2k + 1 2 IJ E k ! J= LED FHAI E =L= = >E A ?E = ,= A HAIJHE ?E = FHAI E =L= = @A E A >E A ?E K E A K I KF L= {k + 2, k + 3, . . . , 2k + 1} \ {j } E {1, 2, . . . , k, } \ {i} 2 IJ E (k 1)! J= LED FHAI E =L= = = I LK FHE ?EF= FH E L @= = K K A @= L= LED >E A ?E = = I KFK [n] E = k 2 k !(k 1)! = k (k !)2 > A = A (k + 1) = j C@ A A j > k + 1 = I E = = E = K FHAJD @ I K = K IA A F = =JE @= A >H J= LED >E A ?E = J= A k (k !)2 A (k + 1) = k + 1 J=@= IA >H ALE E {1, 2, . . . , k, } I E = K I= ? ) K {k + 2, k + 3 . . . , 2k + 1} E >H KJ 6= LED FHAI E =L= = E = (k !)2 2HE E A E FHE ?EF IK A E @ >E = @= A JH= A E >H A A F I =JH= = IK = = IE = = A@ = FAH KJ=?E = =

2k (k !)2 + (k !)2 = (2k + 1) (k !)2 = n

n1 2

"

5E AJHE

= CHKF=

5 KF ILED >E A ?E = FAH KJ=?E = = I KFK [n] = E I= Sn ) I= = E F E?E K FHAI E =L= = E A JA FH L AHEJE @= LHE A@E

) IK , FAH KJ=?E A E Sn J=@= A E Sn = ILA , , E Sn LHE A@E ( ) = ( ) ) A Id : [n] [n] E@A JEJAJ=  = ILA m [n] A Id(m) = m J=@= A Id = Id = = ILA Sn = ILA Sn F IJ E Sn J= @= A = = Id = FAH KJ=?E K = A @= A E LAH @ E FE A = 1
1 FHAJD @ A FHE A@>A I E A@E

6- 4- ) "
2

 5 KF ILED FAH KJ=?E = I KF= [n] I > EH F E?E K BK ?E = A CHKF=

) A = I KFK G @A EI= = >E =H = FAH=?E = : G G G =

=
K LHE A@E

= ILA x, y, z G A x (y z ) = (x y ) z  A =I ?E =JEL = F IJ E e G J= =L @= A x e = e x = x = ILA x G e A AKJH= = A A A J = IL= E x G F IJ E y G J= =L @= A x y = y x = e IL= E x G E = E LAH  = A @= A G CHKF= > EH = FAH=?E K

$

"

5E AJHE

= CHKF=

6= CHKF= IA = EL= IE AJHE = CHKF= E J A A@= @ = L= E ED > A =J= K ?E A =JA =JE?E = E EL A @= IK IE AJHE = CHKF= Sn E A A A A I >E A >E A FHA@ AJ FH K =L= = C FHE A AC J A F = CHKFA B H = @A EI= 7 L F C =L K A FEI=JE A E IL IJ=L= CHKFA Sn = IA HEIJA K @= A JA IJK F E?E = @LE A FAH KJ=?E A IA =FEIK A H= A I= E = EL= IA FH E L @ FAH KJ=?E = E

,-.1 1+1 ) "

[n] 5= (a1 a2 ak )

A = IK a1 , a2 , . . . , ak H= E EJE >H ALE E I KF= = E FAH KJ=?E K f Sn = K A

f (a1 ) = a2 , f (a2 ) = a3 , . . . , f (ak1 ) = ak , f (ak ) = a1 ,

= = ILA IJ= A i [n] \ {a1 , a2 , . . . , ak } A f (i) = i. 6= L= FAH KJ=?E = IA = EL= ?E KI @K E A k E E H= A k ?E KI  +E KI @K E A @L= IA = EL= JH= IF E?E =

241 -,*) " ! A = A FH E L = FAH KJ=?E = K CHKFE Sn H>EJ= A A A J= i K FAH KJ=?E E A I KF

{ m (i) : m N} [n].
6= I KF A IL= = = = F= F IJ E = = E FHEH @= >H s N J= =L @= A s (i) = i 6= A H>EJ= A A A J= i I KF {i, (i), . . . , s1 (i)}. +E KI C = (i (i) . . . s1 (i)) A ?E KI FAH KJ=?E A @HA A I= i = @L= H= E EJ= A A A J= i, j [n] ?E KIE  H>EJA FAH KJ=?E A f @HA A E I= i @ I I= j IK E E @EI K J E E E A@ = E 2H E L @ ?E KI= A FH E L @ K CHKFE Sn @= A H KJ=?E = = FHE AH K S5 A F E?E = FA

(135)(123) =
@

12345 32541

12345 23145

12345 25341

= (125),

A (123)(135) = (235) = ?E KIA = (a1 a2 ak ) E = (b1 b2 bl ) = A @= IK @EI K J E = A {a1 , a2 , . . . , ak } {b1 , b2 , . . . , bl } = E AF= I >E = @EI K J ED ?E KI= A @= A KI > KJEH= K @ I = ILA i [n] LHE A@E ( (i)) = ( (i))

@EI K

6- 4- ) "

J ED ?E KI=

" 5L= = FAH KJ=?E = IA

$

A =FEI=JE = FH E L @

"

5E AJHE

= CHKF=

, = A = A FH E L = FAH KJ=?E = E Sn E A = A C1 ?E KI @HA A >H A 1 ) A C1 = @ = A =LH A 7 E A C1 = J=@= F IJ E A A A J i [n] E A FHEF=@= H>EJE >H = 1 5=@= K E ?E KI C2 @HA A A A A J i = A FH L AHEJE @= IK ?E KIE C1 E C2 @EI K J E ) A f = C1 C2 @ = = E I JLH A A JA HA A 7 E A f = C1 C2 FHAJD @ E F IJKF= F =L = = A [n] = = I KF F IEA = H= = HA?E k  @ >E A @= A = C1 C2 Ck
4=IJ=L A A FAH KJ=?E A K FH E L @ @EI K J ED ?E KI= A A@E IJLA @ = H=IF HA@ J AIJA @L= =FEI= FAH KJ=?E A = FH E L @= @EI K J ED ?E KI= IA CK H= E L=JE I= K H=IF HA@K ?E KI= = FHE AH

123456789 597146832

= (154)(29)(378)(6) = (29)(6)(154)(378).
= A

241

-,*) "

(a1 a2 . . . ak ) = (a2 a3 . . . ak a1 ) = = (ak a1 a2 . . . ak1 ),

J FH E L = ?E KI A =F AJE >E E AC LE ,= A K IL= ?E KIK @K E A k FHLE A A A J A @=>H=JE = FHE AH LHE A@E AA A J FH E L

123456789 597146832
) K IL= ?E KIK ?E KI= = F AJ= = K ?E KIE = H=IJK @ >E 5J= @=H@ = HAFHA A

= (154)(29)(378)(6) = (415)(92)(783)(6).
A A FAH KJ=?E A F IJ=LE = LA E A A A J =JE ?E KIA KHA@E J= @= F AJ E A A A JE A IJ= @=H@ K HAFHA A J=?E K FAH KJ=?E A J=?E = = A (541)(6)(837)(92).

123456789 597146832

JH= IF E?E = , =
)

2 5

-,1+) "

$ 5L= = FAH KJ=?E = IA

A =FEI=JE = FH E L @
@= A

A C = (a1 a2 . . . ar ) FH E L

= ?E KI K E

(a1 a2 . . . ak ) = (a1 a2 )(a2 a3 ) . . . (ak1 ak ) = (a1 ak )(a1 ak1 ) . . . (a1 a2 ).

6LH A A I E A@E = I LK JA HA A " "

"

5E AJHE

= CHKF=

1 FHAJD @ A F I A@E?A A = = K EJE @= =FEI FAH KJ=?E A = FH E L @= JH= IF E?E = E A A@E IJLA >H

,-.1 1+1 ) "

m =
EC A@

E A m = Id

% 4A@ FAH KJ=?E A Sn A =

= E FHEH @=

A HA@ k ?E KI= A@ = k

6- 4- ) "

A = A = C1 C2 Ck H=IJ=L FAH KJ=?E A K FH E L @ @EI K J ED ?E KI= ) IK n1 , n2 , . . . , nk @K E A ?E KI= C1 , C2 , . . . , Ck J=@= A HA@ FAH KJ=?E A = = E = A@ E E I=@H = =? >H AL= n1 , n2 , . . . , nk
= E = A@ E E I=@H = =? >H AL= n1 , n2 , . . . , nk
m m m J E = C1 C2 Ck = Id.

&

, = A = Am = 6=@= LHE A@E

m = (C1 C2 Ck )m = ?E KIE IK @EI K

r C r C r = Id = 5= @HKCA IJH= A = A r = C1 2 k @= A >H r @ A EL I= ILE ni = = E J= =L >H

IA Am

A =

K EJE

,-.1 1+1 ) "

A

'

A = A FAH KJ=?E = E Sn

= FAH KJ=?E A

sgn( ) =
1 i<j n

(i) (j ) . ij

= IL= E F=H (i, j ) J= =L @= A 1 i < j n H= E = i j E E j i IA F =LE J= A@ K >H E ?K H= = E @A E?E A sgn( ) K A A E A E =? A@ = | 1 (i) 1 (j )| =J A sgn( ) {1, 1} ) A = FAH KJ=?E A A@ = A@= = A @= A FAH KJ=?E = F=H = E = A A FAH KJ=?E = AF=H = @ L H=

241
=

-,*) "
A =JE

@HA@E E = FAH KJ=?E A = LA ILED E E =?= K =FEIK sgn( ) = ILA i < j

 ,= A @= >E I

(i) (j ) ij A AC=JEL= = A (i) > (j ) @ I F EJEL= = A (i) < (j ) = F=H (i, j ) = A @= A E LAH E = FAH KJ=?E A = A i < j = (i) > (j ) ) I= inv ( ) = E >H E LAH E = K FAH KJ=?E E E FHAJD @ C H= =JH= = = K K A @= J=@= LHE A@E sgn( ) = (1)inv() .
,= A FAH KJ=?E = A F=H = = E I= $! = A inv ( ) F=H= >H

"

5E AJHE

= CHKF=

- )"
, =



= IL= A @LE A FAH KJ=?E A E LHE A@E

sgn( ) = sgn( )sgn( ).

2HE E AJE

@= A

sgn( ) =
1 i<j n

( (i)) ( (j )) = ij

=
1 i<j n

( (i)) ( (j )) (i) (j ) = sgn( )sgn( ). (i) (j ) ij

= I LK F I A@E?A " $ = @= IA IL= = FAH KJ=?E = A =FEI=JE = FH E L @ JH= IF E?E = A = A = 1 2 k = A JH= IF E?E = AF=H = FAH KJ=?E = = I LK A A "  @ >E = @= A sgn( ) = (1)k 2H E L K FAH KJ=?E K A =FEI=JE = FH E L @ JH= IF E?E = = LE A H= E EJED = E = *H JH= IF E?E = K J =FEIK A H= >EJE EIJE = E A KLE A EIJA F=H IJE ,= A FAH KJ=?E = A F=H = = E I= = IA A =FEI=JE = FH E L @ F=H C >H = JH= IF E?E = 5J C= A ?E KI @K E A k A F=H = FAH KJ=?E = = E I= = Ak AF=H= 2AH KJ=?E = A F=H = = E I= = A FHE @A F E?E E K FH E L @ @EI K J ED ?E KI= F=H= >H ?E KI= F=H A @K E A

241

-,*) "

6- 4- ) "

! ) A n 2 >H A@ = >H K AF=H ED FAH KJ=?E =

F=H ED FAH KJ=?E = K Sn A

FHAI E =L= A (12) = A FH L AHEJE @= A , = 2 I =JH= L FHAI E =L= A E L K?E = 6= A E A A "  = K K A @= IK FAH KJ=?E A E (12) H= E EJ C = = 5J C= A FHAI E =L= A (12) >E A ?E = = F=H A FAH KJ=?E A I E = K AF=H A = AF=H A K F=H A

241

C= E?= 5A

-,*) "

"  @ L= =C AJ = 2 =JE =KJ H @ A F IJ=LE 1891. C @E A I A@A E FH > A

7 L=@H=J 4 4 A I A JA # A@E E ED L=@H=JE = = A ED >H ALE = @ 1 @ 15 @ A @ A @AI F A IJ= FH= L=@H=JE I= >H ALE = IK I A E I H F HA@K A@E IK L=@H=JE 14 E 15 = E A E E AIJ= LE@E I E K " 

$"

"

5E AJHE

= CHKF=

1 5 9 13

2 6 10 15

3 7 11 14
@ L= =C

4 8 12

5E ="

AJ =

FH IJ H I

2H > A

2 AH= K E L=@H=JA E IK IKI A@ E FH= EJE ILA >H ALA @ 1 @ 15 F HA@K

K FH= =

L= FH > A A E = L= LA E K F= K E @ A F K@E =CH=@K @ 1000 @ =H= = FH=LE H A A A LA =C AJ A A KJE EA H= @= IA F = E = IL L=? AH FH > A EA CK A HE A EJE L= JLH@ = IA F = A J= J F E A = = FAH KJ=?E A FHE E F K A A "  FH=JE AH= = L=@H=J= = IA

= E FH= F A I= 16 E = EI E @= IK EIF @ L=@H=JE = =FEI= E >H ALE @ 1 @ 15 5L= H=IF HA@K L=@H=JE = = J=> E 4 4 @C L=H= FAH KJ=?E = E S16 2 = H=IF HA@K L=@H=JE = = J=> E @C L=H= FAH KJ=?E = = (14 15) ?E KIA @K E A A@= A FE A  J A AF=H = FAH KJ=?E = 2 HA@= >H AL= F HA@K J A E F IJE E @C L=H= E@A JE FAH KJ=?E E = A F=H = E?E J= >H A A = =C A@ F AH= A L=@H=J= i K FH= = FH IJ H A A A JH= IF (i 16) ) K A E @= I E F = F HA@K FH= F A FH A  F J=> E E LH=JE C= K @ E @AI E KC= =FH=LE E I F=H= F JA = 6 A A LEL= A J A K = (14 15) I= F=H E >H JH= IF E?E = KJE ILA L= @ >E A A FAH KJ=?E A IK AF=H A E E A CK A L= = E @ >EJE E@A JE K FAH KJ=?E K 6 A H= C = J LK AJ K E A CK A HE A EJE

$#

"!

A E

K AHE E

F=H= AJHE = IE AJHE

A CHKFA

"!

A E

K AHE E

F=H= AJHE = IE AJHE

A CHKFA

7 L F C =L K H= =JH= A A FH > A A A K AH=JEL A >E =J HE A E IA FHEH @ F =LA =@= IA FH K =L= IE AJHE = CHKF= A = A FAH KJ=?E = E Sn =FEI= = = FH E L @ @EI K J ED ?E KI= *H ?E KI= @K E A i K J FH E L @K = E I= ci

6EF FAH KJ=?E A A KHA A = n J H = type( ) = (c1 , c2 , . . . , cn ) )

A type( ) = (c1 , c2 , . . . , cn ) FHE E AJE @= A J=@=

c1 + 2c2 + + ici + + ncn = n.

,HKCE HE A E = J=@= A

( n, n, . . . , n , . . . , 2, 2, . . . , 2, 1, 1, . . . , 1)
cn FKJ= >H n c2 @L

c1 A@E E?=

F=HJE?E =! >H = n = FAH KJ=?E A E E Sn = A Sn J= @= LHE A@E = 1

@= IK

KC L= A =
KC L= A = E I=

F IJ E

6- 4- ) " !  2AH KJ=?E A E IK

IK EIJ C JEF=

, = A = A = 1 E A = A C ?E KI K @HA A I= i [n] ) A C ?E KI @K E A m J=@= E m (i) = ( 1 )m (i) = m 1 (i) = i A = K EJE @= A m 1 (i) = 1 (i)

A ?E KI K @HA A I= @K E A r J=@= E r ( 1 (i)) = = 1 r (i) = 1 (i) @ >E = @= A r = m =IJ=L = K E L= A = K EJE @= KC L= A FAH KJ=?E A E = K EIJK IJHK JKHK ?E KI= J AIJ EIJE JEF 7 E A type( ) = type( ) FAH KJ=?E A E A =FEI=JE = FH E L @ ?E KI= = C1 C2 Cr E = C1 C2 Cr J= @= IK = ILA i ?E KIE Ci E Ci EIJA @K E A ) A Ci = (a1 a2 . . . as ) = Ci = (b1 b2 . . . bs ) @A E A FAH KJ=?E K I= (bi ) = ai L KH=@E = ILA ?E KIA Ci E Ci K K K K E E ?E KIA @K E A A@=  = IA FH L AHE @= A J=@= = 1 F= IK FAH KJ=?E A E KC L= A

( 1 )r 1 (i)

L= =FEI E A >= = LE A A@

HA J=

A cn

1 >H

n IA K J

F=HJE?E E F =LE

$$

"!

A E

K AHE E

F=H= AJHE = IE AJHE

A CHKFA

A IA F = =JE @= A KC L= IJ HA =?E = A LEL= A ?E A = Sn 5LA FAH KJ=?E A KC L= A I= E A =IK KC=?E A =IA K C=?E A K Sn IK E E @EI K J A E E A@ = A 5 A@A A JLH A A A EC A@ = F I A@E?= @ I=@= AC H= =JH= =

2 5

E F=HJE?E = >H = n

-,1+) " !
E

4= E EJED =I=

KC=?E A K Sn E = EIJ
HAJ =IE

E
K

5=@= A @HA@EJE C=?E A K Sn

FAH KJ=?E = E = K

6- 4- ) " ! ! *H FAH KJ=?E = JEF= (c1 , c2 , . . . , cn ) K Sn A

1c1 c1 ! 2c2 n! . c2 ! ncn cn !
A

, = LHE A@E
K E

IEH= K n J H K c = (c1 , c2 , . . . , cn ) >H AL= E N0 =

c1 + 2c2 + + ici + + ncn = n

I KF

Sc = { Sn : type( ) = c} Sn .
A = A FAH KJ=?E = = (1) (2) (n) =FEI= = = HE A ,A FHAI E =L= A : Sn Sc EE

J= @= FHLED c1 A A A =J= K E K (1) (2) (n)

FH C =IE  ?E KIE = @K E A  5 A@A ED 2c2 = L= J C E =
FHAJL HE  K c2 ?E KI= @K E A 2 =HA@ ED 3c3 A A A =J= FHAJL HE K ?E KIA @K E A JHE EJ@

( ) = ( (1) (2) (n)) = = (1 )(2 ) (c1 ) (c1 +1 c1 +2 ) (c1 +2c2 1 c1 +2c2 )

c1 c2

,= @HA@E |1 ( )| J AIJ E A EIJED FAH KJ=?E = E Sn

F C @EJE A K FAH KJ=?E K K Sc FHE E AJE I A@A A A = A = ( ) FH E L = FAH KJ=?E = JEF= c = (c1 , c2 , . . . , cn ) =FE E A = FH E L @ ?E KI= J= @= IK ?E KIE KHA A E F LA E E E J AIJ  H= E ?E KIE IK K J =FEIK FHE A @K ED

$%

"! HE A

A E

K AHE E

F=H= AJHE = IE AJHE

A CHKFA

A = A = 1 2 . . . n

A = FAH KJ=?E = E 1 ( ) =FEI= = =

=) K FH E L FAH KJK A ci ?E KI= @K E A i A =HK =L= K E F HA@= ?E KI= F LA E E E @ >E A EIJK FAH KJ=?E K = J= =L = E ?E KIA @K E A i K A FAH KJ L=JE = ci ! = E = 2A H KJ=?E E ?E KI= K @C L=H= FAH KJ L= A @C L=H= K ED > L= F i IKI A@ ED A A A =J= K FAH KJ=?E E 6 IK A A A JE E IA I= I E = K K ?E KIA @ @K E A i = J= = E I @ >E E c1 !c2 ! cn ! FAH KJ=?E = A IA I= I E = K K >1 > H F AJ C A A A J= K A ?E KIK @ @C L=H= ?E E FAH KJ L= K IKI A@ ED A A A =J= @ E IA I= I E = K K J= ?E KI 7 IL= ?E KIK FAH KJ=?E A FHLE A A A J ?E KI= @K E A i A @=>H=JE LE@ AJE FHE A@>K " # = i H= E EJED = E = = J= = E @ >E A 1c1 2c2 ncn FAH KJ=?E = K 1 ( ) = FHE AH = FAH KJ=?E K = (1)(23)(456)(789) E S(1,1,2) LHE A@E

= (123456789) = (123789456) = (123897645).

= I LK FHE ?EF= FH E L @= = K KA @= A = FH E L = Sc

|1 ( )| = 1c1 c1 !2c2 c2 ! k ck ck ! ncn cn !.

5=@= A A A =JA I KF=

{(, ( )) : Sn }
FHA>H E = @L= = E = 2AH KJ=?E K Sn A @=>H=JE = n! = E = = A = I E = ( ) A A@E IJLA @HA A = 2AH KJ=?E K ( ) Sc >EH= = |Sc | = E = = FAH KJ=?E = E Sn E = A J I E = E = 1c1 c1 !2c2 c2 ! k ck ck ! ncn cn ! 5J C= A

n! = |Sc | 1c1 c1 !2c2 c2 ! k ck ck ! ncn cn !.

5= c(n, k ) KI= 6= >H

= E >H FAH KJ=?E = K Sn A E = K J= k ?E IA = EL= 5JEH E C L >H FHLA LHIJA >A = =

6- 4- ) " ! " *H ALE c(n, k) =@ L =L= K I A@A K HA KH EL K

HA =?E K
c(n, k ) = (n 1)c(n 1, k ) + c(n 1, k 1),

K F AJ A KI LA c(n, k ) = 0 = n =@= A c(0, 0) = 1 )

$&

0 EE k

0 ( IE

= k =n=0

"!

A E

K AHE E

F=H= AJHE = IE AJHE

A CHKFA

, = =@= FAH KJ=?E E E Sn1 I= k 1 ?E KI= @ FE A ?E KI (n) @K E A A@= @ >E A IA FAH KJ=?E = E Sn I= k ?E KI= = J= = E @ >E A ILA FAH KJ=?E A I KF= [n] I= k ?E KI= @ ED A n I = J= = ED A K KF c(n 1, k 1) 5=@= FHAJF IJ=LE @= n E A I = J= = FAH KJ=?E A E Sn = E = J= k ?E KI= A K EJE @= A J= L= FAH KJ=?E = @ >E A = @ FEIEL= A n E = A C @ A A A =J= E [n 1] K A E @ k ?E KI= FAH KJ=?E A I KF= [n 1] 5L= @ c(n 1, k ) FAH KJ=?E = E [n 1] >H n IA A @ FEI=JE = n 1 = E 5J C= A >H ILED FAH KJ=?E = E Sn I= J= k ?E KI= E =n EA I = J= = A@ = (n 1) c(n 1, k ) 5=@= IA HA KH EL = HA =?E = E JA HA A @ >E A F K FHE ?EF= IK A
8= = K AHE = =H= JAHEIJE = A A FAH KJ=?E A A E >H E LAH E = 2HEI AJE IA @= A inv ( ) = =L= >H E LAH E = @ I = FA H KJ=?E K Sn A

inv ( ) = |{(i, j ) : 1

i<j

n, (i) > (j )}|.

241 -,*) " ! # = ILA i [n 1] A = A Xi = {0, 1, . . . , n i} E A = A Tn = X1 X2 Xn1 = FAH KJ=?E K Sn E >H j E [n 1] I= aj = E >H E LAH E = K E = A I E = @HKCA H@E =JA A@ = = j
aj = |{k [n] : k < 1 (j ), (k ) > j }|.
) A FAH KJ=?E = =FEI= = = HE A 1 2 . . . n J=@= A aj >H = L= E IK E AL @ j E E IK LA E @ j E I ( ) = (a1 , a2 , . . . , an1 ) IA = EL= J=> = E LAH E = FAH KJ=?E A 2HE E AJE @= A 0 ai n i = ILA i [n] E @= A

inv ( ) = a1 + a2 + + an1 .
2HAI E =L= A I : Sn Tn A >E A ?E = F= A IL= = FAH KJ=?E = A@E IJLA @HA A = IL J=> E LAH E = ) A inv ( ) = (4, 0, 2, 2, 0, 3, 0, 1) J=> = E LAH E = A A FAH KJ=?E A = 1 2 . . . 9 E a1 = 4 A = K EJE @= IA FHE A >H = A@= F =LA J= AJEHE >H = LA = @ A@= 5J C= A >H A@= = 5 = 1 2 =L = K E L= F IJKF= = IA @ >E A @= A = 2 5 7 3 1 4 9 8 6 ,= A J=> = E LAH E = A H KJ=?E A E Sn A@= = E = A =FEI=JE FA

$'

"!

A E

K AHE E

F=H= AJHE = IE AJHE

A CHKFA

6- 4- ) " ! $
Sn

= ILA n N n > 1 LHE A@E

xinv() = (1+ x + xn1 ) (1+ x + + xi ) (1+ x + x2 )(1+ x).

, = 7 H= L K F E = (1+ x + x2 + xn1 ) (1+ x + x2 )(1+ x) IA F =LE n! I=>EH= = > E = xa1 xa2 xan1 C@ A A ai {0, 1, . . . , n i} = I LK FHAJD @ A FHE A@>A F IJ E A@E IJLA = FAH KJ=?E = A (a1 , a2 , . . . , an1 ) J=> = E LAH E = =DL= K K E HAIF @A ?E E
xinv() = xa1 +a2 ++an1 = xa1 xa2 xan1
E A K I=>EH= = = E AL E @AI @= A JLH A A JA HA A J= IJH= E A@ = IJE A = K EJE

1 FHAJD @ A JA HA A A = K EJE @= A A ?E A J K xk K H= L K (1 + x)(1 + x + x2 ) (1 + x + + xi ) (1 + x + x2 + xn1 ) A@ = >H K FAH KJ=?E = E Sn I= J= k E LAH E = 6= >H = E I= b(n, k )

6- 4- ) " ! %

A = IK k, n N

=k

n LHE A@E

b(n + 1, k ) = b(n + 1, k 1) + b(n, k ).

A k > n J=@= LHE A@E

b(n + 1, k ) = b(n + 1, k 1) + b(n, k ) b(n, k n 1).

, = A = A Bn+1,k I KF ILED FAH KJ=?E = E Sn+1 I= J= k E LA H E = 2HL H= JHE I K = =@= A k n 5LA J= LA FAH KJ=?E A F @E A E K @LE A CHKFA H= E K K E ED F J A @= E A n + 1 I = J= = E E A
Pn+1,k = { Bn+1,k : (n + 1) = n + 1}, Qn+1,k = { Bn+1,k : (n + 1) = n + 1}.
) FAH KJ=?E K E Pn+1,k =FE A = HE A = H= K IA = = E n + 1 *HEI= A n + 1 I= F I A@ AC AIJ= @ >E A FAH KJ=?E K E Bn,k = A L FHAI E =L= A >E A ?E = LHE A@E |Pn+1,k | = |Bn,k | A = A Qn+1,k E A = IA n +1 = = E = i J AIJK = A i = n + 1 E IKI A@ C A A A J= i+1 @ >E A IA FAH KJ=?E = E Sn+1 I= %

"!

A E

K AHE E

F=H= AJHE = IE AJHE

A CHKFA A K

A@ E LAH E = A 7 KI L k n J @= A >E A ?E K" E Qn+1,k E Bn+1,k1 5J C= A |Qn+1,k | = |Bn+1,k1 | F= @ >E =

|Bn+1,k | = |Bn,k | + |Bn+1,k1 |,

@= A I E A@E HA KH EL = HA =?E = = b(n, k ) =@= A k A )

A k > n FAH KJ=?E A E Bn+1,k1 A F E K I= n + 1 IA CK @ >EJE @ A A FAH KJ=?E A E Qn+1,k CKH= A  n + 1 A@ AIJ K = =@ >HEI= A n + 1 I= FHL C AIJ= A A FAH KJ=?E A E Bn+1,k1 @ >E = IA FAH KJ=?E = E Bn,kn1 E L A >E A ?E = F= A =J |Qn+1,k | = |Bn+1,k1 | |Bn,kn1 |. 5=@= IA = 7 I A@A @ >E A HA KH EL = HA =?E = = >H ALA b(n, k ) E = k > n J=>A E IK FHE = = A A A LHE A@ IJE = >H ALA b(n, k )

n\k     !  "  #  $ 

  ! " # # ' "

!  $ # '

"

&

'



#  "'

! %

  # ' "  '   ' %

,-.1 1+1 ) " ! &

A = A = 1 2 n FAH KJ=?E = E Sn 2=@ K FAH KJ=?E E A i [n 1] = E LHE A@E i > i+1 5= D( ) = {i [n 1]|i > i+1 } = E I KF F=@ L= K *H F=@ L= K FAH KJ=?E E = =L= I= des( ) = |D( )| = FHE *H AH = = 5136472 S7 A D( ) = {1, 4, 6} E des( ) = 3

FAH KJ=?E = K Sn I= J=

k 1 F=@ L= A

AH L >H

A(n, k )

A(n, k ) = |{ Sn : des( ) = k 1}|.

4

1 KI L= k n I E A@E @= IA n + 1 A KJ=?E A E Bn+1,k1

A = = EJE = FHL

AIJK A A FAH

%

"!

A E

K AHE E

F=H= AJHE = IE AJHE

A CHKFA

6- 4- ) " ! '
HA =?E K

AH LE >H ALE =@ L

=L= K I A@A K HA KH EL K

A(n, k + 1) = (k + 1)A(n 1, k + 1) + (n k )A(n 1, k ).

, = A = A = 1 2 . . . n1 FAH KJ=?E = E Sn1 = E = k F=@ L= ) >H n @ @= = H= J=@= LHE A@E n1 < n E E E A K i E i+1 = i D( ) J=@= A i > i+1 E i < n > i+1  >H F=@ L= K IA A A FH A EJE 6= @ IL= A FAH KJ=?E A E Sn1 I= k F=@ L= @ >E A k + 1 FAH KJ=?E K E Sn I= k F=@ L= ) = 1 2 . . . n1 E Sn1 E = k 1 F=@ @= >E @ FEIEL= A A A A J= n @ >E E FAH KJ=?E K E Sn I= k F=@ L= >H n JHA>= KFEI=JE = F AJ= E E E A K i E i+1 = i [n 2] E E A K I KFK D( ) 6= IA @ Sn1 I= k 1 F=@ L= @ >E A n k FAH KJ=?E = E Sn I= k F=@ L= 2HE A FHE ?EF= IK A @ >E = HA KH EL K HA =?E K = AH LA >H ALA
AH LA >H ALA A =FEI=JE E =
n

A ?E A JA

AH L C F E

An (x) =
Sn

1+des( )

=
k=1

A(n, k )xk .

FHLED

AH LED F E

= IK

A1 (x) = x, A2 (x) = x + x2 , A3 (x) = x + 4x2 + x3 , A4 (x) = x + 11x2 + 11x3 + x4 , A5 (x) = x + 26x2 + 66x3 + 26x4 + x5 , A6 (x) = x + 57x2 + 302x3 + 302x4 + 57x5 + x6 , A7 = x + 120x2 + 1191x3 + 2416x4 + 1191x5 + 120x6 + x7.
= E EL A @= IK ILE HE A E AH LED F E = HA= E >H ALE , = JA JLH@ A = E C LE A @AJ= = >E =J H E IL IJLE = IE AJHE A CHKFA IA A = E K 

""

=@=?E

" " =@=?E

 E = E = IA m @ A = = E n @ AL E?= A F HA@=JE K HA@ E E = JED H=IF HA@= K E = IK ILA @ AL E?A F HA@= A A@ = @ @HKCA E E = F=H ED FHEH @ ED >H AL= E IA CK =FEI=JE F K ?EB=H=  ! " # $ = IA IL= = ?EBH= KF JHE A>E J= A@ = E = E = CK JHE /H = AJEHE 4KI= E FAJ 4K K = IJ=JE K HA@ J= @= IK =H @ E?E IJ A A@= @ @HKC C E AJLAH ?EBHA ED >H AL= E = ILA ?EBHA H= E EJA E A J= LED >H AL= F=H = E ED IA FE A I= I AF=H E ?EBH= = = E E = FAH KJ=?E = K Sn I= I= A@ E ?E KI > E K Sn E = FAH KJ=?E = HA@= @L= ? E E = FAH KJ=?E = K S6 I= J= @L= ?E KI= = FAH KJ=?E K = 796421385 S9 @HA@E >H ?E KI= HA@ >H F=@ L= J=> K E >H E LAH E = = E E c = (c1 , c2 , . . . , cn ) A >H FAH KJ=?E = K Sn JEF= c = IE = = E E = FAH KJ=?E = K Sn I= J= JHE E LAH E A E E = FAH KJ=?E = K Sn K E = A >H 1 K ?E KIK @K E A k = E = E = A @=>H=JE FAH KJ=?E K Sn = @= A E F @I KF I KF= A ED ?E KI= FE E ILA FAH KJ=?E A Sn = A F IJ E Sn J= =L @= A = 2 2=H= >H K@E A I A@E = HKC E IJ 2 I E A F=K A ILE IK IA LH=JE E = IJ A K = EIJ AIJ C@ A IK >E E , = E @= F IJ A @L= L A = E A K ED I A@E EIJE >H K@E = E FHE A F=K A E E = FAH KJ=?E = K Sn K E = A >H 1 FHE A 2 = >H 3 FHE A 4 E E = FAH KJ=?E = K Sn E = A 1 FHE A >H AL= 2 E 3 E = = A= E = LE A E LAH E = A @= E = FAH KJ=?E = E Sn = E = J= n 2 F=@= A = A FAH KJ=?E = E S2n+1 I= J= n F=@ L= K IK F=@ E H=IJ =E A E E E = = A= E = LE A E LAH E = A @= >K@A K J= L FAH KJ=?E E 7 H= HA@K A k @ A = = E n k @ AL E?= ) IA E F HA@= K K HA@ I= S = E >H F=H L= IKI A@ ED K A E = H= E EJ C F = = E FH I A K LHE A@ IJ = S = IA F I =JH= K ILE CK E H=IF HA@E 1 H= K =JE =

! " # $ % & '    ! " # $ %

%!

" # 4 A A = =@=J= =

1 n!
& '  

(1 2 )2 + (2 3 )2 + + (n1 n )2 .
Sn

! " #

= FH E L = S = {i1 , i2 , . . . , ik } [n] i1 < i2 < < ik @HA@E S := |{ Sn |D( ) S }|. *H ai A F AJ E = IE K K FAH KJ=?E E = a1 a2 . . . ai . . . an Sn = A ai > aj = ILA j < i , = E @= A >H FAH KJ=?E = K Sn I= J= k F AJ ED = IE K = A@ = c(n, k ) E E = FAH KJ=?E = K Sn K E = A k @=>H= ED A A A =J= K EIJ ?E KIK E E = FAH KJ=?E = K Sn E = IK ILE ?E KIE F=H A @K E A A = A n F=H= >H , = E @= A >H FAH KJ=?E = K Sn E = IK ILE ?E KIE F=H A @K E A A@ = >H K FAH KJ=?E = K Sn E E IK ILE ?E KIE AF=H A @K E A , = E @= = AH LA >H ALA LHE A@E A(n, k + 1) = A(n, n k ) A = A An (x) AH L F E = Sn 1 H= K = An (1) A = A n FHEH @= >H E FHEH @ ED >H AL= x1 , x2 , . . . , xn @K E A n A @ >=H K E LHE A@E I A@A A = IA K J E K F =LE k > 1 H= IA F =LEJE E k 1 6= A FHL F =L EL= A >H = k 1 A FHE A F I A@ AC F =L EL= = >H = k E E = @ >HED E L= @K E A n 7 A@ ECHE K AIJLK A n n > 1 ECH= = 5L= E @ ECH= = E = A@ K FJK 5LED n A HA@ I E A@K = E A A FJA 2 F=H L= ECH= = F A E =K K J JHA KJ K = ECHK A HA E @= A E AF= = = H= K E A = FJK K A E = = F AJ K 5= @HKCA IJH= A ECH= A @ I=@ = = = H= K IL= E ECH= E = EIJK FJK K AE = = F AJ K ECHA @HA@E = A n N F IJ E E AF=  @ I @ I=@ = ECH=

" # 4 A A = =@=J= =
 ! @C L HE IK (m + n)! 4 A A A A 3 5! = 360 = 3! 3! 4! 5! = 103 680 = E = E = IK ILA " 4 A A = IK 9 9 8 7 = 4536 AJLAH ?EBHA ED >H AL= ?EBHA H= E EJA A K E = A 9 8 7 + 8 8 7 4 = 2296 F=H ED E 5 4 3 2 = 120 I= AF=H E ?EBH= = %" @ I

(m + 1)!n!

" # 4 A A = =@=J= = # = (n 1)! >

6 1 n k=0 2k
n 2

(2k 1)!!.

6 ? 4! + 6 2 3! + 3 2! 2! = 314. $ 2AH KJ=?E = = 796421385 = (1736)(295)(4)(8) E = " ?E KI= HA@ A  E = # F=@ L= J=> = E LAH E = A I ( ) = (5, 4, 4, 3, 4, 2, 0, 1) E inv ( ) = 23 % = c = (1, 0, . . . , 0, 1, 0) 1 & HEIJE A J=> K E LAH E = 2 IJ E n J=> E I= JHE A@E E?A 3 n1 2 2 (n 2) J=> E I= A@ A@E E? E A@ @LE?  A A >H @L= >EJE = H= K J=> A E n 3 J=> A I= A@ JHE?  IJ= E = LE K J=> E E LAH E = IK K A ,= A = n 3 H A A A A

n1 n1 +2 (n 2) + (n 3) = 3 2

n+1 n. 3

1 ' n k1 (k 1)!(n k )! = (n 1)!  ) K @=>H= E ?E KIE = E = k A A A =J= >H J= LED E > H= n A n k=0 n! = (n + 1)! @C L H = k k !(n k )! = n! 5J C= A F IJ=L A FEJ= A  = A

(a1 a2 . . . a2n a2n+1 ) = (a1 an+2 a2 an+3 . . . a2n+1 an+1 )2 ,

AF=H E ?E KIE K IA CK =FEI=JE = L=@H=JE 2=H= ?E KI A A >EJE L=@H=J A C ?E KI= F=H IJ FAH KJ=?E = A KJE FHE E AJE @= LHE A@E

(a1 a2 . . . a2n )(b1 b2 . . . b2n ) = (a1 b1 a2 b2 . . . a2n b2n )2 .

5J C= ILA FAH KJ=?E A Sn A = IL= E F=H= >H r E = K F=H= >H ?E KI= @K E A r CK >EJE L=@H=JE A A FAH KJ=?E A  AIJ= = IJ = E I= 0, 1, . . . , 2n 1 AIJ= C@ A K@E I A@A F I E A F=K A IK A = FAH KJ=?E = LED >H AL= 0 , 1 , . . . , 2n1 , = E @= F IJ A i = j J= LE @= A i j i j ( @ 2n) @ I i i j j ( @ 2n) ) J= LE A F IJ A >H ALE i i ( @ 2n) = i = 0, 1, . . . , 2n 1 E = K ILA LHE A@ IJE 0, 1, . . . , 2n 1 6=@= A n @ 2n) A K i=0 (i i ) n(2n 1)( JE K 0 , 1 , . . . , 2n1 IA F =LA ILE A A A JE @ 0 @ 2n 1 F= J= IK = H= >EJE 0 4 n ! n! ! n ( n 4)! = n @ I 4 2 4 3 2 (n 3)! = 3 %#

" # 4 A A = =@=J= = " 2AH KJ=?E = n(n 1) 4312 E = n 2 F=@= E n 2 1 E LAH E = n n n @ 1 321 n ( n 1) ( + 1) E = n 2 F=@= E 2 2n 2 n n 2 2 + E LAH E = 2 2 # 2AH KJ=?E = 2143 . . . 2n(2n 1)(2n + 1) E = n  = = A E LAH E = +1 n = FAH KJ=?E = (2n +1)(2n 1)2n(2n 3)(2n 2) . . . 12 E = 2n2  = LE A E LAH E = $ 7 E AIJ= i E i + 1 , A = = E @ AL E?K = J= AIJ= A @=>H=JE = 2k (n k ) = E = IJ= A K A E A A H=IF HA@EJE = (n 2)! = E = 2 IJ E n 1 F=H IKI A@ ED AIJ= F= A JH= A E >H 2k (n k ) 2k (n k )(n 2)!(n 1) S= = . n! n % - A A JE I KF= {i, j } IA F =LA = IKI A@E K 2(n 1)! FAH KJ=?E = E IK E @ FHE AIK (i j )2 *H k 2 IA A @ >EJE = (i j )2 = i, j [n] = (n k ) = E = 6= A JH= A = IK =

1 2(n 1)! n!

n1

k 2 (n k ) =
k=1

(n 1)n(n + 1) . 6

& 2HLED i1 A A A =J= FAH KJ=?E A I= F=@ LE = K S >EH= = in 1 = E E KHA@E F LA E E E AH JK A = F=@= 5 A@A ED i2 i1 >EH= i1 = in = E = EJ@ . . . 5J C= A 2 i1

S =
'

n n i1 n i2 n! . = i1 ! (i2 i1 )! (n ik )! i1 i2 i1 i2 i3

A = A FAH KJ=?E = E Sn I= k ?E KI= =FE E K IJ= @=H@ > E K K IL= @ ?E KI= F IJ=LE = LA E >H = F AJ= E F HA@= ?E KIA F LA E E E F AJ ED >H AL= ) >HE A =CH=@A @ >E A FAH KJ=?E K  =FEI= K = HE A  K IK F AJ E = IE K E >EL E F A?E ?E KI= L A >E A ?E = E A K FAH KJ=?E = I= k ?E KI= E FAH KJ=?E = I= k F AJ ED = IE K =  *H J= LED FAH KJ=?E = A =LEIE @ @=>H= ED A A A =J= F= A FHAJF IJ=LEJE @= I @=>H= E nk +1, nk +2, . . . , n1, n 2AH KJ=?E K K IK JE A A = JE K EIJ ?E KIK FHAI E = >E A ?E FEI= K FHAJD @ =@=J K 6= I @ >E E >E A ?E K E A K JH= A C I KF= E I KF= FAH KJ=?E = K E = A n FHE A n k + 1, n k + 2, . . . , n 1 6ED FAH KJ=?E = E =

n n! (k 1)!(n k )! = . k k
%$

" # 4 A A = =@=J= =  ) A n AF=H= J= >H A K = = F=H= n = 2k =?HJ= 2k J= = = K H=L E E IF E F @LE A E E = = K F=H LA 6 A KH=@EJE = (2k 1)!! = E = ) J KH=@E A@ @ >E A CH=B A IK F A JA F LA = IJE ?E KIE F=H A @K E A F A JA F LA = IJE J C CH=B= E JAHFHAJEH= = ?E KIA FAH KJ=?E A E Sn +E KIA HE A JE A J= @= E A A J= A E = E  I= E E KI FHLK =?HJ= E 6= A JH= A E >H FAH KJ=?E = A@ = 2 (2k 1)!! ) A FAH KJ=?E = I= ?E KIE = AF=H A @K E A E = ED F=H= >H  =FE E A K IJ= @=H@ > E K 2 I A@ E >H E FHL C ?E KI= FHA>=?E = H= @HKC C F I A@ E >H JHA AC ?E KI= FHA >=?E = H= AJLHJ C EJ@ = J= = E @ >E A FAH KJ=?E K I= ?E KIE = F=H A @K E A = A L FHAI E =L= A >E A ?E = =@=J= A HE A A ! A = A = 1 2 . . . n FAH KJ=?E = I= k 1 F=@ L= ) IA IL= E i = E A E I= n i @ >E A IA FAH KJ=?E = I= n k 1 F=@ L= L FHAI E =L= A A EC A@ E L K?E = F= J= E >E A ?E = = A An (1) = n " k=1 k A(n, k ) IL= K FAH KJ=?E K Sn >H E des( )+1 FKJ @ I An (1) = Sn (des( )+1) 5L= E @L = E I KF {i, j } >K@A F=@ K (n 1)! FAH KJ=?E = F= A

An (1) =
#

n (n 1)! + n! = 2

n+1 (n 1)!. 2

A = A x1 , x2 , . . . , xn @ >=H E @K E A n E A = A m = LA E >H K J E K 1 @A E?E A @ >H C E = = @= IA K J E K F =LA ILE >H ALE E [m] = ILA k = 1, 2, . . . , m K E I KF LA Ak = {j [n] : xj = k } 6E I KF LE IK A KI > @EI K J E ED L= K E = A [n] ) K IL= @ Ak A A A JA KHA@E K F=@= K E E Ak @ >E A FAH KJ=?E K E Sn F @E A A K K F=@= K A > LA A1 A2 . . . Am J= @= A E Ak1 < =N Ak = ILA k L @= A >E A ?E K E A K @ >HED E L= E ILED FAH KJ=?E = E Sn $ = A K FJA ECH= = p E q A E JAHFHAJEH=JE = JH= IF E?E K (p g ) Sn 7 JAH E E = IE AJHE A CHKFA ECH= A E AF= = IA ILED n A KHA@EJE K E 1 2 , . . . , (n) J= @= A 2 JH= IF E?E = 2 FH E L @ 1 2 (n) FAH KJ=?E = >A I A J= A 2 5E ECH= A @ I=@ = = IA ILA JH= IF E?E A E Sn CK H=IF HA @EJE K E J= @= E A FH E L @ E@A JE = FAH KJH=?E = 2 = E @= = ILA n > 1 F IJ E E AF= ECH= IE = n = 3 = n = 2 A JHELE = = n = 3 E AF= ECH= A F IJ E AH A (ab)(ac)(bc) = (ac) %%

" # 4 A A = =@=J= = A = A n > 3 2 I =JH= FAH KJ=?E K n Sn

n = (12)(13)(23)(14)(24) (1n)(2n) ((n 1) n).

1 @K ?E F n IA AF = =JE @= = F=H= n = 2k LHE A@E

n = n1 (1n(n 1) . . . 2) = (1n)(2 (n 1)) (k (k + 1))

J A FAH KJ=?E = >A I A J= A ) FAH KJ=?E = >A I A J= A A >EJE A n = 2k + 1 AF=H= >H

n1 (1n)(2n) (kn)((n 1) n)((n 2) n) ((k + 1) n).

AE @= FH E L @ ILED JH= IF E?E = >K@A E@A JE = FAH KJ=?E = J=@= n H= >EJE F=H= >H @ I >H n A > E = 2 n = 4k E E n = 4k + 1 2 = E @= F IJ E @ I=@ = ECH= = ILA J= LA >H ALA = n = 4k ILA ECH= A F @E A E K CHKFA F AJEHE 7 KJ=H EIJA CHKFA FJA H= A K K = I A@A E = E )

(34)(13)(24)(23)(14)(12) = Id.
= A FH E L @ JH= IF E?E =

(47)(37)(46)(16)(28)(38)(27)(26)(45)(48)(17)(18)(35)(36)(25)(15)
E@A JE = FAH KJ=?E = J FEIK A H= A K H= E EJED CHKF= 7 @ = K JLH A = = n = 4k + 1 A@= ECH= 4A =?E = FJE E A K ECH= = E

A IJ= AH=IF HA A

(3x)(34)(4x)(13)(24)(23)(14)(1x)(12)(2x) = Id
EIK A = J= ECH= x H= A KA J= @= ECH= IJ= A @ I=@ = FJK I= ECH= E = E IL= A CHKFA

%&

# *1 112 1 1 -.1+1 - 61

#

>E

A ?E A JE =

7 @ I=@= E FHE AHE = I C E =F= EJE @= IA K H A A K A C =@=J = E >E =J HE A AIJ F =LA >H ALE n C AKJ A J k 4= IK >E E A ?E A JE n @C L H = FEJ= A k

E
6 I

= ED F @I KF L= E = I KF @ n A A A =J=
# # -L A@ C @ = = JA JLH@ A

LA @ = = E K JA HA E

6- 4- ) #  
>H ILED k
n k =

A = A X I KF I= n A A A =J= ) A 0 = ED F @I KF L= I KF= X A >E E A ?E A J

n(n 1) (n k + 1) n! = . k !(n k )! k!

# 

, = A = A X k I KF ILED k = ED F @I KF L= @ X 7 JA HA E "   I F = = E @= A >H ILED k FAH KJ=?E = K I KFK X n! A@ = (n k)!

5LA k FAH KJ=?E A I KF= X 2HL @=>AHA
X k

@ >EJE E = I A@A E = E
X k

FH E L

= AA A J E

J

Ak

= E F @I KF

@ X = = E = = =JE C= E A=H FHE ?EFK @L IJHK C FHA>H =L= = A

KHA@E

= k! = E = 2

n! = (n k )!

X k

k!

X k

n! . k !(n k )!

# *E

>E E

E A ?E A J

A ?E A JE =
n k

EJ= =JE

 en =@ ka E IK >E E A ?E A JE @C L HE =

2HE

I A@A = FEJ= =

AH # 

2HAF

= 7 H=L E A =@= I KF J= = = S = {A1 , A2 , . . . , An } ) E A JHE @ JED J= = = EIK E A=H A E E = JH KC L= E = IK J A A = J= A E S > E E = FKJAL= @ J= A (0, 0) @ J= A (m, n) N0 N0 K H@E =J H=L E = IK @ L A E H=?E K J FKJK = A@= @AI E E = A@= C HA J AIJ @ J= A (a, b) A IJE E K (a, b+1) E E K (a + 1, b) ? = F E?E IA = = E ! EC= = E = E = A @=>H=JE ED @AIAJ J= @= A K @=>H= E EC= = A = IKI A@ ED

4AA A

= A K J= = = E S A F IJ A JHE E A=H A F= A IL= E JH = E F @I KF @ S I KF J A A = A@ C JH KC = 5J C= JH= A ED JH KC L= E = EIJ E E JH = ED F @I KF L= @ S @= A n 3 > H= (0, 1) K F I =JH= FKJK A =FEI=JE I L / C HA = H= (1, 0) I= , @AI  5L= E FKJ @ (0, 0) @ (m, n) A =FEI=JE = E @ m + n I L= G E E D FHE A K IA I L D F =LE J= m FKJ= F JHA> A =FH=LEJE m H= = @AI  1 > H m F E?E = = I L D K E K @K E A m + n A E > H m = C F @I KF= @ I KF= @ m + n A A A =J= 6= A K KF= >H JH= A ED +n FKJAL= mm ? = EI E @= I @=>H= E JED @AIAJ EC= @ JHE@AIAJ J= @= E A K ED A = IKI A@ ED E @= ED EIJ LHA A E L = E  I= F E?A =@= I ED I H E LK E FHA@ EI E IA E LH=JE ED = =@ 6=@= K IJL=HE = F E?E IJ E 20 EC= E E @ @= A @AIAJ LED J= @= E A @LE A @ JED LED EIK IKI A@ A FHE ?EF >E A ?E A = JA LA ECA A H=IF HA@EJE = 21 AIJ H A A A = @=J = A 21 10 7 I A@A JA HA E FEI= A A = I L = IL IJL= >E ED A ?E A =J=
1

= A C AI IA n EJ=
?D IA  J K FHAL @K = E @ n >EH= k IA =C = =L= @= A J >H k = ED F @I KF L= K n = I KFK

k 6E A

&

#

>E

A ?E A JE =

6- 4- ) #  !  I
= >E A
(i) (ii) (iii) (iv )

A ?E A JA LHE A@A I A@A A HA =?E A

k k k k 0 A 1 A 1 A 0 A =
n k n k n k

L = IL IJL= >E
= = =
n nk n n 1 k k 1 n1 n1 k k1 +

ED

A ?E A =J=

= ILA n = ILA n = ILA n = ILA n

k i=0

n+i i

n n+1 n+k + ++ 0 1 k

n+k+1 k

CK = , = 6LH A = (i), (ii) E (iii) IA #  6 IJ=L = = L A >K = I=@= A JED B H K =

@ >EJE @EHA J E B H K A @=JE >E =J H A @ = A AC L

(i) 2HAI E =L= A A k = F @I KFK S [n] @ @ A E ] [n] F A A J [n] \ S A >E A ?E = E A K [n k E nk (ii) )

FHA>H E A A A JA I KF=

{(x, S ) : x S, S [n], |S | = k }
= @L= @ I = E =  = K JA HA E n n n 1 k = k k 1 # # @ >E =

n1 k1

= k

n k

(iii) 5LA k = A F @I KF LA @ [n] F @E A E K @LE A CHKFA I > EH ] = J @= E I=@H A n E E A 2 @I KF L= E [n E I=@H A n E = k n1 n1 = ED E A I=@H A n E = LE@ AJE E B H K K (ii) K k1 k JA HA E  # $ (iv ) 6LH A A
A @ = =JE K =IJ F FHE A B H K A (iii)

n+k+1 k =

n+k n+k + k k1

= = =

n+k n+k1 n+k1 + + k k1 k2

n+k n+k1 n+1 n + + + + . k k1 1 0

&

#

>E

A ?E A JE =

LK B H K K A @ = =JE E >E =J H J= J A IL= @ >E ED A ?E A =J= E B H K A (iv )  = E @C L=H= K K >E =J H K E JAHFHAJ=?E K n+k+1 FHAF = = >H ILED k = ED F @I KF L= I KF= *H k [n + k + 1] = FH E L = >H i = 0, 1, 2, . . . , k F I =JH= ILA k = A F @ I KF LA @ [n + k + 1] E = A n + i + 1 = LA E >H AC A I=@H A ,= A JE I KF LE I=@H A ILA >H ALA n + i + 2, n + i + 3, . . . , n + k + 1 6= LE I KF LE I=@H A J= i A A A =J= E I KF= [n + i] F= A n+i >H J= LED I KF L= A@ = 6H= A E E@A JEJAJ IA I=@= @ >E A i FHE A FHE ?EF= IK A

E AF = E @= IA >E A ?E A JE =FE K A F K >AI = A JH KC= A J=> E?A =

ELE?= = J C JH KC = IA = = A A@E E?A A @C L=H= K >E E n n A ?E A JE = 0 E n = ILA n N0 6=> E?K @= A F FK =L= = I A@A E = E *H E A K K KJH= IJE JH KC = @ >E A IA I=>EH= A @L= >H = E AL E @AI E =@ AC= 2HE A =JA =JE A E @K ?E A E F K IL IJL= (iii) E FHAJD @ A JA HA A = K K A @= IK >H ALE K (n + 1) LHIJE L= B H EH= A J=> E?A >E E A ?E A JE n n n n , , . . . , , . 0 1 n1 n E

241

-,*) #  " 2=I = L JH KC= 

1 1 1 1 1 1 5 4 10 3 6 10 2 3 4 5 1 1 1 1

1 1 6 15 20 15 6 1
L= J=> E?= IA = EL= 2=I = L JH KC= 5 E = J=> E?= A >E = F =J= K IJ=H E E A E LE A L= FHE A 2=I = L C H A = 1 JLH A = (i) K JA HA E # $ I E A@E @= A >EH >H AL= K (n + 1) L LHIJE A@ = 2n n 5E AJHE IJ 2=I = L C JH KC = A F I A@E?= B H K A n k = nk
2

* =EIA 2=I?= $ ! $$ 

&

#

>E

A ?E A JE =

2 I =JH= K E 2=I = L JH KC= A K EJE @= E >H AL= K IL= LHIJE 2=I = L C JH KC = FHL H=IJA @ IHA@E A JA LHIJA = =JE F=@= 2HA?E E A LHE A@E I A@A = JA HA =

6- 4- ) #  #
n 0

= F=H= FHEH @= >H

n 1 2

n LHE A@E > >

n n1

<

n 1

< <

<

n
n 2

>

n +1 2

>

n n

5E
n 0

= AF=H= n N LHE A@E

<
n 1

< <

n1 2

n+1 2

> >

n n1

>

n n

, =

EC A@

LHE A@E

n k
= A E

>

n k1

E I= ED

n k n k 1

> 1.

E IKI A@ ED >E
n k n k1

A ?E A =J=

n!(k1)!(nk+1)! n!k!(nk)!

nk+1 , k n+1 2

@ >E =

@= >E

A ?E A JE H=IJK @

Ak<

n k

>

n k1

nk+1 > 1 n + 1 > 2k. k

n 1 IE AJHE A n A = K EJE @= A >E E A ?E A JE k = nk n+1 F=@=JE 6LH A A JA HA A @ >E = H= E K K E I K = ALA =k > 2 =@= A >H n F=H= @ I AF=H=

- A A JA E F=HJEJEL C I KF= P ([n]) A KF HA EL=JE F K HA =?E A ) JE = =? K P ([n]) A B= E E = F @I KF L= @ [n] K E A@= I KF E A I=@H = K A @HKC I KFK JA B= E E A ,HKC= E A HA A A P ([n]) A = JE = =? = LHE A@E

A A, B A B / A.
= FHE AH ILE k = E F @I KF LE @ [n] @ ILED J= LED = JE = =?= F FHAJD @ n I= n A A A =J=! K A IA = = A ILE
2 3

ED n E A = JE = =? k JA HA E = LA E A = n = E F @I KF LE @ [n] 2
n 2

= AF=H= n EIJK LA E E K E = E = JE = =? A A A =J=

E I=@H E ILA F @I KF LA I=

+1

&!

#

>E

A ?E A JE =

,= E A J E = LA E = JE = =? K P ([n]) ,= E IA A = E A E LA E = JE = =? E >E I=@H =L= F @I KF LA @ I= H= E EJE >H A A A A =J= @C L H = L FEJ= A @= A I A@A = JA HA =

6- 4- ) #  $ \FAH AH
I KFK @ [n] 6=@= A |A| , =
= IE = =
n
n 2

A = A A = JE = =? K F=HJEJEL

= =? F @I KF L= K P ([n]) A E

C : {a1 } {a1 , a2 } {a1 , a2 , . . . , an1 } [n].

5L= J= L = ?K A @ @E A EJE FAH KJ=?E K C = a1 a2 . . . an 6= @A EI= FHAI E =L= A A >E A ?E = F= A n! >H ILED = IE = ED = =?= K P ([n]) A = A X [n] I= k A A A =J= E A = A CX I KF ILED = IE = ED = =?= E I=@H A X ) A C CX J=@= IA K C FHL F =LE k A A A =J= E X = =JE FHA IJ= ED n k 5J C= ILED = IE = ED = =?= E I=@H A A E =@= k = E I KF X E = k ! (n k )! = A A = JE = =? J IL= E = IE = = = =? K P ([n]) A @= I=@H E = LE A A@= A A A J E = JE = ?= A =J A

n!
X A

|CX | =
X A

|X |! (n |X |)!.

,E A A A

I= n! @ >E =

@= A LK JA HA A #  #
X A n
n 2

1
X A

1
n |X |

 = I

1
n
n 2

|A|
n
n 2

F= = IL= E = JE = =? A LHE A@E |A| A n K FHAJD @ JA HA E F=H= = = JE = =? A I=@H E ILA F @I = AF=H= n F IJ A @L= = IE = JE = =? E A ILE F @I KF LE @ [n] I= ILA F @I KF LA @ [n] I= n+1 +1 AA 2 2 = E A@ K = E ) E I=

>H A@ = IJ IA F IJE A = KF LA @ [n] I= n 2 A A A =J= = = = JE = ?= K P ([n]) A@= n1 A A A =J= = @HKCE I=@H E 2 A =J= ED A ?E A =J=

ELK I >E K >E

6- 4- ) #  %
n=

= FH E L A FHEH @ A >H ALA n E k F IJ A A@E IJLA E ?E A E >H ALE ak > ak1 > > a2 > a1 0 J= LE @= LHE A@E
ak k + ak1 a2 + + k1 2
&"

a1 . 1

# 

#

>E

A ?E A JE =

, =
N k
@A

= I KFK ILED H=IJK ED k J H E I KF= FHEH @ ED >H AL=

= (x1 , x2 , . . . , xk ) : xi N x1 < x2 < < xk1 < xk

EA HA =?E K F HAJ = <R L= (x1 , x2 , . . . , xk ) <R (y1 , y2 , . . . , yk ) = E I= = F IJ E i k J= @= A xk = yk , xk1 = yk1 , . . . , xi+1 = yi+1 , xi < yi = A FHE E AJEJE @= A <R E A=H KHA A A = I KFK N = FHE AH k @L=@AIAJ E IA@= FHLED A A A =J= K N A 4

1234 < 1235 < 1245 < 1345 < 2345 < 1236 < 1246 < 1346 < 2346 < < 1256 < 1356 < 2356 < 1456 < 2456 < 3456 < 1237 < 1247 < 1347 < < 2347 < 1257 < 1357 < 2357 < 1457 < 2457 < 3457 < 1267 < 1367.
A = A KHA A = k J H = = (a1 + 1, a2 + 1, . . . , ak + 1) E F HAJ K <R = AIJK n + 1 2HE A JA k J H A IA = = E
ak k A a k 1 k 1 N k

A A =J= E = A F I A@ E = = A A A =J= E = A F I A@ E = A@ @ E A = E @ ak1 + 1 a k 2 A A A =J= E = IK F I A@ E E FHAJF k 2 ak +1 E ak1 +1 @ A = = k 2 AIJK =

E @ ak + 1 = ak + 1 = FHAJF I A I A@ E = LE A@ = E = E @ ak2 +1 EJ@ . . .

IA FHE A = = E J= n A A A J= K N JH= A E FHE = >H = k n = K B H K E #  IA @ >E A FHE A FHE ?EF= IK A = FHE AH @L=@AIAJ E IA@ E = K N A (1, 3, 6, 7) F= A 4

26 =

6 5 2 0 + + + . 4 3 2 1

5=@= A E H= = @AI HA= = >H

@A EI=JE K F JA A >E A A ?E A JA 2HE E AJE IJH= E B H K A #  E = I EI = E =@= A n FH E L

@= =

,-.1 1+1 ) #  & = FH E L = HA= = >H E k N0 @A E A K F JA E >E E A ?E A J k I=

k = ( 1) ( 2) ( k + 1) . k!
&# # !

K JEI KF LE >E =J HE?E A L= E A ?E A J n k A ?E A =J= ,EHA J FHE E AJEJE @= = ?E A A >H A E JAHFHAJEH=JE F K E @A E?E A @ >E = @= =

= FHE A K K ALA n K F JA E >E >E ED >E ED ILA n N LHE A@E

n k
1 >E A >E

n(n1)(nk+1) k!

= (1)k

n+k1 . k
K K F JA ED

A ?E A JA

E H= EJE F

= ILA n, k N, n

k LHE A@E

n k

= (1)nk
ED

k 1 . nk
k

@ HEIJE A =JE LHE A@ IJE K F JA ED >E A A H=?E = A >H ALA 7 = H= K = =

1 2

A ?E A =J= A IA @ >EJE

n =

1 2

1 2

3 2

+3 2n 2 = n!

(1)n1 (2n3)!! 2n n! (1)n1 n22n1

= 2n 2 . n1

(1)n1 (2n3)!!(2n2)!! 2n n!(2n2)!!

(1)n1 (2n2)! 22n1 n!(n1)!

=IE =

= E

@ = =JE @= A

1 2 n

(1)n 2n . 22n n

# "

K JEI KF LE

7 A E IEJK=?E = = F = I KF= E A @ L A =I= @= = FHK E F JFK K E B H =?E K FH > A K E F I =JH= = FHE AH I KF ILED H A A = A@ = E A x(x 1)3 (x 2)2 = 0 A {0, 1, 2} = E K J @C L HK A = F @=J = K JEF E?EJAJK F A@E ED K = 5J C= A FHEH @ IL= H A A = FHAJD @ A A@ = E A =FEI=JE = I KF K A IA A E A A A JE F =L = K LE A FKJ= {0, 1, 1, 1, 2, 2} 6= L= IJHK JKH= IA = EL= K JEI KF 5E I KF @ A EJA = >H = " A {1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 8, 12, 24} 7 J @C L HK A = = E E B H =?E K  E FKJ= >H 2 @E A E 24 F= A FAJ C @ F I =JH=JE K JEI KF ILED @ A EJA = {1, 2, 2, 2, 3, 4, 6, 8, 12, 24}

&$

K JEI KF LE

. H = = = K JEI KF = I KFK S IA @A E A = BK ?E = m : S N0 = A A A JK x S @ @E A E K JEF E?EJAJ m(x) A A A J= x *H m(x) = A E FKJ= IA A A A J x F =L = K K JEI KFK m ) A S = {x1 , x2 , . . . , xk } E = A m(xi ) = ai K >E = A A @= IA ak a2 1 , . . . , x } >EH ILED K JEF E?EJAJ= K JEI KF m =FE A I= M = {xa , x 1 2 k A A A =J= E M IA = EL= =H@E = E >H K JEI KF= M @ I |M | = m ( x ) xS 4A E A @= A K JEI KF M = I KFK S F @ K JEI KF @ M = AS S E= A m (x) m(x) = ILA x S

6- 4- ) #  *H H= E EJED F @ K JEI KF L= A C ak a2 1 M = {xa 1 , x2 , . . . , xk } A (a1 + 1)(a2 + 1) (ak + 1).

K JEI KF=

A m : {x1 , x2 , . . . , xk } N0 A E F @ K JEI KF @ M , = ) J=@= A m (xi ) {0, 1, . . . , ai } ,= A = m (xi ) E = = H=IF =C= K ai + 1 H= E EJ E > H 5=@= JLH A A JA HA A I E A@E E FHE ?EF= FH E L @= ) A m(x) = 1 = ILA x S J=@= A K JEI KF M >E = I KF 2HE E AJE @= A JA HA = # " IFA?E = = I K = FHAJD @ C JLH A =

2HE
I=

AH #

, = E @= A FHEH @= >H n F JFK E = AF=H= >H H= E EJED @ A EJA =

L=@H=J =

4AA A

A = A n FH E L = FHEH @= >H *H sk 1 s2 = FH E L @" FH IJED >H AL= n = ps 1 p2 pk .

n IA

A =FEI=JE

6 H=IJ=L = A >H = n = FH E L @ FH IJED B= J H= @A E A K JE sk s2 1 I KF M = {ps EC A@ >H n A F JFK L=@H=J = 1 , p2 , . . . , pk }. E I= = IK ILE >H ALE si F=H E 2HE E AJE @= A >H m @ A EJA @ n = E I= = A H=IJ=L = A mk 1 m2 >H = m K FH E L @ FH IJED B= J H= > E = pm p p 1 2 k , FHE A K A mi si 5J C= A IL= @ A EJA K >H = n CK A @ @E A EJE F @ K mk m2 1 JEI KF M = {pm , p , . . . , p } @ M 1 2 k = I LK FHE ?EF= >E A ?E A = K K A @= H= E EJED @ A EJA = sk s2 1 >H = n E = E E F @ K JEI KF L= @ M = {ps 1 , p2 , . . . , pk }. 1 JA HA A #  = @= A J= >H A@ = (s1 + 1)(s2 + 1) (sk + 1) 6= >H A AF=H= = E I= = IK ILE si F=H E @ I = E I= = A >H n F JFK L=@H=J
4

6= FH E L @ IA = EL= =

I = B= J HE =?E = >H = n

&%

K JEI KF LE

ak a2 1 A = A =@= K JEI KF M = {xa 1 , x2 , . . . , xk } I= m A A A =J= J AIJ A = A a1 + a2 + + ak = m 2AH KJ=?E = K JEI KF= M A KHA A = m J H = A A A =J= I KF= {x1 , x2 , . . . , xk } K IA A A A J xi F =LE J= ai FKJ=

6- 4- ) #

ak a2 1 A = A M = {xa K JEI KF I= 1 , x2 , . . . , xk } m = a1 + a2 + + ak A A A =J= *H FAH KJ=?E = K JEI KF= M A m! . a1 ! a2 ! ak !

m AIJ= = E = IA F =LE x1  ED J= a1  @=>AHA = a , = 1 = E = ,= A @ FHA IJ= ED m a1 AIJ= A = E = IA F =LE x2 a1 >EH= = ma = E = =IJ=L = K E L H= =JH= A = K K A 2 @= A >H FAH KJ=?E = K JEI KF= M A@ =

m a1

m a1 a2

ak m a1 a2 a3 ak

m! . a1 ! a2 ! ak !

*H

FAH KJ=?E =

K JEI KF= IA

= =L= IA I=

m a1 , a2 , . . . , ak
6= >H IA = EL= F E

m! . a1 ! a2 ! ak !

A ?E A J
E = IA >H E E FAH KJ=?E = E = K

-L A E =@=J= = K @C L=H= K E K JEI KF LE

2HE
= > ?

AH #

"

@C L HE = I A@A = FEJ= = A @ >EJE FHA A J= A I L= K HE A E

E H= E EJED HE A E IA )6- )61 ) E E = J= LED HE A E K A F =LE AAA E E = J= LED HE A E K

E = EIK IL= JHE A IKI A@ = K HE A E IA E = IA F HA@= IKC =I E = A EA =

4AA A
= 6H= A A HE A E IK FAH KJ=?E A K JEI KF= {M 2 , A3 , T 2 , E 1 , I 1 , K 1 } = I LK JA HA A # ! >H FAH KJ=?E = J C K JEI KF= A 2!10! 3!2!

&&

K JEI KF LE

> 2AH KJ=?E A K E = IK JHE A = A@ IK FAH KJ=?E A K JEI KF= {M 2 , AAA1 , T 2 , E 1 , I 1 , K 1 } JHE IKI A@ = I L= A I =JH= A@ E I L  6= LED FAH KJ=?E = E = 2!8! 5J C= HE A E K E = JHE I L= 2! A EIK IKI A@ = E = J=
10! 2!3!2!

8! 2!2! .

?

@ @AIAJ CK ED AIJ= @=>AHA FAJ = = IA H=IF HA@A I L= M, T, M, T, K K J F HAJ K 6 A KH=@EJE = 10 = E = 5 = FHA IJ= ED FAJ AIJ= H=IF HA@E A@ K FAH KJ=?E K I= C =I E = @ I K JEI KF= {A3 , E 1 , I 1 } 2 FHE ?EFK FH E L @= >H 5! JH= A ED HE A E A 10 5 3!

@ E JAHAI= IK E K JEI KF LE @ ED A @ L A @= K JEF E?EJAJ A A A =J= >K@A >AI = = J AIJ IL= E A A A J E I L C I KF= S IA A F =L =JE FH E L = >H FKJ=

6- 4- ) #

# *H H= E EJED k = ED F @ K JEI KF L= k 1 I KF= M = {1 , 2 , . . . , n } A n+k

n+k1 A , = *H k @I KF L= I KF= [n + k 1] 2HAI E =L= A

K JE

FHAF =JE = >H ILED k A = A 1 x1 x2 ...

= ED F xk n

{x1 , x2 , . . . , xk } {x1 , x2 + 1, . . . , xk + k 1}
A >E A ?E = E A K I KF= ILED k = ED F @ K JEI KF L= @ M E I KF= ILED k = ED F @I KF L= [n + k 1] 6LH A A JA HA A I E A@E E FHE ?EF= >E A ?E A 7 >E = A A >H ILED k = ED F @ K JEI KF L= I KF= M = = EJE I= n 7 FHAJD @ JA HA E I F = =E k

{1 , 2 , . . . , n }
@= LHE A@E

n k

n+k1 . k

&'

#!

F E?E A

#!
) A A >H

F E?E A
n =FEI=
= >EH A E FHEH @ ED >H AL= @ I =

a1 + a2 + + ak = n
= A @= A KHA A = k J H = (a1 , a2 , . . . , ak ) E E KHA A = IK = a1 + a2 + + ak F E?E = >H = n = FHE AH ILA F E?E A >H = 5 IK

5 4+1 3+2 2+3 1+4

1+1+3 1+2+2 1+3+1 2+1+2 2+2+1 3+1+1

1 + 1 + 1 + 2 1 + 1 + 1 + 1 + 1. 1+1+2+1 1+2+1+1 2+1+1+1

,A E?E = F E?E A >H = n A I= = FHLE F C A@ I E = @A E?E E F=HJE?E A >H = n @ F=HJE?E = >H = n I=>EH?E IK KHA A E F LA E E E E A JA FHE E AJEJE @= IK F E?E A >H = n K k @E A L= K IJL=HE H A A = A@ = E A x1 + x2 + + xk = n K I KFK FHEH @ ED >H AL=

A = IK n E k FHEH @ E >H ALE E A = A n 2 IJ E F E?E = >H = n K J= k I=>EH= = 7 KF= >H F E?E = @ n A 2n1
n1 k1

6- 4- ) # ! 

, =

A = A Sk I KF ILED

F E?E = >H = n K J=

k I=>EH= =

Sk = {(a1 , a2 , . . . , ak ) Nk : a1 + a2 + + ak = n}.
,A
1] EE FHAI E =L= A : Sk [n = I A@A E = E k1 F E?E E (a1 , a2 , . . . , ak ) IA @ @E A E (k 1) = E F @I KF @ [n 1]

(a1 , a2 , . . . , ak ) = {a1 , a1 + a2 , a1 + a2 + a3 , . . . , a1 + a2 + + ak1 }.

2HAI E =L= A A E A ?E = AH E

(a1 , a2 , . . . , ak ) = (b1 , b2 , . . . , bk ) = {x1 , x2 , . . . , xk1 }

@ >E = a1 = x1 = b1 ; a2 = x2 x1 = b2 ; . . . ; ak = n xk1 = bk . ,= A A = A {x1 , x2 , . . . , xk1 } [n 1] E A = A

x1 < x2 < < xk1

'

n 1.

#!

F E?E A

6=@= A xi+1 xi > 0 = ILA i = 1, 2, . . . , k E LHE A@E

x1 + (x2 x1 ) + + (xk1 xk2 ) + (n xk1 ) = n

(x1 , x2 x1 , . . . , xk1 xk2 , n xk1 ) = {x1 , x2 , . . . , xk1 }.

6E A I F = = E @= A FHAI E =L= A E IKH A ?E = ,= A FEI= E I >E A ?E K E A K F E?E = >H = n K J= k I=>EH= = E (k 1) = ED F @I KF L= I KF= [n1] 5J C= A >H F E?E = n K J= k I=>EH= = 1 A@ = n k1 2 K FHE ?EF= IK A E JLH A = (i) E JA HA A # $ = K K A @= A >H ILED F E?E = >H = n A@ = 2n1 4 A A A A@ = E A x1 + x2 + xk = n K I KFK N0 IA = EL= I =>= F E?E = >H = n

I=>EH= =

2 5

-,1+) # !

2 IJ E

n+k1 k1

I =>ED

F E?E = >H = n K k

, = A = IK x1 , x2 , . . . , xk A E A AC=JEL E ?E A E >H ALE = A A x1 + x2 + + xk = n ) KLA@A LA FH A ELA yi = xi + 1 J=@= IK ILE yi FHEH @ E >H ALE ,= A LHE A@E y1 + y2 + + yk = n + k 6= I KIF IJ=LE E >E A ?E K E A K I =>ED F E?E = >H = n K k @E A L= E F E?E = >H = n + k K k @E A L= = I LK FHE ?EF= >E A ?E A E FHAJD @ A JA HA A = K K A @= I =>ED F E?E = >H = k 1 n K k I=>EH= = E = n+ k1

241

F E?E = E I =>ED F E?E = >H = n K k I=>EH= = H= K = E = I A@A E = E 5L= H A A K A@ = E A x1 + x2 + + xk = n K I KFK N @C L=H= F IJ=L = A k 1 FHACH=@= E A K n A@E E?= J= @=

-,*) # ! ! 7 EJAH=JKHE IA AIJ >H

2HE A FHLA FHACH=@A IA = = E J= x1 A@E E?= 1 A K FHLA E @HKCA FHACH=@A IA = = E x2 A@E E?= 1 A K @HKCA E JHA A FHACH=@A IA = = E x3 A@E E?= E J=
= FHE AH

HA@

...

3 + 1 + 1 + 2 111 1 1 11.
,= A IL= F E?E E >H = n K k @E A L= @ @E A E A@= H=IF HA@ k 1 FHACH=@= = n 1 AIJ E A K =FEI= ED A@E E?= 5J C= A >H '

#!

F E?E A

H A A = A@ = E A x1 + x2 + + xk = n A@ = >H K (k 1) = ED 1 F @I KF L= I KF= @ n 1 A A A =J= J A n k 1 = I E = = E IL= H A A K A@ = E A x1 + x2 + + xk = n K I KFK N0 @C L=H= A E H=IF HA@ k 1 FHACH=@= E A K n A@E E?= I J H= E @= = EIJ AIJ A @= IA F IJ=LE LE A FHACH=@= 6= A @ L A A F IJ=L =JE FHACH=@A EIFHA@ FHLA E F I E A F I A @ A A@E E?A = FHE AH

0 + 2 + 0 + 0 + 3 + 0 + 1 + 1 11

111

1 1.

,= A >EH= IA (k 1) = E F @ K JEI KF I KF= @ n + 1 A A A =J= n+1 k1 5J C= A = I LK JA HA A # # JH= A E >H = n+ k1 k1 2HE E AJE @= LHE A@E

n m

n+m1 m

n+m1 n1
n m

=
m+1 n1

m+1 n1

.


2HE

AH # ! " , = =JE A@ = IJ

>E =J H

A FHA@IJ=LEJE = F IJ=L = A n 1 FHACH=@A E A K m J= = = K JE F E?EJAJ A A A J= i A >H J= = = E A K FHACH=@= i 1 E i -L FHE AH= J= L C =FEI= = m = 6 E n = 9

4 A A A 1 > H m = C F @ K JEI KF= E {1 , 2 , . . . , n }

{10 , 23 , 30 , 40 , 52 , 60 , 71 , 80 , 90 }
)

.
AIJ= @ >E A

E K

= FHE A FEI=

HAIF @A ?E E = E A A

IA E K A IA F =LE n 1 FKJ = IA F =LE m FKJ= 6 @C L=H= E > HK (n 1) = C F @ K JEI KF= E K JEI KF= {1 , 2 , . . . , m , (m + 1) } 7 = FHE A F I =JH= FHE AHK J= HAIF @A ?E = E C A@= L=

{11 , 20 , 30 , 43 , 50 , 62 , 72 }.

6= A IJHKEI= = >E A ?E = E A K m = ED F @ K JEI KF L= A C K JEI KF= @ n A A A =J= E n 1 = ED F @ K JEI KF L= K JEI KF= n +1 @ m + 1 A A A =J= J A >E =J H E @ = @= A m = m n1

'

# " *E

=EF E

=B H K=

# " *E

=EF E

=B H K=
=

. H K A = L=@H=J E K> >E

(x + y )2 = x2 + 2xy + y 2 ; (x + y )3 = x3 + 3x2 y + 3xy 2 + y 3

IK @ >H F =JA E I K = I A@A A JA HA A I L A A 6A B H K A IK I= IFA?E = =

6- 4- ) # "  *E
LHE A@E
(x + y )n = xn +

= B H K =

= IL= E FHEH @= >H

n n1 n n i i n x y + + x y + + xy n1 + y n , 1 i n1
n n

I
(x + y ) =

i=0

n ni i x y = i

n i=0

n i n i xy . i

, = 2HLE = E 1 @K ?E F n N = n = 1 B H K = A EC A@ J= = 2HA JF IJ=LE @= A B H K = J= = = FH E L = FHEH @= >H n 5=@= H= K =

(x + y )n+1 = (x + y )(x + y )n = (F FHAJF IJ=L?E) =
n

x+y
i=0 n

n i n i xy = i

n i=0

n i

xi+1 y ni + xi y ni+1 =
n+1

=x

n+1

+
i=1

n n + i i1

xy

i n+1i

+y

n+1

=
i=0

n + 1 i n+1i xy . i

,= A K FHAJF IJ=L K @= JLH A A LHE A@E = n F = = E I @= LHE A@E E = n + 1 = I LK =JA =JE A E @K ?E A = K K A @= A B H K = E JA HA A J= = = ILA FHEH @ A >H ALA

,HKCE = E

,HKCE @ = A @ >E A F E

>E =J H= ) E E ILED n =CH=@= K (x + y )n K FH A ELE x E y I= 2n I=>EH= = IJAFA = n

(x + y )n = (x + y )(x + y ) (x + y ) =
n =CH=@=

= x xx + xx y + + y x xy x + + y yy.
2n I=>EH= = IJAFA = n

'!

# " *E

=EF E

=B H K=

7 FHAJD @ IK E I=>EH= y x x y x @C L=H= E > HK FH A ELA y E FHLA =CH=@A FH A ELA x E @HKCA E JHA A =CH=@A . . . E > HK y E FHAJF I A@ A JA E > HK x E F I A@ A =CH=@A = IK A A E I=>EH= A KJ=JEL A FAH=?E A A ?E A J K xk y nk A A@ = >H K I=>EH= = K FHAJD @ IK E K E = IA x F =LE J= k FKJ= ,= A A ?E A J K xk y nk K F E K (x + y )n A A@ = >H K = E = = IA E I KF= @ n =CH=@= K (x + y )n A @=>H=JE ED k E ED >EH= FH A ELK x E FHA IJ= ED =CH=@= >EH= y n k n k = I LK JA HA A # # A ?E A J K x y A k *H ALE n E k IA = EL= K >E n ?E A JE K H= L K >E = (x + y ) ELA x E y K >E >E ED A ?E A =J= (i) E JA HA A # $ A ?E A JE AH IA F =LA = A

241
A

-,*) # "

7LH J=L= A K B H KK =FHE AH =

@C L=H= K ED LHE A@ IJE = FH A @ >EJE H= A LA A E A K A x = y = 1 @ >E = JLH A A

2n =
) K >E

n n n + + ... + . 0 1 n x = 1 = y = 1 @ >E A IA
@ I

K B H K K KLHIJE

0=

n n n n + . . . + (1)n 0 1 2 n

n n n n n n + + + = + + + . 0 2 4 1 3 5 6= I A@ @ = = E @= F @I KF L= @ [n] I= F=H E  @ I AF=H E  >H A A A A =J= E = EIJE >H LE@ AJE FHE AH = ILED F @I KF L= @ [n] E = 2n F @I KF L= I= F=H E >H A A A A =J= E = 2n1
2HEI AJE IA @= I B H K # ! @A EI= E K F JA E >E E A ?E A J k = FH E L = R 5J C= IA A =FEJ=JE @= E F IJ E A = B H K = = H= L >E = (x + 1) E K I K = K =@= E A FHEH @= >H = A E H= K =JE @= A n JE E L @ F E BK = (x + 1) A@ = J= A

( 1)( 2) ( n + 1)(x + 1)n .

HEIJA E 6A H LK B H K K = H= L x = 0 @ >E = I A@A K JA HA K '" ?E A f (x) = (1+ x)

# " *E

=EF E

=B H K=

6- 4- ) # " !
R, |x| < 1 LHE A@E

A = A FH E L
(x + 1) =
nN0

HA= =

>H

= ILA x

n x . n

xn IA = EL= >E E HA@ ) A E FHAJD @ A 4A@ nN0 JA HA A FHEH @= >H E @A E?E A K F JA C >E C A ?E A J= I E A@E @= A = n > E H= = 0 6=@= A HA@ = @AI IJH= E K n IJL=HE F E IJAFA = = E K >E B H KE = R \ N0 >E (x + 1) A >AI = = IJAFA E HA@ = FHE AH F K FHAJD @ A JA HA A @ >E =
n

1 = (1 x)1 = 1x (1 4x) 2 =
nN0
1

(1)n
nN0

1 n x = n

xn .
nN0

# #

(1)n

1 2 4n xn = E (5.4) = n

nN0

2n n x . # $ n
JA HA

A@

K F JA A >E

A B H K A A @=J I A@A

6- 4- ) # " " F E
n LHE A@E (x1 + x2 + . . . + xm )n =

= B H K =

= FHEH @ A >H ALA m E

n1 +n2 ++nm =n n1 ,n2 ,...,nm N0

n m xn1 xn2 xn m . n1 , n2 , . . . , nm 1 2

2HEI AJE

@= I

K JA HA E #

!F

= = E @= A

n n1 , n2 , . . . , nm
>H FAH KJ=?E =

n! n1 ! n2 ! nm !

n2 nm 1 K JEI KF= {xn 1 , x2 , . . . , xm }

, = HEIJE A EIJK E@A K = E K >E =J H @ = K >E A B H KA ) E E ILED n =CH=@= K (x1 + x2 + . . . + xm )n @ >E = IK K I= mn I=>EH= = 5L= E @ JED I=>EH= = A A@ = FAH KJ=?E = A C n = C K JEI KF= =@ I KF {x1 , x2 , . . . , xm } nm 1 n2 > C KJ=JEL IJE A = E I=>EH= = A ?E A J K xn 1 x2 xm A A@ = >H K I=>EH= = K E = IA x1 F =LE J= n1 FKJ= x2 IA nm 1 n2 F =LE J= n2 FKJ= EJ@ . . . 5J C= A A ?E A J K xn 1 x2 xm n1 n2 m = I LK A@ = >H K FAH KJ=?E = K JEI KF= {x1 , x2 , . . . , xn m } JA HA A # ! @ >E = @= A J= A ?E A J A@ = n1 ,n2n ,...,nm
'#

# # 1@A JEJAJE E IK A -L A E FHE A =F E AB H KA

FH E L

6- 4- ) # " # 
I= >HK? =

A ?E A A >H ALA x1 , x2 , . . . , xm

A = A p FH IJ >H LHE A@E @ p).

6=@= =
# %

p p (x1 + x2 + + xm )p xp 1 + x2 + + xm (

, = = FH E L = FH IJ >H p F E E A ?E A J n1 ,n2p A ,...,nm @ A EL I= p IE K I K = K =@= A A E nj = p = IJ= E ni = 0 = A 0,0,...,0p =@= F E K ,p,0,...,0 = 1 JLH A A K JA HA E @ >E A B H K K FHE E A E = (x1 + x2 + + xm )p

2 5

?E A E >H

-,1+) # " $  = = .AH = L=# JA HA =

m E A E FH IJ >H p LHE A@E mp m(

= FH E L

p).

, =

7 B H K K # % KLHIJE

x1 = x2 = = xm = 1

# # 1@A JEJAJE E IK A
7 FHE A@>E # " I LA =F= E E @= IA >E = B H K= A HEIJEJE K E H= K =L= K IK = K E = IA F =LA >E E A ?E A JE = FHE AH = K >E K B H K K KLHIJE x=2Ey=1 A = K EJE @= A
n k=0

n k 2 = k

n n n 2 n n + 2+ 2 + + 2 = 3n . 0 1 2 n

2HE

AH # #  1 H= K =JE
n i=0

1 n i+1 i

n 1 n 1 n 1 n + + + + . 0 2 1 3 2 n+1 n
A >EJE HEI FHEI AJEJE IA A ?E A JA ) LK IK K F E E JLH A A EE E JA HA A #  ! E B H K K

A ED E@A JEJAJ= = >E A F @E A E I= n + 1 FHE E A E (i) E JA HA A # $ @ >E A

n 1 i+1 i=0
5

4 A A A 7 H= K = K =@= A IK A

n i

1 n+1 i=0

n+1 i+1

n i

1 n+1 i=0

n+1 i+1

2n+1 1 n+1 .

2EAHHA @A .AH =J $ $$#

'$

# # 1@A JEJAJE E IK A

A A E@A JEJAJA I= >E E A ?E A JE = A @ >EJE E >E A B H K A E = CA>=HI ED FAH=?E = I= F E E = I L = E@A = = IA HEIJE A E A E?= @= A@ = E F E E K EIJA IJAFA A FH A ELA x E = K A@ = A A ?E A JA

6- 4- ) # #
E A = Am
(a)

A = IK m E n FHEH @ E >H ALE n 6=@= LHE A@A I A@A E E@A JEJAJE

r k=0

8= @AH

@$ 

n k n k

m rk m k

m+n . r m+n . n

(b)

n k=0

, =
(a)

2HL

LA E@A JEJAJA @ = =JE = CA>=HI E

EC A@ K xr = xr K H= L = E AL (x + 1)n E

LHE A@E (1+ x)n (1+ x)m = (1+ x)n+m . =J A A ?E A J >A IJH= A A@ = IJE EIJE = @AI IJH= E A ?E A J K n+ m n + m K (x + 1) A r k IJH= E xr IA A @ >EJE = FH E L @ n k x E H= L = m r k m E H= L = (x + 1) = ILA k = 0, 1, . . . , r r k x A@ = IJE I > @ ED = L= = E AL E @AI

(b) . H K = I E A@E E IJH= E A@ = IJE

(1 + x)n 1 +

1 x

(1 + x)n+m . xm
A @ = =JE E EC= E n H= E EJED >E = L= =

. H K A (a) E (b) E FHAJD @ A JA HA A J H 2 I =JH= I KF @ m H= E EJED @C L HE = I A@A = FEJ= =

(a)

= E ED r 5L= = = m = n+ r >K@A J= = k FHA>H =L=

= E = E J C I KF= @ m + n A A A =J=

@=>H=JE

@ m + n FHA@ AJ= >EH= ED r J A KH=@EJE = E = *H = E = @= K JED r @=>H= = ED FHA@ AJ= m k L= = J=@= A @=>H= r k ILAI= = A n k r k A K AJE ILA LHE A@ IJE @ 0 @ r E FHE ?EF= @L IJHK C = I E A@E B H K = (a)
@A %!# %'$

) AN= @HA 6D FDE A 8= @AH

'%

# # 1@A JEJAJE E IK A

(b)

E = E = E J C I KF= A @=>H=JE A@ = >H ILAI E E L= = 5K = = E AL IJH= E B H K A K (b) A EC A@ @C L H = J FEJ= A 1 H= = @AI IJH= E JA B H K A FHAF =A = >H H= E EJED n = ED F @I KF L= J C I KF= ) I K A n = F @I KFK E =>H= E k EC= J = E @= I @=>H= E n k L= = *H J= LED n m n F @I KF L= A m =@= E A C J= L C F @I KF= k n k = k k E >=?E JED n k @=>H= ED L= = F= @= @ @= k FHA IJ= ED @ >E A F @I KF K A E = A@ = >H ILAI E E L= = A IA = FH L AHEJE @= A I= LE FEI= = >E A ?E = E A K ILED n = ED F @I KF L= F I =JH= C I KF= E ILED F @I KF L= K E = A >H ILAI E A@ = >H K L= = = I LK FHE ?EF= >E A ?E A = K KA @= LHE A@E B H K = (b)

2 A =@ K H= K = K IK = E @ = EL= K E@A JEJAJ= E E JACH= A = FHE AH = E H= K = E L @A F E @AI IJH= E >E AB H KA

HEIJE E L @A = = E AL E

(1 + x)n = 1 +
@ >E =

n n 2 n n n x+ x + + xn1 + x 1 2 n1 n

n(1 + x)n1 = n + 2
=@= K FHAJD @ K A@ =

n n k1 x + + k x + + nxn1 . 2 k
IJ KLHIJE

# &

x = 1 @ = = E I n k n i = 0.

@= A

(1)k1 k
k=1 n

2HE

AH # # ! , = =JE @= A
i=1

= n2n1 .

4 A A A 6H= A = A@ = IJ IA @ >E A =@= K # & KLHIJE

x = 1 L= E@A JEJAJ A @ = =JE E >E =J H , L A FHA>H =JE A A A JA I KF= {(x, S ) : S [n], x S } = @L= H= E EJ= = E =

'&

# # 1@A JEJAJE E IK A ) >E H= K = @HA A AB H KA E JACH= @ a @ b = E AL E @AI IJH= E

(1 + x)n = 1 + nx +
@ >E =
b a

n 2 n i x + + x + + xn 2 i

(1 + x)n dx =
a

1+

n n 2 n n x+ x + + x dx, 1 2 n

I
b a

(1 + x)n+1 n+1
)

x+

n x2 n xk+1 xn+1 + + + + 1 2 n+1 k k+1 a = 0, b = 1

2n+1 1 n+1

b a

K FHAJD @ K B H K K KLHIJE n n 1 @ = = E E@A JEJAJ k+1 k =

k=0 n

A@=

= E I

E FHE

AH= # # 

2HE

AH # # " 1 H= K =
k=0

1 n . k+2 k
n

4AA A
E JACHEH=

=@= > A IJH= A A@ = @ K=@ A@= @ >E A

IJE x(1 + x)

=
k=0

n k+1 x k

x(1 + x)n+1 (1 + x)n+2 n+1 (n + 1)(n + 2)

6= A
n 1 k+2 k=0

1 0

=
k=0

n xk+2 k k+2

1 0

n k

2n+1 n+1

2n+2 (n+1)(n+2)

1 (n+1)(n+2)

n2n+1 +1 (n+1)(n+2) .

2HE

AH # # # , = =JE E@A JEJAJ

k=0

2k k

2n 2k nk

= 4n .

4 A A A 2HL

A E@A JEJAJ @ = =JE F K = CA>HA E = = E A 1 1 1 7 E @= A = , E FHE E A E B H K A # # 1 4x 1 4x 1 4x E # $ 6= IA @ >E A @= A ''

# # 1@A JEJAJE E IK A

4n xn =
nN0 kN0

2k k x k
kN0

2k k x . k

6H= A K B H K K @ >E A

KF HA K K E

A ?E A JA K xn = >A IJH= A

>E =J H E @ = A @ IJ= F E L= E E 2HAFHE = A @ = E % !% C@ A A E@A = FHEFEI= = ) HE /AIA K 2 I =JH= ILA E LA @K E A 2n K I KFK {1, 1} = A = K EJE @= ILED J= LED E L= E = 22n = 4n 5=@= @=>AHE FH E L = k n E F I =JH= I KF
2k 2r

Tk = (x1 , x2 , . . . , x2n ) : xi = 1,
i=1

xi = 0

=r>k A
i=1

xi = 0 .

,HKCE H A E = I KF Tk E A E LE @ ED IA = FHLED 2k AIJ= F =LE J= k A@E E?= k FKJ= IA F =LE E >H 1 ,= A F I E A 2k J C IE > = >H 1 E 1 E =@= A A >EJE EIJE k 2HLED 2k = L= J= L C E = A F FK EJE = 2k = E = 7IFE A E F = =JE @= IA IJ=J= @ 2n 2k = L= E = E Tk A 2n2k F FK EJE = J= = E = E@A JEJAJ A @ = = nk 2n2k *H A FHAF =JE = >H E L= 1 @K E A 2(n k ) nk K E = IA F =LE A@ = >H 1 E 1 ,= A K F JH= E I = >E A ?E E A K I KF L= R E S C@ A A&
2r

R = (a1 , a2 , . . . , a2n2k ) {1, 1}2n2k : r [n k ] A

i=1 2n2k

ai = 0 ,

S = (a1 , a2 , . . . , a2n2k ) {1, 1}

2n2k

:
i=1

ai = 0 .

FEI= A >E A ?E K F : S R E A K L= @L= I KF= A = A a = (a1 , a2 , . . . , a2n2k ) FH E L = A A A J E S A = A i = = E >H E [2n 2k ] = E LHE A@E

a1 + a2 + + ai
7 8

a1 + a2 + + aj

= ILA j [2n 2k ].

1H= =HJE /AIIA '#  5 KF R E A E LE E {1, 1} @K E A 2(n k) K E = IA KLE A = A E FHLED AIJ= >H 1 F =LE H= E EJ >H FKJ= @ >H = 1 - A A JE I KF= S IK E LE E {1, 1} @K E A 2(n k) K E = IA 1 E 1 F =LA EIJE >H FKJ=



#$

=@=?E 7 E E

(b1 , b2 , . . . , b2n2k ) = (ai+1 , ai+2 , . . . , a2n2k , ai , ai1 , . . . , a1 ).

1 IJHK ?E A E = (b1 , b2 , . . . , b2n2k ) A = K EJE @= IK ILA AC LA F=H?E = A IK A = A E E A@ = A K E ) IK ILA F=H?E = A IK A L C E = AC=JEL A J= E FHEF=@= R E A @A EI=JE @= A F (a) = (b1 , b2 , . . . , b2n2k ) ) A j = = E >H = E A b1 + b2 + + bj = 0 J=@= IA K FHLED j = L= L C E = = = E A@ = >H IE > = 1 E 1 6= =L E A FHEF=@= R E JHA>= C= F FH=LEJE 7 E LE E

F (a) = (b1 , b2 , . . . , bj 1 , bj , bj +1 , . . . , b2n2k ).

5LA F=H?E = A IK A J C L C E = IK LA A @ K A F= F (a) FHEF=@= I KFK R A IA F = =JE @= A IL= E H= K IJHK ?E E FHAI E =L= = F E LAHJE>E = F= F =EIJ= AIJA >E A ?E = 6E A A JLH A A @ = =

# $ =@=?E
 @HA@E FHEH @= >H , = E @= = >E n m n = m k = k > ? ! A = E = " E @LE A # $ =

n =
A

E A

2n+1 2

=3

n 3

nk mk

A ?E A JA LHE A@E
2n n 2 n k n1 n k k 1

2n 2n2k 2k 2k nk k n1 n n+1 k1 k+1 k

= =

A n AF=H= >H , = E @= A K >H ALE = n 1 , AF=H= >H AF=H ED I=>EH= = K H= L K (x + y + z )10 E = I= A@ K = E ED E = ILA JHE FH A ELA

n+1 k+1

n 2

,...
E

n1 2

J=

n A n1 , n2 , . . . , nk A >H = IE = = n1 ,n2 ,...,nk E IA H= E EJED FAJ ?EBHA ED FHEH @ ED >H AL= A =FEI=JE F K ?EB=H= >H = 72 477 672 FHE A K IA IL= = ?EBH= IA A KF JHA>EJE = LE A E FKJ= E IA F =LE = K @=J >H K % = E = E = IA A H=IF HA@EJE n A@ = ED KC E?= K m H= E E JED KJE = J= @= J= k KJE = >K@A FH=



#$

=@=?E

& ,=J A n H= E EJED =IJ=LE?= E k =H> = = A IA =IJ=LE?A F IJ= L = K 5EC = A @HA A H=IF @ A =IJ=LE?= = =H> A E H= IF HA@ =IJ=LE?= = IL= =H> K FHE A K IA ILA =IJ=LE?A H= K F IJ=LEJE = A E =H> E CK >EJE E >A =IJ=LE?= E IA H= E EJED IEC = = A =FH=LEJE ' E E = FAJ ?EBHA ED FHEH @ ED >H AL= E = A FH E L @ ?EB=H= A@ =    E E = m = ED F @I KF L= I KF= [n] E A I=@H A K =IJ F A >H ALA LA I C n J KC = @HA@E >H k  A = A V I KF J A A = J KC L= I= J A A E = E I KF= V A K E = A = IKI A@ ED  E E = = H= ED FKJAL=  HA A IA I= = A@= @AI E E = A@= C HA @ H@E =J C F AJ = @ J= A (10, 10) E FH = A H IAC A J (3, 3)(4, 3) = A FH = A H J= K (8, 7) ! = E = E = H= I= @ AC E AL C F = =D LI A J=> A 8 8 A IJE E K C H A @AI F A = IA F AH= J= @= K IL= H= K >K@A J > E A ?E K E H= E EJED H A A = E = A@ = E = x1 + x2 + x3 + x4 = 98 K " I KFK AF=H ED FHEH @ ED >H AL= # 5JK@A J A = EIFEJK E >E =J HE A H A =L= 5 =@=J= = = IL= E =@=J= A @ >EJE = LE A  > @ L= 5JK@A J A HA@ IL E #  # # E & > @ L= K KF "! = E = E = K =IEIJA J A F EJE IA@= F JHA> ED > @ L= = FH = CK I= =H=F= E I= ?EFA = = E = E = $ 2=K E = I= IA A >KJE = = IL= K CK H= >KJE =H=FK FHE A ?EFA A % 1 H= K = IK A n n r = r=k r k , n n 2 > k=0 k , k n n ? i=0 2i 2k+12i , @ A
n 2 n 2 k=1 k k , n1 4n i=0 4i+1 , n n 2 k=0 (k + 1) k .

B & 7 A LA I n J KC K IK F LK A A ILA @E =C = A E A JHE @E =C = A IA A IE A K K EIJ J= E = E @E A L= A F @E A A J= n J KC= ' E I K FHAJD @ =@=J K =?HJ= E JH KC L= E = IK J A A = FHAI A?E @E =C = = E E J A A = n J KC =



#$

=@=?E

 2 I =JH= ILA E LA @K E A n I=IJ=L A A @ A A A =J= I KF= {0, 1, 2, 3} E E = J= LED E L= @ ED A >H K = F=H=  , = E @= A n n k 3n + (1)n = 2 = , k 2
k=0,k A F=H=

> E
k=0, A AF=H=

n k 6n (4)n . 5 = 2 k

E = E L= K = E A@E E?= @K E A 15 K E = IA F=H 00 F =LE @L= F=H 01 JHE F=H 10 AJEHE = F=H 11 FAJ FKJ= ! E IA FKJ= A E >H k F =LE K ILED 2n1 F E?E = >H = n " , = E @= A 1 k n m1 n , = n m k=0 (1) k = m(1) m > ? # , = E @= A
n k n k=0 2 k n n 1 k=0 k nk
nk 2

=
n

n+1 2n+1

2n+1 , n i n 2 i=1 i .

k=1

(1)k1 n k k

=1+

1 1 + + 2 n

A = A m FH E L

= FHEH @= >H

E A = A n = mk 1 H= K =
n 2k 2n

lim

n 0

n k

+ +

n n

E E = BK ?E = f : [n] [n] J= LED @= = ILA i < j LHE A@E f (i) f (j ) & , = E @= A n E I= = F IJ E F E?E = = IK k F=H= = K >E =H E =FEIE = n E k HA@ K= @ I A@=  %

!

# % 4 A A = =@=J= =

# % 4 A A = =@=J= =
 n=7 6LH A = I E A@A @EHA J E @A E?E A >E ED A ?E A =J= 2 K = JA = E E >E =J H K E JAHFHAJ=?E K LED E@A JEJAJ= ! >EH ILED JED >H AL= A 2n1 1 " ! % E !$ # *H ALE ni H= K >EJE F @ A@ = E = ILA i = j A |ni nj | 1 $ 6H= A E >H ALE IK FAH KJ=?E A @C L=H= K ED K JEI KF L= 4AA A A

5! 5! 5! 5! 5! + +3 +2 +2 . 4! 3! 2! 3! 1! 1! 2! 2! 1! 2! 1! 1! 1!

% 2H= A KJE A @=>AHA = m = E = 4=IF HA@= n KC E?= K k m k KJE = E = E E F E?E = n K m k I=>EH= = 6= A n1 H A A A =@=J = m k mk1 & 5LA =IJ=LE?A F HA@= K E = n! = E = @= @ n + 1 CK ED AIJ= E A K =IJ=LE?= K K K K E EIFHA@ FHLA E F I E A F I A@ A =IJ=LE?A @=>AHE k1 AIJ = FHACH=@K =IJ=LE?A E A K @LE A FHACH=@A IA K J F HAJ K = A = =H> 5J C= A JH= A H A A A

n!

n+1 k1

= n!

n+k1 k1

5! ' 5! + 3 5! 2! + 3! = 320  2HAI E =L= A {x1 , x2 , . . . , xm } {x1 , x2 1, x3 2, . . . , xm m +1} A >E A ?E = E A K F I =JH= ED F @I KF L= E ILED m = ED F @ m+1 I KF L= I KF= [n m + 1] 6= A H A A A nm A K k J KC K E FH=LE  A = A v A J A A J C n J KC = ) J A A v @=>H= >EH= k1 JA A A K E = A = IKI k 1 A@ ED = n = E = LE@ AJE FHAJD @ E =@=J=  ) J A A v k 1 k E A @=>H= >EH= k J A A = @ n 1 >A IKI A@ ED = n k n k nk1 nk n = E = 6= IA @ >E A @= A H A A A k1 + k = n k k 6 13 8 5  3 6 4 2 . A k >H F JA = K I  J=@= A A@ = AJ = H= = FAH ! ) KJ=?E = K JEI KF= {K k , D7k , G7k } 7 KF= >H J= LED AJ E (14k)! A 7 k=0 k!((7k)!)2

"

51 3

"

# % 4 A A = =@=J= = # $
11 4 16! 28

1 4 = 325

% = 2HE E AJE @= A JH= A = IK = >H A A A =J= K I KFK {(A, B ) : A B [n], |A| = k } ) >H A A A =J= K J I KFK FHA>H n n r E J= @= FHL @=>AHA I KF A @ >E A r=k r k = 2nk n k n n 2 > 1I HEIJE 8= @AH @ L E@A JEJAJ E @ >E A = k=0 k @= IA K KJE E = = E n ?HLA ED E n >E A ED KC E?= ? 2HAJF IJ=LE 5K = K F I =JH= >H E E > HA 2k + 1 KC E?= J= @= A >H ?HLA ED KC E?= F=H= 7 KF= >H E > H= 2k + 1 KC E?= 2n @ 2n =@=JED A 2k = F LE = JED E > H= E = F=H= >H +1 n n 1 2n ?HLA ED KC E?= 6= A k i=0 2i 2k+12i = 2 2k+1 @ A
n 2 n 2 k=1 k k 2n n

= n2

A = AS= A @= A

n n 1 2 n2 = n2 2n k=1 k1 1 n1 4n 4n HEIJA E i=0 4i+1 4i+1

4n 4(ni1)+3

@ >E

2S =
@ B I

4n 4n 4n 4n 4n + + + + + 1 3 5 4n 3 4n 1
JH= A = IK = A 24n2
2

24n , 2

n n n1 n 2n1 HEIJE A =n n k=0 k k k=0 k1 k = n n1 E HA K J=J E (b) n 2 1 6= A JH= A = IK = n = (n + 2) 2nn k=0 (k + 1) k A@ K F A@ K = F AJ K ?HJ= = IL= = & ) @E =C = A ?HJ= @E =C = =  =FH=LE LE HACE 5L= = FHAI A = J= = = IA @ >E A =@= A@ = @E =C = = FHAI A A @HKCK J= A = E LE HACE n 6= A H A A A 1+ n n + 2 4

A @= A = E A@ JA A F = C n J KC = @= E = ' 6H KC= A@ @L= E E IL= JHE 4= K = A >H = JH KC L= = IL= E @ JED n n n I K = AL= @ >E = HAA A n 6 +5 5 +4 4 + 3
n n2 n  *H E L= I= F=H E >H A K = A Pn = n + 0 3 + 2 3 n n1 n3 + *H E L= Nn I= AF=H E >H A K= A 1 3 + n 3 3 = A Pn + Nn = 4n = Pn Nn = 2n @ >E = IA @= A >H E L= n n I= F=H E >H A K = 4 +2 2  HEIJE A EIJK E@A K = E K FHAJD @ =@=J K (=) 2 I =JH= E LA @K E A n I=IJ=L A A @ 0, 1 E 2 K E = A

#

# % 4 A A = =@=J= = K KF= >H A@E E?= E @LE?= F=H= (>) 2 I =JH= E LA @K E A n I=IJ=L A A @ 0, 1, 2, 3, 4 E 5 K E = A K KF= >H A A A =J= E EIK K = AF=H= 7 E K IA F =L K K CHKFA A@E E?= E K = =E A E AJEHE FKJ= = F AJ K IK A@E E?A = = H= K K A 10101010 JHA>= H= IF HA@EJE @LE A K A E FAJ A@E E?= 6 IA A K E EJE = 4 4 = 560 = E = 2 5 ! ) A k = F AJ K E E = H= K J=@= IA F =LE K 2 2nk1 F E?E = @ IA k K IHA@E E F =LE (n k 1)2nk2 FKJ= 7 KF >H k IA F =LE (n k + 3)2nk2 FKJ= " = n

=
>

m1 m1 k n k k=0 (1) k = n k=0 (1) n1 m1 m n (1)m1 n m 1 = (1) m

n1 k

n1 k1

= EI E @= IA K K E E?E = = E 2n IJK@A =J= E FH BAI H ED 2n+1 JHA>= @= F @E A E n K = E?= = A E ?AHJ *H = E = = 2n+1 E IA J A KH=@EJE A IECKH ) FHAJF IJ=LE @= n IJK@A JE I A@A K n KF= F @L A I= k = E >H KF= E ED A K = E?K @ >EJE J= A@= IJK@A J 6 A @=>H=JE n nk k K = 2 k = E = @ FHA IJ= ED n k  KF= @=>AHA 2 E = A >= IJK@A J= @ >EJE =HJK ) A n k AF=H= FHA IJ= K =HJK @ >E = FH BAI H 6= IA J= A CK H=IF @ A EJE ILA =HJA F= IA @ >E A JH= A = A@ = IJ n n 1 1 ? A = A Sn = n+1 6=@= A k=0 k

2Sn+1 =
# Sn+1 = $
1 n+1

1 n+2

2+

n k=0

n+1 1 k

+
1 n+1

n+1 1 k+1

2 n+2

+ Sn = Sn +

n+1 (1)k1 n+1 k=1 k k

= Sn

n+1 k n+1 k=1 (1) k

2 A = A z = cos 2 m + i sin m 8HE A@E

lim

m j =1 (1 + 2n

z j )n
1 m

= 1 = m lim

n 0

n k

n 2k 2n

+ +

n n

F= A JH= A E E AI

% 5L= A AC=JEL H A A A x0 + x1 + + xn1 + xn = n 1 @A E A A@ K J= LK BK ?E K f (1) = x0 + 1, f (2) = f (1) + x1 , , f (n) = 1 f (n 1) + xn1 5J C= ED E = 2nn n n n1 A n F=H= = k AF=H= & ) = >E =H E =FEIE k = k k1 A F=H= n E k IA =LH =L= K I= K = @ I A@= 7 IJ= E I K = ALE = n k 2 F=H IJ n A EIJ= = E F=H IJ k *E =H E =FEIE n k 2 E 2 IA @ >E K >HEI= A F I A@ A ?EBHA E $
2

=FEI= n E k

$ ,1410 - 8 241 +12 1 41 -8- 6- 41 5 8 12 81

$  ,EHED A L FHE ?EF

EC A@ E ILE = H= K EL F= = A ) LA E E >H FHA@ AJ= H=IF HA@E K = E >H KJE = J=@= A K A KJE E >EJE C FHA@ AJ= 1 F HA@ A@ IJ=L A B H K =?E A ,EHED A L FHE ?EF A LA = IHA@IJL K H A =L= K H= ED  A I= >E =J H ED =@=J= = 5 =JH= IA @= A ,EHED A FHLE HEIJE LK E@A K K A E FH > A E = E JA HE A >H AL= = A@ IJ=L E L=HE = JE ,EHED A L C FHE ?EF= C L HE I A@A = JA HA =

,EHED A L FHE ?EF A

6- 4- ) $   ) IA m FHA@ AJ= H=IF HA@E K n KJE = E = m > n J=@= A K >=H A@ KJE E >EJE >=H @L= FHA@ AJ=

@= I H=IF HA@E E ILA FHA@ AJA K n KJE = E @= , = 2HAJF IJ=LE FHE J A A F IJ E KJE = = I=@H E >=H @L= FHA@ AJ= 6=@= IL= = @ n KJE = I=@H E E E A@= FHA@ AJ E E A FH= = F= A K KF= >H FHA@ AJ= K ILE KJE = = = LE A n 6 A JH=@E ?E = I= FHAJF IJ=L @= A K KF= >H FHA@ AJ= LA E @ >H = KJE = =J H= @= F IJ E A = KJE = I= >=H @L= FHA@ AJ= 1= A FHAJD @ = JA HA = EC A@ = E E C A@= =EL = IA L A J KF JHA>E A >EJE LA = A =I = 8 A JE = A @= IA K HAJ =@=J K F= AJ @=>AHA J= A >EJE FHA@ AJE = J=  KJE A
1 2

D= 2AJAH /KIJ=L A AK A ,EHE?D AJ &# &#' 7 EJAH=JKHE = A C AI L= FHE ?EF IA = EL= FECA D A FHE ?EF ) IA m C K> L= I AIJE K n HKF= ( K E?=) E = A m > n >=H @L= C K>= A >EJE K EIJ HKFE

$  ,EHED A L FHE ?EF -L ?EF= A E =@=J= = E IA = HE A A F K ,EHED A L C FHE

2HE

AH $ 

, = E I A@A = JLH A =

 7 @HK JLK @ ! K@E KLE A F IJ A @L= L A = H A = EIJ C AIA?= 7 I KFK @ n + 1 FH E L ED ?E A ED >H AL= KLE A F IJ A @L= >H = E = A H= E = @ A EL= I= n ! 1 I KF= {1, 2, 3, . . . , 2n 1, 2n} A @=>H= n + 1 FHEH @= >H A K @=>H= E >H ALE = F IJ A @L= J= L= @= A A@= @ ED @ A EL I= @HKCE

4 A A A -L E H A A = JED =@=J= =
K@A = EI E = FHA@ AJA E JA HA A $   =  AIA?E K C @E E = KJE A 5L= C L A = FHA@ AJ IJ=LE  K AIA?  KJE K K A AH A = A >H K@E LA E @ >H = AIA?E F ,EHE DA L FHE ?EFK F IJ E A@= AIA? K A IK H A = >=H @L= LA = 2HE @ A A K A C ?E A C >H = I= n CK E IJ=?E IK 0, 1, 2, . . . , . . . , n 1 6ED n IJ=J= = E = A K CK KJE = = I LK ,EHED A L C FHE ?EF= E A K FH E L ED n +1 >H AL= E Z F IJ A >=H @L= = FHE @E A A K I= n @= K EIJE IJ=J= J AIJ = = A IA K EIJ KJE E 4= E = JED >H AL= A @ A EL= I= n A = A@E IJLA = E =FEI=JE = ! 5L= E FHEH @= >H m FH E L @ IJAFA = >H = @L= E A C AF=H C >H = m = 2r n =@= A >H ALA ai =FE E K > E K ai = 2ri ni 2HE J A IK ILE ni AF=H E >H ALE = E @ 2n = >H AL= ni E = n + 1 = AF=H ED >H AL= @ 1 @ 2n E = n = I LK ,EHED A L C FHE ?EF= F IJ A 

ai = 2ri ni aj = 2rj nj J= LE @= A ni = nj .
) A ri < rj J=@= ai @E A E aj = = A ri > rj @= aj @E A E ai

5=@= A HE A EJE A E JA ED =@=J= = >H

2HE

AH $  !
n F IJ E IJAFA
>H = JHE E

 , = E @= = IL= E FHEH @= =LH =L= I=

00 . . . 00 1.
n K=

&

$  ,EHED A L FHE ?EF 7 KJ=H L=@H=J= IJH= E?A 70 ? A H=IF HA A 50 J= = = , = E @= A K E = F IJ A @LE A J= A A IK K@= A A = A @ # ? ! , = E @= IA E >E AC I KF= @ @AIAJ @L ?EBHA ED >H AL= KLE A CK @=>H=JE @L= @EI K J = F @I KF= J= @= IK >EH LE >H AL= K JE F @I KF LE = A@ = E

4AA A
FHE ?EF

=H=L

E K H A =L= K LED =@=J= =

HEIJE

,EHED A L

 7@ L @KC= E K >H AL= > E = 3k k N F =LE A IA @L= >H = = FHE @ A A K I= 10n+1 @= K EIJE IJ=J= A = IK J 3r E 3l E A = A r > l 6=@= A 3r 3l @ A EL I= 10n+1

10n+1 | (3r 3l ) J

AIJ 10n+1 | (3rl 1) 3l . H= >EJE

= 10n+1 E 3l A = K = A@ E ED B= J H= >H 3rl 1 @ A EL I= 10n+1 =J >H 3rl =LH =L= I= 00 . . . 0 1.

n K=

L=@H=J IJH= E?A 70 ? F @E A E = 49 = ED L=@H=J= IJH= E?A 10 ? 2 ,EHED A L FHE ?EFK = @= F IJ E L=@H=J K A IA = = A >=H @LE A J= A 2HE E AJE @= A = LA = K@= A IJ @LE A J= A K A L=@H=JK @K E = @E =C =A = A @E =C = = JLH A A L=@H=J= IJH= E?A  A@ = = 10 2 < 15 F = = E I ! 5LED F @I KF L= I KF= @  A A A =J= E = 210 = 1024 >EH >H AL= K >E A @ JED F @I KF L= A = LE A 10 99 = 990 = A 990 < 1024 F IJ A @L= H= E EJ= F @I KF= E E = K EIJE >EH A A A =J= ) IK JE I KF LE @EI K J E E IK F @I KF LE A JH= E ) JE I KF LE EIK @EI K J E JH= A A F @I KF LA @ >E A J= J E >=?E ED LA = A@ E A A A A JA 6= A ,EHED A L FHE ?EF E = L= K K CK E K @ = K A ED  >E ED JA HA = A = A S 1 = {(x, y ) R2 : x2 + y 2 = 1} A@E E = HK E?= K H=L E
A = A A E HA= = >H J= =L @= 2 R\Q ,= A A = A f : S 1 S 1 H J=?E = = KC= E A = A P FH E L = J= = = HK E?E S 1 6=@= = IL= K J= K A S 1 E = IL= E > 0 F IJ E FHEH @= >H m J= =L @= A @K E = K = Af m (P ) = = @

6- 4- ) $  "

'

$  ,EHED A L FHE ?EF

, = = FH E L = > 0 @=>AHE n N J= =L @= A 2/n < = J= FHEH @= >H n F @E A E HK E?K S 1 = n A@ = ED @E A L= 2 I =JH= I KF Z = {f k (P ) : k N}. = A 2 EH=?E = = ILA J= A E I KF= Z IK H= E EJA =J F ,EHED A L FHE ?EFK F IJ A i, j N J= LA @= IK f i (P ) E f j (P ) K KJ=H EIJ C E JAHL= = ,HKCE HE A E = @K E = K = E A K f i (P ) E f j (P ) A = = @ 2/n A = A d = |i j | 5KI A@ A J= A K E K P, f d (P ), f 2d (P ), . . . IK K@= A A = A @ 2/n < 5J C= A K E JAHL= K @K E A J= A A kd IECKH >EJE A = J= = > E = f (P )
5 E = E@A = IA HEIJE E K ,EHED A L @ = K JA HA A @ >H H=?E = =FH IE =?E E EH=?E = C >H = 6 A L= = HA K J=J E JA HE A >H AL= = E A AC L @ = K IJL=HE >E =J H=

6- 4- ) $  #
C H= E EJED H=

A = A EH=?E = = = = p q J= LED @= A
1 p < 2. q q

>H

2 IJ E >AI

, =

, = = A

I A@A A @ IJ= = A JLH A A

= ILA n N F IJ E 7 E HA A

p Q J= =L @= A q q
p q

n E

p 1 . $  < q nq

FHAJF IJ=LE @= LHE A@E (6.1) = =EIJ= E (6.1) = @= F IJ E

p q

A @ = =JE JLH A A JA Q J= =L @= LHE A@E

<

1 nq

1 q2

A EH=?E

= = >H

LHE A@E

p q

> 0 F= F IJ E n1 N J= =L

1 @= A p q > n1 ) F L FHE E A E JLH A A $  = FHEH @= >H n1 = p1 1 1 1 K KA @= F IJ E H= = p 2 q1 J= =L @= A q1 < n1 q1 q1 = A p1 1 1 p < < < , q1 n1 q1 n1 q

H= >AI

?E =

p1 q1

E p q IK H= E EJE 2 =L = K E L= F IJKF= @ >HED H=?E = ED =FH IE =?E = = 

@ >E A

$  ,EHED A L FHE ?EF JHA>= @= F = A J= IJ JLH A = E $  6 A KH=@EJE F K ,EHED A L C FHE ?EF= = EI E @= I HA= K FH=LK  = J= E = HK E?K E E A >E A@= 2HE J = J=L= K ILE ?E A E >H ALE F=@= K K EIJK J= K HA?E A = I E = = E = E K @ = K JA HA A $  " = K E A @= A K J= = = = HK E?E A HAFHA A JK K >H ALA , 2, . . . , (n + 1) 1 F IJ A @LE A A IK  K  K@= A A = = A @ n ) IK J J= A A @C L=H= K >H ALE = n1 E n2 J=@= A = FHEH @= >H 1 q = |n1 n2 | n K = K@= A IJ J= A q E J= A A = = @ n A = A p ?E A E >H = > E E q = E >H K p = F I =JH= HK E?E 1 @C L=H= J= = A J A |q p| < n =@= FHAJD @ K A A@ = IJ F @E A E I= q @ >E A JLH A A $ 

FHEH @ E >H ALE p E q ) HA= ED >H AL= E = E E F=@= K E F @ E @K E A q

6- 4- ) $  $ -H@A

A = IK =@=JE FH E L E A n (p 1)(q 1) + 1 IL= E E @ n J H=IJK E F @ E @K E A p E E J

5A AHA " 

, = A = A a1 , a2 , . . . , an F I =JH= E E HA= ED >H AL= = E I= Rm  @ I Om  @K E K = IE = C H=IJK AC  @ I F=@= K AC F @ E = A A F I A@ E = am A FHE E AJEJE @= = m < s LHE A@E
= A am

as

@= A Rm < Rs = =

A am

as

@= A Om < Os

=J I KF ILED F=H L= {(Rm , Om ) : m [n]} E = n H= E EJED A A A =J= 2HAJF IJ=LE @= A JLH A A E JA HA A AJ= J AIJ @= F IJ E E @K E A n E A = H=IJK E F @ E @K E A p EJE E = F=@= K E F @ E @K E A q 6=@= IK ILA CK A LHE A@ IJE = (Rm , Om ) A A A JE E [p 1] [q 1] 6 A JH=@E ?E = I= E A E? @= JED F=H L= E = n > (p 1)(q 1) CK A A IJHKEI=JE E @K E A (p 1)(q 1) K A A F IJ E H=IJK E F @ E @K E A p EJE F=@= K E F @ E @K E A q 5 A@A = JA HA = A > =C K F JA A I L A LAH E A ,EHED A L C FHE ?EF=
3 4

2=K -H@ I '! ''$ /A HCA 5 A AHAI ' #



$  ,EHED A L FHE ?EF

) K

6- 4- ) $  %

A = IK n, m E k FHEH @ E >H ALE E A = A m > kn A m FHA@ AJ= H=IF HA A K n KJE = J=@= F IJ E >=H A@ = KJE = IA = = E >=H k + 1 FHA@ AJ
AI H EIJE = K JA HA E $   F= C= IJ=L = A E =@=J= = K E = IA = L A >K HEIJE L=

, =

2HE


> E ,EHED A L C FHE ?EF=

AH $  & 4E A E

E K@E JHA>= @= >K@A K A@ FH IJ HE E @= >EI I= IECKH K C E JLH@EJE @= ED k I =LE H A @= EIJ C @= = K A@ A E  A K EIJ C @=JK = 7 KJ=H ? A IJH= E?A A@= IA = = E 100 J= = = , = E @= A K E = F IJ A AJEHE J= A A IK J A A = JAJH=A@H= E = A =FHA 1 E = = = @ 99 ! A = IK A1 , A2 , , Am AJLAH = E F @I KF LE I KF= [100] J= LE @= LHE A@E |Ai Aj | 2 ) A m > 40425 @ = E @= A K JE I KF LE = F IJ E ED 49 E = A K E = ?E A E I KF [100]

4AA A
 7 L =@=J K KJE A IK @= E K IA@ E?E ) >E IL= E @ IA@= @= = >E H A @= = J= k 1 K@E J=@= A @= F IJ E 7k 7 K@E A K E = A = ED k E I =LA H A @= EIJ C @= = A KJE = IA F =LE A@= L A J AIJ = E = 7k 6 = 7 (k 1) + 1 K@E E FHAJD @ A JA HA A = @= F IJ E >=H A@= @= =@= H A @= I =LE >=H k K@E 2=H= A E H=L E = F @E A E ? K = 33 F @K@=H A AJLAH I 1 JH= A FHE A =FHA E A 33 = A 100 > 3 33 = I LK JA HA A $% = K KA @= IA K >=H A@ FHE E = = A >=H AJEHE J= A 1 1 =FHA E = JAJH=A@H= @HA A C I= JA AJEHE J= A A = LE A 3 33 ! = ILA i = 1, 2, . . . , m F I =JH= ILA @L = A F @I KF LA {x, y } Ai 6= LED  A K H= E EJED F @I KF L= E = 6m 5LED @L = ED F @I KF L= I KF= [100] E = 4950 7 FHAJF IJ=L K @= A m 40425 F IJ A x E y J= LE @= IA {x, y } = = E K >=H 49 I KF L= Ai 7 E = JED 49 I KF L= E = 2 + 49 2 = 100 A A A =J=



- A A JE 4A

E ALA JA HE A

- A A JE 4A

E ALA JA HE A

AB H = C L HA E 4A E AL=# JA HE = = A @= K @ L LA E >H K > A =J= KLE A F IJ E FH=LE = IJHK JKH= K =FHE A@ =@= A LA E E A I L K E@A K A E KIJH L=JE I= A@ IJ=L E FHE AH E IA AIJ F =L EL= = =@=J= = =JA =JE E J= E A E =

2HE

A@ = @ I A@A A @LE A JLH@ A L A = J= L A = J=

AH $

 , = =JE @= K CHKFE @ AIJ K@E KLE A LHE A@E >=H

@= IA IL= = @L= F @= IA E = @L= =K LA =

) 2 IJ A JHE * 2 IJ A JHE F =K ,= E J

A K

E = A

H= @= LHE A@E E = CHKFK @ FAJ K@E

4AA A

A = A A A@= L A E JA CHKFA IJ= ED FAJ K@E F @E A E K @LE A CHKFA K A@ IK E E IA F = K I= A @ IK K @HKC CHKFE E E IA A F = K I= A = I LK ,EHED A L C FHE ?EF= K >=H A@ CHKFE F IJ A >=H JHE L A = 2 I =JH= IEJK=?E K =@= I >= A E = JHE F = E = ) A KJ JH E? F IJ E F=H E IA F = A J= F=H = A@ I= I > A E E JH K = =?= 7 J I K = K A EIFK A JLH A A ) ) IA E = @L E?= F = E = @A AF =K @= J= JHE F = E = @A E A JH K K IA E = @L= A F = K @ I LHE A@E JLH A A * 5 E E H= =JH= A =@=J= HE A E = CHKF= K@E E IA A F = K I= I > A E = JHE L A = 2HAJD @ H= =JH= A IA A C @ FEI=JE CH= E K@A FHA @IJ=LE = J= A K H=L E J= @= IK IL= A JHE J= A K J I KFK A E A=H A ) IA @L= L A = F = K @C L=H= K A J= A IF E I= FK E E = = IA A F = K I= EIFHA E@= 6= IK IL= A @LE A J= A IF A A FK E E EIFHA E@= E E 7FH=L I F = = E @= IA K I KFK @ AIJ J= = = K A IK IL= A @LE A J= A IF A A FK E E EIFHA E@= E E KLE A A = E F AJ= JH KC= A IK ILA ELE?A IK E E FK A E E EIFHA E@= A 7 CHKFE @ FAJ K@E JLH A A E FHAJD @ C FHE AH= A H= @= LHE A@E ) IK IJH= E?A FAJ KC = IK FK A = @E =C = A EIFHA E@= A A = F AJ C JH KC =
5

.H=

2 K FJ

4= IAO '! '!

!

- A A JE 4A

E ALA JA HE A

JELEI= E FHAJD @ E FHE AH A F IJ=LEJE FEJ= A ,= E = FH E L A FHEH @ A >H ALA p E q F IJ E FHEH @= >H R(p, q ) J= @= K IL= @HK JLK I= >=H R(p, q ) K@E F IJ E

EE EE

ED p J= @= IA IL= = @L E?= A K E = F =K ED q E A K ED IA E = @L E?= A F =K

1 L FEJ= A E = EIJK CA AJHE I K E JAHFHAJ=?E K = E K FHE AHK $  =E A FEJ= IA @= E = IL= E I KF @ >=H R(p, q ) J= = = K H=L E K A E A JHE J= A EIK E A=H A E K A IK IL= A @LE A J= A IF A A E E FK E E EIFHA E@= E E LHE A@E

E E F IJ E p J KC= K E E F IJ E q J KC= K

A IK ILA IJH= E?A E ILA @E =C = A FK A A IK ILA @E =C = A E IJH= E?A EIFHA E@= A

= F AJ K FHE E AJE @= = ILA p, q 2 LHE A@E R(p, 2) = p E R(2, q ) = q 2HE AH $  = = A @= A R(3, 3) = 6 = FH E L A FHEH @ A >H ALA p E q K L JHA KJ K A = @= E >H R(p, q ) K F JA F IJ E @= A CK A n J= = = K H=L E  = E n >E LA E E IF EJE FK E E EIFHA E@= E E E = = J= @= A F IJ E F AJ= p J KC= @ FK ED E E = EJE F AJ= q J KC= @ EIFHA E@= ED E E =

6- 4- ) $
A@= ) E LHE A@E

4A E A = IK p E q FHEH @ E >H ALE LA E @ F IJ A >H ALE R(p, q 1) E R(p 1, q ) J=@= F IJ E E R(p, q )
R(p, q ) R(p, q 1) + R(p 1, q ).
$ 

I KF @ n = R(p, q 1) + R(p 1, q ) K@E E K J , = 7 E I KFK @=>AHE A@ C L A = 2HA IJ= ED n 1 K@E H=IF HA@E K @LE A CHKFA

(i) K FHL CHKFE IK ILE E (ii) @HKCK CHKFK E A K@E

EF = K @=>H= C E AF = K @=>H= C

LA =

2 ,EHED A L FHE ?EFK E E IA K FHL CHKFE = = E >=H R(p 1, q ) K@E E E ED K @HKC CHKFE E = >=H R(p, q 1) ) K FHL CHKFE F IJ E R(p 1, q ) K@E = I LK @A E?E A >H = R(p 1, q ) LHE A@E >=H A@ @ I A@A = @L= JLH A =

A K E = F IJ E p 1 I >= J= @= IA IL= A @LE A @ ED F = K =@= E IA @ @= @=>H= E L A E ED ILA F =A J A JH= A ED p K@E E A K ED IA ILE F =K

"

- A A JE 4A F A K JE =K

E ALA JA HE A A K E = IA E = @L= A

K@E = F IJ E q I >=

= IE = = E F = A @= A A@ = IJ $  LHE A@E E = K @HKC CHKFE F IJ E R(p, q 1) K@E 1 A A@ = IJE $  IA E @K ?E F p+q A = F = =JE @= = ILA p E q F IJ E R(p, q ) *H

IA 4A E AL >H = I LK A A@ = IJE $  R(4, 2) + R(3, 3) = 10 A KJE J AL >H R(4, 3)

R(p, q ) E K I

AC EIJA ?E K = ILA p E q KFH=L F

= =E

= EL=

A = K EJE @= A R(4, 3) E A J= = LHE A@ IJ = 4A E

2HE

AH $

! , = =JE @= A R(4, 3) = 9

@= K CHKFE @ @ALAJ K@E F IJ E I >= A =F = A >=H AIJ K@E = A R(3, 3) = 6 A K J AIJ HE? E E F IJ A JH E?= A = =?=  E A A @ = =LH A  E E F IJ A JHE A K E = IA ILE F = K 6= JH E?= F = E = = A@ I= I > A E A JH= A K AJL H K F = E = = I E = = E =@=J= A HE A EJE = F IJ E I >= B = A F = A >=H AJEHE L A = K J CHKFE = JK AJL HE?K > C R(4, 2) = 4 LHE A@E E E IA IL= AJL HE?= A KI > F = K  J A FAJ H= @ = = E E F IJ E F=H E IA A F = A ) IA J F=HK A = =?= @ @= B @ >E E I JH K K@E E IA A F =K A@E E I K = E E A >KDL= A FHAJD @ E H= =JH= A A =@= IL= = @ @ALAJ I >= E = J= FAJ F = E = E J= JHE A = ?= A KJE J= L= CHKF= K@E A A @= F IJ E LE@ AJE =@=J= ' E @HKC C F C =L = =E A = >E J >E CK A >H F=H L= F = E = 5 J EA FK ED @K E K CA AJHE I E JAHFHAJ=?E E K J @HK JLK A 92 FHEH @= >H

4 A A A 2HAJF IJ=LE

= LA E A >H ALA p E q H= E = E A K IJL=H A LHE A@ IJE 4A E AL C >H = R(p, q ) E A FH ? A A A FHE A A A@ = IJE $  A E LA = J A IL= = LA = = E EL A @= IA J= A LHE A@ IJE 4A E ALED >H AL= E = HA =JEL = A >H ALA p E q LA = JA H= K = K = FHE AH J= A LHE A@ IJE = R(5, 5) E R(6, 4) IK AF =JA
#

- A A JE 4A ,= =I A F

E ALA JA HE A

=J @= LHE A@E

43

R(5, 5)

49 E 35

R(6, 4)

41.

7 @ I=@= E H= =JH= E = I F I =JH= E I KF X I= r A A A =J= E ILA @L = A F @I KF LA J C I KF= I @E A E E K @LE A CHKFA K CA AJHE I E JAHFHAJ=?E E I ILA @K E > = E I= @LE A > A - A A JE I KF= X IK >E E K@E E E J= A K H=L E = CHKFA IK >E A FK = E EIFHA E @= = E E = @ I F = E?E E E A = ?E ) A >H EEF > EEF > IJ A IJ A

r@ L

LA E

= I

LK JA HA A $ A A IK ILE @L IK ILE @L

= = E F @I KF LE = E F @I KF LE A I= A @ X ) I KF A EL=JE @= KLE F IJ E Y X E EIJ >

E p = E F @I KF @ X K E A@ > E q = E F @I KF I KF= X E @HKC >

L H= =JH= A IA A = FHEH @= = E K F JEJE E > = b1 , b2 , . . . , bc > EJE ILA k = A F @I KF LA X E =@ L LA E E >H A A A =J= @= E A A  = >E = L > A A k = ED F @I KF L= @ X  A A A LA E E A A IK ILE k = E F @I KF LE > A @C L H = J FEJ= A @= A I A@A = JA HA =

FHEH @ E >H ALE k c a1 a2 , . . . , ac1 , ac 6=@= F IJ E = >H R = R(k, c; a1 , . . . , ac ) J= =L @= LHE A@E = IA ILE k = E F @I KF LE A C I KF= @ R A A A =J= > A I= c > = b1 , b2 , . . . , bc J=@= F IJ E i [c] E A E ai = E F @I KF F I =JH= C I KF= A IK ILE k = E F @I KF LE > A E I= EIJ > bi
*H ALE R(k, c; a1 , . . . , ac ) IA = EL= K K F JA E 4A E ALE >H CE E A R(p, q ) = R(2, 2; p, q ) ,= A A FHE E AJEJE @= A ,EHED A L FHE ?EF I= IFA?E = = I K = 4A E ALA JA HE A 7 JAH E E = K F JA ED 4A E ALED >H AL= JA HA A $   E $  % IA CK =FEI=JE L=

6- 4- ) $

" 7 F JA E 4A

E ALE >H ALE

A = IK @=JE = E FHEH @=

ALE 7 L JAH E

R(1, r; 2, 2, . . . , 2) = r + 1, R(1, r; , m, m . . . , m) = r(m 1) + 1.

, = -C EIJA ?E = K F JA C 4A E AL C >H = IA F = A = I E = = E = E K @ = K JA HA A $ HEIJE E @K ?E K F k E F a1 + a2 + + ac = I LK E @K JEL A FHAJF IJ=L A = @= F IJ A >H ALE

$

- A A JE 4A

E ALA JA HE A = ILA i = 1, 2, . . . , c.

Ai = R(k, c; a1 , . . . , ai1 , ai 1, ai+1 , . . . , ac )

6= A F E @K JEL FHAJF IJ=L?E F IJ E >H

R = R(k 1, c; A1 , . . . , Ac ) + 1.
A = A X FH E L = I KF I= R A A A =J= E f : X k {b1 , b2 , . . . , bc } FH E L > A A ILED k = ED F @I KF L= @ X @=>AHE FH E L = xX EK E I KF Z = X \ {x} A = A g : kZ 1 {b1 , b2 , . . . , bc } > A A (k 1) = ED F @I KF L= @ Z @A EI= I= g (S ) = f (S {x}) 2 E @K JEL FHAJF IJ=L?E F IJ E i [c] E T Z I= Ai A A A =J= E E IK ILE (k 1) = E F @I KF LE > A E > bi = Ai E = R(k, c; a1 , . . . , ai1 , ai 1, ai+1 , . . . , ac ) A A A =J= E @A E?E A K F JA ED 4A E ALED >H AL= = @= F IJ E j [c] E Y T I= aj A A A =J=  IE = j = i =@= I KF Y E = ai 1 A A A =J= E E IK ILE k = E F @I KF LE > A E I= > bj ) A j = i E |Y | = ai 1 K J= I KF @ @= A A A J x E @ >E A ai = E F @I KF @ X I= JH= A E IL IJL 6= A LHE A@ IJE K F JA ED 4A E ALED >H AL= A JA A @HA@EJE AC LHE A@ IJE  >E ED R(p, q ) A@E E AJHELE = = K F JA 4A E AL >H E = IA J= = LHE A@ IJ = A R(2, 3; 3, 3, 3) = 17 E A KJE E I= = AC EIJA ?E = 4A E ALED >H AL= A LA = = EL= E E = C FHE A = =LA@E A E =JH= JEL ED E @ >H =JED FHE A = 4A E ALA JA HE A K JA HE E >H AL= E CA AJHE E

= FH E L = m N F IJ E FHEH @= >H s = S (m) J= =L @= = IL= K F @ A K I KF= [s] = {1, 2, . . . , s 1, s} K m @EI K J ED F @I KF L= A1 , A2 , . . . , Am F IJ A x, y [s] J= LE @= >H ALE x, y E x + y FHEF=@= K EIJ I KFK Ai
A = A s 4A E AL >H R(2, m; 3, 3, . . . , 3) 2HAJF IJ=LE @= , = A [s] = A1 A2 . . . Am A = F=HJE?E = I KF= [s] K m @EI K J ED F @I KF L= ,L = A F @I KF LA I KF= [s] > E I= m > = = I A@A E = E

6- 4- ) $

# \KH$ 

{x, y } A > A I= >

6

i=

E I=

A |x y | Ai .

1II=E 5?DKH &%# '"

%

- A A JE 4A

E ALA JA HE A

1 @A E?E A >H = R(2, m; 3, 3, . . . , 3) = @= F IJ E F @I KF {a, b, c} [s] J= =L @= IK ILE @L = E F @I KF LE > A E I= i ) A a < b < c J=@= >H ALE x = b a, y = c b E z = c a FHEF=@= K EIJ F @I KFK Ai = A FH L AHEJE @= A x + y = z 5 A@A = FHE A = 4A E ALA JA HE A A E >E =J H A CA AJHE A A = A X I KF J= = = K H=L E LA I= J= I KF= X A = = E LA I= I KF E I=@H E ILA J= A E X ) A I KF X = = AC L LA I= J= A LA I= m J KC= P I= J A A E = E X J= @= P I=@H E ILA J= A E X = J= A A1 , A2 , . . . , An K H=L E = A @= IK LA I A =LEI A = IK JA J= A J A A = LA I C n J KC = @ I = A n J KC= A1 A2 . . . An LA I= J= I KF= {A1 , A2 , . . . , An }

6- 4- ) $

$ -H@A 5A AHA  = IL= E FHEH @= >H n F IJ E >H Cn J= =L @= >E E I KF @ Cn J= = = K H=L E K F JA F = K J = E @= E A JHE EIK E A=H A I=@H E LA I A = LEI= n = E F @I KF
HE A E = E A K Cn J= = = K H=L E A IK K F JA A @=>H=JE ED n A IK J A A = A C LA I C HEIJA IA @LE A A@ IJ=L A A A

,HKCE F =K n J KC =

7 @ = K FHAJD @ A JA HA A

- )$

% ) A =@= FAJ J= = = K H=L E J= E A=H A J=@= A K E = F IJ A AJEHE LA I

@= E A JHE EIK A =LEI A J= A

, = ) A LA I= J= JED FAJ =@= ED J= = = FAJ KC= E E AJLAH KC= A = F JHA>A @= A J @ = K A 2HAJF IJ=LE @= A LA I= J= JED J= = = JH KC= K E IA K KJH= IJE = = A @LE A FHA IJ= A J= A 6=@= IK @K = IF= = JA @LE A J= A E A@ = @ IJH= E?= JH KC = @LE A =IFH= A IJH= E?A A C LA I C AJLAH KC = 6 A A = J C AJLAH KC = IK LA I A =LEI =

& 7 H=L E IA = = E n J= = = A K E = E A JHE EIK E A=H A ) IK ILE AJLAH = E F @I KF LE J C I KF= J= = = LA I A =LEI E J=@= A ILED n J= = = LA I A =LEI
, = E A J=
A = IK =@= A J= A A1 , A2 , . . . , An ) JLH A A JA HA A LA I= J= JED J= = = A A E m J KC= C@ A A &

- )$

- A A JE 4A

E ALA JA HE A

m < n *A I = A = F J IJE A FHAJF IJ=LEJE @= A LA I= J= F I =JH= C I KF= A1 A2 . . . Am 6=@= IA J= = An = = E K A @ JH KC L= A1 A2 A3 A1 A3 A4 , . . . , A1 Am1 Am 6 A A = JH KC = E I=@H E J= K An = A@ I= An E A AJEHE J= A A EIK LA I =LEI A 6 A JH=@E ?E = I= FHAJF IJ=L F= IK J= A A1 , A2 , . . . , An J A A = n J KC =

, = JA HA A $ $ A = A X I KF J= = = K H=L E A IK K F JA F = K 5LA AJLAH = A F @I KF LA @ X > E ?HLA E >E A > F I A@A A FH=LE K ) A S = {A, B, C, D} X E = IK J= A A, B, C, D LA I A =LEI A I KF S > E ?HLA E = A C= > E >E A 7 E K X E = >=H R(4, 2; n, n) J= = = = @= F IJ E Y X J= =L @= A |Y | = n E ILE AJLAH = E I KF LE J= = = E Y IK > A E EIJ > = I LK A A $ % = n 5 = @= A CK >EJE ILE F @I KF LE > A E >E A > ,= A IL= E AJLAH = E F @I KF @ Y A > A ?HLA @ I IL= A AJEHE J= A E Y IK LA I A =LEI A = I LK A A $ & I E A@E @= A Y LA I A =LEI= I KF
1 = I EI = F I =JH=JE E L=HE = JK 4A I KF LA E ALA JA HA A = >AI = A

6- 4- ) $

A = IK @=JE FHEH @ E >H ALE k E c E >AI = I KF X ) IA ILE k = E F @I KF LE I KF= X > A I= c > = F IJ E >AI = = F @I KF Y @ X J= =L @= IK ILE k = E F @I KF LE @ Y > A E EIJ >

'

= k = 1 @ >E = EC A@ JLH A A = >AI = = I KF F @E AE = A E @EI K J ED F @I KF L= A1 , A2 , . . . , Ac J=@= A >=H A@= @ JED F @I KF L= >EJE >AI = = ,= A = k = 1 FHAJD @ K JA HA K A = L=JE ,EHED A L FHE ?EF = >AI = A I KF LA , = E FHAJD @ K JA HA K = k = 2 A = A X >AI = = I KF E A = IK ILE @L = E F @I KF LE @ X > A E I= c > = 5L= E >AI = = I KF X I=@H E FHA>H EL F @I KF X0 = {x1 , x2 , . . .} 2 = = A @= F IJ E E >AI = ED F @I KF L= Y1 , Y2 , . . . @ X0 E E H= E EJED A A A =J= y1 , y2 , . . . I KF= X0 J= @= LHE A@E  Y1 Y2 Y3 yi / Yi E = ILA z Yi I KF LE {yi , z } IK > A E EIJ ' >

$!

=@=?E

! yi Yj = ILA j < i = F AJ K A = A Y0 = X0 ) I IJHKEI= E y1 , . . . , yi1 E Y1 , . . . , Yi1 = yi @=>AHE FH E L = A A A J E Yi1 2 I =JH= ILA I KF LA > E = {yi , z } C@ A A z Yi1 \ {yi } = I LK >AI = C ,EHED A L C FHE ?EF= F IJ E >AI = = Yi Yi1 J= =L @= IK = ILA z Yi I KF LE {yi , z } > A E EIJ > 5=@= FHE E AJE @= = I= FHEH @= >H i E = ILA j N, j > i > = I KF= {yi , yj } =LEIE I= @ i 6K > K = E I= ci = A I KF > = = = F IJ E >AI = = I KF M N J= =L @= IK = ILA m M > A cm EIJA 6H= A E I KF A

Y = {ym : m M }.
A@= @ = F =JE ED HA K J=J= K JA HE E >H AL= JA HA = 8= @AH 8=H@A =% E ' % C @E A A JLH A A > EI 4A E AL JA HE E

6- 4- ) $

= ILA k, r N F IJ E FHEH @= >H w = W (k, r) J= =L @= = IL= > A A >H AL= E [w] I= r > = F IJ E A@ > = =HEJ AJE E E @K E A k

 8=

@AH 8=H@A 

- AC= J= E H=J= @ = LA JA HA A K A IA HEIJE I= ,EHE D A L FHE ?EF A @=J K H=@K & 2 IJ E E >AI = = L=HE = J= L= @AH 8=H@A LA JA HA A

6- 4- ) $

 ) A I KF ?E A ED >H AL= F @E A A = C @EI K J ED F @I KF L= J=@= IA = IL= E n N K A F @I KF L= = = E =HEJ AJE E E @K E A n

, = FHE A A

@
A

LA JA HA A = E @AJ= = FHAC A@ 4A E ALA JA HE A >H ? A A 4A E ALED >H AL= . . . IA CK = E K E E %

$ ! =@=?E
 = IL= IJ=> K K K E E = = A EIJ L= AC J E = IJ=>= = K K E ,= E H= K @= F IJ A @L= IJ=> = I= EIJE >H A EIJ L= , = E @= K IL= LA I F EA@HK F IJ A @LE A F I E I= EIJE >H A ELE?= ! .= E E = F @I KF L= I KF= [n] E = IL IJL @= IA IL= = @L= I KF= JA B= E E A IE A K E = LE A A A A =J= A @= >K@A K J B= E E E
7

*=HJA

AA @AHJ L= @AH 9=AH@A '! ''$

 

$! " # $ %

=@=?E E = = A >H AL= JHA>= @IJH= EJE E I KF= {2, 3, 4, . . . , 2010} J= @= E A@= @ >H AL= E IK IJ= E E A A@ = FH E L @K A = @HKC= @L= FHA IJ= = >H = = J=> K 10 10 A F IJ=L A 41 J F , = E @= A A K E = CK A @=>H=JE FAJ J F L= E IA A =F=@= K 6=> = 6 6 A F HELA = @ E = = 2 1 , = E @= IA J= J=> = A FHAI A E F CH= E?E A A @LE A IKI A@ A LHIJA E E A J= @= IA E A@ = @ E = A FHAI A A A = IK A1 , A2 , . . . , A1066 F @I KF LE = C I KF= X E A = IL= E @ ED I=@H E >=H F LE K A A A =J= E X , = E @= F IJ E @AIAJ A A A =J= x1 , x2 , . . . , x10 E X J= @= IL= E I KF Ai I=@H E >=H A@= @ JED @AIAJ A A A =J= 7 E K @ m FHEH @ ED >H AL= IA = = E J= n H= E EJED ) A n m 2 @ = E @= A FH E L @ A E K =IJ F ED >H AL= K J E K F JFK L=@H=J 5LA J= A K H=L E IK > A A I= = C > = , = E @= F IJ E FH=L KC= E A IK J A A = > A = EIJ > , = E @= IA E A K n + 2 FH E L ED ?E A ED >H AL= CK = E @L= E = A H= E = E E E E A >EH @ A EL I= 2n 7 HKCK F KFHA E = A@= A F LK A A E JAJEL= ) IL= E FHA E IE A A = LE A k JED JAJEL= @ = E @= A K KF = @K E = JED JAJEL= = = @ k  = IL= E FHEH @= >H n F IJ E >AI = C .E> = E ALED >H AL= @ A ELED I= n 7 KJ=H ? A E = A ELE?= @KC= = 9 ? IA = = E '& J= = , = E @= F IJ A @LE A J= A = K@= A IJE = @ A@=  A = A S I KF @ 25 J= = = K H=L E J= =L @= IL= E JH = E F @I KF @ S I=@H E >=H @LE A J= A = K@= A IJE = @ 1 , = =JE @= F IJ E 13 = E F @I KF I KF= S E A F HEJE HKC F KFHA E = 1 A = A a1 < a2 < < an E A = A b1 > b2 > > bn E A = A

& '    ! "

#

{a1 , a2 , . . . , an } {b1 , b2 , . . . , bn } = {1, 2, . . . , 2n 1, 2n}.

1 H= K = |b1 a1 | + |b2 a2 | + + |bn an |. $ , = E @= = 4A E AL >H R(p, q ) LHE A@E

R(p, q )

p+q2 . p1

 

$ " 4 A A = =@=J= = % ,L= HKC= I= = A@ E E ?A JH A@= = E @ @HKC C F @E A A E IK FHA E?E = = F 200 F @K@=H ED EI A = = 7 LA A HKCK A 100 EI A = = > A ?HLA = 100 F =L > 7 = A HKCK A IL= E EI A = > A FH E L I= A@ @ LA @LE A > A , = =JE @= A CK A =H JEH=JE = E HKC J= @= >=H = 100 IKI A@ ED EI A = = = AC E LA AC HKC= > A >K@K EIJA & A = A n AF=H= FHEH @= >H LA E @ A@= E A = IK c1 , c2 , . . . , cn FH E L E ?E A E >H ALE = FAH KJ=?E K = (1 , 2 , . . . , n ) Sn @A E A
n

S ( ) =
i=1

ci i .

'  

"

, = E @= F IJ A FAH KJ=?E A , Sn J= LA @= A S ( ) S ( ) @ A EL I= n! , = E @= IL= E E HA= ED >H AL= E = J F @ E  A = A F B= E E = F @I KF L= A C I KF= @ n A A A =J= E A = A |F| = 2n1 +1 , = E @= F IJ A S, T F J= LE @= A |S \ T | = 1 ,= E EIJ JLH A A H= @= LHE A@E E = A |F| = 2n1 7 FH IJ HK IA = = E @ALAJ J= = = A K E = E A AJEHE EIK F = =H A @HA@EJE = = E >H n I= I A@A E IL IJL ) @=>AHA n @K E A IF= = K =@= A J= A F= ED FH E L > E I= @LE A > A J=@= F IJ E A@ > = JH KC=  A = IK A E B ? A >H A =JHE?A 2 2 ) IK A A + B A + 2B A +3B A +4B HACK =H A =JHE?A E E IK E LAH E ? A >H A =JHE?A @ = E @= A A +5B HACK =H = E @= A (A +5B )1 J= A ? A >H = =@= A I KF @ 1985 A >=LA H= E EJED FHEH @ ED >H AL= E A@= @ JED >H AL= E A @ A EL I= FH IJE >H A LA E @ 23 , = E @= A K =@=JE >H ALE = F IJ A AJEHE E E A FH E L @ AJLHJE IJAFA A C FHEH @ C >H = 6= A K FH IJ HK IK > A A I= A@ @ JHE =@=JA > A , = E @= F IJ E >=H A@ = > = = HA= E K A ILA K@= A IJE @ I = ILA d > 0 F IJ A @LE A J= A > A A J > E = A K@= A IJ A@ = = d

$ " 4 A A = =@=J= =
 A H= ) E = n IJ=>= = K K E 0, 1, . . . , n 1 EIJ L= ) F EA@=H E = n F I E JA F I E ELE?=  = E = A @= >K@A

CK E =JE 3, 4, . . . , n 1

$ " 4 A A = =@=J= = ! A = A A [n] 7 B= E E E I= JH= A E IL IJL A @= IA = = E = LE A A@= @ I KF L= A E E [n] \ A 5J C= J= L= B= E E = A @= E = = LE A 2n1 A A A =J= .= E E K I= J E A A A =J= E A ILE F @I KF LE [n] E I=@H A A@= I= A A A J " , L AK EJE >H ALA 2, 3, 4, . . . , 44 = LHE A@E 4545 = 2025 > 2010 E A@= @ FHA IJ= ED >H AL= E A FH E L @ A = @L= >H = E I KF= {45, 46, 47, . . . , 2010} 7 JH = =

(2, 87, 2 87), (3, 86, 3 86), . . . , (44, 45, 44 45)

IA = = A H= E EJE >H ALE E E IL= A H= >EJE E >= A A@= @= >E KI L =@=J = >E EIFK A 5J C= IA H= K K EJE >=H 43 >H = # 2HE A ,EHED A L C FHE ?EF= A IA F = =JE @= F IJ E FAJ = I= HA@  >=H 5, 4, 3, 2, 1 J F L= 1 A K E = >=H A@= J F @=>AHA A@ C E A K E = K >=H @L= A @=>H=JE A@ C E C= A =F=@= E A = E = >=H JHE A @=>H=JE A C E A =F=@= FHAJD @ A EJ@ $ 5L= = @ E = FHAI A A J= A@ K E E K E A K @LE A LHIJA E E A = A F IJ=L A 18 @ E = = E = 10 CH= E ED E E = FH I A  FHAI A = A 1, 8 A KJE FHE E AJE @= A >H FHAI A = A A CH= E?A I= @ E = = H= >EJE F=H=  | % 1 KI L= |Ai | > |X A = K EJE @= F IJ E A A A J x1 X 2 E IA = = E K >=H p1 I KF L= @ 1066 F I =JH= ED p1 534 IJ= A I KF LA ED q1 = 1066 p1  = LE A #!  = E I= B1 , B2 , . . . , Bq1 2 FHAJF IJ=L?E IL= E @ ED E = >=H F LE K A A A =J= E X \ {x1 } 5J C= F IJ E A A A J x2 X \ {x1 } E IA = = E K >=H F LE E @ q1 FHA IJ= ED I KF L= ,= A H= =JH= A A FH=JEJE K I A@A J=>A E xi+1 X x1 x2 x3 x4 x5 x6 x7 x8 x9 x10 I KF LE >A xi #! $# ! $# ! # % !   & A = IK a1 , a2 , . . . , an H= E EJE >H ALE E IA F =LA K F I =JH= E K x1 , x2 , . . . , xm = ILA j = 1, 2, . . . , m @A E E n J H K Ej = (1 , 2 , . . . , n ) {0, 1}n I=

i =

0, ai IA F =LE F=H= >H 1, E = A

FKJ= K x1 , x2 , . . . , xj

) = A E j [m] LHE A@E Ej = (0, 0, . . . , 0) >H x1 x2 xj A F JFK L=@H=J 7 IKFH J > Cm 2n F IJ A j1 , j2 [m] j1 < j2 J= LE @= A Ej1 = Ej2 6=@= A >H xj1 +1 xj1 +2 xj2 F JFK L=@H=J  !

$ " 4 A A = =@=J= = ' A = IK J= A H=L E > A A I= n > = 2 I =JH= I KF

X = {(p, q ) : 0

n, 0

n+1 + 1} Z2 . 2

= ILA i = 0, 1, . . . , n n+1 + 1 = IL= D HE J= FH=L y = 2 i F IJ A @LE A EIJ > A A J= A E I KF= X = FH=L y = i F IJ E n+1 H= E EJED AIJ= = JA @LE A EIJ > A J= A = 2 n+1 = H=IF =C= K E = n > = F IJ E = LE A n 2 A@ > ED F=H L= (p, q ) 0 HE J= ED FH=LED E = A@ = LE A F= F IJ A @LE A FH=LA K E = IK @L= A@ > = F=H= = EIJ F E?E E > A = EIJ >  2 I =JH= ED n + 2 >H AL= @E A E K n + 1 I KF L= A0 , A1 , . . . , An

Ai = {m :

IJ=J= FHE @ A A K I= 2n A i E E 2n i}.

7 >=H A@ I KFK Ai IA = = A @L= A A A J= 6A A A A JA @K A = E A IJ=J= FHE @ A A K I= 2n EIJE @ I I=>AHA = IK E IJ=?E i E 2n i A >EH @K E = JED JAJEL= LA E E E A@ = k J=@= A >EH @K E =  ) @C L=H= K ED HK ED K L= LA = @ k = IL= E @ JED K L= K E E A K ?A JH= IE AJHE = K > EH = ?A J=H HK E?A >EH @K E = ILED JED K L= A LA E @ 2k 5J C= H= @= F IJ E J= = = HK E?E = A F HELA = I= k + 1 K L= 2HA E E I=@H E JK J= K IE A A LE A @ k F I =JH= ED JAJEL=  4= E EJED F=H L= IJ=J= = FHE @ A A K I= n E = n2 5J C= F I J E >AI = C F=H L= IKI A@ ED .E> = E ALED >H AL= E FHE @ A A K I= n @= K EIJA IJ=J A @ I F IJ A i > j J= LE @= A (Fi , Fi+1 ) E (Fj , Fj +1 ) J= LE @= A Fi Fj ( @ n) E Fi+1 Fj +1 ( @ n). 6=@= A Fi1 Fj 1 ( @ n) 2 =L = K E L= F I JKF= @ >E A Fij 0( @ n) JED J= = = ! ) IK ILA J= A K@= A A LE A @  J=@= IK KC A 1 F KFHA E = 2 @EI K J A 6A KC A IK I=@H = A K ? E IJH= E?A 10 IA ?A J=H F =F= I= ?A JH F = A ? A 6 A JH=@E ?E = I= 3 4 1 = 1981 > 1000. 1981 2 3 6 " A = IK A E B = K@= A E A J= A K S = ILA X S LHE A@E |AX | 1 E E |BX | 1 A = IK kA E kB HKC LE A @ I B F KFHA E = A@= *=H A@= @ ED I=@H E >=H 13 J= = =  "

$ " 4 A A = =@=J= = # ) A ak n = ak+1 > n J=@= A bk > n E bk+1 F I =JH= = IK = A@ = =

n 5J C= A

(b1 a1 ) + + (bk ak ) + (ak+1 bk+1 ) + + (an bn ).

= LHE A@E {a1 , a2 , . . . , ak } {bk+1 , bk+2 , . . . , bn } = {1, 2, . . . , n}, K FHAJD @ IK E EIFHA@ >H AL= 1, 2, . . . , n IA = = E = E KI @ A EIFHA@ IJ= ED = F KI 6H= A = IK = A n2 $ 1 @K ?E K FHE A K A A@ = IJE $  % 2 IJ E  H= E EJED F = = = C E LA E C HKC= ) H JEH= = E HKC = 360 IL= E @  EI A = = K = HKCK >A > EH= =J A> > A  A >EJE EIJA > A I= IKI A@ E EI A LA E C HKC= J= 100 FKJ= 6 A 200 100 = 20000 F =F= = K 200 F = = = C HKC= F= H= @= F IJ E F = I= >=H  F =F= = & ) JLH A A =@=J = E A J= J=@= IA FHE @ A A K S ( ) I= n! F =LA ILE IJ=?E @ 0 @ n! 1 6= A

S ( ) 0+1+2+ +(n! 1) =
Sn

n!(n! 1) n! 1 ( 2 2

@ n!).

5= @HKCA IJH= A K FH E L = A ?E A J ci IA IL= E @ >H AL= E [n] F =LE (n 1)! FKJ= 6= A

S ( ) = (c1 + c2 + + cn )(1 + 2 + + n)(n 1)! 0(

Sn

@ n!),

J A JH=@E ?E = I= FHAJF IJ=L FH E L = E (xn )nN K I KFK R 2=H LA (xi , xj ) ' 2 I =JH= > E I= JHE > A ?HLA = A xi < xj F =L = A xi = xj E >E A = A xi > xj = I LK >AI = A LAH E A 4A E ALA JA HA A F IJ E >AI = = L= E = @ ED IK ILE F=H LE > A E EIJ > 6E = LE E A J F @ E I KF F=H L= {(A, A {1}) : A [n], 1 / A} = JED  2 I =JH= n 1 F=H L= E = 2 >=H A@=  EJ=L F=H A K F E J IK JH= A E I KF LE 5LED F @I KF L= @ [n] E E = K AF=H= >H A A A =J= E = n 1 2 6 A FHE AH B= E E A I= 2n1 F @I KF L= = A = JH= A IL IJL A IF= = K F=H LA =@= ED J= = = ) K > A K  2 IJ E 36 @K E E IJ=LE I= JHE @K E J=@= F IJ E AIJ J= = = E A K ED IK ILA @K E > A A = I LK FHE AH= $  = @= F IJ E A@ > = JH KC= ,= A LHE A@E n 33 2 = E @= A CK A  #

$ " 4 A A = =@=J= = > EJE 32 @K E J= @= A F IJ E A@ > = JH KC= 1 FHE AH= $  = @= A > EJE 10 @K E A IF= = K FAJ F I = JH= ED J= = = J= @= A = A@ > C JH KC = 5=@= @ @= A A@ K F A@ K J= K @ AJEHE FHA IJ= A = I A@A E = E 2HA IJ= K J= K A IF E I= ILE = LA F I =JH= E J= = = IE I= A@ J= B = A IF A = I= ILE = IJ= E ,K AX > E > I= A > A = E @K BX 6= @ >E A K KF 10 + 4 + 5 + 6 + 7 = 32 > A A @K E A K E = A = A@ > C JH KC = .K ?E = f : R R @A EI= = I= f (t) = @AJ(A + tB ) A F E @HKC C IJAFA = K t ) IK X E X 1 HACK =H A ? A >H A =JHE?A J=@= A @AJX = 1 5J C= IK f (0), f (1), f (2), f (3), f (4) A@ = E 1 E E 1 2 E @HKC C IJAFA = E K JHE H= E EJ= >H = E = EIJA LHE A@ IJE A IJ= J=  5J C= A @AJ(A+5B ) = 1 F= (A+5B )1 F IJ E E ? A >H = A ! 5L= E J= =L >H a IA A =FEI=JE = FH E L @

a = 2a1 3a2 5a3 7a4 11a5 13a6 17a7 19a8 23a9 .

2H E L @ a b A F JFK L=@H=J = IK ai E bi EIJA F=H IJE = ILA i = 1, 2, . . . , 9 2 IJ E 29 = 512 H= E EJED E L= (x1 , x2 , . . . , x9 ) I > EH = F=H IJ H@E =J= 7 =IJ F FHE A ,EHE D A L C FHE ?EF= E A K =@= ED '&# >H AL= A @=>H=JE& 736 H= E EJ= F=H= {xi , yi } J= LA @= E A FH E L @ F JFK L=@H=J 2 5=@= @ I xi yi = zi = EIJE = E = K E @= A K >H A LE = z1 , z2 , . . . , z736 F IJ A @L= E E A FH E L @ F JFK L=@H=J F =L E >E A > 2HA " A = IK J= A > A A ?HLA JF IJ=LE @= JLH A A =@=J = E A J= 6=@= F IJ A >H ALE c, p E b J= LE @= IA JA K@= A IJE A CK HA= E L=JE ?HLA F =L E >E A > 7 E JAJH=A@HA C1 C2 C3 C4 IJH= E?A c P1 P2 P3 P4 IJH= E?A p EB1 B2 B3 CB IJH= E?A b A = IK ci p i E b i LA J HE F = = @C L=H= K ED J= = = = i = 1, 2, 3, 4. 7 E 64 J= A Tijk J= LA @= A OT ijk = a i + b j + c k = IL= E @ 16 F=H L= E @A I= (i, j ) JAJH=A@=H Tij 1 Tij 2 Tij 3 Tij 4 A IJH= E?A c @ >E A IA JH= I =?E C1 C2 C3 C4 = ai + bj  = LE A A@ J A A K IL= @ JED JAJH=A@=H= A ?HLA > C J C= A K J= = = Tijk F IJ E = LE A 16 ?HLA ED 5 E IA F = A @= A K J= = = Tijk A >EJE = LE A 16 F =LED E 16 >E A ED , >E E I JH=@E ?E K AH F IJ A 64 J= A Tijk
8

=@= I

@=>H= E 735 F=H L=

IJ=

515 >H AL=

 $

% . 4 7 )7 7S) 15 7S)

%  4= K = A I= 8A

LE

@E =CH= E =
HEIJE E I 8A LA @E =CH= A =H K IA E

K E E H= HA@E = I L A A @= >EI HE A E E =@=J A I A@A AC JEF=

2HE

AH %   7 A H= HA@K @ !# K A E = BK@>= JHA EH= ED  @ >= IF HJ= JHA EH= K A E =KJ H= HA@K A >=LE E I= A@ E @ K A E = JHA EH= I= A@= IF HJ @ J= @L= = E

ED ' JHA EH=  K A E = J= @L= IF HJ= A >=

I A@A A = A A I KF K A E = E JHA EH= K =H K B I KF K A E = E JHA EH= K BK@>= 1 JA IJ= =@=J = = @= A |A| = 19 |B | = 21 E |A B | = 10 5 KF LA A E B FHA@IJ=LE 8A LE @E =CH= E = E K @C L=H= K A @E A LA LE@E I E K %  KFE A F @=J A A =

4 A A A 7LA@E

|A|=19 |B|=21

|A\B|=19-10=9 |AB|=10

|B\A|=21-10=11

AB

|S|=35

5 E = %  5 KF LE E FHE AH= %   FHA@IJ=L A E 8A LE

1

@E =CH= E =

D 8A

&!" ' !

%  4= K = A I= 8A ,= A H= K =

LE

@E =CH= E =

|A\(AB )| = >H |B \(AB )| = >H

K A E = K A E =

E JHA EH= K I= E JHA EH= K I=

=H K = 1910 = 9, BK@>= = 2110 = 11.

, >E A A F @=J A KFE A K @C L=H= K A @E A LA 8A LED @E = CH= = = I E?E %  5=@= K E @= A >H K A E = E JHA EH= K BK@>= E E =H K A@ = |A B | E H= K = L=

|A B | = |A \ B | + |A B | + |B \ A| |A B | = |A| + |B | |A B |.

I % 

,= A >H K A E = K J H= HA@K E JHA EH= K BK@>= E E =H K A 19 + 21 10 = 30 ) A S I KF ILED K A E = K H= HA@K LHE A@E

|S \ (A B )| = |S | |A B | = |S | |A| |B | + |A B |
5J C= A >H K A E = E A JHA EH= K E BK@>= A@= E

% 

=H K 35 30 = 5 FH EJ= E

*H K A E = E JHA EH= K I= 8A LED @E =CH= = = I E?E % 

IF HJ IA =

|A \ (A B )| + |B \ (A B )| = 9 + 11 = 20.
4A =?E A %  E %  IK EI K A = I L = E@A = E I KF= = FH IJE E FHE AHE B H K A K K A = L C FHE AH= IA =
K F J=L= = JHE

6- 4- ) % 

A = IK A, B E C F @I KF LE A C

. H K = K

K A = EI
=

C I KF= S 6=@= LHE A@E

K A = = JHE I KF= 

|A B C | = |A| + |B | + |C | |A B | |A C | |B C | + |A B C |,

|S \(AB C )| = |S ||A||B ||C |+|AB |+|AC |+|B C ||AB C |.

= I=@= @= A
2

I E?K @ = =

LA JA HA A F
K A = EI

KIE A%
K A = = n I KF L=

7 I A@A A

F C =L K IA = = E @ = B H K A K

 &

%  4= K = A I= 8A

LE
A

@E =CH= E =
B 1 1 2-1=1

3-3+1=1 2-1=1 2-1=1

1 C

5E =%

, =  JA HA A % 

K IE A

7 @C L=H= K K > =IJ 8A L C @E =CH= = = I E?E % KFE A FKJ= IA A A A JE E JA > =IJE >H A K FHL B H K E E JA HA A %  LE A@= =@=J= K @E =CH= E = E A A HEIJEJE FHA@IJ=L = A

4E A E I KF L= 8A

2HE

@ A ELE E I= A@ E = ED @ DE =@K A = A

AH %  !

E = FHEH @ ED >H AL= = ED @  E EIK @ >H AL= ! E # E E = FHEH @ ED >H AL= E IK @ A ELE I= J= A@ E @ >H AL= ! E E #

4AA A

S = {1, 2, 3, . . . , 998, 999}, A = {2, 4, 6, . . . , 996, 998} = {n [999] : 2|n}, B = {3, 6, 9, . . . , 996, 999} = {n [999] : 3|n}, C = {5, 10, 15, . . . , 990, 995} = {n [999] : 5|n}.
6=@= A

|S | = 999, |A| =
,= A H= K =

999 999 999 = 499, |B | = = 333, |C | = = 199. 2 3 5 |A B | = 999 999 = 166, |A C | = = 99, 6 10

|B C | =
= I

999 999 = 66, |A B C | = = 33. 15 30

@ >E =

LK JA HA A % 

|S \ (A B C )| = 999 499 333 199 + 166 + 99 + 66 33 = 266.

 '

. H K=K

K A = EI

K A =
B A 267 133 134

33 66 33

67

266 C 999 S

5 E = % ! 8A LE @E =CH= E I KF L= K FHE AHK %  !

2H=LE E F FK =L= A 8A LED @E =CH= = = I E?E % ! @ >E A @C L H = @HKC FEJ= A 267 + 134 + 67 = 468

. H K=K

K A = EI

K A =

. H K A K K A = EI K A = E FHAJD @ C F C =L = A = K F JEJE J= @= IA CK FHE A EL=JE = FH > A A K E = F I =JH= n I KF L=

6- 4- ) %
=

E I KF LE A1 , A2 , . . . , An *H
n

 B H K = K

K A = EI

K A = A = IK @=JE A A A =J= K K E E JED I KF L= A

(1)k1 |Ai1 Ai2 Aik | =

|A1 A2 An | =

k=1 1 i1 <i2 <<ik n

|A1 | + |A2 | + + |An | |A1 A2 | + + |An1 An | + + |A1 A2 A3 |+ +|An2 An1 An | +(1)n+1 |A1 A2 An |.

, = A@= @ = E = @= IA @ = A FHAJD @ = B H K = A E @K ?E F >H K I KF L= n 6 IJ=L = =E JAHAI L= E EJ= ?E = = L@ A @= A @ = >E =J H A FHEH @A

A = A x FH E L = A A A J E K E A ILED I KF L= Ai 2HA JF IJ=LE @= IA J= A A A J = = E K J= k I KF L= Ai
, FHE I A A A J= x K IK E = @AI IJH= E A@ = IJE K AE @ = =JE A !

. H K=K

K A = EI

K A =

k k k k k + + + (1)r1 + + (1)k1 . 1 2 3 r k
=@= K C H K IK K @ @= E @K A >H 1 F= EI HEIJE >E K B H K K @ >E A @= A @ FHE I A A A J= x = @AI IJH= E A@ = 1 (1 1)k = 1, >= E E A E @ FHE I J C A A A J= = E AL IJH= E ) IK ILE I KF LE Ai E FHAJD @ A JA HA A F @I KF LE A C
LA E C I KF= S J=@= IA E FHAJD @ A JA HA A = E H= K = >H A A A =J= E S E EIK E K A@ @ I KF L= Ai
n n

|S \
i=1

Ai | = |S |

(1)k1 |Ai1 Ai2 Aik |. % !

k=1 1 i1 <i2 <<ik n

241

@ IJ= J J=

-,*) %

5K A = @AI IJH= E LED B H K = E C A@= K F E L= A 2HE E AJE @= K E H= K

(1)k1 |A1 A2 Ak |+ +|Ai1 Aik |+ +|Ank+1 An | ,

A A@ = @ =CH=@= = @AI IJH= E A@ = IJE K JA HA E % # E = n k I=>EH= = ) ILE FHAI A?E F k I KF L= E = K EIJE >H A A A =J= @ I = = ILA k [n] E ILA 1 i1 < i2 < < ik n LHE A@E

Ai1 Ai2 Aik = pk ,

J=@= IK ILE I=>EH?E K KJ=H EIJA =CH=@A K B H K E E JA HA A % A@ = E 7 J I K = K IA B H K = K K A = EI K A = E JA HA A % E B H K = % ! CK =FEI=JE C A@ IJ=L E A
n

 

A1 A2 An =
k=1 n n

(1)k1 (1)k1

n pk , k n pk . k
A @ >EJE FHE A

S\
i=1

Ai = S
k=1

A E B H KAK

L= ED E = E ELED HA K J=J= IA K A = EI K A =

2AH KJ=?E = >A I ED J= = = IA = EL= @AH= = ,= A @A H= = A >E A ?E = f : [n] [n] J= L= @= = ILA i [n] LHE A@E f (i) = i 5= Dn = E >H @AH= = = K Sn ,= @HA@E >H ALA Dn HEIJE A B H K K K K A = EI K A = !

. H K=K

K A = EI

K A =

2HE

AH %

! *H
AIJ

@AH=
= E

= =

@HA@EJE >H

@AH=

= = K Sn E = A i

4 A A A 5= Ai
I = J= = J

I KF ILED FAH KJ=?E = E Sn

Ai = Sn : (i) = i .
2HE E AJE @= A Dn = Sn \ (A1 A2 An ) . 7 E FH E L ED k E @A I= 1 i1 < i2 < < ik n 2AH KJ=?E A E Sn A IA = = A A E = IK i1 , i2 , . . . , ik I A J= A K Ai1 Ai2 Aik IK J= 2 IJ E EC A@ = >E A ?E = E A K FAH KJ=?E = E Ai1 Ai2 Aik E ILED FAH KJ=?E = I KF= [n] \ {i1 , i2 , . . . , ik } 5J C= A

|Ai1 Ai2 Aik | = (n k )!.

HEIJA E = A = K FHE A@>E % K L 5=@= EI HEIJE B H K K E FHE A@>A %
n

FHE

AHK A pk = (n k )!

Dn = |Sn \ (A1 A2 An )| = n!
i=1

(1)i1

n (n i)!, i

Dn = n!
i=0

1 (1)i . i!

2HE

?E = I= [n] = [m]

AH %

" *H

@HA@EJE >H

IKH A ?E =

A = A Surn,m I KF ILED IKH A A A A =J= I KF= Surn,m =

4AA A

FAJ A HEIJEJE B H K K K K A = EI K A = = ILA i [m] I= Ai = E I KF FHAI E =L= = f : [n] [m]  A F C @A >H i J AIJ

Ai = f : [n] [m]| = ILA j [n] A f (j ) = i .

5=@= FHE E AJE @= A

Surn,m = [m][n] \ (A1 A2 Am ).

@=>AHE k H= E EJED E @A I= i1 , i2 , , ik E I KF= [m] 7 I KFK Ai1 Ai2 Aik IA = = A BK ?E A A FH = A ILA i1 , i2 , . . . , ik J AIJ Ai1 Ai2 Aik = f |f : [n] [m] \ {i1 , i2 , . . . , ik } . !

. H K=K

K A = EI

K A = = I
m1

=J @ >E =

A |Ai1 Ai2 Aik | = (m k )n . @= A

m1

LK FHE

A@>A %

|Surn,m | = mn
i=1

(1)i1

m (m i)n = i

(1)i
i=0

m (m i)n . i

A@ = @ L= ED BK ?E = K JA HE E >H AL= A : N N = FH E L = FHEH @= >H n @A E A

AH L= BK
.

?E =

(n) =

n : m E n IK HA =JEL

FH IJE >H ALE

= FHE AH >H ALE 1, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, 19 E 23 IK HA =JEL FH IJE I= 24 F= LHE A@E (24) = 8 ,= A = FH E L = FH IJ >H p A EC A@ (p) = p 1 = E H= K =JE (n) = >E E FHEH @= >H n 6K = J= A AF E B H K = K K A = EI K A =

2HE

AH % #  AH L= BK ?E = A = A n FH E L = FHEH @= mk 1 m2 = I = B= J HE =?E = >H = n J AIJ >H E A = A n = pm 1 p2 pk A@E IJLA = E = IA n A =FEI=JE = FH E L @ FH IJED >H AL= , = E @= A
(n) = n 1 1 p1 1 1 p2 1 1 pk .
% "

4 A A A 5L= E >H

E [n] E E A HA =JEL FH IJ I= n H= >EJE @ A EL I= A E @ FH IJED >H AL= p1 , p2 , . . . , pk = ILA i = 1, 2, . . . , k F I =JH= I KF LA

n , n} I KF >H AL= E [n] Ai = {pi , 2pi , . . . , p i

E IK @ A ELE I= pi . = A FHEF=@=

A E >H E A@

E [n] A HA =JEL FH IJ I= n = @ I KF L= Ai 5J C= A

E I=

(n) = [n] \ (A1 A2 . . . Ak ) .

,= A E @A E?E A I KF L= Ai A = K EJE @= LHE A@E

|Ai | =
5=@=

n n n , |Ai Aj | = , . . . , |Ai1 Ai2 Air | = ,.... pi pi pj pi1 pi2 pir

= I LK B H K A K
n p1

K A = EI
n p1 p2

K A = @ >E =

(n) = n

n p2

n p + k

+ + (1)r pi

p pir 1 i2

+ ,

!!

% J

. H K=K A FHAF

K A = EI

K A =

=JE = @AI K IJH= K K B H K E % " C E HEIJEJE A@>A % ?E A A

2HE E AJE @= K L FHE AHK EI = JK B H K A K K A = EI K A = E FHE A@ @ L= ED IL IJ=L= AH LA BK A @EHA J = F I A@E?= B H K A % "

= = K L=HE
IJ 6

K JEF E =JEL

A = IK FHEH @ E >H ALE m E n HA =JEL 6=@= A (m n) = (m) (n).

2 5

-,1+) %

FH IJE

@ HEIJE A >EJE E I A@A = L=HE = J= B H K = K K A = EI K A = A = A S A E = = I KF E A A A A JA F I =JH= E A = A O = = I KF I >E = A CK = E A H= K E =JE A A A JE I KF= S = R O @A E A

f (R) = >H

A A A =J= K S

E E = K ILA I >E A E R E E A@ K @HKCK, A E = K ILA I >E A E R = = K EJE @= A g (R) =

T :RT

g (R) = >H A A A =J= I KF= S E A A @HKCA

1 @A = E?E = BK AF ?E = f E g A

@=

f (T ).

= =JE @= A J=@=

f (R) =
T :RT

(1)|T \R| g (T ).
FHA

% #

=EIJ= = =JE FH

K @AI IJH= E B H K A % # BK ?E K g E H= E A E F HA@= I=>EH= = @ >E =

f =

(1)|T \R| g (T ) =
T :RT T :RT

(1)|T \R|
L:T L

f (L)

I % $

(1)|T \R| g (T ) =
T : R T L:RL

f (L)
T :RT L

(1)|T \R| .

A >H

F @I KF L= T L
|L\R| i

E I=@H A ILA A A A JA E R E @ >E =

i A A A =J= E L \ R A@ =

!"

% ! 2AH KJ=?E A I= =>H= A E

|L\R|

F E?E = =

(1)|T \R| =
T :RT L i=0

|L \ R| (1)i = i

0, = 1, =

AR L AR=L

7LHIJE

E FHAJD @ K HA =?E K K % $ @ >E A

B H K K % #

241

-,*) % % . H K = % # A > =C K F JA A B H K A K K A = EI K A = 5 KF ILED I >E = O E@A JE K A I= [n] = I= Ai = E I KF A A A =J= E S E E = K IL IJL i = FH E L = R = {r1 , r2 , . . . , rk } [n] J=@= LHE A@E
g (R) = |Ar1 Ar2 Ark | E g () = |S |.

7 E @ I

@= A f () = >H

A A A =J=

E A = K E A@ K I >E K E O,
n

f () = S \
i=1

Ai .

4A =?E K % !

FHAF

=JE = IFA?E = = I K = B H K A % #

% ! 2AH KJ=?E A I= =>H= A E

F E?E = =

2 =J A @= F IJ E >E A ?E = E A K I KF= ILED FAH KJ=?E = E Sn E ILED H=IF HA@= n J F L= = =D LI K J=> K n n J= @= IA E = @L= J F= A =F=@= K = FH E L K FAH KJ=?E K Sn J F LA F IJ=LE = F = (1, (1)), (2, (2)), . . . , (n, (n)) = A >E A ?E = K IL= E E IL= LHIJE n n J=> A IA = = E J= F A@= J F 5 KF

= {(1, (1)), (2, (2)), . . . , (n, (n))} [n] [n],

IA = EL= CH= FAH KJ=?E A 7 LK E@A JE =?E K >H @AH= = = Dn A FHAF =JE = >H H=IF HA@= n A =F=@= K ED J F L= = n n J=> K J= @= E A@= J F E A = @E =C = E (1, 1), (2, 2), . . . , (n, n) 5E FEJ= A IA [n] [n] @A A F I =JH=JE E = FH E L = F @I KF J=> A

,-.1 1+1 ) % ! 
EA

A = A B [n] [n] >H ALA rk E Nk = I A@A E = E !#

= k {0, 1, 2 . . . , k 1, k }

% ! 2AH KJ=?E A I= =>H= A E

F E?E = =

rk A >H = E = = IA = F = E B A H=IF HA@EJE J= k A =F=@= K ED J F L= Nk A >H H=IF HA@= n A =F=@= K ED J F L= = n n J=> K J= @= IA J= k JED J F L= = = E = F E = E B @ I Nk = { Sn : | Sn : | B | = k } .
= FHE AH = A B = {(1, 1), (2, 2), . . . , (n, n)} [n] [n] @EHA J E H= K = A @ >E = rk = n Nk FHE E AJE k . ,= @HA@E @= = J F IJ=LE k J F L= = F = E B FHA IJ= ED n k J F L= H=IF HA K A =F = = EIK K B 6= A K HAJ IK =K

Nk =
7 F JA JA HA

n n! Dnk = k! k

nk

(1)j
j =0

1 . j!

I K = K LA = E

A K >H AL= rk E Nj A FEI= = I A@A

6- 4- ) % !

= ILA j = 0, 1, . . . , n LHE A@E

n

Nj =
k =j

(1)kj (n k )!
= FH E L

k rk . j
EA

, =

A = A B [n] [n]

= T B @A

f (T ) = { Sn : B = T }

g (T ) = { Sn : B T } .

2HE E AJE @= A f (T ) >H H=IF HA@= n A =F=@= K ED J F L= = [n] [n] J=> E J= @= IK A@E E J F LE = F E = E B E E IJ A =F E =E T ,= A g (T ) A >H J= LED H=IF HA@= K E = = F E = E T IECKH IJ A J F LE = CK = A E F E = E B  ) IA K I KFK T = = A @L= F = E EIJA LHIJA E E A J=@= A g (T ) = f (T ) = 0 = I LK LAH E A B H K A K K A = EI K A = E HA =?E A % # = @= A f (T ) = (1)|S \T | g (S ).
T S B

1 @A

E?E A >H AL= Nj E f (T ) LHE A@E

Nj =
T B |T |=j

f (T ) =
T B |T |=j T S B

(1)|S \T | g (S ).

!$

% ! 2AH KJ=?E A I= =>H= A E 7 E LA = E = )

F E?E = = K >H AL= rk F JHA> = = A A

AE >H Nj E H= EJE F A K >H AL= rk E g (S )

A S F @I KF @ B E A I=@H E F = E EIJA LHIJA E E A E H= K =JE @= A g (S ) = (n |S |)! 5J C= A

g (S ) = rk (n k )!.
S B,|S |=k

,= A A@= k =J= 6= A
n

= E I KF S B I=@H E

k j

F @I KF L= T I= j A A A

Nj =
k=j

k j

(1)kj g (S ) =
S B |S |=k k =j

(1)kj

k rk (n k )!. j

5FA?E = = j = 0 @ >E = @= A >H F IJ=L = = n J F L= = [n] [n] J=> K J= @= IA E A@= J F A = = E = B A@ =

n

N0 =
k=0

(1)k rk (n k )!
K =I! A &' C @E A FH >

% % A @AI

5 A@A E FH > A =CAI

A F IJ=LE -

2HE

>H= ED F=H L= A A I A@A =E

AH % ! ! 2H > A

A H=IF HA@EJE A E E @= E

>H= ED F=H L=

= E = E = IA n HKC C IJ = J= @= K =H?E E A I A@E F HA@ IL C >H= C @HKC=

L= =@=J= A E JAHFHAJEH=JE F K FAH KJ=?E = I= =>H= A E F E?E = = = I A@A E = E A = K =H?E I A@ K IJ = = FH E L = = E J= @= E A K IL= A @L E?A IJ= A J= A@ FH= AIJ 2H= = AIJ= = E HA@ I= >H ALE = 1, 2, . . . , n ,= A K = H?= E I A@E @AI @ AIJ= i = E AC LK A K J= A = E I= >H A i A = A (i) AIJ = A A I AIJE A = = A = I= i 4=IF HA@ A = IJ = J= @= >K@K EIFK A E KI LE =@=J = A FHAF =JE = FAH KJ=?E K Sn = K LHE A@E
3

4AA A

.H=

EI -@ K=H@ ) =J A K?=I &"

&'

!%

%"

=@=?E

(1) / {n, 1}, (2) / {1, 2}, . . . , (i) / {i 1, i}, . . . , (n) / {n 1, n}.
7 J= L = =L= A >H JH= A ED H=IF HA@= >H= >H N0 = n n J=> K E F @I KF ED F=H L= A J=

B = {(1, 1), (1, n), (2, 1), (2, 2), . . . , (i, i 1), (i, i), . . . , (n, n 1), (n, n)}.
,= >E C E HEIJEJE B H K K % % F JHA> A @HA@EJE >H ALA rk 6 AIJ JHA>= @= E >H E = E = E = IA = F = E B A H=IF HA@EJE k A =F=@= K ED J F L= 2 I =JH= I KF

Ck = {(, p) : H=IF HA@ k J F L= = B, p B F

A >A J F= E }.

5=@= FHA>H E A A A JA E I KF= Ck = @L= = E = ) FHL @=>AHA H=IF HA@ J F L= F= @= AKF JHA> A F A @ >E = |Ck | = (2n k )rk 5= @HKCA IJH= A F A p E B A @=>H=JE = 2n = E = ,= A F IJ=L = A k A =F=@= K ED J F L= = B J= @= IA A HEIJE F A p A A LEL= A J E > HK k F = @ FHA IJ= ED 2n 1 J= @= E = @L= @=>H= = F = EIK IKI A@ = LE@ AJE =@=J=  E F C =L = # $ 6= I @ >E E @= A

(2n k )rk = 2n
5J C= A JH= A E >H

2n k k

rk =

2n k 2n . 2n k k

H=IF HA@=
n

HKC C IJ = A@ =

N0 =
k=0

(1)k

2n k 2n (n k )!. 2n k k

% " =@=?E
 E E = FHEH @ ED >H AL= EIK @ A ELE I=   E # = ED @ 106 E IK @ A ELE I= % =

= E = E = IA AIJ =@= E I= > > = A F @E A EJE = AJLAH @ A?A J= @= IL= @E AJA @ >E A >=H A E I =J E 2HE J A A A> > AE A A =@A CK IJ=JE AH=IF HA A A ! E E = FAH KJ=?E = K Sn I= J= k I ED J= = = !&

%" " #

=@=?E E E = FAH KJ=?E = 1 2 . . . n Sn K n2 > n 2 E A n1 > n 1 E E

= E = E = IA ILED @ALAJ F = 3 3 J=> A A > EJE ?HLA E E >E A > J= @= E A@ = 2 2 J=> = E A > A = I= ?HLA E E = FAH KJ=?E = 1 2 . . . 2n K I KFK S2n K i = 1, 2, . . . , n >H 2i E A AF IHA@ F I E A 2i 1 E E = FAH KJ=?E = K Sn E = = ILA

$ %

A A = K ?E KI @K E A l

& 5 KF S N A  EIJ @ @KF E =J= = LHE A@E k S 2k / S @HA@EJE E = LE A A A A =J= A E =JE F @I KF @ [n] E A EIJ @ @KF E =J= ' = K E F LH E A A@= IA = = E FAJ = HF= ) A F LH E = IL= A @ = E @= F IJ A @LE A = HFA E = A = @ = HF= LA = @ 1 2 A@ E = F LH E = >=H 1  5 A = IK =@= E FHEH @ E >H ALE p, q E r L=@=H @E A E = p q r A F @E A A = ? A IJH= E?A A@= @HA@E H E A@E E ED ? E?= FH = E @E =C = = L=@H= *H A IA I= A ? E?A E = @E =C = = FH = E  H K KJH= IJ E E = FAH KJ=?E = K JEI KF= M = {12 , 22 , . . . , n2 } K IKI A@ E A A A JE EIK A@ = E E = FAH KJ=?E = K JEI KF= M = {1n , 2n , 3n } K n K =IJ F ED A A A =J= E IK A@ = E E E =



 

E = A =

! , = E @= A

(1)k
k0

nk mn+1 1 mk (m + 1)n2k = . k m1
? E?= = = > E =i =

" # $ %

E = H= E EJED EID @= FHE >=?= K n H= E EJED IA = @= A >EH F= ED >H AL= A@ = m

E E = FAH KJ=?E = K Sn K ILA i = 1, 2, . . . , n 1

E = i + 1 E A AF IHA@

E E = k = ED F @I KF L= I KF= [n] K IJ F ED >H AL= A = IK A1 , A2 , . . . , An F @I KF LE I A@A A = A !' =

E = A = s K = C I KF= S 7LA@E

% # 4 A A = =@=J= =

Tk = |{x S : x IA = = E K J=

k I KF L= A1 , A2 , . . . , An }|,

Bk = |{x S : x IA = = E K >=H k I KF L= A1 , A2 , . . . , An }|, Pk =

1i1 <i2 <<ik n

|Ai1 Ai2 Aik |.

, = E @= LHE A@E ik = Tk = n i=k (1) > Bk = ? Pk =

@ Pk = & * BAH E AL= A A@ = @=J = LHE A@E

i k Pi n ik i1 i=k (1) k 1 n i T i=k k i n i1 i=k k1 Bi

Pi

IJ , = E @= K

= A E FHAJD @

C =

+1 r 1 (1)r Tm Pm (m P +(1)r1 (m+ )Pm+r1 m ) m+1 m

0.

'

A = A A I KF FAH KJ=?E = x1 x2 . . . x2n E S2n K |xi xi+1 | = n = A E i = 1, 2, . . . , 2n 1 , = E @= A |A| > |S2n \ A|

E = LHE A@E

E E = FAH KJ=?E = K JEI KF= M = {12 , 22 , . . . , n2 } K E =  = ILA i [n] EIK >= i = F E?E = = 2i 1 E 2i  = S [n 1] I= (S ) = E >H FAH KJ=?E = E Sn E = A I KF F=@ L= I=@H = K S = I= (S ) >H FAH KJ=?E = E = A I KF F=@ L= A@ = S = E LA K E A K (S ) E (S ) E B H K A = LA >H ALA = E = E = IA = J=> K n n A F IJ=LEJE n H= AL= J= @= IA K IL= LHIJE E IL= E = = E F A@= H= E @= IA H= ALE A KI > A =F=@= K 

% # 4 A A = =@=J= =
 *H AL= = ED @ 106 E IK @ A ELE I= 7 E = 142857 A = IK A1 A2 E A3 JE HA@ F @I KF LE @ {7, 14, 21, . . . , 7 142856, 7 142857} A E A >H ALE @ A ELE I=   E # 8HE A@E |A1 | = 14285, |A2 | = 11904, |A3 | = 5714, |A1 A2 | = 2380, |A1 A3 | = 2857, |A2 A3 | = 476, |A1 A2 A3 | = 476 2HE A B H KA K K A = EI K A = @ >E A @= A H A A A =@=J = >H 116191

"

% # 4 A A = =@=J= = A = A Ai H=IF HA@ I =J E = J= @= i J @E AJA A @ >E A E J= 7 9 11 8HE A@E |A1 | = = 9 = 13860 |A1 A2 | = 3 3 3 3 10 8 7 9 2 = 2 2 = 1260 |A1 A2 A3 | = 7 9 = 63 2 @ A |A1 A2 A3 A4 | = 1 5LED H=IF HA@= I =J E = E = 7 9 12 = 10 = 103950 5J C= A = I LK B H K A 4 4 4 4 K K A = EI K A = JH= A E >H A@ =

103950 4 13860 + 6 1260 4 63 + 1 = 55819.

! n k Dnk " 2AH KJ=?E = K E = A n1 > n 1 E = (n 1)! = ED K E = A n2 > n 2 E = 2(n 1)! 2AH KJ=?E = @ ED LHE A@A > A A A@ = IJE E = (n 2)! 6H= A E >H FAH KJ=?E = A 3(n 1)! (n 2)! # 5= Ai,j = E > A = J=> A K E = IK IL= AJEHE F = 2 2 L=@H=J= I= C H E E ALE F A (i, j ) > A = ?HLA > 5LED > A = E = 29 E = FHE A E B H KK K K A = EI K A = @ >E A HAA A

29 4 25 + (4 23 + 2 22 ) 4 21 + 20 = 417.
$ HEIJE A B H K K E FHE A@>A % A = A Ai I KF FA H KJ=?E = E = A 2i AF IHA@ = 2i 1 = A pk = |Ai1 Ai2 Aik | = (2n k )! @ >E A @= A HAA A n n (1)k (2n k )!. k K
k=0 n 1 k! l,l,...,l,nkl

% 7 CHKFE Sn E =

(l 1)!k (n kl)! =

n! lk k !

FAH KJ=?E =

I= >=H k ?E KI= @K E A l 5J C= A H A A A
n l

n!
k=0 n n & n [n 2] + [4] [8] +

(1)k

1 . k !lk

'

A = A Pi F LH E = i JA = HFA Pi,j F LH E = FHAI A = i JA E j JA = HFA Pi,j,k F LH E = FHAI A = = HF= i, j E k . . . = ILA i [5] LHE A@E Pi j Pi,j j,k Pi,j,k + j,k,l Pi,j,k,l P1,2,3,4,5 . ) = ILA i I=>AHA LA A A@ = IJE @ >E A IA "

% # 4 A A = =@=J= =
i

Pi 2

1i<j 5

Pi,j +3

1i<j<k5

Pi,j,k 4

1i<j<k5

Pi,j,k +5P1,2,3,4,5 0.

1 JA IJ= =@=J =
1
1i5

@= A
1i<j<k5

Pi +

1i<j 5

Pi,j

Pi,j,k +

1i<j<k<l5

Pi,j,k,l P1,2,3,4,5 0.

) LK A A@ = IJ F A@ = IJE @ >E A
32
1i5

E
Pi,j

I= 3 E @ @=

FHAJF I A@

Pi +

1i<j 5

1i<j<k<l5

Pi,j,k,l +2P1,2,3,4,5 0.

= A F LH E = FHAI A = AJEHE = HFA KLE A LA = E E A@ = = @ F LH E A FHAI A = ILED FAJ J A

32
1i5

Pi +
1i<j 5 1 2

Pi,j 0.
1 5

EA

CK A =

A Pi

= Pi,j <

E =  ,E =C = = E = E E A@E E ED ? E?= K J= = = (x, y, z ) K A >=H A@ = H@E =J= ? A >H = 5J C= A >H FHAI A A ED ? E?= p + q + r N ZD(p, q ) N ZD(p, r) N ZD(q, r) + N ZD(p, q, r)  A = A Ai I KF FAH KJ=?E = K E = IK @L= i IKI A@ = 6=@= A nk)! |Ai1 Ai2 Aik | = (2 E JH= A E >H A 2nk
n

(1)k
k=0

n (2n k )! . k 2nk

3n n,n,n

2n+1 n,n,1

+3

n+2 n,1,1

+ 3!.

! 2 I =JH= ILA E LA A A A =J= I KF= {0, 1, . . . , m} @K E A K E = IK F I E A FHLA K A ILE = LE A@ = E K E = i [n 1] A = A Ai I KF J= LED E L= K E = A = iJ AIJK K = = E = A E A K = 2HAI A Ai1 Ai2 Aik A FH= = = IK A E @=>H= E E @A IE ij E ij +1 IKI A@ E >H ALE = E = A K J FHAI A K E = mk (m + 1)n2k E L= = k = ED F @I KF L= I KF= k [n 1] E A = K K =IJ F A >H ALA E = n E@A JEJAJ IA @ >E A k FHE A B H K A K K A = EI K A = A E@A JE L=JE I= >H A H A A = A@ = E A x1 +x2 + " *=?= = + xn = m xi N, xi 6 A = A pk >H H A A = LA A@ = E A 6k1 K E = A >=H A ED k I=>EH= = LA A @ 6 8HE A@E pk = m n1 F= A H A A A =@=J = "

% # 4 A A = =@=J= =
mn 6

(1)k
k=0 n1

n k

m 6k 1 . n1

#

n1 (n k )!. k k=0 $ ) A A J= =L I KF J=@= IA I KFK Ac = {b1 , b2 , . . . , bnk } A @ @E A EJE H A A A (b1 1), (b2 b1 1), , (bnk bnk1 1), (n bnk ) A@ = E A x1 + x2 + + xnk+1 = k K N0 K A IK ILE xi < s 4 A A = JA A@ = E A K E = A >=H r >H AL= LA ED @ s 1 E = rs pr = n 5J C= A H A A A n k (1)k
nk1

(1)r
r=0

nk1 r

n rs . nk

x S E IA = = E K J= r I KF L= , FHE I J C % = 7 E A A A J= K Tk A A@= = A r = k 7 IK E = @AI IJH= E @ FHE I J C A A A J= A

n

(1)
i=k

ik

i k

r i

r k

r k

(1)i
i=0

rk i

0, = r = k 1, = r = k

> 5 E A@E E Bk = Tk + Tk+1 + + Tn ? = @L= = E = IA >H E I KF F=H L= (x, {i1 , i2 , . . . , ik }) C@ A A x S x Ai1 Ai2 Aik @ 1 FHAJD @ A HA =?E A E Tk = Bk Bk+1 & HEIJE B H K K (c) E FHAJD @ C =@=J = 5LE A ?E A JE K Ti IK F EJEL E F= A E ?E A E E H= F EJEL= @= LHE A@E ' A = A Ai = { S2n : i E n + i IK IKI A@ E} 7 E k |Ai1 Ai2 Aik | = (2n k )!2 *H FAH KJ=?E = A EIK K I KFK A A
n k n k=0 (1) k

(2n1)!2+(n (2n2)!22 =4(n (2n2)!. ( )(2nk)!2k (2n)!(n 1) 2) 2)

4(n)(2n2)! 1 1 = A 2 (2n)! = 2n = E @= A K A LE A FAH KJ=?E = n1 < 2 J AC K Sn \ A E = IK >= i = F E?E = =  A = A Ai I KF FAH KJ=?E = M K 2i 1 E 2i 8HE A@E

"!

% # 4 A A = =@=J= =

|Ai1 Ai2 Aik | =

n c n

(2n 2k )! , 2nk

n (2n 2k )! . k 2nk i=1 k=0  = S = {s1 , s2 , . . . , sk } C@ A A 1 s1 < s2 < < sk n 1 LHE n A@E  =@=J= & K AJLHJ C =LE (S ) = . s1 , s2 s1 , . . . , n sk . H K K K A = EI K A = @ >E =
F= A JH= A E >H

Ai

(1)k

(S ) =
T :T S

(1)|S \T | (T ) =
{i1 ,i2 ,...,ij }S

(1)kj

n . i1 , . . . , n ij

) A i LHIJ= K IA = = E H= K i J E J=@= A JH= A E H=IF HA@ H= AL= FAH KJ=?E = 1 2 . . . n Sn K = ILA i [n 1] LHE A@E |i i+1 | = 1 = ILA i [n 1] A = A

Ai = { Sn : |i i+1 | = 1}.
= ILA I = {i1 , i2 , . . . , ik } [n 1] A = A AI = Ai1 Ai2 @ |I | AC E @ Aik *H A A A =J= K AI A =LEIE I= >H = = IE = ED E JAHL= = K I ) A I = [a1 , b1 ] [a2 , b2 ] [ar , br ] J AIJ = A I I=IJ=L A @ r @EI K J ED E JAHL= = J=@= A |AI | = 2r (n k )! ,= >E C E FHE E A EJE B H K K K K A = EI K A = JHA>= @= FHA>H E E E = k = ED F @I KF L= @ [n 1] E IK I=IJ=L A E @ r E JAHL= = 5L= E k = E F @I KF @ r E JAHL= = FHA@IJ=L = A@ K F E?E K >H = k K r I=>EH= = ,= A JA E JAHL= A F IJ=LE E A K FHA IJ= ED n k 1 >H AL= E [n 1] CK >EJE E = F AJ K E E = H= K 6H= A E >H k = ED I KF L= 1 nk @ [n1] E IK I=IJ=L A E @ J= k E JAHL= = A k 5=@= r 1 r F K B H K A K K A = EI K A = @ >E A @= A JH= A E >H
n1 k

n! +
k=1

(1) (n k )!
r=1

k1 r1

nk r 2 . r

""

& 4- 74 18 - 4- )+1 -

&  2HE

AHE HA KH EL ED HA =?E =
IA A@ J= A I L E =@=J= A K AH=JEL A

2 @I AJE >E =J HE A

@HA@EJE >H A A A =J= K ILE I KF LE = E F I =JH= A B= E E A = ED I KF L= {An }nN0 @ I F JHA> A @HA@EJE E (an )nN0 C@ A A an = |An | SAIJ A FHLE H= K H A =L= K J C FH > A = FH = = A A B H K A = FEIK A LA K E A K >H = an E A E AC LED FHAJD @ E = an1 an2 . . . , ank ) J= L= B H K = LHE A@E = ILA n k @ >E E I HA KH EL K HA =?E K I FEI= E E (an )nN0 . H = = A f : Rk R E = = ILA n N0 , n k LHE A@E

an = f (an1 , an2 , . . . , ank )

= A @= A E (an )nN0 H A A A HA KH EL A HA =?E A k J C HA@= 4A KH EL A HA =?E A I LA HEIJE E K E E @= FHA>H E ILA F @I KF LA I KF= [n] ILA F @I KF LA @ [n] I= J= k A A A =J= >H ILED FHA KJ=?E = I KF= [n] LE@ AJE FHE AHA "  E !  ! JA JA HA K # # . . . 5= CK A E FHE AH= E KIJH L= A = IA HA KH EL A HA =?E A HEIJEJE K H A =L= K >E =J H ED =@=J =

2HE
K

E = A >H

AH &  

E E = E L= @K E A n =FEI= ED ?EBH= = 0, 1 E 2 KF JHE A> A ED K = AF=H=

4AA A

an = |An | )

A = A An I KF ILED JH= A ED E L= @K E A n E A = A K ILE E LE = E An E =LH =L= K I= 1 E E 2 >HE A

&  2HE

AHE HA KH EL ED HA =?E = K=

F I A@ K ?EBHK @ >E A E LA @K E A n 1 I= AF=H E >H A J AIJA J= @ >E A E E LE IK E An1 5J C= E L= K An E = A F I A@ = ?EBH= 1 E E 2 E = 2an1 ) E E An =LH =L= I= K IJ= A E @K E A n 1 E E = F=H= n 1 E E {0, 1, 2} E A K An1 5LED E E = 3n1 F= A >H E L= I= F=H E 2HE A E E FHE ?EF IK A @ >E A

>HEI= A JA F I A@ A K A = >H K = J AIJ L= @ >E A E L= @K E A n 1 K I KFK {0, 1, 2} >H A K = A@ = 3n1 an1 @= A

an = 2an1 + 3n1 an1 = an1 + 3n1 .

LK HA KH EL K HA =?E K E A JA HE A EJE = HA KH EL K HA =?E K FHE A E n 1 FKJ @ >E A A a1 = 1 = LK

an = 1 + 31 + 32 + + 3n1 =

3n 1 . 2

5=@= A F = =JE @= HA KH EL A HA =?E A CK >EJE @ HEIJE E =@= I @HA@E E J= K LHE A@ IJ = ILA A A A JA E = (an )nN

1 L K?E = = I KFK [n] A >E A ?E = f : [n] [n] J= L= @= A f f = Id ,HKCE HE A E = E L K?E = = [n] A FAH KJ=?E = E Sn IK ILE ?E KIE @K E A A@= E E @L= *H E L K?E = I= J= k ?E KI= @K E A n @L= A 2 (2 k 1)!! HEIJA E FHE ?EF IK A = K K A @= A >H k
n 2

E L K?E = K Sn A@ =
k=0

n (2k 1)!!. 2k
E L K?E = K Sn

2HE

AH & 

A = A an >H

= @HA@E HA KH EL K HA =?E K = E (an )nN >, = E @= A >H an F=H= = ILA n >1 ? , = E @= = ILA n > 1 LHE A@E an > n!

4AA A
=1 L K?E = K E = A f (n) = n E = an1 ) A f (n) = n J=@= A f (n) = i E f (i) = n = A E >H i E [n 1] ,= A HAIJHE ?E = f = IJ= ED n 2 A A A =J= A J= A E L K?E = 5J C= A JH= A = HA KH EL = HA =?E =

an = an1 + (n 1)an2 .
"$

&  2HE

AHE HA KH EL ED HA =?E =

>) E H= K = a2 = 2 E a3 = 4 A FHE E AJEJE @= IK F=H E 6LH A A F=H IJE ILED >H AL= an IA = @ = A =JA =JE E @K ?E E HA KH EL A B H K A ? = a2 = 2 E a3 = 4 LHE A@E 2 > 2! E 4 > 3! 7 FHAJF IJ=L K @= LHE A@E an1 > (n 1)! E an2 > (n 2)! E HA KH EL A HA =?E A @ >E =

an = an1 + (n 1)an2 > (n 1)! + (n 1) (n 2)! = = (1 + n 1) (n 1)! > n!.

1 F E L= A HA KH EL A HA =?E A A =@ CK >EJE LA = HEI A EA A K F JA E A CK A HE A EJE

F @A

2HE

AH &  !

= FH E L

K F=HJE?E K E = =@= FHEH @= >H

fm () = >H gm () = >H

@E A L= F=HJE?E A E IK A@ = E m; H= E EJED @E A L= F=HJE?E A E IA F =LA >=H m FKJ=.

= FHE AH f2 (533221111) = 2 E g2 (533221111) = 3 5 KF ILED F=HJE?E = >H = n = E I= P ar(n) , = =JE @= A

fm () =
P ar (n) P ar (n)

gm ().

4 A A A 7LA@E
Fm (n) =

I A@A A

= A

fm () Gm (n) =
P ar(n) P ar(n)

gm ().

A FHE E AJEJE @= IK F AJ A LHE A@

IJE = Fm (n) E Gm (n) A@ = A I

Fm (n) = Gm (n) = 0 = n < m

5=@= A HA =?E A F

Fm (m) = Gm (m) = 1.

= =JE @= = >H ALA Fm (n) E Gm (n) LHE A@A EIJA HA KH EL A &  & 

Fm (n) = pnm + Fm (n m),

@ I

Gm (n) = pnm + Gm (n m).

"%

&

E A=H A D

CA A HA KH EL A HA =?E A I=

IJ

A ?E A JE = ILED F=HJE?E = @

*H pnm E IA F =LE K LE B H K = = A >H nm @ I pnm = |P ar(n m)|

A = IK =@= E FHEH @ E >H ALE m E n E A = A n > m 5L= F=HJE?E E >H = n m A @ @=JE m E J= @ >EJE F=HJE?E K @ E P ar(n) = E = @E A@ = m = IA FH L AH=L= @= A FEI= = IJHK ?E = >E A ?E = 2HE J IJHK ?E E @E A LE F=HJE?E A P ar(n m) E IK A@ = E m IA A E A = K F= IA IL= = FAH KJ=?E = E P ar(nm)  =@= @ @= m >H E K Fm (n) fm () FKJ= 5=>EH= A F ILE P ar(n m) @ >E = @= LHE A@E &  ,= @ = A B H K K &  F I =JH= I A@A K IJHK ?E K IL= F=HJE?E E >H = n m @ @= J= m A@E E?= E J= @ >E A F=HJE?E K E P ar(n) = E = >=H A@= I=>EH= @E  = IA F =L = >=H m FKJ= 6= A JED m A@E E?= A @ @=JE E = A@ = A I=>EH A F=HJE?E A P ar(n m) E IA F =LA >=H m FKJ= 6= @ >E = @= LHE A@E E &  = IK F AJ A LHE A@ IJE = Fm (n) E Gm (n) A@ = A E = JE >H ALE =@ L =L= K EIJA HA KH EL A HA =?E A A = K EJE @= A Fm (n) = Gm (n) = ILA m, n N

&

E A=H A D CA A HA KH EL A HA =?E A I= IJ= J E A ?E A JE =

= = IJ A F IJ E = C HEJ= E FEIK A = IA H A =L= FH E L = HA KH EL = HA =?E = 2 IJ A HA KH EL A HA =?E A A K F JA E A CK A HE A EJE J AIJ E A CK A = E A IF E?EJ K B H K K = n JE = F I =JH= C E = 7 L F C =L K A F = =JE @= = A@ K =IK HA KH EL ED HA =?E = F IJ E A@ IJ=L= = C HEJ= E IA @ >E = K IL= H A A = JED HA =?E =

E A=H = D CA = HA KH EL = HA =?E = k J C HA@= I= JE A ?E A JE = A HA =?E = > E =

an = c1 an1 + c2 an2 + + ck ank ,
C@ A A n
1

IJ=
& !

IJ= JA c1 , c2 , . . . , ck IK HA= E >H ALE E LHE A@E ck = 0

AHE = E = IK A >K@A F I =JH= E A ?E A JE IK HA= E >H ALE A ?E A JE F A I E IA H A =L= K = I E = = E L= LA

7 ILE FHE HA =?E A K

"&

&

E A=H A D = EL= K L=

CA A HA KH EL A HA =?E A I=

IJ

A ?E A JE =

241

-,*) &

 A@

IJ=L

> =I E 

= J IA L= LA HA KH EL A HA =?E A FHLE IJAFA E EJE FH E L @E

= 4E A E A=H = = E @= IA K HA =?E E & ! F =LA I= >H AL= an A F =L K K IA IJAFA E ak n = k > 1 an am 2 I A@E?= E A=H IJE A I A@A = E A E?=

) IK E LE (an )nN0 E (an )nN0 H A A = HA =?E A & ! J=@= A E E (an + an )nN0 H A A A JA HA =?E A > 4E A D CA = K E A K = E @= = HA =?E K LHE A@E ) A E (an )nN0 H A A A HA =?E A & ! J=@= A = ILA R E E (an )nN0 J= A H A A A JA HA =?E A
L A = FH L AHEJE KLH J=L= A = L= E = (an )nN0 K & ! ) >E @AI IJH= E HA =?E A & ! @ @= E A E HA= = >H H= E EJ @ K A HA =?E = LE A A >E >E = D CA = ? = A @= A HA =?E = & ! HA KH EL = HA =?E = k J C HA@= =J J A = ILA n k = an @HA A I= LHE A@ IJE = k FHAJD @ ED = L= @ A ?E A JE K an1 , an2 , . . . , ank K HA =?E E & ! IK HA= E >H ALE @= A IJ= JA A A =LEIA @ n

241 -,*) & ) IK @L= E = (an )nN0 E (bn )nN0 H A A = HA =?E A & ! E = = ILA i = 0, 1, 2, . . . , k 1 LHE A@E ai = bi J=@= IK JE E LE A@ = E ,= A @L= H A A = HA =?E A & ! = IA F @K@=H= K = FHLED k AIJ= IK A@ = =
5=@= A FEI=JE = IA CK @HA@EJE IL= H A A = HA =?E A & !

241

-,*) & ! 2HAJF IJ=LE @= A H A A A JA HA =?E A E > E = an = n = ILA n N0 7LH J=L= A an = n K & ! E @E A A A I= nk = K K A @= A A >H H A A A A@ = E A
xk c1 xk1 c2 xk2 ck1 x ck = 0.
& "

A@ = E = & " IA = EL= HA KH EL K HA =?E K & !

=H= JAHEIJE

= A@ = E = = F = K

= A FHE E AJEJE @= LHE A@E E >H KJ ) A H A A A =H= JAHEIJE A A@ = E A J=@= A E (n )nN0 H A A A = & !

"'

&

E A=H A D

CA A HA KH EL A HA =?E A I=

IJ

A ?E A JE =

,= A = IK E H A A = A@ = E A & " = I LK = E > E FHE A@>A &  A = K EJE @= A E E (an )nN0 @A EI= I= an = A n + B n H A A A = F = K HA KH EL K HA =?E K & ! 8= A = IJ =H= JAHEIJE A A@ = E A A K J A J F A FEI=JE IL= H A A = HA KH EL A HA =?E A K A ED HE K F I =JH=

6- 4- ) &
HA =?E = I=

IJ= J E

"

A = A =@= = D A ?E A JE =

CA = E A=H = HA KH EL =

an = c1 an1 + c2 an2 + + ck ank

E A = A

xk c1 xk1 c2 xk2 ck = 0

=I ?EH= = =H= JAHEIJE = A@ = E = ) J= A@ = E = E = k H= E EJED HE A = 1 , 2 , . . . , k IL= H A A = =@= A HA KH EL A HA =?E A IK > E =

n n n an = C1 1 + C2 2 + + Ck k .

& #

, =

8A I

K FHE

A@>E &

!F

= = E @= IK E LE =@= E I=

n (2) n (k) n a(1) n = 1 , an = 2 , . . . , an = k , n + C n + + C n H A A = E ILA ED LA E A=H A >E =?E A C1 1 2 k k 2 F I =JH= A HA KH EL A HA =?E A

2 = E @= IK >= IL= H A A = F I =JH= A HA KH EL A HA =?E A J C >E = A = A E (fn )nN0 FH E L H A A A J AIJ = ILA n N, n k LHE A@E

fn = c1 fn1 + c2 fn2 + + ck fnk .

E JH= E A ?E A JA 1 2 , . . . , k J= @= = ILA n N0 LHE A@E

n n n fn = 1 1 + 2 2 + + k k . n + n + + n F @K@=H= K = 7I L @= IA fn E 1 1 2 k 2 k n = 0, 1, . . . , k 1 IA A =FEI=JE = IEIJA E A=H ED A@ = E =

2

E (an )nN0 A E A=H =

>E =?E = H A A = (n )nN0 E (n )nN0

#

&

E A=H A D

CA A HA KH EL A HA =?E A I=

IJ

A ?E A JE =

1 1 1 2 1 1

+ 2 + 2 2 2 + 2 2

+ + k + + k k 2 + + k k

= f0 = f1 = f2

k1 k1 k1 + + k k = fk1 + 2 2 1 1

4A= E >H ALE 1 , 2 , . . . , k A JH= E IK H A A = L C IEIJA = A@ = E = ,AJAH E = J= L C IEIJA = A @ >H F =J= 8= @AH @ L= @AJAH E = J= 1 1 1 1 2 k 2 2 2 (i j ). D = 1 2 k =
1 i<j n k 1 1 k 1 2

k 1 k

= IK IL= H A A = =H= JAHEIJE A A@ = E A H= E EJ= LHE A@E D = 0 F= F I =JH= E IEIJA A@ = E = E = A@E IJLA = H A A = 1 , 2 , . . . , k
n + n + + n ) 5J C= IK (fn )nN0 E (1 1 2 2 k k nN0 @L= H A A = F I = JH= A HA KH EL A HA =?E A = IA F @K@=H= K = n = 0, 1, . . . , k 1 = I LK FHE A@>A & = K KA @= A n n n fn = 1 1 + 2 2 + + k k = ILA n N.

JA HA A IA 7 E E

241

-,*) &
=

# =
A E K E A=H A = CA>HA @ = FHAJD @ A A EIFHE =JE = I A@A E = E
@E A E = E LA J HI E FH IJ H E IK H A A = HA =?E A & ! FH IJ H ILED E L= HA= ED >H AL= E E A E LE

>AI

V = f |f : N0 R
AC L F JFH IJ H W

W = f V |f (n) = c1 f (n 1) + c2 f (n 2) + + ck f (n k ) .
= A f (n) F JFK @HA A I= f (n 1), f (n 2), . . . , f (n k ) A FHE E AJEJE @= A @E A E = F JFH IJ H= W = LE A k ) =H= JAHEIJE E F E E = k H= E EJED HE A = 1 , 2 , . . . , k = IA KL AH n i = 1, 2, . . . , k A A A JE F @FH IJ H= W EJE @= IK ILE fi (n) = i = IK ILA BK ?E A fi E A=H A =LEI E LA J HE K W E E A A@ K >= K = W 5J C= A FH E L H A A A HA KH EL A HA =?E A E A=H = >E =?E = f1 , f2 , . . . , fk #

&

E A=H A D

CA A HA KH EL A HA =?E A I= K JA HA A &

IJ

A ?E A JE =

5=@= A F .E> = E AL >H

" = E A IF E?EJ K B H K K = n JE

2HE

AH &

$ .E>

= E ALE >H ALE 4E A E HA KH EL K HA =?E K

Fn+1 = Fn + Fn1 K F AJ A KI LA F1 = 1, F2 = 1

4AA A

= A L D CA = E A=H = HA KH EL = HA =?E = F I = JH= =I ?EH= K =H= JAHEIJE K A@ = E K x2 x 1 = 0 A = 1+ 5 1 5 H A A = IK x1 = E x2 = 2 2 , F= H A A A =@=JA HA KH EL A HA =?E A JH= E K >E K

Fn = C1

1+ 5 2

+ C2

1 5 2
A@ EA @HA = E

.
= E = = C1 E C2 =HA A AF I = KA E F AJ ED =

,= >E @ >E E J A@ IJ=L E E IEIJA E A=H ED A I =JH=JE @= A F0 = 0 7 E @= J A JH= A HA KH EL A HA =?E A! IJ= JA C1 E C2 KI L= F0 = 0, F1 = 1 4 A =L= A IEIJA = A@
1+ 5 2

C1 + C1 +

1 5 2

C2 = 0 C2 = 1
= E AL >H

@ >E =

1 1 C1 = , C2 = . 6= I @HA@E E n JE .E> 5 5 n n 1 1+ 5 1 5 1 Fn = . 2 2 5 5

2HE
K

AH & % E E = HE A E @K E A n =FEI= ED I LE = A B E C E = @L= I L= A EIK IKI A@E

A = A an >H E L= I= JH= A E IL IJL = IA FH L AHE @= A a1 = 3 E @= A a2 = 8 5LED an E L= @K E A n IA A @ >EJE = A@= @ @L= = E =

4AA A

@ FEIEL= A @ FEIEL= A
3

I L= B E E C = H= A A @ an1 HE A E @K E A n 1 BA E E CA = H= A A @ an2 HE A E @K E A n 2
= E ALED >H AL= I @ @= E K K 1 @= A A = = = K FHAJD @A

A@ IJ=L = F AJ= E = .E> IL= E >H K E K A@ = >EHK @L=

#

&

E A=H A D

CA A HA KH EL A HA =?E A I=

IJ

A ?E A JE =

5J C= A HA KH EL = HA =?E = = F I =JH= E E an = 2an1 + 2an2 . 4 A A = =H= JAHEIJE A A@ = E A x2 2x 2 = 0 IK 1 3 F JA H A A A F I =JH= A HA KH EL A HA =?E A @ >E A IA E B H K A & #

an = C1 1 +

+ C2 1

5=@= JHA>= @HA@EJE A ?E A JA C1 E C2 E F AJ ED KI L= FAJ A HEIJEJE = E JHE = FH C =IE @= A a0 = 1 HA KH EL = HA =?E = E @= A LHE A@E = H= K = A A @ IJ= = A ,= A JH= E >H ALA C1 E C2 E IK H A A = IEIJA =

1+
, >E A @= IK J C1 =

C1 + C2 = 1 3 C1 + 1 3 C2 = 3.
2+ 3 2 3

E C2 =
n

3 2 2 3

6=

A JH= A E >H
n

A@ =

2+ 3 1+ 3 2 3

32 + 1 3 2 3

5=@= A =@= IA K A

FEI=JE H A A = D CA A E A=H A HA KH EL A HA =?E A =H= JAHEIJE A@ = E E F =LA LE AIJHK E" HE A E

HA =?E = I=

6- 4- ) &

IJ= J E

&

A = A =@= = D A ?E A JE =

CA = E A=H = HA KH EL =

an = c1 an1 + c2 an2 + + ck ank ,

E A = A

xk c1 xk1 c2 xk2 ck = 0

=I ?EH= = =H= JAHEIJE = A@ = E = ) J= A@ = E = E = r H= E EJED HE A = 1 , 2 , , r E = A vi LE AIJHK IJ HE A = i J=@= HE A K i @C L=H= vi H A A =

n n n n i n i n2 i , nvi 1 i .

5L= H A A = =@= A HA KH EL A HA =?E A IK > E =

n n n C1,1 1 + C1,2 n1 + + C1,v1 nv1 1 1 + + Cr,1 r + + Cr,vr nvr 1 r .
4

*H A K = F E = f (x) LE AIJHK IJE  K JEF E?EJAJ= m = f () = . . . = f (m1) () = 0 = f (m) () = 0

A f () =

#!

&

E A=H A D

CA A HA KH EL A HA =?E A I=

IJ

A ?E A JE =

5 E?= @ = =

= E K I K = K =@= IK HE A E =H= JAHEIJE A A@ = E A H= E EJE JA HA = & " FHL A F = =JE @= IK = ILA i = 1, 2, . . . , r E = ILA n) m = 0, 1, 2, . . . , vi 1 E LE (nm i nN0 H A A = F I =JH= A HA KH EL A HA =?E A A = LE AIJHK P (x) = HAA A A i K = F E = P (x) = xk c1 xk1 c2 xk2 ck IJE vi LA A @ A@= 6=@= A i J= A H A A A A@ = E = n) 0 E xP (x) = 0 5=@= A FHE E AJEJE @= A (ni nN0 =@= A HA =?E A = I E = = E H= K = E @= A A E K @= A i

A = A m FHEH @= >H = E @ vi ) m FKJ= =E P (x) = 0 E H= K = E L @ F= F E I= x @ >E A H A A A A@ = E A

k m xk c1 (k 1)m xk1 c2 (k 2)m xk2 ck2 2m x2 ck1 x = 0.

6= I F = = E @= IK = i = 1, 2, . . . , r E m = 0, 1, 2, . . . , vi 1 ILE m n E LE n i =EIJ= H A A A F I =JH= A HA KH EL A HA =?E A nN0 7 FHE A@>E & # I =F= E E @= A I KF ILED H A A = HA =?E A K F I =JH= F JFH IJ H @E A E A k ,= >E @ = = E JA HA K @ L A F = =JE @= IK IL= F I =JH= = H A A = E A=H A =LEI = ) IK ILE H= E EJE H A E =H= JAHEIJE A A@ = E A 1 , 2 , . . . , r n H= E EJE F @K K J=@= H A A = nm i H=IJK H= E EJE >H E nN0 = = F= E A CK A @= A @ JED H A A = >K@A E A=H = >E =?E = IJ= ED 7 E A K 1 , 2 , . . . , r F IJ A >H ALE EIJ C @K = J=@= H= E EJEH=JE @ = JA HA A & " = = IJ @AJAH E = J= = IA F I =JH= @= >E F = = E E A=H K A = LEI IJ K A ED H A A = A @ IJ= F E L= E = AC K JA HA E & "
1 1 2 1 0 1 22 1 0 1 1 k 2 k 0 k 2 2 k 0 k

2v1 1 2 1

2vk 1 2 k

1 k 1 1 k 1 1 1 k (k 1)1 (k 1)v1 1 k k (k 1)k (k 1)vk 1 k 1 1 k k

6= @AJAH E = J= A A@ @ K F JA = 8= @AH @ LA @AJAH E = JA# = ?E A @ = =JE @= A E J= @AJAH E = J= H= E EJ= @ K A

5

A v1 = v2 = = vr = 1 @ >E A IA >E

= 8= @AH

@ L= @AJAH E = J=

#"

&

E A=H A D

CA A HA KH EL A HA =?E A I=

IJ

A ?E A JE =

2HAJF IJ=LE @= A 1 HE A LE AIJHK IJE LA A @ A@= 1 L = A E 1 E @C L=H= K ED = A A A J=H E FAH=?E = = = = = E F =L = A J C F IJKF = v1 1 FKJ @ >E A @= A > E @C L=H= 1 K F I =JH= @AJAH E = JE > E =

1 1 2 1 3 1
v1 1 1

0 1 21 2 31 (v1
v1 2 1)1

0 0 1 31
v1 1 2 k1 2 v1 3 1

k1 v1 1

0 0 0 0 1

k 1 k2 1 (k 1)1

k3

km 1 1+2++(v1 1)

1 F I =JH= A @AJAH E = JA I

E LK E 2!3! (v1 2)!1

) EIJE F IJKF= FHE E A E = ILA H A A i LE AIJHK IJE LA A @ A@= = A FHA IJ= E H= K =JE @AJAH E = JK D1 ,v1 ;2 ,v2 ;...;r ,vr

1 1 2 1

0 1 21

0 0 0 1
k 1 v1 1

1 r 2 r

0 1 2r

v1 1 v1 2 1 (v1 1)1 k 1 k2 1 (k 1)1

v1 1 (v 1)v1 2 r 1 r

k m k1 (k 1)k2 1 r r

5=@= HA@ = ILA i = n 1, n 2, . . . , 1 F E i JK LHIJK @A JAH E = JA D1 ,v1 ;2 ,v2 ;...;r ,vr I= 1 E @ @= A LHIJE EIF @ A 2 I E A @C L=H= K ED FAH=?E = = = = @ >E A @= A
r

D1 ,v1 ;2 ,v2 ;...;r ,vr =

(j i )vj D1 ,v1 1;2 ,v2 ;...;r ,vr .

j =2

) LK HA =?E K FHE E A E F JHA>= >H FKJ= = ILA i LE AIJHK IJE LA A @ A@= FH > A IA IL @E = H= K = A >E A 8= @AH @ LA @AJAH E = JA 6= I @ >E E @= A @AJAH E = J= IEIJA = FH E L @ A C >H = H= E EJ C @ K A E ##

&

E A=H A D

CA A HA KH EL A HA =?E A I=
r i=1

IJ

A ?E A JE =

(vi ) i 2
1 i<j r

(j i )vi vj .

,= A @AJAH E = J= = =I = E = E A K = F= IA E K L I K = K IL= H A A = F I =JH= A HA KH EL A HA =?E A CK @ >EJE = E A=H = >E =?E = H A A = = @C L=H= K HE A E = =H= JAHEIJE A A@ = E A 5=@= HE A E A@ K HA KH EL K HA =?E K K = E = LE AIJHK A H A A =H= JAHEIJE = A@ = E

2HE

AH &

' 4E A EJE HA KH EL K HA =?E K

an+3 = 5an+2 8an+1 +4an , K F AJ A KI LA a0 = 5, a1 = 1, a2 = 23.

4 A A A )I ?EH= = =H= JAHEIJE = A@ = E = A

x3 5x2 + 8x 4 = 0,
= A = H A A = IK x1 = 1, x2 = x3 = 2. = I LK JA HA A & & H A A A HA KH EL A HA =?E A JH= E K >E K

an = C1 + C2 2n + nC3 2n .
A ?E A JA C1 , C2 E C3 @ >E A E IEIJA = A@ = E = C1 + C2 C1 + 2C2 + 2C3 C1 + 4C2 + 8C3 6= H A A = IK F AJ ED KI L= = HAA A

= 5 = 1 = 23.

C1 = 39, C2 = 34, C3 = 15,

F= A H A A A =@= A HA KH EL A HA =?E A

an = 39 34 2n + 15n 2n .

#$

&!

E A=H A AD

CA A HA KH EL A HA =?E A I=

IJ

A ?E A JE =

& ! E A=H A AD CA A HA KH EL A HA =?E A I= IJ= J E A ?E A JE =

7 L F C =L K A F I =JH=JE A@ K =IK HA KH EL ED HA =?E = K @ IJ= = A HE A EJE A = A f : N R FH E L = BK ?E = AD CA = E A=H = HA KH EL = HA =?E = k J C HA@= A HA =?E = > E =

an = c1 an1 + c2 an2 + + ck ank + f (n),

C@ A A n

& $

IJ= JA c1 , c2 , . . . , ck IK HA= E >H ALE E LHE A@E ck = 0 CA K

2HE E AJE @= E IJ=L = A f (n) E HA =?E A & $ @ >E = D E A=H K HA =?E K KI =K E E HE A EJE K FH F C =L K

241

-,*) & !  ) IK E LE (bn )nN0 E (bn )nN0 H A A = HA =?E A & $ J=@= A E (bn bn )nN0 H A A A @C L=H= K A D CA A HA KH EL A HA =?E A
an = c1 an1 + c2 an2 + + ck ank .
& %

,= A IL= = @L= H A A = F = A HA KH EL A HA =?E A & $ IA H= E K K = A H A A A =I ?EH= A D CA A HA =?E A & % 5J C= A IL= H A A A F I =JH= A AD CA A HA =?E A & $ > E =
P an = aH n + an ,

C@ A A aH CA A HA KH EL A HA =?E A & % = n H A A A @C L=H= K A D aP A@  F=HJE K =H  H A A A F = A AD CA A HA =?E A n 7 JAH E E = E A=H A = CA>HA I KF ILED H A A = HA KH EL A HA =?E A & $ A = E F JFH IJ H W FH IJ H= ILED E L= 6= F JFH IJ H IA A @ >EJE JH= I =?E F JFH IJ H= W E E A H A A = @C L=H= K A D CA A HA =?E A = A E LA J H aP E W J AIJ W = W + aP n n 1 FHAJD @ C H= =JH= = IL= H A A = E A=H A AD H EL A HA =?E A @ >E A J= J CA A HA K

= A IL= H A A = @C L=H= K A D CA A HA =?E A & % = A A@ F=HJE K =H  H A A A AD CA A HA =?E A & $ P 5L= H A A = JH= A A HA =?E A IK > E = an = aH n + an .
= = E A=H K HA KH EL K HA =?E K & % = HE A EJE A@E E FH > A @=
F C @E  A@ H A A A HA =?E A & $ A

#%

&!

E A=H A AD

CA A HA KH EL A HA =?E A I=

IJ

A ?E A JE =

1@A = A @= F=HJE K =H H A A A JH= E K >E K K A A E BK ?E = f (n) =

L=HE D CA IJ 7 I A@A J=> E?E @= A IFEI=  F=HJE K =H ED H A A = = A A JEF LA BK ?E A f

f (n) FHAJF IJ=L A F=HJE K =H H A A A aP n const. A cn+r An+B k k ck n + + c1 n + c0 Ak n + + A1 n + A0 cn A cn aP n

AF =JA A ?E A JA K FHAJF IJ=L A F=HJE K =H @HA@E A E KI L= @= A J A@ H A A A HA =?E A & $ HAA K

2HE

AH & !

4E A E HA KH EL K HA =?E K

an+2 = 5an+1 6an + 2 + 3n K F AJ A KI LA a0 = a1 = 1.

CA = HA =?E = an+2 = 5an+1 6an E = HA A = >E = = C1 + C2 3 n 2=HJE K =H H A A A JH= E K > E K aP @ >E = n = An + B 6=

4 A A A )I ?EH= = D
aH n

2n

A(n + 2) + B = 5 A(n + 1) + B 6(An + B ) + 2 + 3n,

@ I

2An 3A + 2B = 3n + 2.
7F HA K K E A ?E A JA K n E I > @= A@ = IJE @ >E = = = > A IJH= A FHAJD @ A

2A = 3, 2B 3A = 2
=J
3 A aP n = 2n + 13 4

13 3 A = ,B = . 2 4

= IL= H A A = =@=JA HA =?E A IK

3 13 an = C1 2 n + C2 3 n + n + . 2 4
5=@= A ?E A JA C1 E C2 @HA@E E F AJ ED KI L=

a0 = C1 + C2 + a1 = 2C1 + 3C2 +
#&

13 =1 4

3 13 + = 1. 2 4

&!

E A=H A AD

CA A HA KH EL A HA =?E A I=
3 4

IJ

A ?E A JE =

6= @ >E = HA =?E A A

C1 = 3 E C2 =

H A A A =@=JA HA KH EL A

3 3 13 an = 3 2n + 3n + n + . 4 2 4

=@= A FHAJF IJ=L A F=HJE K =H H A A A aP n F = A HA =?E A EIJ LHA A E H A A A =I ?EH= A D CA A HA =?E A L= =L F IJKF= A @= A H A A A 4= C = J A J A J=@= aP IK =K n W W F= A K J F JFH IJ H H A A = @C L=H= K A D CA A A@ = E A W E L=HE = J= = JH= I =?E K = aP n J IA = A F FH=LEJE A = A HE A =H= JAHEIJE A A @ = E A LE AIJHK IJE v E IA F =LE E = FHAJF IJ=L A F=HJE K =H HAA A 6=@= IK E LE (n )nN0 , (nn )nN0 , . . . , (nv1 n )nN0 H A A = @C L=H= K A D CA A HA =?E A J AIJ JE E LE FHEF=@= K F JFH IJ HK W =J F=HJE K =H H A A A aP K > E K (nv n )nN0 J n JH= E IECKH A FHEF=@= F JFH IJ HK W

2HE

AH & ! ! 4E A E HA KH EL K HA =?E K
an+3 6an+2 + 11an+1 6an = 6n2 4n 17,

K F AJ A KI LA a0 = 3, a1 = 15, a2 = 41.

4AA A
E =

= =I ?EH= = D CA = A@ = E = x3 6x2 + 11x 6 = 0 HE A A x1 = 1, x2 = 2, x3 = 3 J A A F JA H A A A

n n aH n = C1 + C2 2 + C3 3 .

= A 1 HE A =H= JAHEIJE A A@ = E A LE AIJHK IJE A@= @C P 2 L=H= K A F=HJE K =H H A A A JH= E K > E K an = n (An + Bn + C ) =@= L H A A A KLHIJE K F = K HA =?E K @ >E A

(n +3) A(n +3)2 + B (n +3) + C 6(n +2) A(n +2)2 + B (n +2) + C + +11(n +1) A(n +1)2 + B (n +1)+ C 6n(An2 + Bn + C ) = 6n2 4n 17.
7F HA K K E A ?E A JA K n2 n E I > @= A=H ED A@ = E = = @ >E A IEIJA E

#'

& " *H

JHE= CK =?E =

LA I

C F EC

(9A + B ) 6(6A + B ) + 11(3A + B ) 6B = 6 (27A + 6B + C ) 6(12A + 4B + C ) + 11(3A + 2B + C ) 6C = 4 (27A + 9B + 3C ) 6(8A + 4B + 2C ) + 11(A + B + C ) = 17

4 A A = J C IEIJA = IK A = 1, B = 2, C = 1/2 ,= A H A A = n HA KH EL A HA =?E A IK > E = an = c1 + c2 2n + C3 3n + n3 + 2n2 + . 2 1 F AJ ED KI L= @ >E = IEIJA E A=H ED A@ = E =

C1 + C2 + C3 = 3 C1 + 2C2 + 3C3 = 11.5 C1 + 4C2 + 9C3 = 24

E = IK H A A = A ?E A JE C1 = 31/4, C2 = 13, C3 = 9/4 6= H A A A =@= A HA KH EL A HA =?E A A

an =

31 9 n + 13 2n 3n + n3 + 2n2 + . 4 4 2

= E K LA E E EC= K ILE FHE AHE = HE A E =H= JAHEIJE ED A @ = E = IK HA= E ) C HEJ= = H A =L= A E A=H ED HA KH EL ED HA =?E = A EIJE E =@= IK JE H A E A I E E A E J= LED FHE AH= IA = = E K =@=?E = = H= K LA C =LA

& " *H

JHE= CK =?E =

LA I

C F EC

= E A IF E?EJ H A A A A E A=H ED HA KH EL ED HA =?E = K F JA IK =K A >EJE LA = JA = =@=J= 7 L F C =L K F I = JH= A E HE A EJE A@ K = E ELK E L= K A E A=H K HA KH EL K HA =?E K 6= HA =?E = IA AIJ F =LE = H A A A LA E C >H = =E C A@ F JFK H= E EJED A K AH=JEL ED FH > A = @HA EL= A >H = JHE= CK =?E = LA I C n J KC = A I= A@ = @ = EBAIJ=?E = LA HA =?E A LA I= n J KC= K H=L E 6HE= CK =?E = >A @ @=J ED J A A = J C n J KC = A F @ A = Pn = JH KC LA F K @E =C = = J= @= = IL= = @L= JH KC = K J F @E A E LHE A@E A = A Pn = A1 A2 . . . An

E E IK @EI K J E E E E = K I= A@ = A@ E JA A E E @E A A A@ K = A@ E K ELE?K

$

& " *H

JHE= CK =?E =

LA I

C F EC

5 E = &  5LA JHE= CK =?E A FAJ KC =

5= Tn = E >H J= LED JHE= CK =?E = K n J KC K = A E >H =JE @= A T3 = 1, T4 = 2, T5 = 5 = I E?E &  A ILED FAJ H= E EJED JHE= CK =?E = FAJ KC = 2 @ C L HK IA I =JH= @= A T1 = 0 E T2 = 1 5=@= A FEI=JE HA KH EL K HA =?E K K =@ L =L= K >H ALE Tn

6- 4- ) & " 

E (Tn )nN A H A A A HA KH EL A HA =?E A = ILA n

2,
& &

Tn+1 = T2 Tn + T3 Tn1 + + Tn T2

K F AJ A KI LA T1 = 0, T2 = 1 , = A = A Tn+1 I KF ILED JHE= CK =?E = A C LA I C (n + 1) J KC = Pn+1 = A1 A2 . . . An An+1 7 E IJH= K A1 An+1 K F EC K Pn+1 7 IL= JHE= CK =?E E T Tn+1 @K A1 An+1 A IJH= E?= A C JH KC =
Ak+1
ovdje je (n-k+2)-tougao ovdje je k-tougao

Ak Ak-1

An An+1 A1 A2

5E =&

6HE= CK =?E = (n + 1) J KC = K

IA F =LE JH KC= A1 Ak An+1

k = ILA k = 2, 3, . . . , n 1, n I= Tn +1 A ELE?= A1 An+1 I=@H = = K JH KC K

= E F @I KF Tn+1 K A1 Ak An+1 LE@E I E K & 

$

& " *H

JHE= CK =?E =

LA I

C F EC

) A A1 Ak An+1 A@= JH KC= K A JHE= CK =?E E @ F JFK A JHE= CK =?E A F EC = Pn+1 JHA>= @=>H=JE JHE= CK =?E A k J KC = A1 A2 . . . Ak E (n + 2 k ) J KC = Ak Ak+1 . . . An An+1 J IA A LE@ AJE k |=T T = I E?E & =J $ A |Tn k nk+2 . +1
2 ,T 3 ,...,T n = A Tn+1 @EI K J = K E = I KF L= Tn +1 n+1 n+1 JLH A A JA HA A I E A@E = I LK FHE ?EF= IK A

4A KH EL K HA =?E K & & A A HE A EJE AJ @= = E FHAJD @ C F C =L = AH E A E A=H = 2 IJ E A E = E = @= IA @HA@A >H ALE Tn A@= @ ED A FEI= K @ = K I A@A A JA HA A

6- 4- ) & "

= IL= E FHEH @= >H

Tn =

2 LHE A@E

1 2(n 2) . n1 n2

, = A = A Pn = A1 A2 . . . An A E LA I= n J KC= E A = A Tn I KF ILED JHE= CK =?E = F EC = Pn 2 I =JH= I KF

S = {(T, d, A) : T Tn , d A @E =C
= = Pn HE JA = K T, A A J A A d}.

2HL @=>AHE A K JHE= CK =?E K T F EC = Pn 7 J JHE= CK =?E E I KF JHA>E E n 3 @E =C = A E IL= = @ JED @E =C = = E = @L= J A A = 5J C= A |S | = 2(n 3) Tn . 5= @HKCA IJH= A = FHL IEH= J A A A = A1 = @E =C = K = I=@H E A A @=>H=JE A1 A3 A1 A4 , . . . , A1 An1 = @=>H= K @E =C = K A1 Ak C@ A A k {3, 4, . . . , n 1} F IJ E Tk Tnk JHE= CK =?E = A I=@H A @E =C = K d ,= A F IJ E

T3 Tn1 + T4 Tn2 + + Tn1 T3

KHA A ED JH LHE A@E E = EE S K E = IA F =LE J A A A1 > C IE AJHE A EIJ = A @=>AHA A @HKC J A A n J KC = Pn 5J C= A

|S | = n(T3 Tn1 + T4 Tn2 + + Tn1 T3 ).

6= I @ >E E @= A
2(n3) Tn n
6

= T3 Tn1 + T4 Tn2 + + Tn1 T3 .

HEIJE @ C L H @= A T2 = 1

Ak=2EEk=n

$

&# )

A E

IFA?E = E

>H ALE = FHAJD @ K HA =?E K @ >E A

2(n3) Tn , n

K & & KLHIJE

T2 = 1 E EI HEIJE

Tn+1 2Tn = T3 Tn1 + T4 Tn2 + + Tn1 T3 =

@ I FHE A

7 =IJ F

2(2n 3) Tn . n FHAJD @ A HA =?E A @ >E = IA Tn+1 = =

2(2n3)2(2n5) Tn1 n(n1)

Tn+1 =

2(2n3) Tn n

= =

2n1 (2n3)!! T2 . n!

) E >H E =? E E A E =? FHAJD @ C H= =F E @ >E = 2(n 1) ! 1 2(n 1) Tn+1 = = . n(n 1)!(n 1)! n n1

I= (n 1)!

&#

A E

IFA?E = E

>H ALE =
A FH > A A FHE E AJE A @= IA F LA = AIJ > C J C= IK H A A = ALE K >E =J HE?E E E = K F IA> = I =JH=JE A A @ JED IFA?E = ED >H

4 A =L= K E H= A >E =J H A@E A HA KH EL A HA =?E A F =LA JED HA KH EL ED HA =?E = L= E >H E A = 7 L F C =L K A F AL=

.1*
2 @I AJE HA =?E A IA @= IK .E>

)S1 -81 *4

-81

= E ALE >H ALE (Fn )nN0 H A A = HA KH EL A

Fn+2 = Fn+1 + Fn K F AJ A KI LA F0 = 0, F1 = 1.
A E FHLED = L= L C E = A @ IJ= = E H= K =JE

0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, 55, 89, 144, 233, 377, 610, 987, 1597 . . . n n 1 1 1+ 5 1 5 n JE .E> = E AL = @= A Fn = 2 2 5 5
>H 5 H A AL AH L=J K ILE AJK =I =LA@E A E FHE E AH= $! IA AIJ .E> = E ALE >H ALE F =L K K

&#

A E

IFA?E = E

>H ALE =

2 =J A @= K = F A = JHKJ E = I= = K = A I = F A= E = E ?= E = K 6= JHKJ E = A@ C @EHA J C FHAJ = I= = K E = @L= FHAJ = CA AH=?E K FHE A  A@ K >=>K E A@ C @ A@= @= A E = @LE A FH=>=>A E A@ C FH=@ A@= JHE K K >=>A E @L= K K @ A@= . . . = A FHE E AJEJE @= A >H FHA@= = A C JHKJ= FHE A n CA AH=?E = .E> E AL >H Fn+1 @ J C= A Fn A I ED E Fn1 K ED FHA@= = .E> > = IA @KF
= E ALE >H ALE IK >E E F =JE E C LHA A = FHE A .E E = 7 IJ=H E @E I E AF LE = FEI= E = I= I HEJK C =I LE CK E C L=H=JE @KC= E H=J 1 C L H @KC= C C =I= JH= A @K A @ H=J C

1 @E I E =JA =JE =HE IK H= K = E >H IJED L= A@ = A @K E A = H= E EJA IJHK JKHA = A E F AJ ED LHE A@ IJE AL IJHK JKHA E >H = IJED L=  H=J= C =I = E I= K = @KCE I= D @K E = IJED=  ! " # = AF IJHK JKH= IJED= >H K KK D KKK KD DK KKKK KKD KDK DKK DD , , , , ,, , , ,, IJED L= @K E A n .E> IJED L=  2 ! # &

= =JE @= A >H

= E AL >H

Fn+1

.E> = E ALE >H ALE IA F =LA E K > J= E?E E A IA = CH= E E E IJ= > E?E A A >E A H=IF HA K A FAHE @E F IFEH= E @ I KC= C H=IJ = = E A K @L= IKI A@ = EIJ= E FK C KC = A  > C FAHE @E IJE A E H=?E = = >H @ >HE AIJ= A J= @ I 1 @ 2 2 3 1 @ DH=IJ= 5 @ HK A 8 , . . . >K LA 3 n = E EL A @= A J KC= H=IJ = A KLE A > E = FF 2 n+2 A@ @ > = A = = J= =L H=IF HA@ E = A @= = J= = E IL= E EIJ @ >E A = IE = K E E K IK ALA IL AJ IJE

=J E FHAI A K =JA =JE?E =HDEJA JKHE E K AJ IJE A F @ A = A A ? A E A = @L= @E A = H= E EJED LA E E = J= @= A

@ 6= @

I LA AC @E A = FHA = = A A@ = LA A @E A K 
I IA = =L= I= E E A C= JA $"

IK ? A E A FHA =

E H= K =JE 1 KI L=

&#

A E

IFA?E = E

>H ALE =

LA E + = E 1 LA E == =1+ = E LA E = IA @ >E = @= A >H F EJEL H A A A L=@H=J A A@ = E A 2 1 = 0 @ I = 5+1 2 4=IFH IJH= A IJ >H = K =JA =JE?E =HDEJA JKHE I E =HIJLK K E?E E C @HKCED > =IJE E = EL= @EL A A E AL AHE?K 8A K E A K .E> = E ALED >H AL= E =J C FHAI A = D= A FH = = Fn+1 1+ 5 AF AH A F = = @= A lim = = . 2HAJD @ E n Fn 2 E AI A @ >EJE = .E> = E AL >H Fn =FE A =

1 Fn = 5
n 5

.
E A =>E E

@=J A IA @ >E A @= A .E> = E AL >H n E E FHA?E Fn = +1 2 5

Fn ?E A E >H

H A A = F =LA .E> 

2HE

AH & #  -L

A E >E =J H ED =@=J= = K = E ALE >H ALE

E = IA =

E E = ILED F @I KF L= I KF= [n] E A I=@H A K =IJ F A FHEH @ A >H ALA E E = F E?E = >H = n K >H ALA 1 E 2 @ I E H A A = E = A@ = E =

x1 + x2 + + xk = n
! = A k N = ILE xi {1, 2} E E = F E?E = >H = n K A = A an JH= A E >H @= = ILA n N LHE A@E E = IK ILE I=>EH?E LA E @ A@= @ LED =@=J= = 2 = & '

4AA A
= A

K IL=

an+2 = an+1 + an ,
@ I @= H A A = LED =@=J= = =@ L = E .E> = E ALE >H ALE

=L= K EIJK HA KH EL K HA =?E K

E = A = K =IJ F ED >H AL= F @E  5LA F @I KF LA @ [n + 2] K AE K @LE A CHKFA 2HLK CHKFK E A F @I KF LE E A I=@H A n +2 6 IK E F @I KF LE @ [n + 1] >A K =IJ F ED A A A =J= E E = ED an+1 $#

&#

A E

IFA?E = E

>H ALE =

7 @HKC CHKFE IK F @I KF LE E I=@H A n + 2 6E F @I KF LE A I=@H A n + 1 *HEI= A >H = n + 2 A >E A ?E = E A K L= LED F @ I KF L= @ [n + 2] E F @I KF L= @ [n] K E = A = K =IJ F ED 5J C= IA K L CHKFE = = E an F I =JH= ED F @I KF L= @ [n + 2] ,= A H A A = L C =@=J = =@ L =L= K HA =?E K & ' = A a1 = 2 = F3 a2 = 3 = F4 J A an = Fn+2 1K L FHE AHK I KF ILED JH= A ED F E?E = >H = n + 2 F @E AE K @LE A CHKFA 2HLK A = E A F E?E A n + 2 K E = A F I A@ E I=>EH= A@ = 1 = @HKCK A E = A F I A@ E I=>E H= A@ = 2 1 IJ=L = A F I A@ AC I=>EH = @ >E A @= = >H ALA an J= A LHE A@E HA KH EL = HA =?E = & ' = A a1 = 1 a2 = 2 J A an = Fn+1 ! F E?E = E = A F I A@ E I=>EH= @L= E = an2 = ED E = A F I A@ E I=>EH= LA E @ @L= E = an1 J= F I A@ E K = E = A@=  5J C= = = LA E = (an )nN LHE A@E HA KH EL = HA =?E = & ' K F AJ A KI LA a1 = 0 a2 = 1 *H F E?E = I= JH= A E IL IJL A Fn1

)6) )
=J= =

81 *4

-81

LE% >H ALE (Cn )nN0 IK H A A = HA KH EL A HA =?E A

Cn = C0 Cn1 +C1 Cn2 + +Cn1 C0 K F AJ A KI LA C0 = C1 = 1.

2HLED A E =J= = LED >H AL= IK

1, 1, 2, 5, 14, 42, 132, 429, 1430, 4869, 16796, 58786, 208012 . . .

7 FHAJD @ F C =L K I F = = E @= A Cn A@ = >H K JHE= CK =?E = LA I C (n+2) J KC = E = E I F JK B H K K = LA >H ALA

Cn =

1 2n . n+1 n

=J= = LE >H ALE IA F =LA LA = AIJ = H A A A H= ED >E = J H ED FH > A = 4E =H@ 5JA E A K !# FEI= %! H= E EJ= =@=J = E = IK H A A = =J= = LE >H ALE
7

-KC

A +D=H AI +=J= = &" &'"

$$

&#

A E

IFA?E = E

>H ALE =

= ED I KF L= E A = A an = |An | A@= @ A = A (An )nN0 E = E = @= IA F = A @= IK = LE E = (an )nN0 >= =J= = LE >H ALE A @= @ = A @= LHE A@E

a0 = a1 = 1 E an = a0 an1 + a1 an2 + + an1 a0 ,

J AIJ @= E LE (an )nN0 E (Cn )nN0 HA =?E K K EIJA F AJ A KI LA ,HKCE = E @= @ = A J H E =@ L =L= K EIJK HA KH EL K >E =

@= A an = Cn = ILA n N0 A

FH = E E I KF L= (Bn )nN0 K A = ILA n LHE A@E |Bn | = Cn E = ILA n N0 KIF IJ=LEJE >E A ?E A fn : An Bn ,L= @ >H F =J= FHE AH= C@ A IK H A A = =J= = LE >H ALE IK F IJ=L = A =CH=@= @= >E @HA@E E HA@ I E A@ A = n + 1 B= J H= E H= K = A >H = >E =H ED IJ=>= = I= n + 1 EIJ L=

2HE

AH & # 2HAJF IJ=LE @= K A IJHK JKHE FAH=?E = A = E A =I ?E =JEL = ) AE F EJE n + 1 A A A J x1 x2 xn xn+1 K J IJHK JKHE HA@ I E A@ A = IA @HA@E F IJ=L = A (n 1) C F=H= =CH=@= 5= an = E >H H= E EJED F IJ=L = = =CH=@= K A K x1 x2 xn xn+1 = IA FH L AHE @= A a0 = a1 = 1, a2 = 2, a3 = 5 = FHE AH = n = 3 F IJ E FAJ CK ED H=IF HA@= =CH=@=

((x1 x2 )x3 )x4 (x1 (x2 x3 ))x4 (x1 x2 )(x3 x4 ) x1 ((x2 x3 )x4 ) x1 (x2 (x3 x4 )).
, = E @= = IL= E FHEH @= >H

n LHE A@E an = Cn

4AA A
>E =

FHE E AJEJE @= A IL= E @ F I =JH= ED FH E L @=

(x1 x2 xi ) (xi+1 xi+2 xn+1 )

= A E i = 1 , 2, . . . , n A F JHA> H=IF HA@EJE =CH=@A K FH E L @A x1 x2 xi E xi+1 xi+2 xn+1 = A J CK A KH=@EJE = ai1 @ I ani = E = A = K EJE @= LHE A@E

an = a0 an1 + a1 an2 + + an1 a0 .

,= A >H ALE an =@ L =L= K EIJK HA KH EL K HA =?E K E E = K EIJA F AJ A KI LA = E =J= = LE >H ALE 5J C= A an = Cn = ILA n N0 $%

&#

A E

IFA?E = E

>H ALE = F =LE K CH=B >A E IKI A = =JE @=

2HE

AH & # ! *E =H IJ=> A IJHK JKH= = IA AIJ =JA =JE?E E H= K =HIJLK A IA FEI=JE = IJ=> F LA = ?E KI= K A IL= J A A IE EIJ L= J A A I= I= A@ @  E = J= @L= IKI A@= 
I A@>A E = A = A bn >H >E =H ED IJ=>= = I= J= n + 1 EIJ L= , = ILA n N0 LHE A@E bn = Cn 4 A A A 7 IL= E @ n + 1 EIJ L= KFE A
. . . , xn+1 A FEI= HA@ I E A@
FH FHE E AJEJE @= A I= >E =H E IJ=> A = K E H= K x1 x2 xn xn+1

A ELA x1 x2 K F JFK IJE

8HE A@E E >H KJ H=IF HA@ A = K x1 x2 xn xn+1 @A E A >E =H IJ=> I= n + 1 EIJ L= L @= A >E A ?E K E A K F I =JH= ED IJ=>= = E H=IF HA EL= = =CH=@= K FHAJD @ FH > A K LE@ AJE I E K & !

x1

x5 x4

x6

(x1 ((x2 x3) x4)) (x5 x6)

x2 x3

5 E = & ! *E A ?E = E

A K >E =H ED IJ=>= = E F IJ=L = = =CH=@=

6= I F = = E @= A bn = Cn J H A A A E L C FH > A = 7 = H= K = = A @ >EJE ALA 2HE E AJE @= LHE A@E A@=

AIJ

=J= =

LE >H ALE IK

=FEI = =J= = LA >H

Cn =
= = A
n n+1

1 n+1

2n n =

n+1n n+1

2n n =

=
2n n+1

2n n 2n 1 n

n n+1

2n . n 2n , @ >E n+1

@= A

2n n

2n n+1

2n 1 n1

$&

&#

A E

IFA?E = E

>H ALE =

Cn =
2 JH= E = LA >H ALA

2n 2n . n n+1
= L= =FEI= A =J=

>E =J H K E JAHFHAJ=?E K

2HE

AH & # " 2 =J A @= A >H = H= ED FKJAL= @ (0, 0) @ n (n, n) K ? A >H HA E A@ = 2n E E = J= LED FKJAL= E

A IE = A EIF @ @E =C = A y = x J AIJ @ A IK ILA ? A >H A J= A (p, q ) = FKJK J= LA @= A p q

n @ ILED 2n = H= ED FKJAL= @ (0, 0) @ (n, n) JHA>= @K AJE ILA A E IA

IFKIJA EIF @ @E =C = A 2KJALA E IE = A EIF @ @E =C = A FHA>H E F K I A@A AC JHE =

4AA A

A = A P J= =L FKJ 7 E FHLK ? A >H K J= K FKJ= P = A EIF @ @E =C = A HA?E @= A J A(m + 1, m) 2HE E AJE @= @ J= A A @ J= A (n, n) K FKJK P E = n m H= = / 4- E n m 1 H= ,-5 5=@= FKJ P FHAKHA@E J= @= IL= E FKJ F I E A J= A A K AIJ / 4- @A ,-5 = K AIJ ,-5 E@A / 4(n,n)

(n+1,n-1)

P A(m+1,m)

5 E = & " 2KJALE @ (0, 0) @ (n, n)

@ (0, 0) @ (n + 1, n 1)

E IA IFKIJA EIF @ y = x IA FHAJL HA K FKJALA

6= I @ >E E LE FKJ P I= n + 1 H= = ,-5 E n 1 H= GORE =J A P FKJ @ (0, 0) @ (n + 1, n 1) 2HE AH LA IJHK ?E A IA A LE@ AJE = I E?E & "

$'

&#

A E

IFA?E = E

>H ALE =

= A FHE E AJEJE @= A = FHE A FEI= = >E A ?E = E A K FKJAL= @ (0, 0) @ (n, n) E IA IFKIJA EIF @ @E =C = A E ILED FKJAL= @ (0, 0) n @ (n + 1, n 1) JED FKJAL= E = n2 JH= A ED FKJAL= +1  5J C= A >H

2n 2n . n n+1

5614 1 / 81 *4
5= c(n, k ) I ?E KI= 6= >H

-81
k

5JEH E C L >H

= =L= E >H FAH KJ=?E = K Sn A E = K J= IA = EL= E 5JEH E C L >H FHLA LHIJA >A = = FHLA LHIJA @A E A I=

s(n, k ) = (1)nk c(n, k ).

1 JA HA A " ! " @ >E = =L= K HA KH EL K HA =?E K @= 5JEH E C LE >H ALE s(n, k ) =@ L

s(n, k ) = s(n 1, k 1) (n 1)s(n 1, k )

7 I A@A J=> E?E IA = = A 5JEH E C LE >H ALE s(n, k ) = A A  = A LHE A@ IJE F=H= AJ=H= n E k

n\k  
! " # $ % &

  ! " # $ %     1   3   6  6   " 50 !# 10   120 %" 225 &# 15   %  1764 $ " 735 %# 21   5040 13068 13132 6769 1960 322 28

&

2=HJE?E = I KF= X K k @E A L= A F @ A = ILED A A A =J= X K k AFH= ED @EI K J ED F @I KF L= @ X ,HKCE HE A E = F=HJE?E = I KF= X K k > L= @E A L= A k = = B= E E = {A1 , A2 , . . . , Ak } F @I KF L= @ X J= @= A
X = A1 A2 Ak , Ai = , Ai Aj = = ILA 1 i<j k.
= ILA k n 5JEH E C L >H @HKCA LHIJA S (n, k ) A >H I KF= @ n A A A =J= K J= k> L= % F=HJE?E =

&#

A E

IFA?E = E

>H ALE =

6- 4- ) & # # 5JEH E C LE >H ALE @HKCA LHIJA =@ L =L= K I A

@A K HA KH EL K HA =?E K
S (n, k ) = S (n 1, k 1) + kS (n 1, k ).

, =

5LA F=HJE?E A I KF= [n] K k >

L= F @E A E

K @LE A CHKFA

(i) 2HLK CHKFK E A F=HJE?E A K E = A {n} A@ = > = IA IJ= ED n 1 A A A =J= JHA>= H=IF HA@EJE K k 1 > L= LED F=HJE?E = E = S (n 1, k 1) (ii) 7 @HKC CHKFE IK F=HJE?E A K E = >H n E A I=  K > K 6A F=HJE?E A =IJ= K @ @=L= A >H = n K A@= @ k > L= A A @ S (n 1, k ) F=HJE?E = I KF= [n 1] K k > L=
4A KH EL K HA =?E K = S (n, k ) @ >E A A A LHE A@ J=>A E HEIJA E FHE ?EF IK A

IJE = 5JEH E C LA >H ALA @HKCA LHIJA IK @=JA K I A@A

n\k  
! " # $ % & '

          

           ! % # ! $!  % ##

"

&

'

 $  #   ' $# # ! !# " '$$ % # ! # %%% $'#

  $$ $"$

 & "$

 !$

241

=JA =JE =H L= =H= =J=& A KLA J=?E K = 5JEH E C LA >H ALA F K KC =IJED E LEJE =IJED =CH=@=

-,*) & # $ 5HFI E

n = c(n, k ) = (1)nk s(n, k ) k

n k

= S (n, k ).

LK J=?E K A =I E A F FK =HEI= , = @ KJ' = FHE AH K ' 4A KH EL A HA =?E A = L= =FEI= A 5JEH E C LA >H ALA F @I A = K = HA =?E A = >E A A ?E A JA
8 9

L= =H= =J= ' '$% = @ -HLE KJD '!& 

%

&#

A E

IFA?E = E

>H ALE = @ I

n n1 n1 = (n 1) + k k k1 n k =k n1 k + n1 k1

= ILA n N.

-,*) & # % = 5JEH E C L >H @HKCA LHIJA S (n, k) A = = E E J= K B H K K 6= >H IA F =LE FHE A K AH=?E E IKH A ?E = I= I KF= [n] K I KF [k ] A@= @ = E = = A =@=JE IKH A ?E K f : [n] [k ] A @= K E F=HJE?E K I KF= [n] K k @E A L= = S (n, k ) = E = = =JE = k ! = E = @=>AHA >E A ?E K = JED k > L= I E = K [k ] 6= @ >E A @= A >H IKH A ?E = I= [n] K [k ] A@ = S (n, k )k ! = I LK FHE AH= % " I E A@E @= A
S (n, k ) = 1 k!
k

241

(1)i
i=0

k (k i)n . i

A A LHE A@ IJE = 5JEH E C LA >H ALA FHLA E @HKCA LHIJA E A JA @ >EJE =DL= K K E @C L=H= K >E =J H E JAHFHAJ=?E E

2HE

AH & # & , = E @= ILA n N LHE A@E

n , 2

s(n, n) = S (n, n) = 1, s(n, 1) = (1)n1 (n 1)!, s(n, n 1) = S (n, n 1) = 1 E S (n, n) = 1 ,EHA J E @ >E = @= LHE A@E n , S (n, 2) = 2n1 1. 2
EC A@ E E FHE A

4 A A A 1 @A E?E A 5JEH E C LED >H AL=

H= K = A

LHE A@E s(n, n) = JA HA A " ! !

FAH KJ=?E = K Sn I= I= A@ E ?E KI E = (n 1)! F= A s(n, 1) = (1)n1 (n 1)! >H FAH KJ=?E = K Sn I= n 1 ?E KI= J IK K IJL=HE JH= IF E?E A A n @ I LHE A@E @= A s(n, n 1) = n 2 2 *H S (n, n 1) @ >E A =@= E =>AHA @L= A A A =J= E [n] E A >EJE K EIJ > K J A K E EJE = n = E = 2 7 E I KF X = {(A, B ) : A B = [n], A = , B = , A B = }. = A I KF B = [n] \ A E = A A F @I KF @ [n] J= =L @= A A = , A = [n] J A |X | = 2n 2 %

&#

A E

IFA?E = E

>H ALE =

,= >EI @HA@E E S (n, 2) FHE E AJE @= IL= F=HJE?E E {A, B } I KF= [n] @C L=H= K @L= H= E EJ= KHA A = F=H= E X 6= A

S (n, 2) =

|X | = 2n1 1. 2

241

=FEIK A F K r r F E A x E x I=

-,*) & # ' 5L= E F E

IJAFA = = LE A n IA K >E = A = 1, x, x2 , . . . , xn = IL= E r N0 @A E A

xr = x(x 1) (x r + 1) E xr = x(x + 1) (x + r 1).

2 E E xr E xr IA = EL= K F=@= K E E H=IJK E IJAFA E @ x ) >E A IJAFA A @ x F K = E H= EJE FHA xr = A ?E A JE r = A IA F =LEJE 5JEH E C LE >H ALE @HKCA LHIJA = = x =FE A >E A F E A = A ?E A JE IA F =LA 5JHE E C LE >H ALE FHLA LHIJA = FHE AH

x5 = x5 10x4 +35x3 50x2 +24x E x5 = x5 +10x4 +25x3 +15x2 +15x1

, = E @= = ILA n N0 LHE A@E
n n

xn =
k=0

S (n, k )xk

xn =
k=0

s(n, k )xk .

& 

2HAJD @ A HA =?E A IA = F = K E @K ?E K F HA KH EL ED HA =?E = = 5JEH E C LA >H ALA 2HAJF IJ=LE @= IK B H K A &  J= A = n E H= K =
n n

xn+1 =
k=0

(x k + k )S (n, k ) xk =
k=0 n+1

S (n, k )xk+1 + kS (n, k )xk =

n+1

=
k=1

S (n, k 1) + kS (n, k ) xk =
k=0

S (n + 1, k )xk .

=IE =

= E @ >E =

E
n

xn+1 = xn (x n) =
k=0
10

s(n, k )xk+1 ns(n, k )xn =

7 E A=H = CA>HE >E HA E @= IK 1, x, x2 , . . . , xn >= = = LA J HI E FH IJ H ILED F E = IJAFA = = LE A n

%!

&#

A E

IFA?E = E

>H ALE =
n+1

n+1

=
k=1

s(n, k 1) ns(n, k ) xk =
k=0

s(n + 1, k )xk .
FHE E AJE
n

) IA K B H K = = &  x = E A E I= x E = xn = (1)n (x)n @ >E A

n

@= LHE A@E

xn =
k=0

(1)nk S (n, k )xk

xn =
k=0

(1)nk s(n, k )xk .

*-

81 *4

-81

A ILA n N0 @A E A *A L >H Bn = >H ILED F=HJE?E = I KF= [n] K A E > L= 2 @A E?E E A B0 = 1 A FHE E AJEJE @= A Bn >H H= E EJED HA =?E = A LEL= A ?E A = I KFK I= n A A A =J= 2HLED A E *A LE >H AL= IK

1, 1, 2, 5, 15, 52, 203, 877, 4140, 21147, 115975, 678570, 4213597, . . .

@A 1 >E =J H A E JAHFHAJ=?E A 5JEH E C LED >H AL= @HKCA LHIJA E E?E A *A LED >H AL= A = FHE E AJEJE @= LHE A@E
n

B (n) =
k=1

S (n, k ).

2HE

L K HA =?E K

AH & #  , = E @= *A LE >H ALE =@ L =L= K I A@A K HA KH E

n

Bn+1 =
i=0

n Bi . i

4 A A A 2 I =JH=
J >

> K A IA = = E >H n + 1 ) IA K K = = E n i >H AL= E [n] JA >H ALA A @=>H=JE = n = E = @ FHA IJ= ED i >H AL= E I KF= [ n ] A IA =FH=LEJE i Bi F=HJE?E =

2)461+1 - *4

)
IK a1 , a2 , . . . , ak

A@ IA F @I AJE J= A J F=HJE?E = >H = n ) FHEH @ E >H ALE J= LE @= A

a1 + a2 + + ak = n E a1
11

a2

a2

a1

-HE? 6A F A *A &&! '$

%"

&#

A E

IFA?E = E

>H ALE =

KHA A = k J H = (a1 , a2 , . . . , ak ) A F=HJE?E = >H = n K k @E A L= *H ILED F=HJE?E = >H = n IA = E I= pn = >H F=HJE?E = n K k @E A L= = E I= pn,k 2 @ C L HK I =JH= @= A p0 = 1 -L A E F AJ ED LHE A@ IJE E = (pn )nN0 = n 17

1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 15, 22, 30, 42, 56, 77, 101, 135, 176, 231, 297, . . .
*H ALE pn H=IJK LA = >H 190 569 292 = p200 = 3 972 999 029 ?E A >H = IK L= A E K JA HE E >H AL= 7 AJLHJ C =LE I LE@ A E @= A pn *H ALE pn,k =@ L = FHE AH = IA @= A p100 = 388. IE K >E =J HE?E F=HJE = CA>HE JA HE E HAFHA A J=?E = . . . >H =I= KC=?E A K Sn IJ=L K HA KH EL K HA ?E K

=L= K @ IJ= A@

pn,k = pn1,k1 + pnk,k .

= = IJ A F IJ E A@ IJ=L = HA KH EL = HA =?E = = >H ALA pn 4A KH EL = HA =?E = IA pn E H= E FHA A E FHAJD @ ED HEIJE FAJ KC A >H ALA 6 A A@= @ LA E = IJLA ED HA K J=J= A =H@= AH=
1) 2AJ KC E >H ALE IK >H ALE > E = k(3k C@ A A k FH E L = ?E A E 2 >H 2HE E AJE @= IK JE >H ALE KLE A F EJEL E = k = 0, 1, 1, 2, 2, 3, 3, . . . @ >E = I A@A A FAJ KC A >H ALA

0, 1, 2, 5, 7, 12, 15, 22, 26, 35, 40, 51, 57, 70, 77, 92, . . . .

6- 4- ) & # 
@= LHE A@E

= FH E L

= FHEH @= >H

n N LA E @ A

pn = pn1 + pn2 pn5 pn7 + pn12 + pn15 pn22 pn26 +

E E FHA?E E A
pn =
k=1

(1)k1 pn k(3k1) + pn k(3k+1) .

k 2

& 

= FHE

AH

p18 = p17 + p16 p13 p11 + p6 + p3 = 297+231 101 56+11+3 = 385.

, = FHAJD @ A JA HA A = IHFI
12

A E K IA

A FH

= EK

2=HJE?E = n K k @E A L= K E = IA F =LE >H 1 E = pn1,k1 >HEI= A 1 @= A >E A ?E K ) IK ILE I=>EH?E F=HJE?E A n K k @E A L= LA E @ A@= =@= IA @ IL= C I=>EH = @K A A@= @ >E A F=HJE?E K >H = n k K k I=>EH= =

%#

&$

=@=?E

& $ =@=?E
E = E = n = K A @AH>E K A FH E H ?E CK A A @= A E = FH A H ?E EIJ LHA A A = A an >H F=HJE?E = n K IJAFA A >H = @L= = E HA KH EL K HA =?E K = E (an )nN ! = E H A A = I A@A ED HA KH EL ED HA =?E = = 2an+2 an+1 an = 15 2n K F AJ A KI LA a0 = 0, a1 = 6 > an+2 4an+1 + 4an = 2n K F AJ A KI LA a0 = 3, a1 = 8 ? an+3 an+2 an+1 + an = 24n K F AJ A KI LA a0 = 0, a1 = a2 = 2 AJ A KI LA a0 = 4, a1 = @ 3an+2 + 2an+1 an = 32 3n + 31 n K F A 5an = 4n2 + 2n + 5 K F AJ E KI L a0 = 1 B an+3 7an+2 +15an+1 9an = n K F AJ A KI LA a0 = 1, a1 = 0, a2 = 7 4 C an+2 = 4an+1 13an +10n12 K F AJ A KI LA a0 = 1, a1 = 4 D an+4 = 2an+2 an K F AJ A KI LA a0 = 0, a1 = 1, a2 = 2, a3 = 3 A " A = A an = n 1 = n = 1, 2, 3, 4 )
19 12 an+1

a2n1 = a2n2 + 2n2 , a2n = a2n5 + 2n = ILA n 3

@ = E @= A

a2n =
# @HA@E

17 n1 2 1 7

a2n1 =

12 n1 2 1. 7

2
$ % & ' 

n1 k=0 ak

E (an )nN0 =

A a0 = 1 E = ILA n N LHE A@E an =

E = E L= @K E A n E E IK = LE A A A JE I KF= {0, 1, 2} E K E = E A @LE A K A EIK IKI A@ A E (an )nN A =@= HA KH EL B H K an+3 = an+2 2an+1 + 4an K F AJ A KI LA a1 = a2 = a3 = 1 @HA@E ILA = LA J C E = E IK @ A ELE I= JHE A = A an+3 = 2an+2 + 2an+1 an K F AJ E KI L a1 = a2 = 1, a3 = 4 , = E @= IK ILE = LE E = (an )nN F JFK E L=@H=JE E E = E L= K = E A@E E?= @K E A n K E = A F IJ A JHE K =IJ F A EIJA ?EBHA 5L= E FHEH @= >H IA A =FEI=JE = >EH H= E EJED .E> = E ALED >H AL= A K E = A = K =IJ F ED %$

&$  

=@=?E E E = n J ?EBHA ED FHEH @ ED >H AL= K E = E A JHE IKI A@ A ?EBHA EIK EIJA , = E @= = .E> = E ALA >H ALA Fn  =@= E IK I= F1 = F2 = 1 Fn+2 = Fn+1 + Fn  LHE A@E n n = n 1 F1 + 2 F2 + + n Fn = F2n > Fn =
n 0

n1 1

n 2 2

2 + (1)n ? Fn+1 Fn1 = Fn

@ = m + n 2 A Fm+n > Fm Fn ! 5 A@A A >H ALA E H= EJE F K .E> = E ALED >H AL= = *H F E?E = n K AF=H A I=>EH A > *H E L= x1 , x2 , . . . , xn K = E A@E E?= K E = A x1 x2 x3 x4 ? >EH a1 a2 ak C@ A IA I=>EH= F ILE 2n1 F E?E = @ n @ >EH (2a1 1 1) (2a2 1 1) (2ak 1 1) K F ILED 2n1 F E?E = >H = n |{ i : a =1 }| i A >EH 2 C@ A IA IK EH= F ILED 2n1 A IA IK EH=

F E?E = @ n

"

A = A Dn >H @AH= = = K Sn , = E @= LHE A@E n = n! = n D , nk k=0 k > Dn+1 = n(Dn + Dn1 ), ? Dn+1 = (n + 1)Dn + (1)n+1 . # 1 H= K = 5JEH E C L >H S (n, 3) $ , = E @= = 5JEH E C LA >H ALA S (n, k ) LHE A@A I A@A A HA KH EL A HA =?E A n = S (n + 1, k + 1) = n i=k i S (i, k )
ni S (i, k ) > S (n + 1, k + 1) = n i=k (k + 1) ? S (m + n + 1, n) = n i=1 i S (m + i, i) a 1 a 1 2 @ S (n, k ) = 1 2 1 k ak 1 C@ A IA IK EH= F ILE F E?E = = >H = n r n k+r A k S (n, k + r) = n i=k i S (i, k )S (n i, r ) % E E = E L= a1 a2 . . . , an K I KFK [k ] K E = IA F =LA ILE A A A JE E [k ] E @ ED A FHL F =L EL= A A A A J= i KLE A FHE A A A A J= i + 1  = ILA i = 1, 2, . . . , k 1 & , = E @= = c(n, k ) 5JEH E C LA >H ALA FHLA LHIJA >A = = LHE A@A I A@A A HA KH EL A HA =?E A

%%

& % 4 A A = =@=J= = = c(n + 1, k + 1) = > c(n + 1, k + 1) = n! ? c(m + n + 1, n) = @

l +m m n i i=k k

c(n, i)

c(i,k) n i=k i! n i=0 (m + i)c(m + i, i) n n k=l k c(k, l)c(n k, m)

c(n, l + m) =

' , = E @= A >H F=HJE?E = [n] K > LA K E = A = K =IJ F ED A A A =J= A@ = *A L >H K Bn1   , = E @= A =J= = L >H Cn @C L H = I A@A = FEJ= = = E E = E L= @K E A 2n I=IJ=L A ED @ n >H AL= 1 E n >H AL= 1 K E = IK ILA F=H?E = A IK A A AC=JEL A > E E = E L= 1 a1 a2 . . . an K E = A ai < i ? = HKCK A =@= 2n J= = = = E = E = IA CK IF EJE I= JAJEL= = A IA A IE A K @ E E = AKHA A ED F=H L= FKJAL= K ? A >H HA E @ J= A (0, 0) @K E A n I= H=?E = (1, 0) E (0, 1) E E = K = A@ E A I= F AJ K E H= K J= K A E E = FAH KJ=?E = a1 a2 . . . an K Sn K E = A F IJ A i < j < k J= LE @= A ai > aj > ak E E = F=HJE?E = >H = n K E = IK ILE I=>EH?E LA E @ A@=  A = A n A E FHEH @= >H E E = FHEH @ ED >H AL= E = A =FEI K >= E n + 1 I=IJ=L A @ H= E EJED ?EB=H= E K A IA IL= = ?EBH= IE FHLA H= E K A = A@= @ A A ?EBHA = A E AL  A K AF IHA@ EIFHA@ @ A ! A = IK @=JE FHEH @ E >H ALE m E n 4=IF HA@ n FHA@ AJ= K m KJE = IA A E JAHFHAJEH=JE = BK ?E = f : P K C@ A A P I KF FHA@ AJ= = K I KF KJE = 6HA>= @HA@EJE E E = ILED BK ?E = E E = E A ?E = = E IKH A ?E = 2HE J A E FHA@ AJE E KJE A CK >EJE E E H= E EJE E E A KI > A@ = E ,= A = L FEJ= A JHA>= @=JE 12 @C L H= a1 a2 an C@ A IA IK EH= F ILE n J H = = " 1 H= K =JE >EH FHEH @ ED >H AL= J= LED @= A a1 = 1, ai+1 ai + 1 = ILA i = 1, 2, . . . , n 1

& % 4 A A = =@=J= =
 A = A an JH= A E >H EID @= ) FHA IJ= ED n k = H ?E Ak = F @E A E FHL AIJ A FH E = ank = E = 5J C= A

%&

& % 4 A A = =@=J= =
n

an =
k=1

n ank K F AJ A KI LA a0 = 1, a1 = 1. k

6= K LHE A@ IJ = an A E H= EJE F K 5JEH E C LED >H AL= @HKCA LHIJA an = n k ! S ( n, k ) k=1 2HL FHE E AJE E @= A a1 = 1 E an = an1 = ILA AF=H A >H ALA n LA A @ A@= ) IA K F=HJE?E E F=H C >H = n K IJAFA A >H = @L= F =LE >H A@= J= >H IA H= F =LEJE >=H A@ ) IA >H A@= A F =LE @E A A E ILA I=>EH A I= @L= @ >E A F=HJE?E K >H = n =J = F=H= n LHE A@E 2

an = an2 + a n K F AJ A KI LA a1 = 1, a2 = 2 2
! = an = 3 2n 1 + 1 2 > an = 3 2n + 7n2n3 + n2 2n3 ? an = 2n3 9n2 + 11n 1 + (1)n n 1 n1 n n @ an = 31 n + 2(1) + 3 + 4 3 n n2 n 7 . A an = 3 5 4 4 n + n(n+1) . B an = 2 3n + n 3 4 8 C an = (2 + 3i)n + (2 3i)n + n 1. n+1 + ( 1 + i)nin + 3 i(i)n ( 1 + i)n(i)n . D an = 3 2i 2 2 2 " 6LH A A A @ = =JE E @K ?E F n # = n > 1 LHE A@E an = 2an1 + 2(a0 + a1 + + an2 ) = 3an1 F= A an = 2 3n1 $ A = A an >H J= LED E L= @K E A n ) A F I A@ = ?EBH= H= E EJ= @ K A J= LED E L= E = 2an1 = = A F I A@ = ?EBH= K = J= LED E L= E = 2an2 4A KH EL = HA =?E = = J= E A an = 2an1 + 2an2 K F AJ A KI LA a1 = 3 a2 = 8 4 A A A LA HA KH EL A HA =?E A A
n 1

an =

1 1 2 3

(1

n 3) +

1 1 + 2 3

(1 +

n 3) .

% an+3 = an+2 2an+1 + 4an A  @K ! EIJ J E an+3 = an+2 + an+1 + an 6= E @K JHE A 1, 1, 1, 0, 2, 0, 2, 1, 0, 0, 1, 1, 2, 1, 1, 1, 0, 1, . . . = F =L = = JHE IKI A@ A A@E E?A = K K A @= A E FA HE @E = I= FAHE @ 13 6= IK ILE = LE E = E IK @ A ELE I= JHE a13k+4 , a13k+6 , a13k+9 , a13k+10 = k N0 2 & A IA F = =JE E @K ?E @= A an = Fn %'

& % 4 A A = =@=J= = ' *H J= LED E L= = E I= an = IA FH L AHE @= A a1 = 2, a2 = 4, a3 = 6 ) IA E =LH =L= I= @L= EIJ= IE > = @ >E A IA @ FEIEL= A 00 E E 11 = E @K E A n 2 K =LEI IJE @ J C= = A ?EBH= K J E K F I A@ = ) IA E @K E A n =LH =L= I= @LE A H= E EJA ?EBHA @ >E A IA @ FEIEL= A 0 E E 1 = A E J= =L E @K E A n 1 5J C= A an+2 = an+1 + an 5J C= A an = 2Fn+1  1 @K ?E F n A = A Fk n < Fk+1 8HE A@E n1 = n Fk < Fk1 E = A A n = Fk+1  5=@= EI HEIJE E @K JEL K FHAJF IJ=L K = n1 A an >H E JH= E LHE A@E an+2 = 9an+1 + 9an 2 AJ E  ) KI LE IK a1 = 9 E a2 = 90 4 A A A JA HA KH EL A HA =?E A A

an =


3 2

1 3 13 2 26
n

3 13

1 3 13 + + 2 26

3+

13

1+ 5 1 = 1 Fn = 2 5 >E K B H K K @ >E = 1 5

n 1 5 2

1 5

6LH A > E A JA IJH= E =@ = E .E> ? 1 @K ?E

k k n n n n 1+ 5 3 5 k=0 k k=0 k 2 2 n n 3+ 5 32 5 . 2 2 A I E A@E E 12 5 = 32 5 .

HEIJA E @= A F0 = 0 E @= A JH= A = IK =

F = =JE @= IK = >E ED A ?E A =J= = @AI L =L= EIJK HA KH EL K HA =?E K E EIJA F AJ A KI LA = E ALE >H ALE F n 8HE A@E

2 Fn+1 Fn1 Fn 2 = (Fn +Fn1 )Fn1 Fn 2 = Fn 1 Fn (Fn Fn1 ) = 2 2 n1 = Fn = (1)n 1 Fn Fn2 = (Fn Fn2 Fn ) = (1)

H= E @K ?E A Fm+n = Fm+n1 + Fm+n2 > Fm Fn1 + Fm Fn2 = Fm Fn . ! = ) A F I A@ E I=>EH= A@ = A@= >HE A C= = = A LA E @ A@= K = E C= = @L= 6= A an = an1 + an2 K F AJ A KI LA a1 = 1 a2 = 1 F= A H A A A Fn > A = A an JH= A E >H 2HAJF IJ=LE @= A n AF=H= ) A xn = 0 J=@= A E xn1 = 0  AH A xn1 xn  E >HEI= A JA @LE A F I A@ A K A @ >E = an2 E L= @K E A n ) A F I A@ = ?EBH= 1 A E >HEI= A IA @ >E = an1 E L= @K E A n 1 I= &

@

& % 4 A A = =@=J= = JH= A E IL IJL = I E = = E IA F I =JH= E I K = =@= A n F=H= F= IA = K E @= = ILA n N LHE A@E an = an1 + an2 K F AJ A KI LA a1 = 2 a2 = 3 6H= A E >H A Fn+2 ? F E?E K >H = n K k I=>EH= = FHA@IJ=LE F K k1 FHACH=@= F IJ=L A ED E A K n J= = = 5K = = @AI IJH= E A >H = E = = K IL= @k> L= A @=>H=JE F A@ K J= K ) k @=>H= ED J= = = E k 1 FHACH=@K FHAJL HE K A@E E?A = IJ= A J= A K @LE?A @ >E = F E?E K 2n 1 K A@E E?A E @LE?A = I LK FHE AH= & #  JH= A E >H A F2n @ ) A ai > 1 I=>EH= F E?E A >H = n @ AC= =FH=LE F E?E K >H = 2ai K A@E E?A E @LE?A = I A@A E = E = FHL AIJK A 1 = F I A@ A A 2 = F I E A IL= A F=H A A@E E?A  IE F I A@ A FAJ @ A A@= 2 I E A AF=H A A @E E?A A @= FE A 1 E E 2 = FHE AH = A ai = 3 F E?E A >H = AIJ A F I =JH= = IK 11112, 1122 E 1212 6= LED F E?E = >H = 2ai E = 2ai 1 1 = L= = E A @ >EJE ILA F E?E A >H = 2n K 1 E 2 A F E K I= 1 = = LH =L= K I= 2 1 = ED F2n2 F E?E E (a1 , a2 , . . . , ak ) IL= K A@E E?K = E A E I= 2 E E A 7 I= @LE A A@E E?A 1, 1 IJ= A I=>EH A ai > 1 = E A E I= E 1, 2, 2, . . . , 2, 1 J= ai 1 @LE?= 6= I @ >E E F E?E K >H = 2n K A@E E?A E @LE?A 6H= A E >H A F2n+1 k I ED J= = = A n " = *H FAH KJ=?E = K Sn I= J= k Dnk > = n = E = IA A @=>H=JE i [n] K E A IA FHAI E =JE n + 1 ) IA E A A A J n +1 I E = K i >HEI= A JH= IF E?E A (i(n +1)) @ >E = IA @AH= = E Sn1 ) A I E = n + 1 H= E EJ= @ i K FHA = =L= A IA @ >E A @AH= = E Sn A IA = @ >EJE E FHAJD @ A HA =?E A >E =J H E @ = ? LA HA =?E A A @ IJ= F E L= # @ IL= A F=HJE?E A I KF= [n] K AIJ @E A L= A =FH=LEJE AIJ KHA A ED JH E AFH= ED @EI K J ED F @I KF L= @ [n] 2 IJ E 3n KHA A ED JH E (A, B, C ) @EI K J ED F @I KF L= @ [n] E = A K E = ?E A E [n] ED 3 2n E = = A AIJK FH= = I KF E J= JHE J= LA KHA A A JH A E = K = @L= AIJ= FH= = I KF 6= @ >E A @= A

S (n, 3) =

3n 3 2n + 3 3n1 + 1 = 2n1 . 6 2

$ = 2 I =JH= F=HJE?E A I KF= [n + 1] K k + 1 > L= K E = A >H n + 1 K EIJ > K I= J= n i A A A =J= E [n] &

& % 4 A A = =@=J= = = E = = IJ= ED i 6ED n i A A A =J= A @=>H=JE = n i H=IF HA@E Kk> L= A@ = IJ I E A@E E FHE ?EF= IK A > 2=HJE?E A I KF= [n + 1] K k + 1 > L=  ED E = S (n + 1, k + 1) F @E A E K I KF LA Xi F I A@A A HEJAHE K Xi = HAIJHE ?E = = [i] E = J= k > L= = HAIJHE ?E = = [i + 1] E = k + 1 > L= ) A Xi A A A JA E [i] A H=IF HA@EJE K k > L= = S (i, k ) = E = - A A J i + 1 A K L > K = IJ= ED n i A A A =J= IA FH E L H=IF HA@E n i K k+1 > = (k + 1) = E = F=HJE?E A I KF= [m + n +1] K n > L= K ? 5= i S (m + i, i) >H E E = IK A A A JE E [n i] K A@ = E > LE = = n i + 1 E A 2 I A@ ED m + i A A A =J= IA F @E A E K i > L= = >H n i + 1 IA K>=?E K A E @ JED LED i > L= @ A IA @ = =JE E @K ?E E I L A HA KH EL A HA =?E A = 5JEH E C LA >H ALA A > A IJH= A >H A KHA A A F=H LA (, ) C@ A A F=HJE?E = I KF= [n] K J= k+r > L= = F=HJE?E = I KF= > L= @ K k @E A L= 7 JED k > L= IA A = = EJE = = A k = = LE A n r A A A =J= 5L= J= L E K @ @AE F=HJE?E K [n] K J= k @E A L= K iJ > K IK E j [n] = A A aj = i 5J C= A @C L H 5JEH E C L >H @HKCA LHIJA S (n, k ) LA E@A JEJAJA @ = A = I E = = E = E A I= 5JEH E C LE >H ALE = @HKCA LHIJA 5L= E > a1 < a2 < < ak F=HJE?E A [n 1] FHAJL HE K> LA {a1 , a2 + 1}, {a2 , a3 + 1}, . . . , {ak1 , ak + 1} ,L = A > LA E IA IE A K IF E K LE > = A A A JA E [n] E IA A F =L K K K LE > LE = F I =JH= = A@ = A> LA F=HJE?E A [n] = A I=@H E IKI A@ A A A A JA = H= C HA = >H 1 = H= = ) >H 1 E JAHFHAJEH= @AI  @ >E E I >E A ?E K E A K F I =JH= ED E L= E FKJAL= @ (0, 0) @ (n, n) E A IE = A EIF @ FH=LA y = x > 2KJAL= @ (0, 0) @ (n, n) E IA E =@=  A FA K E =@ FH=LA y = x J= A E = =J= = L >H E K a1 , a2 , . . . , an @C L=H= J= =L FKJ @ AC IA E A K FH=LED x = i 1 E x = i = = E ai 1 A@E E ED L=@H=JE = A@ K HA A E JA J= A ? @ 2n =@= ED J= = = @=>AHE >E = E HK E?K E =@= =E A = FHLK J= K A A JAJELA KFE A >H 1 = =@= =E A = @HKCK J= K I= JA JAJELA

% & '

&

& % 4 A A = =@=J= = KFE A >H 1 L @= A >E A ?E K E A K F L = A = JAJEL= I= JH= A E IL IJL E E L= E (a) @ 7 E = J= @L= FKJ= A CH= E?= E = L K H=L E E A K FH=LED x = 0 Ex=t E A I=IJ=L A @ A@E E ED L=@H=JE = H=IF HA A ED K t = A = A ai >H L=@H=JE = K i J E E A = A bi @K E = = A@ E C FHAI A = i JA E (i + 1). LA A LHE A@E bi 1 7 E K

1, 1, . . . , 1, 1, 1 . . . , 1, 1, 1, . . . , 1 1, 1, . . . , 1
a1 a1 b1 +1 a2 b1 +1 a2 b2 +1

, 1, 1 . . . , 1, 1, 1, . . . , 1 1, 1, . . . , 1
an1 bn1 +1 an bn1 +1 an

IA F =LE 2n >H AL=  >E E = L *H ALE 1 E 1 IA F =LA A@ = >H FKJ= = ILA F=H?E = A IK A IK A AC=JEL A 6 @= A >E A ?E K E A K AKHA A ED F=H L= FKJAL= A F I =JH= E E L= E (a) A A = A = 1 2 . . . n Sn FAH KJ=?E = I= JH= A E IL IJL = ILA i [n 1] @A E A ci = |{j > i : i > j }|. A = A j1 < j2 < < jk I KF E @A I= E [n 1] = A A cjt > 0 2 K JED E L= @A E A FKJ @ (0, 0) @ (n, n) E A IJ= EIF @ FH=LA y = x 1@A @AI @ (0, 0) @ (cj1 + j1 1, 0) =JE C HA @ (cj1 + j1 1, 0) @ (cj1 + j1 1, j1 ) @= FAJ @AI @ (cj2 + j2 1, j1 ) F= C HA @ (cj2 + j2 1, j2 ) . . . = H= K = A F JHA> E@A @AI @ (cjk + jk 1, jk ) @ (n, jk ) F= @= C HA @ (n, n) F=HJE?E E >H = n K IA F =LE I=>EH= 1 JK A@E E?K  ) IL= >HE A @ >E A A K F=HJE?E K >H = n 1 5J C= A @C L H pn pn1 6H= A E >H = E I= an ) IA K =FEIK A F =L K A ?EBH= n J= LED >H AL= E = an1 ) IA F =LE ?EBH= n J= =FEI K k J ?EBHA >H K A I=IJ=L A @ ?EB=H= n, n 1, . . . , n k +1 2 IJ E k 1 J= J= LED k J ?EBHA ED >H AL= E F E K I= n i ,= A i k J ?EBHA ED >H AL= E I=@H A n K =FEIK E = 2k1  IE =k= n n +1 n + 1 =@= ED E = 2 1  5J C= LHE A@E an = an1 + 2 2 @ I an = 2n+2 2n 4 !

&!

& % 4 A A = =@=J= = FHA@ AJE EIJE EIJE KJE A ILA f E A ?E A IKH A ?E A EIJA pn,1 + pn,2 + + pn,m 1 pn,m H= E EJA
n+1 m1 m n nm+1 m1

H= E EJE EIJA S (n, 1) + + S (n, m) H= E EJE H= E EJA mn

1
m! (mn)!

S (n, m) m!S (n, m)

1 A ?E A >H E I= =nm " A = A Am,n = a1 a2 an C@ A IA IK EH= F ILE n J H = = FHEH @ ED >H AL= J= LED @= A a1 = m, ai+1 ai + 1 = ILA i = 1, 2, . . . , n 1 8HE A@E

Am,n = m A1,n1 + A2,n1 + + Am+1,n1 .

1 @K ?E IA A F = =JE @= A Am,n = (2n 1)!! A @C L H = FEJ= A (2n 1)!!
m+2n2 2n1

F=

&"

' .7 +1 - /- -4)6415-

'  . H = E IJAFA E HA@ LE E >E

A BK

?E A CA AH=JHEIA

.K ?E A CA AH=JHEIA E E H= A CA AH=JHEIA IK A@= @ = HEI E ED E = L= E ED > A =J= K A K AH=JEL >E =J HE?E I L = E@A = A @ IJ= A@ IJ=L = E K (an )nN0 IA = FHEH @= = E @ @E A E B H = E IJAFA E HA@  J A F A =@ E BK ?E = = J= = E IA >AI C >H AL= J C E = = E A E I= A@ E >A J =JA =JE E =F=H=J = H=@ I= BK ?E = = E IJAFA E HA@ LE = A LA = @ >H H= LE A = CA AH=JHEIA CK K K @= IA J= =F=H=J HEIJE E = H A =L= A FH > A = E >E =J HE A F A I ED >H AL= (an )nN0 ,-.1 1+1 ) '   A = A =@= E >E = BK ?E = CA AH=JHEIA FHE@HK A = J E K A B H = E IJAFA E

HA@

A(x) = a0 + a1 x + a2 x2 + + an xn + =
nN0

an x n ,
= BK ?E =

E E IK

A ?E A JE A BK

LE

E = (an )nN0 ,= A A(x) >E

CA AH=JHEIA = E {an }nN0 =FEI= A ,LE A >E ?E A CA AH=JHEIA

of g } H= A I= A(x) { {an } 0

A(x) =
nN0
1

an xn , B (x) =
nN0

bn xn

- C AI E JAH E =JEL A BK ?E A 1= I BK ?E A A F I

CA AH=JE C BK ?JE I IA FHAL @E = BK ?E A CA AH=JHEIA CA AH BK ?E A E L @ E?A A CA AH=JHEIA @A EI= E = E LA F A I ED >H AL= ILE FHE AHE =JH=JE K L E E IK I= HA= E E LE =

'  . H = E IJAFA E HA@ LE E >E

A BK

?E A CA AH=JHEIA

IK A@ = A = IK E A@ = E @C L=H= K E A ?E A JE @ I = A @= A A(x) = B (x) = E I= = = ILA n N0 LHE A@E an = bn A = A m A E FHEH @= >H E A = A

m n

an =
6=@= A >E = BK

, = n N0 , n 0, E = A
E

?E = CA AH=JHEIA = J=

A(x) =

m m m m + x + + x = (1 + x)m . 0 1 m

2HE E AJE @= A >E = BK ?E = CA AH=JHEIA = A E E (an )nN0 F E = E I= = J= E E = I= = C = L= H= E EJED @ K A

241

>A J E EA = I= = >A J IJAFA E HA@ LE A A an = 1

-,*) ' 

= =I A B H = E IJAFA E HA@ A(x) = CA>=HI E >EJ = LAHCA ?E = HA@= A(x) 4A@ A(x) A L= = E F JFK
@EH= E (an )nN0 1F= = = =E = =E A CK >EJE @ HEIJE 2 I =JH= E K = ILA n N0 .K ?E = CA AH=JHEIA J C E = A

A(x) = 1 + x + x2 + + xn + =
nN0

xn . xn

A IA FHEI AJEJE @= = |x| < 1 CA 1 @ I LHE A@E LAHCEH= = 1 x

AJHE I E HA@

nN0

1 = 1x

xn = 1 + x + x2 + + xn + .
nN0

= IK ILE A ?E AJE K L IJAFA HA@K A@ = E A@= A = K EJE @= A = B H = E IJAFA E HA@ A@ = H= L K BK ?E A f (x) = 1 1x K IJAFA E HA@ 1 ,HKCE HE A E = LHE A@E A(x) = 1 x = E K FHE AHK = FHE A =@= = LAHCEH= = A BK ?E E f (x) AH=JHEI= = E (an )nN0 HEI IA FHEI AJEJE @= A E IJAFA E HA@ nN0 an xn A HA E @= A f (x) BK ?E = CA

A ED IJAFA ED HA@ L= E = = E A
nN0

(i) = ILA R E = |x| < 1 LHE A@E

&$

n x = (1 + x) n

'  . H = E IJAFA E HA@ LE E >E

A BK

?E A CA AH=JHEIA

(ii) = ILA x R LHE A@E

nN0

xn = ex n! xn = ln(1 + x) n
K KA
of g } (1) ln(1 + x) { { n
n1

(iii) = |x| < 1 A

= I

(1)n1
n N

LK FHAJD @ A FHE

A@>A =

of g } of g } 1 (1 + x) { {(n)}0 ex { { n! }0

} 1 .

,= A LAHCA ?E = F I =JH= C HA@= = CK E @= HA@ =FE A = BK ?E K K  =JL HA  B H K E A KJE E= LAHCEH= I= = x = 0 E nN0 n!xn A @ >H @A EI= IJAFA E HA@ CA AH=JHEI= = >H FAH KJ=?E = 7 FHAJF IJ=L K LAHCA ?E A = @= = HA@ LA >H AL= LHE A@E

(i)

n 0 an

n 0 bn

n 0 (an

+ bn )
n i=0 ai

(ii) k (iii)

n 0 an n 0 an

n 0k

an
n 0

n 0 bn

bni
E K =IE = = E

1 @C L=H= K A FAH=?E A I= CA AH=JHEI= = IA @A

,-.1 1+1 ) '  !

nN0 bn

xn

>E

A BK

A = IK HA@ LE A(x) = nN0 an E B (x) = ?E A CA AH=JHEIA = E LA (an )nN0 E (bn )nN0

xn

6=@= A

C (x) = A(x) + B (x) =

nN0

(an + bn )xn

>E = BK ?E = CA AH=JHEIA = E (cn )nN0 C@ A A cn = an + bn = ILA n N0 ,= A = A k A E HA= = >H J=@= A D(x) = kan xn >E = BK ?E = CA AH=JHEIA = E (dn )nN0 C@ A A dn = k an = ILA n N0 LE E (cn )nN0 @A
nN0

(bn )nN0 A
>E

,-.1 1+1 ) '  "

= BK

L K?E = E E FH E L @ E L= (an )nN0 E

EI= I= cn =
n i=0 ai bni .

A FH E L @ E E

?E = CA AH=JHEIA =

L K?E K E L= (an )nN0 E (bn )nN0 L K?E = HA@ L= C (x) = A(x) B (x)

C (x) =
nN0

cn xn =
n 0

a0 bn + a1 bn1 + a2 bn2 + + an b0 xn . ' 

&%

'  . H = E IJAFA E HA@ LE E >E

A BK

?E A CA AH=JHEIA

241

-,*) '  # 5 KF ILED B H = ED IJAFA ED HA@ L= I= A ?E A JE = K C > EH = I=>EH= A E A A IA = =L= I= C [[x]] = A FH L AHEJE @= A C[[x]] FHIJA I= A@E E? = IJAFA E HA@ A(x) = A @= E = K JEF E =JEL E E LAH E LAH > EH = A A = F IJ E B (x) J= =L @= A A(x) B (x) = 1 7 >E = A A HA@ B (x) = EJE I= A1 (x)
= FHE AH = A FH L AHEJE @= A

(1 x)(1 + x + x2 + + xn + ) = 1.
6= A 1x =J A K JEF E =JEL E E LAH =
nN0

xn

A@= H=

1 + x + x2 + + xn + = (1 x)1 =

1 . 1x

6- 4- ) '  $ . H = E IJAFA E HA@ A(x) = a0 +a1 x+ +an xn +

E =

K JEF E =JEL E E LAH K C [[x]] =

nN0 bn x n

E I=

A a0 = 0

, = A = A B (x) = 6=@= = I LK @A E?E A H= >EJE a0 = 0

K JEF E =JEL E E LAH = A(x) A = HA@ L= '  LHE A@E a0 b0 = 1, F=

5=@= F = E @= A KI L a0 = 0 @ L = @= A(x) E = K JE F E =JEL E E LAH 2 I =JH= IJAFA E HA@ B (x) = b0 + b1 x + + bn xn + C@ A IK A ?E A JE bn @A EI= E I=

b0 =

1 a1 b0 a1 bn1 + + an b0 , b1 = , , bn = , a0 a0 a0
K JEF E =JEL E

E LAH

A A LED HA@ L= IA FH L AHE @= A B (x) =EIJ= = A(x)

1 IJHK ?E A B (x) A = K EJE @= A = B H = E IJAFA E HA@ A(x) A@E IJLA

K JEF E =JEL E E LAH

2HE

A = A (an )nN0 E HA= ED >H AL= = E LHE A@E a0 = 1 a0 an + a1 an1 + + an a0 = 1 @HA@EJE F JE = J C E = >E K BK ?E K CA AH=JHEIA = J= E

AH '  %

4 A A A 2 I =JH=

A(x) = a0 + a1 x + + an xn + .
&&

'  . H = E IJAFA E HA@ LE E >E 1 @A

A BK =

?E A CA AH=JHEIA @= LHE A@E

E?E A FH E L @= CA AH=JHEI=
nN0

A(x)A(x) =
5J C= A

(a0 an +a1 an1 + +an a0 )xn = 1+x+x2 + =

1 . 1x

A(x) = (1 x) 2 =
nN0

(1)n

1 2

xn .

A >H

an A@ =

A ?E A JK K xn E B H K A # " @ >E =

an = (1)n

1 2 n

(2n 1)!! . 2n n!

241

-,*) '  & A = IK @=JE B H = E IJAFA E HA@ LE A(x) = n a xn E B (x) = F E?E K HA@ L= B E A A n nN0 nN0 bn x FHEH @ @A EI=JE = HA@ B A E IA @ >E A J= J K B (x) K AIJ n n x =FE A A(x)
(B A) (x) =
n nN0 bn (A(x))

= b0 + b1 (a0 + a1 x + ) + + bn (a0 + a1 x + )n +
A KJE B A E A @ >H @A EI= B H = E IJAFA E HA@ = ILA HA@ LA A(x) ) B (x) E A F E E= A a0 = 0 FHE H= K = K n A ?E A J= K x K (B A) (x) IA F =LE >AI = = IK = J K FHIJA K C[[x]] E A CK A E H= K =JE 7 E A a0 = 0 A @ FHE IA A ?E A >EH I= = @ >H @A EI= = = = FHE AH = B H J=@= = ILA k > n I=>EH?E bk (a1 x + a2 x2 + +) JK K xn 5J C= A A ?E A J K xn K (B A) (x) C >H AL= ,= A F E?E = (B A) (x) A A a0 = A(0) = 0 E E = A B (x) >E = F E = E IJAFA E HA@ A(x) = nN0 an xn LHE A@E

1 + A(x) + A2 (x) + + An (x) + =

1 1 A(x)

= E I= = A a0 = 0 n 1 = =E A = @= HA@ nN0 (x+1) LAHCEH= = ex+1 = E J= HA@ IA n! A A @ >EJE = F E?E = B H = ED IJAFA ED HA@ L= = B H = E IJAFA E HA@ B (x) = A @= A F E?E E E LAH HA@= A(x) = A

(B A) (x) = (A B ) (x) = x.
&'

' 

'  . H = E IJAFA E HA@ LE E >E 5 A@A = JA HA = C L HE F E?E E E LAH J

A BK

?E A CA AH=JHEIA ?E = CA AH=JHEIA E =

A =@= A = BK

6- 4- ) '  ' )

= HA@ LA A(x) E B (x) LHE A@E '  J=@= A A(x) = a1 x + a2 x2 + = B (x) = b1 x + b2 x2 + 2HE J A A a1 = 0 E b1 = 0 , = A = IK F I =JH= E HA@ LE A(x) = am xm + am+1 xm+1 + E B (x) = bn xn + bn+1 xn+1 + ,= >E F E?E A A B E B A >E A @A EI= A H= @= LHE A@E m, n > 0 mn + = x ,= A E (B A) (x) = bn an A = K EJE @= A mx m = n = 1 E @= IK a1 E b1 H= E EJE @ K A

= IE = = E BK ?E = CA AH=JHEIA E = A@E IJLA a1 = 0 A F JHA>= A(x) = nN0 an xn

= E K JA HA E '  $ A IA F = =JE @= IL= 2 > E = A(x) = a1 x + a2 x + + C@ A A a1 = F E?E E E LAH ,= A KI L @= A a0 = 0 E @ L = @= >E F IJ = F E?E E E LAH

= 0 E =

A@ = @ FHLED FHE A = CA AH=JHEI= A K H A =L= K HA KH EL ED HA =?E = F J= IJH=JACE = K H A =L= K HA KH EL A HA =?E A F K CA AH=JHEI= A I A@A = A = A =@= = A = HA KH EL = HA =?E = an = F (an1 , . . . , anr ) = E (an )nN0 -L I L ED H= = K H A =L= K JA HA =?E A

E K (an )nN0 @ @E A E >E K BK a1 x + a2 x2 + + an xn +

?E K CA AH=JHEIA A(x) = a0 + E FHA I= xn E IK EH= F

HA =?E K an = F (an1 , . . . , anr ) F ILE n N0 = A J E = I EI =

> A IJH= A @ >E A A HA =?E A E H= E @HA@E AF =JK BK ?E K A(x)

A(x)
?E K A(x) H= LE A K

= AE A IF E?EJ K B H K K = an BK IJAFA E HA@ E

FH EJ=  A ?E A J K xn a0 = 1

2HE

AH '  

A = A =@= E an+1 = 3an + 4 K F AJ E KI L HEIJA E BK ?E A CA AH=JHEIA = E B H K K = an

4AA A

=@= E K =I ?EH= >E K BK ?E K CA AH=JHEIA A(x) = n ) a x HA =?E K a = 3 a E I= xn+1 = ILA n+1 n +4 F nN0 n n N0 = =JE =FH=LE B H = K IK K @ >E A '

'  . H = E IJAFA E HA@ LE E >E

A BK

?E A CA AH=JHEIA

a1 x+a2 x2 + +an xn + = 3x(a0 +a1 x+a2 x2 + )+4x(1+x+x2 + ).

= A a0 = 1 E = A 1 + x + x2 + + xn + =
4x 1x 1 1x

A(x) + 1 = 3xA(x) +

A(x) =

5x1 (1x)(13x) .

F JE = E = (an )nN0 @ >E A J= J = A K IJAFA E HA@ 7 JK ILHDK H=IJ=LE A(x)

H= L

BK

?E A A(x)

A(x) =

5x 1 a b = + . (1 x)(1 3x) 1 x 1 3x

AF =JA A ?E A JA a E b A = = A @HA@EJE = F E FHAJD @ K 1  HA =?E K I= (1 x) F= @= I= 1 3x E KLHIJE x=1 @ I x= 3 6= @ >E = @= A a = 2 E b = 1 @ I

A(x) =
5=@= =

2 1 + = 2 1 x 1 3x
K KA

xn +
nN0 nN0

3n xn =
nN0

(3n 2)xn .

@= A an = 3n 2 H A A A F =

A HA KH EL A HA =?E A

5=@= A @ IJ= A@ = LA >H ALA Cn IJ=L HE A EJE HA KH EL K HA =?E K = =J=

2HE

AH '   4E A EJE HA KH EL K HA =?E K

A = A

Cn = C0 Cn1 +C1 Cn2 + +Cn1 C0 , K F AJ A KI LA C0 = C1 = 1.

4AA A
C (x) =
nN0

Cn xn = 1+ x +2x2 +5x3 +14x4 +42x5 +132x6 +429x7 +

>E = BK ?E = CA AH=JHEIA = E (Cn )nN0 2HE E AJE @= A @AI = IJH= = HA KH EL A HA =?E A C0 Cn1 + C1 Cn2 + + Cn1 C0 A ?E A J K xn1 K C 2 (x) A A HA KH EL A HA =?E A E =@=J = I= xn E I=>EH= A = ILA n N @ >E = @= A 1 1 4x 2 . C (x) 1 = xC (x) @ I C (x) = 2x ) >EI K FHAJD @ B H K E = C (x) EIFHA@ + @ >E E >EI @= A limx0 C (x) = + = ' HE A = @=>H= E = = @= A C (0) =

'  . H = E IJAFA E HA@ LE E >E

A BK

?E A CA AH=JHEIA

C0 = 1 K FHAJD @ B H K E = C (x) EIFHA@ HE A = >EH= = E KI 1 HEIJA E H= L (1 4x) 2 K HA@ @ >E = @= A 1 1 1 4x 1 n+1 2 Cn = AB K x K = (4)n+1 = 2 2 n+1 = 1 1 1 3 (2n 1) (4)n+1 1 2n = 22 2 2 2 (n + 1)! n+1 n
7 FHIJA B H = ED IJAFA ED HA@ L= C[[x]] ?E K @EBAHA ?EH= = IJAFA ED HA@ L= E = = E A A FHA E AJE E @A E

,-.1 1+1 ) '  

A = A A(x) = a0 + a1 x + a2 x2 + + = n nN0 an x B H = E IJAFA E HA@ . H = E E L @ = J= HA@ A

d A(x) = A (x) = a1 + 2a2 x + + nan xn1 + = dx

nan xn1 .
nN

E A JA F = =JE @= = H= K = A L= @A EI= C E L @= B H = ED IJAFA ED HA@ L= LHE A@A EIJ= FH=LE = = E = H= K = A E L @= >E ED BK ?E = = (A(x)) = A (x) > (A(x) B (x)) = A (x) B (x) ? (A(x)B (x)) = A (x)B (x) + A(x)B (x) @ A(x)B 1 (x) = A = A A(x) BK A (x) = =JE F
A(x) B (x)

A (x)B (x)A(x)B (x) (B (x))2

?E = CA AH=JHEIA = E (an )nN0 ) E I= x @ >E = IA

E H= K =

xA (x) = a1 x + 2a2 x2 + + nan xn + .

) J KH=@E A@ @ >E = @= A

x(xA (x)) = a1 x + 22 a2 x2 + + n2 an xn +
, C L HE IA @= x F = = E @= LHE A@E
d dx A

H= A =FE A

= (xD)A 7FH=L I

'

'  . H = E IJAFA E HA@ LE E >E

A BK

?E A CA AH=JHEIA

of g } {of g } {of g } 2 2 A(x) { {an } 0 (xD )A(x) {nan }0 E (xD ) A(x) {n an }0 .

= FHE

AH H= K = K E

x +2x2 +3x3 + + nxn + = x(1+ x + x2 + + xn + ) =

@ >E = @= A
{of g } x {n} 0 . (1x)2

x (1 x)2

1 @A E?E = I L ED FAH=?E = I= B H = E IJAFA E HA@ LE = E FHAJD @ C H= =JH= = = @ >E = I A@A = FH=LE = = >H H= K = A A ED >E ED BK ?E = CA AH=JHEIA

241

-,*) '  ! 2H=LE = = H= K = A >E

of g } A = A A(x) { {an } 0 6=@= A

ED BK

?E =

CA AH=JHEIA FH=LE
1

A(x) a0 a1 x ah1 xh1 {of g} {an+h }0 xh

' !

FH=LE FH=LE

2
of g } (xD)k A(x) { {nk an } 0

' "

3 A(x) {of g} 1 x

ai
i=0

' #

FH=LE

4
of g } Am (x) { i1 +i2 ++ik =n

ai1 ai2 aik

?E K CA AH=JHEIA = .E>

' $

2HE

AH '  "

= E BK

= E ALA >H ALA Fn

A = A F (x) = nN0 Fn CA AH=JHEI= = E (Fn )nN0 = ILA n N HA KH EL K HA =?E K Fn+1 = Fn + Fn1 F E I= xn1 E ILA JA A@ = IJE I=>AHE = A F0 = 0 E F1 = 1 FHE A FH=LE =  HA =?E = ' ! @ >E = @= A

4AA A

xn

F (x) F (x) x = + F (x) 2 x x

F (x) =

x . 1 x x2

'!

'

- IF

A ?E = A BK

?E A CA AH=JHEIA
3

2n+5 2HE AH '  # = E IK K HA@= nN n n ! 4 A A A = A ex >E = BK ?E = CA AH=JHEIA = E

FH=LE = @= A

HA =?E = ' " JA I=>EH= A

FHE A @C L=H= K ED HA@ L= @ >E =

3 2n+5 n!

1 n!

of g } n (xD)3 ex 2(xD)ex + 5ex = x3 ex + 3x2 ex xex + 5ex { {

} 0 .

=@= K BK ?E K CA AH=JHEIA = F I =JH= E E KLHIJE @= A IK = =@=J C HA@= A@ = = 5e

x = 1 @ >E A

2HE
D=H

AH '  $
EI E

A = A Hn = + + + *H ALE Hn IA = EL= K = E >E K BK ?E K CA AH=JHEIA = {Hn } 1 IA @= A

of g } 1 ln(1 x) { { n }1 .

1 1

1 2

1 n

4 A A A 2HEI AJE

2H A x) ln(1 1x

FH=LE = ! B H K = ' # @ >E =

@= A JH= A = BK

?E =

'

- IF

A ?E = A BK

?E A CA AH=JHEIA
A BK ?E A CA AH=JHEIA EIK @ F E E K (an )nN0 = FHE AH HA KH EL =
1 n+1

7 A E I K = ALE = >E K F K = K @= I= = LE A HA =?E =

an+1 = (n + 1) (1)n1 1
IA A A HE A EJE F @ H= K >E 6 A A@= CA AH=JHEIA

an

K KI L a0 = 2 A@ = LHIJ= BK

' % ?E =

ED BK

?E = CA AH=JHEIA

C= = J IA F I =JH= A = A =@= E

,-.1 1+1 ) '  - IF A ?E = = BK

H = E IJAFA E HA@

?E = CA AH=JHEIA FHE@HK A = J
a2 2 an n x + + x + = 2! n!

F A I ED >H AL= (an )nN0 E K A B

A(x) = a0 + a1 x +
6 A

nN0

an n x . n!

ef g } = =L=JE E I= A(x) { {an } 0

'"

'

- IF = FHE

A ?E = A BK AH =

?E A CA AH=JHEIA

A FHE E AJEJE @= A A

ef g } ex { {1} @ 0

1 {ef g} {n!} 0 . 1 x

' &

5=@= F = E = F AJ = L C F C =L = A = A A(x) = nN0

A
an n n! x

HE A EJE HA KH EL K HA =?E K ' % I= A IF A ?E = = BK E

n

?E = CA AH=JHEIA = = ILA n N0 @= A
n+1

F I =JH= E E ) HA =?E K ' % F F= @ >E A A A@ = IJE I=>AHA I=>AHA

I= K E A

xn+1 (n+1)!

A(x) 2 = xA(x) x
nN0

(1)n x n!
nN0

(1)n+1 (x n+1)! .
@= LHE A@E I

IA FHEI AJE

@= A

n xn nN0 (1) n!

= ex @ >E A
@

A(x) 2 = xA(x) xex + (1 ex ) A(x) =

7F HA@E E
3 1+x

e x = 3
nN0

(1)n xn
nN0

(1)n

xn . n!

A ?E A JA K

xn

@ >E = I

(1)n an = 3 (1)n n! n!

an = (1)n (3n! 1).

- IF A ?E = A BK ?E A CA AH=JHEIA I=>EH= = E = E B H = A IJAFA A HA@ LA

= EIJE
an n n! x

A = IK @=JE HA@ LE F (x) = nN0 bn n G(x) = x A IF A ?E = A BK ?E A CA AH=JHEIA = nN0 n! (an )nN0 E (bn )nN0 6=@= A

,-.1 1+1 ) '

E E LA

F (x) + G(x) =
nN0 n

an + bn n {ef g} x {an + bn } 0 @ n!
n

F (x)G(x) =
nN0 k=0 ef g } ,= A F (x)G(x) {

ak bnk k ! (n k )!
n n k=0 k

xn =
nN0 0 k=0

n ak bnk k

xn . n!

ak bnk
'#

'

- IF

A ?E = A BK

?E A CA AH=JHEIA

n n A A F (x)G(x) 2 = A >E = E k=0 k ak bnk 0 A IF A ?E = = BK ?E = CA AH=JHEIA IA FHE E AIJ F =LE K H A =L= K H= ED >E =J H ED FH > A = 4= C = J JHA>= JH= EJE K I A@A JA HA E

! A = A cn >H = E = @= IA = A n = I KFK @A E A A = IJHK JKH=  = LE A ?HLA = E A = A bn >H = E = @= IA = n = I KFK @A E A A = @HKC= HA?E >E A = IJHK JKH= 5= an = E >H = E = @= IA I KF [n] F @E A E K @L= @EI K J = F @I KF= B E C B C = [n] = =JE @= IA = I KFK B =@= >E A = = = I KFK C ?HLA = IJHK JKH= ) IK A(x), B (x) E C (x) A IF A ?E = A BK ?E A CA AH=JHEIA = E LA (an )nN0 , (bn )nN0 E (cn )nN0 J=@= LHE A@E A(x) = B (x)C (x)
, = 5 KF C I= k A A A =J= A E [n] @=>H=JE = n = E = = k IL= @=>H= k = I KFK ?HLA K IJHK JKHK A =@=JE = ck = E = *E A K IJHK JKHK = B = [n] \ C A =@=JE = bnk = E = 5J C= A >H ILED ?HLA >E A ED IJHK JKH= an = I KFK [n] A@ = n n ck bnk . k
k=0

6- 4- ) '

1 @A E?E A A = A IF A ?E = ED BK KA @= A A(x) = B (x)C (x) 7 I K = K @= E LE A A IF @= LHE A@E I A@A A JLH A A

?E = CA AH=JHEIA =

A ?E = ED BK

?E = =

IA F

= A

2 5

-,1+) ' " A = IK F1 (x), F2 (x), . . . , Fk (x) A IF A ?E 1) 2 k = A BK ?E A CA AH=JHEIA = E LA (fn nN0 , (fn )nN0 , . . . , (fn )nN0 ) = ILA n N0 LHE A@E
hn =
n1 ++nk =n ni N0

n k f 1 f 2 fn k n1 , n2 , . . . , nk n1 n2

E = A H (x) = nN0 hn xn A IF A ?E = = BK E (hn )nN0 J=@= A

H (x) = F1 (x) F2 (x) Fk (x).
'$

?E = CA AH=JHEIA =

'

- IF

A ?E = A BK

?E A CA AH=JHEIA

AH ' # A = A X I KF I= n A A A =J= 5= an = E >H = E = @= IA FHL I KF X F @E A E K @L= @EI K J = F @I KF= B E C B C = X =JE @= IA @=>AHA A E F @I KF E B E @= IA A A A JE E C E A=H KHA@A @HA@EJE A IF A ?E = K BK ?E K CA AH=JHEI= = E (an )nN0 4AA A
HEIJA A = A E FHAJD @ A JA HA A *H = E = @= IA E k = C I KF= @=>AHA FH E L = F @I KF A bk = 2k @ A >H = E = @= IA k = E I KF E A=H KHA@E ck = k ! 5=@= A JH= A = BK ?E = CA AH=JHEIA n 2 e2x A(x) = B (x)C (x) = xn . xn = n! 1x
nN0 nN0

2HE

*H

an E FHAJD @

C FHE
n

AH= E A JA

= EE

>E =J H

an =
k=0

n k 2 (n k )!. k
K A = EI K A = @HA@E E A KH=@EJE = A@= K A IF A ?E =

7 FHE AHK % ! I F >H @AH= = = 2 C A@= = E

K B H KA K = IA J @AH=

2HE

ED CA AH=JHEI=

AH '

@HA@EJE >H

= = Dn F

n n A = A D(x) = nN0 D n! x A IF A ?E = = BK ?E = CA AH=JHEIA = E (Dn )nN0 2HE E AJE @= A >H FAH KJ=?E = K Sn I= J= k I ED J= = = A@ = n D n k k

4AA A

n = I LK FHE ?EF= IK A LHE A@E n! = n k=0 k Dnk ,= A A IF A ?E = = CA AH=JHEI= = E E E A F JE = n! A A@ = = FH E L @K CA AH=JHEI= E E IK F JE = LE Dn E 1 1 HA =?E = ' & @ >E =

1 = ex D(x) 1x
6= A >H @ I @AH=

D(x) =

ex . 1x
xn n!

= = Dn A@ =
n

A ?E A JK K

K H= L K

ex 1x

Dn = n!
k=0

(1)k . k!

=IE = = E A @=JE E >E ED BK ?E = CA AH=JHEIA

>E =J H K E JAHFHAJ=?E K = FH E L @

'%

'

- IF

A ?E = A BK

?E A CA AH=JHEIA

241

-,*) ' % A = A cn >H = E = = IA A = A E A=H KHA A I KFK @ n A A A =J= A @A EI=JE A = IJHK JKH= HA?E ?HLA = E A = A bn >H = E = @= IA = n = E A=H KHA A I KFK @A E A A = @HKC= >E A = IJHK JKH=

5= an = E >H = E = @= IA E A=H KHA A I KF ([n], <) F @E A E K @L= @EI K J =  A K AFH= = F @I KF= C E B C B = [n] J= @= A IL= E A A A J E C = E @ ILED A A A =J= E B = =JE IA = I KFK C =@= ?HLA = IJHK JKH= = = I KFK B >E A = EC A@ A

an = bn c0 + bn1 c1 + bn2 c2 + + bk cnk + + b0 cn

) IK A(x), B (x) E C (x) >E A BK (bn )nN0 E (cn )nN0 E HA =?E A '  ?E A CA AH=JHEIA = E LA (an )nN0 = @= LHE A@E A(x) = B (x)C (x) K LHIJK BK ?E A

2HAJD @ H= =JH= A = AF E K @ K?E CA AH=JHEI= KF JHE A>EJE K HAJ FH > A K

2HE

n IJH= E?= = IL= IJH= E?E A @= >K@A I= JA IJ E E I= I E = 4=@ A @= >K@A F @E A A K A E F C =L = = E K IL= F C =L K H= @= >K@A E I E = E JA IJ = E = E = IJK@A J A =H= EH=JE I E A E JA IJ K F C =L = J= @= EIFK E F IJ=L A A KI LA

AH '

& 5JK@A J JHA>= @= =FE A IA E =HI E H=@ = J=

4AA A

A = A an JH= A E >H = E = = E IJK@A J A =FEI=JE H=@ E A = A A(x) = nN0 an xn 5 =JH= @= A a0 = 1 F IJ E A@= = E @= IJK@A J =FE A IA E =HI E H=@ I= K = IJH= E?= = A IA =FEI=JE = bm = 2m 2 = E = @I KF H= E EJ @ [m] = I E A IJ= A A b0 = 0 A = A B (x) >E = BK ?E = @ I

A@ F C =L A I= m IJH= JHA>= @=>H=JE AFH= = F JA IJ A I =JH=JE @= CA AH=JHEIA = E (bn )nN0

B (x) =

(2n 2)xn =
n N

2x 2x2 2x = 1 2x 1 x (1 2x)(1 x)

= I LK FHE A@>A ' % = K E A @= A >H = E = @= IA H=@ =FE A K J= k F C =L = A@ = A ?E A JK K xn K B k (x) = A IJK@A JK @ L A @= I= @=>AHA E F C =L = E = AC L H=@ LHE A@E

A(x) = 1 + B (x) + B 2 (x) + + B k (x) + =

1 . 1 B (x)

'&

'

- IF

A ?E = A BK

?E A CA AH=JHEIA EI= = AH A b0 = 0 5=@= A

F E?E = BK

?E = A @ >H @A

A(x) =

1 1
2x2 (1x)(12x) 7 9

(1 2x)(1 x) = 1 3x 7 2 2 x+ 9 3 9 3n xn
nN0

=
6= 2 I

2 2x2 3 x 7 3x + 1 3x

2 9

@ >E E @= A = n > 1 >H

K = JA = E

JH= A ED = E = A@ = an = 2 3n2 n 2 >E =J H E @ = @= A 2 3 H A A A L C FH > A = ?E A CA AH=JHEI= IK @A EI= E B H = E E L @E C HA@= A(x)

1 = A IF ) A @ >E =

A ?E = A BK

ef g } A(x) { {an } 0

H= K = K E B H = E E L @ IJAFA

d a3 an A(x) = A (x) = a1 +a2 x+ x3 + + xn + = dx 2 (n 1)!

6= I @ >E E @= A
ef g } A (x) { {an+1 } 0

nN0

an+1 n x . n!

ef g } A(k) (x) { {an+k } 0 .

) >E E

ef g } A A(x) { {an } IE 0

= E K FH=LE K

= H= K = A I= A IA F I= xD ) = =JE J

BK

?E = = CA AH=JHEI= LE@E B H K K ' " @= A A I= x = E

ef g } @= A J=@= xA (x) { {nan } 0

4= K = A E L @= F= FHE A E

k FKJ= = A(x) @ >E A

ef g } @= A (xD)k A(x) { {nk an } 0

2HE

>H ALA HA =?E K

AH '

'

= E A IF

A ?E = K BK

?E K CA AH=JHEIA = *A LA =L= K I A@A K HA KH EL K

4 A A A 2 = =EI
n

@= *A LE >H ALE =@ L

Bn+1 =
i=0

n Bnk k

K F AJ E KI L B0 = 1. ''

'!

A A FHE

A A BK

?E = CA AH=JHEIA A A HA KH EL A HA =?E A I=
xn n!

ef g } A = A B (x) { {Bn } 0

E IK E
x

H= A

F ILE

n N0 @ >E =
@ I

B (x) = ex B (x)

ln B (x) = ex E = H= K B (x) = cee .

A ?E

1 KI L= B (0) = B0 = 1 @ >E = c = e1 F= A JH= A = A IF x = = BK ?E = CA AH=JHEIA = *A LA >H ALA B (x) = ee 1

'!

A A FHE

A A BK

?E = CA AH=JHEIA

7 @ = EL= K E@A JEJAJ= I= >E E A ?E = JE = I LA HE IJE E E A E?K @= IK @L= F E = A@ = = = E I= = E = K A@ = A @C L=H= K A A ?E A JA 8E@ A E I @= EIJ JLH A A LHE A@E E = B H = A IJAFA A HA@ LA A = IK A ?E A JE (an )nN0 A A BK ?E A CA AH=JHEIA A(X ) H A A = A C >E =J H C FH > A = ) = A E = E  = EFK E K E I= IJAFA E HA@ LE = F = A @= A A(x) = B (x) J=@= IK E A ?E A JE B (x) H A A = EIJ C FH > A = 7 E = @HA@EJE A ?E A JA K B (x) = =@=J= A HE A A

241

-,*) ' !  2 I =JH=

B H = E IJAFA E HA@

A(x) = (x+x2 +x3 + +xn + )k =

ai N

xa1 +a2 ++ak =

a1 ++ak =n

xn .

2HE E AJE @= IA K FHAJD @ IK E xn F =LE E FKJ= E E = = E = @= IA n =FE A = >EH k FHEH @ ED >H AL= ,HKCE HE A E = A ?E A J K xn K A(x) A >= >H F E?E = n K J= k I=>EH= = = A

(x + x2 + x3 + + xn + )k = xk (1 x)k ,
J= >H A A@ = A ?E A JK K xnk K (1 x)k ,= A = = E I F = = E @= A >H F E?E = n K k I=>EH= = A@ = A@=

(1)nk

k nk

n1 . k1
A #" =>K A F @E A EJE 1L= K

2HE

L= K / H= K E

AH ' !

E = E = IA H= K J= @= 

'!

A A FHE

A A BK

?E = CA AH=JHEIA

1L= E L= @ >E K EIJE >H =>K = / H= @ >E A >=H AIJ =>K = H= @ >E A AF=H= >H =>K = ILA =>K A IK H=IF HA A A

4AA A

A = 1L= E L= @ >E K F k =>K = *H =>K = E ED @L E?= = A@ @ >E K A F EIJ L AJEJE I= E > H x2k E (1 + x2 + x4 + x2n + ) ,= A >H =>K = A @ >E A / H= F EIJ L AJE I= E > H @C L=H= K AC IJAFA = x E (x6 + x7 + + xn + ) = >H =>K = A JHA>= @= @ >E A H= I= E > H @C L=H= K AC IJAFA = x 3 5 2 n +1 E (x + x + x + x + ) 6H= A E >H F @ A = E EIFK =L= K F IJ=L A A KI LA I=@= FHAF = = A ?E A J K x54 K H= L K

(1 + x2 + x4 + x2n + )(x6 + x7 + + xn + )(x + x3 + x5 + ) = x7 (1+x+x2 + xn + )(1+x2 +x4 + x2n + )2 = x7 . (1 x)(1 x2 )2

,= >EI HE A E E =@=J= JHA>= @HA@EJE A ?E A J K x47 K H= L K (1 x)1 (1 x2 )2 2 2j J=@= E (1 x)1 ) I K H= L K (1 x2 )2 @=>H= E j (x) JHA>= 6=
23 j =0

@=>H=JE

1 472j

(x)472j

A H A A A =@=J =

1 2 (1)472j (1)2j = 1 + 2 + + 24 = 300. 47 2j j

= E = E =) = - = A KI >  =>K = E $ =C @= J= @= ) E >=H A@ K =>K K = @= IJ= A JHE @ AL E?A @ = LE A FAJ =C @= 5LA L A H= >EJE H=IF HA

2HE

AH ' ! !

=E7 = CK F @E A EJE = @ >E A >=H JHE =C @A >E K >=H @LE A =>K A E A 

4 A A A 6H= A E >H
(1)5 = 8 5 *H F @ A = =C @= x16 K
4 5

= E = = F @ A K =>K = A A ?E A J K x12 x7 K (x + x2 + + xn + )(x2 + x3 + + xn + )3 = (1 J A x)4 E EIFK =L= F IJ=L A A KI LA A A ?E A J K

3

(x3 + x4 + + xn + )(1+ x + x2 + x3 + x4 + x5 )3 =


x3 1 x6 (1 x) 1x

'! 7 =

A A FHE

A A BK

?E = CA AH=JHEIA @= A J= A ?E A J

H= K = = @ >E =

(1)13
6= I

4 4 4 3(1)7 +3(1)5 13 7 1
@ >E E @= A JH= A E >H

16 10 4 3 +3 . 3 7 1

F @ A = A@ =

8 5

16 10 4 3 +3 3 7 1

= 6880.

) A K H=IF @ A E L= = E H=IF HA@ = A I= >H @ >E A ED FHA @ AJ= J=@= A HEI F I =JH=JE A IF A ?E = A BK ?E A CA AH=JHEI=
kx = (1 + x + x + x + + x + )k A ?E A J K x n! K H= L K e 1! 2! 3! n! n! A A@ = C@ A IK EH= F ILE I =>E F E?E = = n1 !n2 !nk n K k @E A L=
n 2 3 n

= A = EI

n! n1 !n2 !nk

J= >H FAH KJ=?E = K JEI KF= {1n1 , 2n2 , . . . , k nk } >E =J H K E JAHFHAJ=?E K = A ?E A JA K H= L K ekx

2HE

AH ' ! " = >H @K IA = = E F @L= =AIJ A@ = ED ?HLA ED >E A ED F =LED E A A ED =IJ=LE?= = IEC = E =H> IA A F IJ=LEJE ED @L= =AIJ J= @= IA F = A IEC = IJ= E >H @ LE = = E = E = IA J A KH=@EJE = A >H KF JHA> A ED F =LED =IJ=LE?= AF=H= = >H A A ED F=H= =@=J= HE A EJE F K BK ?E = CA AH=JHEIA 4 A A A 6H= A E >H
1+x+
x2 2!

A
2

E JAHFHAJEH=JE =
x3 3!

A ?E A J K

x12 12!

x3 3!

x+

x5 5!

1+

x2 2!

x4 4!

+ .

?HLA A E >E A A =IJ=LE?A

F =LA =IJ=LE?A

A A A =IJ=LE?A

IA FHEI AJE
2 2n

@= A
3 ex +ex ,x+ x 2 3!

x 1+ x 2! + + (2n)! + =

x + + (2 n+1)! + =
x x x x

2n+1

ex ex , 2

e 2x e +e 4x e =1 H A A A A A ?E A J K x 12! K H= L K e 2 2 4 (e 1). 11 = A E H= K =JE @= A J 4 2 K = JA = E >E =J H H A A A L C =@=J =

12

'!

A A FHE

A A BK

?E = CA AH=JHEIA HE E F=HJE?E = = >H AL= HA E = pn 8E@ A E I @= A = E = F E L= = A KJE EA E

=@= I @= HA KH EL JA =

I K FHAJD @ C =LE C L A F IJ E AC = J = B H K = = HA =?E = = E (pn )nN0 LA E BK ?E K CA AH=JHEI= = J=

6- 4- ) ' ! #
n

>E

= ILA n N0 A = pn = L= >H = BK ?E = CA AH=JHEIA = E (pn )nN0 A

1 = 1 xk pn xn .
nN0

F=HJE?E = >H =

k N

, =

2HE E AJE

@= A FH E L @

kN

1 = (1+ x + x2 + )(1+ x2 + x4 + ) (1+ xk + x2k + ) 1 xk

@ >H @A EI= K FHIJA K B H = ED IJAFA ED HA@ L= *A > EH= J A HE A FH E L @K >AI = IJAFA ED HA@ L= @= >EI = A E I= n n N0 @HA@E E A ?E A J K x @ L A F I =JH=JE I= FHLED n =CH=@= 6LH A A JA HA A A >EJE @ = = J= J A IA KL AHEJE @= A A ?E A J K xn K J FH E L @K A@ = pn A = A = (1 , 2 , . . . , k ) FH E L = F=HJE?E = >H = n K IA >H 1 F =LE J= f1 FKJ >H 2 J= f2 FKJ= . . . 6K F=HJE?E K A =FEI=JE I= = (1f1 , 2f2 , . . . , rfr ) *H ALA E IA A F =L K K  A i @ ED A fi = 0 A E IJ=LEJE E =FEI= 2HE E AJE @= LHE A@E

f1 1 + f2 2 + + fr r = n.
= JK F=HJE?E K K E I=>EH= K H= L K
1 kN 1xk

E FHLA =CH=@A (1 + x + x2 + ) @=>AHA E @HKCA =CH=@A (1 + x2 + x4 + ) @=>AHA E r JA =CH=@A (1 + xk + x2k + ) @=>AHA A A @=>H= ED = @ >E =

x f1 x2f2 xrfr

xf1 x2f2 xkfk = xf1 +2f2 ++kfk = xn .

,= A = IL= K F=HJE?E K >H = n IA @ >E A A@= xn K H= L K !
1 kN 1xk

'!

A A FHE

A A BK

?E = CA AH=JHEIA

1 5= @HKCA IJH= A = AE E H= K =JE H= L kN 1xk J=@= E FHLA =CH=@A @=>AHA xa1 E @HKCA x2a2 . . . E k JA =CH=@A @ k a k =>AHA x ... 1 = =CH=@= >EH= xm m > 0 E FHA IJ= ED a 2 a r a >EH= 1 2HE E AJE @= A x 1 x 2 x r = xn = E I= = A a a a r 1 2 (1 , 2 , . . . , r ) F=HJE?E = >H = n

6= A A ?E A J K xn K F I =JH= >= >H K F=HJE?E = >H = n E A A @ = = BK ?E = CA AH=JHEIA = E (pn )nN0

IJAFA @= A

HA@K A@ = 1 kN 1xk >E =

A = A dn >H F=HJE?E = >H = n K H= E EJA >H ALA = on >H F=HJE?E = n K AF=H A >H ALA = FHE AH = >H IA@= J= LA F=HJE?E A IK

7 6+1 5+2 4+3 4+2+1

F=HJE?E A K H= E EJA

= 7 = 5+1+1 = 3+3+1 = 3+1+1+1+1 =1+1+1+1+1+1+1

F=HJE?E A K AF=H A A = BK ?E =

6= A d7 = o7 = 5 6 E A I K = A@ = @ FHLED FHE CA AH=JHEIA K FH K =L= K F=HJE?E = A I A@A = JA HA =

6- 4- ) ' ! $ 

AH *H F=HJE?E = n K AF=H A @E A LA A A@ = >H K F=HJE?E = n K H= E EJA @E A LA

E H= K =JE >E A

= EIJE = E = K JA HA E ' ! # A , = BK ?E A CA AH=JHEI= = E LA (on )nN0 E (dn )nN0

O(x) =
nN0

on xn = (1+x+x2 + )(1+x3 +x5 + )(1+x5 +x10 + ) O(x) =

nN0

1 . 1 x2i+1
@= A

,= A FHE E AJE

D(x) =
nN

dn xn = (1 + x)(1 + x2 )(1 + x3 ) =
1x2n 1xn

(1 + xi ).
iN

= ILA n N LHE A@E 1 + xn =

A = I H= EL= = = O(x).

D(x) =

1 x2 1 x4 1 x6 1 x8 = 1 x 1 x2 1 x3 1 x4

"

'!

A A FHE

A A BK

?E = CA AH=JHEIA

=@= A K JA HA K K >E =J HE?E @ = A FHE A A ED @HKCED AJ @= E JAD E = KLE A A = E EL FEJ= A @= E F IJ E E >E =J H E @ = JA JA HA A 5 A@A = >E A ?E = E A K F=HJE?E = >H = n K AF=H A I=>EH A E F= HJE?E = >H = n K H= E EJA I=>EH A A K ' FHEFEI= = 5E LAIJAHK! HEIJE IA E A E?= @= IA IL= E FHEH @= >H A = A@E IJLA = E =FEI=JE = >EH H= E EJED IJAFA = >H = 2 = FHE AH

2010 = 1024 + 512 + 256 + 128 + 64 + 16 + 8 + 2 = = 210 + 29 + 28 + 27 + 26 + 24 + 23 + 21 .

) A = A = (1f1 , 3f3 , . . . , rfr ) F=HJE?E = >H = n K AF=H A I=>EH A IL= E @ fi =FE A = >EH H= E EJED IJAFA = >H = 2 E

n = f1 1 + f3 3 + + fr r
@ >E A

n =FEI=

>EH H= E EJED I=>EH= =

1 LAH L C FHAI E =L= = A FEI=JE I A@A IJHK ?E A = A n = 1 + 2 + + k F=HJE?E = >H = n K H= E EJA I=>EH A /HKFE E I=>EH A >H = n K CHKFA J= @= ILE I=>EH?E K EIJ CHKFE E = K EIJE = LA E AF=H= @ A EJA 6E @ A EJA E IK I=>EH?E K F=HJE?E E n K AF=H A @E A LA 2 = E LK IJHK ?E K = A@ FHE AHK 2=HJE?E = >H = 242 5 9 6 4 K AF=H A @E A LA A = (21 , 11 , 5 , 3 , 16 ) = FEI= = E @ >E A

252 = (4 + 1) 21 + (8 + 1) 11 + (4 + 2) 5 + 4 3 + (4 + 2) 1 = = 88 + 84 + 21 + 20 + 12 + 11 + 10 + 4 + 2.
= F=HJE?E K = (88, 84, 21, 20, 12, 11, 10, 4, 2) >H = n K H= E EJA @E A LA H= K =

252 = (84+21)+(88+11)+(20+10)+12+(4+2) = 521+911+65+43+61.

L A >E =J H E @ = @= A on = dn

C H= E EJED HA K J=J= F=HJE?E = = >H AL= IA A @ = =JE F K BK ?E = CA AH=JHEIA 4A KH EL = HA =?E = &  = F=HJE?E A >H = n IA @ >E A J= J IA FHE E AJE @= IA K H= L K nN (1 xn ) J
3

= AI

IAFD 5O LAIJAH &" &'%

#

'"

=@=?E

A K JEF E =JEL E E LAH = BK ?E K CA AH=JHEI= E = (pn )nN0  F =LE xn = E I= = A n FA J=C = E >H 4 @ AHI" 4= = K@ = LE# E@A JEJAJE IK A K = F E ELE E HA K J=JE = F=HJE?E = = >H AL= =JE E E = =

A = A fn >H F=HJE?E = >H = n K E = IA I=>EH?E H= E K K >=H = @L= = A = A gn >H F=HJE?E = >H = n K I=>EH A > E = 5k + 1 E 5k + 4 = ILA n N LHE A@E fn = gn

6- 4- ) ' ! % FHLE 4 @ AHI 4= = K@ =

L E@A JEJAJ

6- 4- ) ' ! & @HKCE 4 @ AHI 4= = K@ =

A = A un >H F=HJE?E = >H = n K E = IA I=>EH?E H= E K K >=H = @L= E A@E E?= E A I=>EH= ,= A A = A vn >H F=HJE?E = >H = n K I=>EH A > E = 5k + 2 E 5k + 3 = ILA n N LHE A@E un = vn
,KC LHA A = A JH= A IK C= 1980 C @E A /=HIE=$ E L= >E =J H E @ = LED E@A JEJAJ= 2H = E E A% LE@ AJE #  = E A @ IJ= FE

L E@A JEJAJ

' " =@=?E

 ) IK F (x) E E (x) >E = E A IF A ?E = = BK ?E = CA AH=JHEIA = E (an )nN0 @HA@E >E K E A IF A ?E = K BK ?E K CA AH=JHEI= = I A@A A E LA = (an + c)nN0 = , c R > (nan )nN0 ? 0, 0, 1, a3 , a4 , . . . , @ a0 , 0, a2 , 0, a4 , 0, . . . A (an+m )nN0 = A E I= m N B (an+2 3an+1 an )nN0 A = IK A E B A E HA= E >H ALE 2 K BK ?E = CA AH=JHEIA = E H A A A HA KH EL A HA =?E A an = A an1 + B n K F AJ E KI L a0 = 1 ! = E >E K BK ?E K CA AH=JHEI= = I A@A A E LA n = an = 2n , n N0 2n+1 > an = n , n N0
4 5 6 7

A =H@ = AI 4 CAHI &$ '!! 5HE EL=I= )EO= C=H 4= = K = &&% '  )@HE= /=HIE= ' &  5JAFDA E A 

$

'"

=@=?E ? an = n , n N0 n 2 = E = E = IA A E LA E C I =@E J= ?HLA ED F =LED E >E A ED FJE @=>H=JE  FJE J= @= = F =LED FJE E = F=H= >H > @=>H= A IK = LE A @LE A ?HLA A FJA ? F IJ A >=H @LE A FJA IL= A > A =@=J= HE A EJE F K BK ?E = CA AH=JHEIA 2 K BK ?E = CA AH=JHEIA HE A E HA KH EL K HA =?E K an+1 = an + n2 K F AJ E KI L a0 = 1 A = A an >H F=HJE?E = >H = n K J= JHE I=>EH = = E >E K BK ?E K CA AH=JHEI= = (an )nN = E BK ?E K CA AH=JHEI= = E =@= HA KH EL an = a0 + a1 + + an1 a0 = 1 7 L = E K E = % L = E?= @ A@ A =H A # L = E?= @ @LE A =H A " L = E?A @ FAJ =H= = AIJ L = EL?= @ @AIAJ =H= = E JHE L = E?A @ @L=@AIAJ =H= = L = E?A EIJA LHE A @ IJE I =JH= EIJE A = A an >H = E = = A F =JEJE H= K @ n =H= = =FE E BK ?E K CA AH=JHEI= = J= E E an A =@= HA KH EL
n1

"

# $ % &

'

a0 = 1, an =
k=0

n ak = n > 0. k

   ! " #

= E A IF A ?E = K BK ?E K CA AH=JHEI= J C E = 2 K A IF A ?E = A BK ?E = CA AH=JHEIA HE A E HA KH EL K HA = ?E K an+1 = an + nan1 K F AJ E KI L a0 = a1 = 1 = E >E K BK ?E K CA AH=JHEI= = E an = 2an1 + 2an2 + n2n K KI LA a0 = 1 E a1 = 2 = E A IF A ?E = K BK ?E K CA AH=JHEI= = >H HE A E @K E A n E K JEI KF= {A , B , C 2 } K E = A >H I L= B F=H= E K E = A >=H @L= I L= A E A =@= HA KH EL B H K (n + 2)an+2 = an+1 + an K F AJ A KI LA a0 = a1 = 1 = E >E K BK ?E K CA AH=JHEI= = J= E  A = A an+1 = an 2nan1 = ILA n 0 K a0 = 1, a1 = 0 = E A IF A ?E = K BK ?E K CA AH=JHEI= = J= E 2 K A IF A ?E = A BK ?E A CA AH=JHEI= HE A E HA KH EL A HA =?E A = an+1 = 3nan + n! K F AJ E KI L a0 = 0 > bn+1 = nbn + 3n n! K F AJ E KI L b0 = 0 %

' # 4 A A = =@=J= = A = A sn >H E L= (x1 , x2 , . . . , xk ) K E = A 1 xi n = ILA i = 1, 2, . . . , n E xi+1 2xi = i = 1, 2, . . . , k 1 ,K E = E = E A @HA A = = A @ L A E FH= = E LHE A@E s0 = 1 ) A S (x) >E = BK ?E = CA AH=JHEIA = E sn @ = E @= A (1 x)S (x) = (1 + x)S (x2 ) % A = A n F=H= >H E A = A en >H FAH KJ=?E = K = IK ILE ?E KIE F=H E = on >H FAH KJ=?E = K Sn K E = IK ILE ?E KIE AF=H E HEIJA E A IF A ?E = A BK ?E A CA AH=JHEI= @ = E @= = ILA F=H A n LHE A@E en = on & A = A f (m, n) >H FKJAL= K H@E =J HA E @ (0, 0) @ (m, n) m n I= H=?E = (0, 1), (1, 0) E (1, 1) = E n 0 m0 f (m, n)x y n = E B H K K = n0 f (n, n)x ' A = A k A E FHEH @= >H = E =JL HA K B H K K = Sk (x) = n 2 K JA B H K A @ = E @= A nk S (n, k )x $

S (n, k )


n k 2 1 ( nk

@ 2).

A = IK A = {a1 , a2 , . . . , an } E B = {b1 , b2 , . . . , bn } @L= H= E EJ= I KF= FHEH @ ED >H AL= ) A I KF ILED n 2 IK = > E = ai + aj = 1 i < j n EIJE = I KF J= LED IK = A A A =J= E I KF= B @ = E @= A n IJAFA >H = 2

' # 4 A A = =@=J= =
 = F (x) +
c 1x

E (x) + cex
x2 2 (a2

> xF (x) xE (x) ? F (x) a0 a1 x (a2 1)x2 @ A B .K

F (x)+F (x) E (x)+E (x) 2 2 1 i F (x) m i=0 ai x Dm E (x) xm F (x)a0 a1 x )a0 3 F (xx x2

E (x) a0 a1 x

1)

F (x)

E (x) 3E (x) E (x)

?E = CA AH=JHEIA = E (an )nN0 A

A(x) =
F= A an =
An+1B AB

1 (1Ax)(1Bx)
n+1

1 AB

A 1Ax

B 1Bx

&

' # 4 A A = =@=J= = ! = A(x) = > B (x) =

nN0 1 2x (A(x) 2n n

xn =

1) =

1 14x 14x 14x 2x+8x2

? C (x) = A(x2 ) + " = 36 > 30 ? 15 # >E = BK A an = 1 + $ %

1 2 2x (A(x )

1) =

12x 14x2 2x+4x2

?E = CA AH=JHEIA AA(x) =
n(n1)(2n1) 6

1 1x

x +x + (1 = F JE x)4

E =

x3 (1x)(1x2 )(1x3 ) 1x 12x

8 12 25

x 1x 1x 1x 1x & 11 x 1x2 1x5 1x10 1x20 ' - IF A ?E = = BK ?E = CA AH=JHEIA E = (an )nN0 A A(x) =

70

80

1 2ex

A A(x) A IF A ?E = = BK ?E = CA AH=JHEIA = F I =JH= E E  ) LHE A@E A (x) = (1 + x)A (x) + A(x) =@= HE A E @EBAHA ?E = K A@ = E K @ >E A

e
 

x+ x 2

@= A A(x) = ex+
n (2j )! i0 2j 2j j !

x2 2

A ?E A J K

xn n!

K H= L K

K HA@ A an =

LE@E E FHE

AH &  

14x+12x2 8x3 (12x)2 (12x2x2 ) x2 +2x+2 4

(ex (1 + x)) (ex + ex )

@= = BK
x+ x 2
2

! 1 HA KH EL A HA =?E A = E (an )nN0 @ >E = AH=JHEI= A(x) LHE A@E " A(x) = e
xx2 A (x) A(x)

?E K CA

= 1 + x F= A A(x) = e

1 # an = bn = 2 (n 1)!(3n 1) $ E sn =@ L =L= I A@A K HA KH EL K HA =?E K sn = sn1 + s n 2 K F AJ E KI L s0 = 1 % = E I= O(x) E (x) E R(x) A IF A ?E = A BK ?E A CA AH=JHEI= = >H ALA on en E rn FHE A K A rn = n! = F=H= n = K = = AF=H A A IA F = =JE @= A R(x) = E (x)O(x) = A

R(x) =

1 E O(x) = 1 x2

mN0

((2m 1)!!)2 2m 1 x = (2m)! 1 x2

C =LE @ >E A

LE@ AJE =@=J A  E

K AJLHJ '

E (x) = O(x)

' # 4 A A = =@=J= = &

n0 m0

f (m, n)xm y n = f (n, n) =

k

1 1 x y xy =
k

n+k n k, k, k 2k k

n+k 2k

2k k

F= A

f (n, n)xn =
n k

n+k n x = 2k

2k xk 1 = = . k (1 x)2k+1 1 6x + x2 k ' 1 HA KH EL A HA =?E A = >H ALA S (n, k ) @ >E A x F k @ >E A 1kx Sk1 1 @K ?E Sk (x) =
n0

@= LHE A@E Sk (x) =

S (n, k )xn =

xk . (1 x)(1 2x) (1 kx)

1 FHAJD @ A B H K A A

S (n, k )xn =
n0

xk (1 x)
k 2

@ 2),

F= I E A@E @HKC JLH A A  2 I =JH= A(x) = xa1 + xa2 + + xan E B (x) = xb1 + xb2 + + b x n 1 KI L= =@=J = = @= A A2 (x) A(x2 ) = B 2 (x) B (x2 ) = IK A E B H= E EJE I KF LE LHE A@E

A(x) + B (x) =

A(x2 ) B (x2 ) A2 (x) B 2 (x) = . A(x) B (x) A(x) B (x)

1 A(1) = B (1) = n @ >E = @= A A(x) B (x) F E F x @ A EL I= x 1 A = A A(x) B (x) = (x 1)k f (x) C@ A A f (1) = 0 5=@= A

A(x) + B (x) =

(1 + x)k f (x2 ) (x2 1)k f (x2 ) = k f (x) (x 1) f (x) A(1) + B (1) = 2n = 2k .



 ,)*4) - 6- -

  - IF

A ?E = = E

F E?E

=B H K=

0AH>AHJ 8E B K " A IF A ?E = K B H K K = EL= C =L = JA HA = = FHA>H =L= A = = IA =E C A@ LA = F E L= E >E =J H E FH > A E CK HE A EJE FHE A JA B H K A E E A ED A ED L=HE = JE A A@= @ H= C= = J A J=  LK E A = LK B H K K FH=L@= - IF A ?E = = B H K = A K A K AH=JEL >E =J HE?E = = = E > C >H ED FHE A = =E A AIJ A F JHA> HE A EJE L= =L =@=J=

A = A fm >H = E = @= IA = I KFK @ m A A A =J= =@= A = IJHK JKH= 5 KF I= n A A A =J= JHA>= F @E A EJE = k @EI K J ED @E A L= F=HJE?E = I KF= K k > L= = =JE = IL= @ JED @E A L= JHA>= =@=JE F I =JH= K IJHK JKHK = E = E = AJ CK A KH=@EJE
5 A@A = @L= FHE I =JH= E AH= F = K K @= I FH > A A J C JEF= LA F

E E = F=HJE?E = I KF= [n] K k @E A L= 7 L I K = K IA = @E A LE = A =@= A E = L= IJHK JKH= F= A fm = 1 E E = FAH KJ=?E = K Sn I= J= k ?E KI= 5 KF [n] IA F @E A E = k @ A L= = = IL= @ ED IA @A E A ?E E = FAH KJ=?E = *H ?E E ED FAH KJ=?E = = I KFK @ m A A A =J= A fm = (m 1)!
1

0AH>AHJ 9E B '! 

  - IF

A ?E = = E

F E?E

=B H K=

2HE E AJE @= @C L HA = F IJ=L A = FEJ= = K L= @L= FHE AH= LA = 6 IK 5JEH E C LE >H ALE @HKCA LHIJA S (n, k ) @ I 5JE H E C LE >H ALE FHLA LHIJA >A = = c(n, k ) 7 F JA I K = K FH > A H=JHEI= = I A@A E = E IA A HE A EJE F K BK ?E = CA A

A = A hn,k @C L H = F IJ=L A FEJ= A @ I A = A hn,k >H = E = @= IA n = E I KF H= >E A = k @ A L= F= =JE @= IA = IL= @ JED @E A L= =@= JH= A = IJHK JKH= *H ALA hn,k =FE A F K BK ?E A CA AH=JHEI= I= @LE A FH A ELA

H(x, y ) =
n,kN0

hn,k

xn k y . n!

A = A fm >H = E = = IA = m = I KFK A =@=JE F I =JH= = IJHK JKH= L= A KF= JEJE @= A f0 = 0 E A = A F (x) = xn f A IF A ?E = = BK ?E = CA AH=JHEI= = E (fn )nN0 n nN0 n!

6- 4- )    - IF
H(x, y )

= FHE A FEI= A BK

?E A CA AH=JHEI= 6=@= A

A ?E = = B H K =

A = IK F (x) E

H(x, y ) = eyF (x) .

, = A = A k I= FHEH @= >H 7HA A = F=HJE?E = n = C I KF= X K k @E A L= A KHA A = k J H = AFH= ED @EI K J ED F @I KF L= (T1 , T2 , . . . , Tk ) E = A K E = ?E A E I KF X * LA FH E L Ak = A F=HJE?E A I KF= [n] A FAH KJ L=JE = k ! = E = 5=@= E A JA K EJE LA K E A K >H AL= hn,k E fm
hn,k =
=

1 k ! (T

f|T1 | f|T2 | f|Tk | .

KHA F=HJE?E = [n]

1 ,T2 ,...,Tk )

A f0 = 0 J LHE A@E

hn,k =

1 k!
n1 ++nk =n ni N0

n fn1 fn2 fnk . n 1 , n 2 , . . . , nk

= I= k N0 I= Hk (x) = E A IF A ?E = K BK ?E K CA A H=JHEI= = E (hn,k )nN0 = I LK FHAJD @ A HA =?E A E F I A@E?A ' " @ >E = @= A 

  - IF

A ?E = = E

F E?E

=B H K=

Hk (x) =
nN0

hn,k
@

xn F k (x) = . n! k!
I

5=@= A H(x, y ) =
kN0

Hk (x)y k

hn,k xn n! yk =
kN0

H(x, y ) =
kN0

nN0

F k (x)y k = eyF (x) . k!

= E EL @ = A IF A ?E = A B H K A K A IK ILE H=?E >E =J H JELEI= E =E JAHAI L= E EJ= =? A = E K JHA C =LE ECA " 8A E = FHE AH= =JH= JEL A FHE A A A IF A ?E = A B H KAK L F C =L K A F IK A = E " 7 H A =L= K =@=J= = IK LA A ?E = A B H K A = HEI A I A@A A F I A@E?A A IF

2 5

A = A fm >H = E = = IA = I KFK @ m A A A =J= A =@=JE A = IJHK JKH= E A = A F (x) A IF A ?E = = BK ?E = CA AH=JHEI= = E (fn )nN0
(E)

-,1+)  

A = A n I= FHEH @= >H E A = A hn,k >H = E = @= IA I KF [n] F @E A E = k @E A L= = =JE @= IA = IL= @ JED @E A L= n =@= F I =JH= = IJHK JKH= 6=@= A hn,k A@ = A ?E A JK K x n! K H= L K
F k (x) k!

K B H = E IJAFA E HA@

(EE) A = A hn >H ILED = E = @= IA I KF [n] F @E A E K A E > L= F= @= IA = IL= @ ED =@= JH= A = IJHK JKH= @ I hn = k hn,k - IF A ?E = = BK ?E = CA AH=JHEI= H (x) = E hn A H (x) = H(x, 1) =
nN0

hn

xn = eF (x) n!

(EEE)

A E A = = A E @E A @= IA = IL=
xn nT n!

A = AT

F @I KF I KF= FHEH @ ED >H AL= E A = A ET (x) = A hT,n >H = E = = IA I KF [n] A F @E A EJE L= J= @= A >H @E A L= A A A J I KF= T = @= @ JED @E A L= =@= JH= A = IJHK JKH= 6=@= A
hT,n
nN0

HT (x) =

xn = ET (F (x)). n!

!

  - IF

A ?E = = E

F E?E

=B H K= =J= FHE AH= I= F AJ = F C =L = => LE =

5=@= F I =JH=

@L= @ >H F

A = A hn,k >H F=HJE?E = I KF= [n] K J= k @E A L= F=HJE?E A  A H=@E E J= F= A fm = 1 = ILA m N E

2=HJE?E A I KF= K k >

L=

F (x) =
mN

1 m x = ex 1. m!

= I

LK A IF

A ?E = A B H K A A

H(x, y ) = ey(e

x 1)

.
@HKCA LHIJA 1 B

7 L FHE AHK A hn,k = S (n, k ) 5JEH E C L >H H K A (i) K F I A@E?E   @ >E =

hn,k = S (n, k ) =
2HE E AJE @= I

xn (ex 1)k K . n! k! KIFKJ @ = = E @= = A E I= k N LHE A@E

A ?E A J K

S (n, k )
n k

xn (ex 1)k = . n! k!

*H hn = kN hn,k A n JE *A L >H Bn = I LK B H K A (ii) E F I A@E?A   @ >E = = A@= = E A IF A ?E = K BK ?E K CA AH=JHEI= = *A LA >H ALA

H(x) =
nN0

Bn

xn x = ee 1 . n!

A = A hn,k >H FAH KJ=?E = E Sn I= J= k ?E KI= 2 IJ E J= fm = (m 1)! FAH KJ=?E = = I KFK @ m A A A =J= I= A@ E ?E K I F= A

2AH KJ=?E A I= k ?E KI=

F (x) =
mN

(m 1)! m x = m!

mN

xm = ln(1 x). m 1 . (1 x)y

LK (i) E

= I

LK A IF

A ?E = A B H K A A H(x, y ) = ey ln(1x) = @HKCA LHIJA >A @= A = = HA@K = I

*H hn,k A 5JH E C L >H F I A@E?A   = K KA

hn,k = c(n, k ) =

A ?E A J K

xn K IJAFA n!
"

1 k ln k!

1 1x

  - IF

A ?E = = E

F E?E

=B H K= >H A ?E

2HE

KI= K

AH   !

E E = FAH KJ=?E = K Sn I= F=H E E = IK ILE ?E KIE AF=H A @K E A

4AA A

HEIJE A = A E F I A@E?A   2HE E AJE @= A fm = 0 = F=H= m E fm = (m 1)! = AF=H= m - IF A ?E = = BK ?E = CA AH=JHEI= = E (fn )nN0 A

F (x) =
m AF=H=

xm 1 = ln(1 + x) ln(1 x) = ln m 2
H= >EJE F=H= HEIJE A

1+x . 1x

= >H ?E KI= 2HL H= K =

B H K K EEE E  

ET (x) =
nN0 ,n F=H=

xn ex + ex = . n! 2

5=@= A

HT (x) = ET F (x) =
6H= A E >H

1 1x2

=
nN0

1 2 x2n = n
xn n!

nN0

2n x2n . n 22n
J A

FAH KJ=?E = K Sn A

A ?E A J K

K HT (x)

n n! n n 2 2

= F=H= FHEH @= >H

n E K = = AF=H= n.

n 1 *H = F=H= n N A FHAF =JE = L AH L=J K @= n n 2 2 FHE >=?= K IE AJHE C L E = n EIJE >H FKJ= F=@ K E FEI E C =L= 5J C= F K FHAJD @ C FHE AH= A =FH=LEJE FHE E = E EL =@=J= A = A n FHEH @= >H 8 AH L=J = @= K >=?= K IE AJHE C L E = A@ = >H FKJ= F=@ K FEI E C =L= A A@ = = L AH L=J E @= IK = @=>H= = FAH KJ=?E = E Sn E = I= ?E KIA AF=H A @K E A E J F=H= >H ED

2HE

A = an E bn = =L= K >H FAH KJ=?E = K Sn E E IK ILE ?E KIE AF=H E @ I F=H E = E A IF A ?E = A BK ?E A CA A H=JHEI= = E LA (an )nN E (bn )nN E FEI=JE LA K E A K an E bn 

AH   "

#

  - IF

A ?E = = E F

F E?E K A IF

=B H K=

4 A A A - IF A ?E = A BK ?E A CA AH=JHEI= A(x) E B (x) = LA E

LA F JH= E A A ?E = A B H K A 2HE A
ef g } 7 @HA EL= K A(x) { {an } 0 JHA>=

FHE E AJEJE @= A fm = (m 1)! A IF A ?E = A B H K A

= AF=H= m = fm = 0 = F=H= @ >E = @= A

F (x) =

1 ln(1 + x) ln(1 x) 2

A(x) = eF (x) =

1+x . 1x

7 JH= A K B (x) >H E FAH KJ=?E A E E IK ILE ?E KIE F=H E 7 J I K = K A fm = (m 1)! = F=H= m = fm = 0 = AF=H= 5J C= A

1 F (x) = (ln(1 + x) + ln(1 x)) 2

= LHE A@E

1 B (x) = eF (x) = . 1 x2

A(x) = 1 + x @ >E = B (x)

5=@= = = K KA @= A

@= A A(x) = (1 + x) B (x).

an bn bn1 = + n! n! (n 1)!

an = bn + nbn1 .
@ >E E @= LHE A@E

= AF=H A >H ALA n A bn = 0 F= I

an =

bn , = F=H= n nbn1 , = AF=H= n

2H > A EI H A =L= E A IF A ?E = B H K IA A @ @=J JA =JE @ FH= JE C E JAHAI= A >EJE E IEJK=?E = =@= IA F HA@ IJHK JKHA = IL= > K E = I KFK > L= =@= A A =  L= IJHK JKH= A = A rn >H = E = @= IA I KF @ n A A A =J= F @E A E = A E > L= = IL= @ JED > L= IA =@= IJHK JKH= FHLA LHIJA  = > K LA E E A m = fm = E = = =JE IA = I KFK > L= =@= A = @HKC= IJHK JKH=  = I KFK @ k > L= IA J= IJHK JKH= =@= A = gk = E = 7 LA = A LHE A@E I A@A = JA HA =

$

  - IF

A ?E = = E

F E?E

=B H K=

6- 4- )   # 

F E?E = B H K = A = IK R(x) F (x) E G(x) A IF A ?E = A BK ?E A CA AH=JHEI= = E LA (rn )nN0 (fn )nN0 E (gn )nN0 6=@= A R(x) = G F (x)
, = 7 H= E A KLA@A A = A I= rn,k = E >H = E = = IA I KF [n] A F @ A EJE = k @ A L= = IL= @ JED > L= = @=JE IJHK JKHK FHLA LHIJA = =JE =@=JE IJHK JKHK @HKCA LHIJA = JED k> L=  = gk = E =
6=@= LHE A@E I E = E K JA HA E   

rn,k =

gk k!

f|T1 | f|T2 | f|Tk | .

(T1 ,T2 ,...,Tk ) KHA

F=HJE?E = [n]

,= A E EJEH= K E @ = A IF =JH=

A ?E = A B H K A

IEH=

kNEF I

Rk (x) =
nN

rn,k

xn F k (x) = gk . n! k!
@= A

5=@= IK EH= A

F k N0 @ >E =

R(x) =
kN0

Rk (x) =
kN0

gk

F k (x) = G F (x) . k!

= A FHE E AJEJE @= A A IF A ?E = = B H K = I=  IFA?E = = I K = FHAJD @ A JA HA A =EIJ= JA HA =    IA @ >E A E FHAJD @ A =@= A gk = 1 = ILA k N0 @ I =@= = > LE = A F I = JH= IJHK JKHK @HKCA LHIJA

2HE

F @E A EJE K A E @E A L= CHKF= K IL= @E A K =HJA KHA@EJE E A=H = =JE ILA CHKFA H= IF HA@EJE HKC C IJ = A = A rn >H = E = = IA L A KH=@EJE = E A IF A ?E = K BK ?E K CA AH=JHEI= = E (rn )nN0 E J= K LHE A@ IJ = rn

AH   $ \FE @ n =H=J= A E

4AA A
F (x) =

HEIJE A = A E FHAJD @ A JA HA A @= A fm = m! gk = (k 1)! F= A

A E H= K =JE

x , G(x) = 1ln(1x) E = H= K R(x) = 1ln 1x

1 2x 1x
I

@=L@A @ >E =

@= A R(x) = 1 + ln(1 x) ln(1 2x), @ %

  - IF

A ?E = = E

F E?E

=B H K=

R(x) = 1 +
nN

(2n 1)

xn =1+ n

(2n 1)(n 1)!

nN

xn . n!

5J C= A JH= A E >H

F @ A = =H=J= A@ = rn = (2n 1)(n 1)!

2HE E AJE @= IA ILA FAH KJ=?E A E Sn CK @ >EJE J= @= I KF [n] F @E A E => LA J A >EJE ?E KIE F= = IL= > K =@= ?E E K FAH KJ=?E K 5=@= = IL= @ ?E KI= IA A =@=JE A = IJHK JKH= = @= = I KFK ILED ?E KI= J= @ >E A A FAH KJ=?E A E Sn IA A =@=JE A = @HKC= IJHK JKH= FAJ FHAJF IJ=LE A =@=JE = fm = A =@=JE = gk = E = = I KF= [n] IA B H KA @= IA = ?E KIK @K E A m IJHK JKH= FHLA LHIJA E = = @= IA = k ?E KI= IJHK JKH= @HKCA LHIJA = 7 KF= >H J= LED IJHK JKH= = FAH KJ=?E A FEI=JE F K FAH KJ=?E A F E?E A

6- 4- )   %
fm >H gk >H

A = IK F (x) E G(x) A IF A ?E = A BK CA AH=JHEI= = E LA (fn )nN0 E (gn )nN0 FHE A K A

?E A

= E = @= IA = ?E KIK @K E A m =@= IJHK JKH= FHLA LHIJA, = E = @= IA = k ?E KI= =@= A = @HKC= IJHK JKH=

5= hn = E >H = E = @= IA @=>AHA FAH KJ=?E = I KF= [n] = IL= @ A ED ?E KI= @A E A IJHK JKHK FHLA LHIJA E = H= K = I KFK ?E KI= @A E A IJHK JKHK @HKCA LHIJA 6=@= A A IF A ?E = = BK ?E = CA AH=JHEI= = E (hn )nN0 FEI= = B H K
H (x) =
nN0

hn

xn =G n!

fm
mN

xm m

, =

FHE E AJEJE @= A

hn =
=C1 C2 Ck Sn

f|C1 | f|C2 | f|Ck | gk .

A =@=JE = (j 1)!

= IA = > = E = J A

K LA E E A j ?E E = FAH KJ=?E =

hn =
(T1 ,T2 ,...,Tk ) KHA

(|T1 | 1)!f|T1 | (|Tk | 1)!f|Tk | gk .

F=HJE?E = [n]

&



5EIJA

H= E EJED FHA@IJ=L E = E =JE I E L=@H=JE E H=IK EL= A = E K JA HA E   #

6LH A A JA HA A IA @ >E A I E

) IA = > LE = A KL @E E = L= IJHK JKH= J=@= A gk  = ILA k N0 E G(x) = ex  @ >E A FAH KJ=?E K A IF A ?E = K B H K K

H (x) =
nN0

hn

xn =e n!

xm mN fm m

 

A = A =@= FHEH @= >H d 5= an = E >H FAH KJ=?E = K Sn E E A d JE IJAFA E@A JEJAJ= = E A IF A ?E = K BK ?E K CA AH=JHEI= = E (an )n N

2HE

AH   &

4 A A A 4A K J=J @ >E =

@EHA J FHE A B H K A   = ?E KIE = FAH KJ=?E A A KL @E E = LK IJHK JKHK = E K > EH @ = A I= E ?E KIE E = A @K E = @ A EJA >H = d 5J C= A fm = 1 = m|d = fm = 0 E = A 7LHIJE E L K   @ >E A @= A JH= A = BK ?E = CA AH=JHEI=

H (x) = e

xm mN,m|d m



5EIJA

H= E EJED FHA@IJ=L E = E =JE I E L=@H=JE

E I KF LE A1 , A2 , . . . , An 5 A@A A FEJ= A IA

A = IK =@= E = AIJ F =LE K FH= IE

,= E A CK A E IL= C @ JED I KF L= @=>H=JE F J= @= ILE @=>H= E A A A JE >K@K H= E EJE

,HKCE HE A E = @= LHE A@E E JH= E

A@= A A A J

KHA A K n J H K (x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ) J=

xi Ai = ILA i = 1, 2, . . . , n A A A J xi A FHA@IJ=L E I KF= Ai  = i = j LHE A@E xi = xj ILED n A A A =J= xi IK H= E EJE 

) L= J= L= n J H = (x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ) A1 A2 An F IJ E = E A IEIJA H= E EJED FHA@IJ=L E = = I KF LA A1 , A2 , . . . , An C EL J= K E = A L=

-L A E FHE AH= E IL= @ AL FH = E IEIJA H= E EJED FHA@IJ=L E =

'



5EIJA

H= E EJED FHA@IJ=L E = E =JE I E L=@H=JE

= EI E @= n H=@ E = JH= E F I= = >EH K = =F =L= A A = A Ai I KF F K A ED I > @ ED F I L= A A @= >=LE i JE H=@ E 5LED n H=@ E = A CK A =F I EJE = E I= = I KF LE A1 , A2 , . . . , An E = K IEIJA H= E EJED FHA@IJ=L E = A = K A AIJK ELE n @ AL = = E A = IL= = @ ED E = A E F = E = I KF F = E = i JA @ AL A = E I= Ai 5L= = @ AL = A E @= = A K = AC F = A = E I= = I KF LE A1 , A2 , . . . , An E = K IEIJA H= E EJED FHA@IJ=L E =

= A FHE E AJEJE I A@A A ) A (x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ) IEIJA H= E EJED FHA@IJ=L E = = I KF LA A1 , A2 , . . . , An J=@= = >E ED k I KF L= Ai1 , Ai2 , . . . , Aik LHE A@E

241

-,*) 

{xi1 , xi2 , . . . , xik } Ai1 Ai2 . . .Aik J

>E

AIJA |Ai1 Ai2 . . .Aik |

k.

,= A = n I KF L= E = IEIJA H= E EJED FHA@IJ=L E = J=@= K E = ED k JED I KF L= E = >=H k A A A =J=

1 JAHAI= J A @= A KI L E FHAJD @ A FHE A@>A E @ L = @= A = B= E E = I KF L= E = IEIJA H= E EJED FHA@IJ=L E = 6 A @ = = K I A@A JA HA E

6- 4- ) 

0  A = IK A1 , A2 , . . . , An A E = E I KF LE 6E I KF LE E = K IEIJA H= E EJED FHA@IJ=L E = = E I= = K E = >E ED k F I =JH= ED I KF L= I=@H E >=H k A A A =J= @ I

= ILA {i1 , i2 , . . . , ik } [n] A |Ai1 Ai2 Aik |
k.
 

, 2 H= F

= A FD @ IJ KI L=   F = = = K FHE A@>E   = E @= A FHAJF IJ=L = E JA HA A E @ L = -C EIJA ?E K IEIJA = E EJED FHA@IJ=L E = K FHAJF IJ=L K   @ = K A E @K ?E >H K I KF L= n EC A@ A @= A@= AFH= = I KF E = IEIJA H= E EJED FHA @IJ=L E = 2HAJF IJ=LE @= ILA B= E E A I= = A @ n I KF L= = A A EIFK A KI L   E = K IEIJA H= E EJED FHA@IJ=L E = 2 = E @= J=@= E IL= = B= E E = I KF L= A1 , A2 , . . . , An = K LHE A@E   E = IEIJA H= E EJED FHA@IJ=L E = 2HE A J C= KLA@E LK = K = FH E L = I = {i1 , i2 , . . . , ik } [n] A = A AI = Ai1 Ai2 Ak
2HE E AJE
2

@= A A =

2DE EF 0= '" '& 



5EIJA

H= E EJED FHA@IJ=L E = E =JE I E L=@H=JE A =FEI=JE I=

5=@= IA KI L  

= ILA I [n] LHE A@E |AI | = I KF J [n] = A @= A A1 , A2 , . . . , An = A |AJ | = |J | ,= A H= E K A @L= I K = =

|I |

 ! = B= E E K I KF L=

HEJE =

A@E E HEJE = I KF E @A I= A E @= E ?E A E I KF [n] = A@ = E F @I KF LE @ [n] EIK HEJE E J = ILA i [n] LHE A@E |Ai | = |A{i} | > 1 @=>AHE FH E L = xn An E = ILA i = 1, 2, . . . , n 1 @A E E Bi = Ai \{xn } 5=@= F I =JH= B= E E K I KF L= B1 , B2 , . . . , Bn1 = ILA i [n] I KF LE Ai E Bi IA H= E K K = LE A = xn J AIJ = A@= A A A J = = AFH= = I [n 1] I KF E @A I= I E A HEJE = J LHE A@E |BI | |AI | 1 |I |.
.= E E = I KF L= B1 , B2 , . . . , Bn1 EIFK =L= KI L  ! 5J C= = I LK E @K JEL A FHAJF IJ=L A = I KF LA B1 , B2 , . . . , Bn1 F IJ E IEIJA H= E EJED FHA@IJ=L E = (x1 , x2 , . . . , xn1 ) 7 J IEIJA K IA A F =L K A xn = A xn An J A (x1 , x2 , . . . , xn1 , xn ) IEIJA H= E EJED FHA@IJ=L E = = I KF LA A1 , A2 , . . . , An

2 2 IJ E HEJE = I KF E @A A = A J [n] = = E I =JH= K B= E E K I KF L= = E = I KF L= {Aj }j J E = IEIJA

= ILA i [n] \ J @A EE

I= H= E EJ @ E [n] AFH= = HEJE = I KF E @A I= = F I LK E @K JEL A FHAJF IJ=L A B= E H= E EJED FHA@IJ=L E = (xj )j J

Bi := Ai \ AJ
= K [n] \ J LHE A@E

|BK | = |AK J | |AJ |

|K J | |J | = |K |.

2HAJD @ = A A@ = IJ IA @ >E A = K E @= A |AK J | |K J | KI L  ! LHE A@E = A1 , A2 , . . . , An  E |AJ | = |J |  AH A I KF E @A I= J HEJE =  2 E @K JEL FHAJF IJ=L?E = @= B= E E = I KF L= {Bj }j [n]\J E = IEIJA H= E EJED FHAJIJ=L E = =@= E IA @ @= IEIJA H= E EJED FHA@IJ=L E = (xj )j J = B= E E K {Aj }j J @ >E A IA IEIJA H= E EJED FHA@IJ=L E = = I KF LA A1 , A2 , . . . , An



5EIJA

H= E EJED FHA@IJ=L E = E =JE I E L=@H=JE

2HE

AH  ! A = IK A1 , A2 , . . . , An F @I KF LE I KF= [n] J= LE @= F IJ E FHEH @= >H r = E LHE A@E

(i) |Ai | = r (ii) IL= E A A A J i [n] A E K J= r F I =JH= ED I KF L=
H= E EJED FHA@IJ=L E = I KF LA

, = E @= I KF LE A1 , A2 , . . . , An E = K IEIJA

4AA A

= FH E L

= I [n] F I =JH=

X = {(x, i) : x [n], x Ai = A E i I } E AI = iI Ai .
= IL= E i I I KF Ai E = J= r A A A =J= F= A |X | = |I | r 5= @HKCA IJH= A FH E L = A A A J x AI IA = = E K = LE A r I KF L= E E IK E @A IE K I  A H= K ILE j = A x Aj >EJE K I  =J A |I | r = |X | |AI | r F= @ >E = @= A |I | |AI | = I LK JA HA A  = K KA @= F IJ E IEIJA H= E EJED FHA@IJ=L E = = I KF LA A1 , A2 , . . . , An ) = @= A = B= E E = I KF L= E = IEIJA H= E EJED FHA @IJ=L E = = E EL FEJ= A A E @HA@EJE >H ILED IEIJA = H= E EJED FHA@IJ=L E = K J B= E E E 2HE J A @L= H= E EJ= IEIJA = H= E EJED FHA@IJ=L E = CK E =JE EIJA A A A JA (1, 2, 3) E (3, 1, 2) IK H= E EJE IEIJA E = {1, 3}, {1, 2} E {2, 3}.

2HE

I KF LE

AH 

"

A = A n FH E L

= FHEH @= >H

E A = IK =@= E

Ai = [n] \ {i} = ILA i = 1, 2, . . . , n.

IEIJA = H= E EJED FHA@IJ=L E = K B= E E E A1 , A2 , . . . , An

@HA@E >H

4 A A A 2HE E AJE @= A (x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ) IEIJA H= E EJED FHA@IJ= L E = = =@= A I KF LA = E I= = A xi = i E {x1 , x2 , . . . , xn } = [n] ,HKCE HE A E = F IJ E >E A ?E = E A K IEIJA = H= E EJED FHA @IJ=L E = LA B= E E A I KF L= E I KF= FAH KJ=?E = x1 x2 . . . xn Sn A A = K I K J= K
= I LK FHE AH= % ! = K K A @= A >H IEIJA = H= E EJED i1 FHA@IJ=L E = = LK B= E E A I KF L= A@ = n! n i=0 (1) i! .

2 5

A = IK =@= E I KF LE A1 , A2 , . . . , An = A A KI L (10.3) EIFK A ( = JE I KF LE E = K IEIJA H= E E JED FHA@IJ=L E =) ) IL= E @ I KF L= Ai E = >=H r A A A =J= J=@= A >H IEIJA = H= E EJED FHA@IJ=L E = = A1 , A2 , . . . , An = = A

-,1+) 



5EIJA

H= E EJED FHA@IJ=L E = E =JE I E L=@H=JE

r!, = Ar r(r 1) (r n + 1), E = A

 "

, = 6LH A A @ = K A E @K ?E F A@E AH EC A@ F IJ E r H= E EJED IEIJA = =J= 2HAJF IJ=LE @= JLH A A LHE A@E = >H E E > HA IEIJA = H= E EJED FHA@IJ=L E 0 LA JA HA A 

n = n = 1 JLH A A LHE = I KF A1 I= >=H r A A A = A @ n I KF L= E FHA = K >= I K = = E @ = =

7 FHL I K = K K FHAJF IJ=L K |Ai | r A A A J xn An A @=>H=JE = >=H r = E = 5 KF LE Bi = Ai \ {xn } E = K >=H r 1 A A A J E =@= = ED FHE E A E FHAJF IJ=L K E @K ?E A @ >E = @= LHE A@E B H K =  " 2 JA H= LHE 7 @HKC I K = K = HEJE = I KF J H= @= LHE A@E r |J | n E @K JEL FHAJF IJ=L?E B= E E = I KF L= {Aj }j J E = >=H r! IEI = H= E EJED FHA@IJ=L E = 5L= E @ ED IA A @ FK EJE @ IEIJA = E EJED FHA@IJ=L E = ?E A A B= E E A A1 , A2 , . . . , An F= B H K =  " A@E

5=@= A @=JE @C L H = FEJ= A >H K IEIJA = H= E EJED FHA@IJ= L E = = I KF LA A1 , A2 , . . . , An =@= A |A1 A2 An | = n

,-.1 1+1 )  $ A = A A = ai,j 2AH = A J= =JHE?A A A

perA =
Sn

1 i,j n

A = nn

=JHE?=

a11 a22 ann .

A IA HA E @= A FAH = A J= =JHE?A A@ = = @AJAH E = JE @ A I

=> H=LE E = = LA 7 H= K = K @AJAH E = JA I=>EH= E @C L=H= FAH KJ=?E E IA E I= 1 K =LEI IJE @ J C= @= E A F=H = E E AF=H = FAH KJ=?E = ,= A @A E?E = FAH = A JA A = = A@ IJ=L E = @ A = @AJAH E = JK A KJE ?E A = JA A@ IJ=L IJE K @A E?E E IK F JA A FHE H= K = K FAH = A JE = FHE AH = IA A = LHIJ=  = =JHE?A A @ @= A @HKC LHIJE  E LHE A@ IJ FAH = A JA IA A FH E A EJE =J IA perA A A H= K =JE IL A A A = JH KC= K = JHE?K 1 @A E?E A FAH = A JA E A JA = K EJE @= IA perA A H= K =JE H= LE = A F i J LHIJE E E j J E =JHE?A A !



5EIJA

H= E EJED FHA@IJ=L E = E =JE I E L=@H=JE =JHE?= @ >E A = @ A >HEI= A

n n

A = A Aij 6=@= A

i JA LHIJA E j JA

perA =
k=1

aik perAik =
k=1

akj perAkj .

6- 4- ) 
I KF= [n]

% A = IK A1 , A2 , . . . , An FH E L E F @I KF LE A = A A = (aij ) =JHE?= n n @A EI= = I=

aij = 1, = 0, = j Ai j / Ai

*H IEIJA = H= E EJED FHA@IJ=L E = K A1 , A2 , . . . , An A A@ = FAH = A JE =JHE?A A = aij 1 i,j n , = 7HA A = n J H = (x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ) A IEIJA = A1 , A2 , . . . , An = E I= = A
H= E EJED FHA@IJ=L E =

(a) xi = xj = i = j J AIJ ILE xi IK H= E EJE = ILE xi FHEF=@= K I KFK [n] J A x1 x2 . . . xn FAH KJ=?E = E Sn K =JHE?E A A aixi = 1 (b) = ILA i [n] A xi Ai @ I
) A (x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ) IEIJA H= E EJED FHA@IJ=L E = = A1 , A2 , . . . , An E (a) E (b) I E A@E @= A I=>EH= a1x1 a2x2 anxn K H= L K perA A@ = A@= 6= A = A = A Sn I=>EH= a11 a22 ann K H= L K perA A@ = A@= = A = K EJE @= A J=@= (x1 , x2 . . . xn ) IEIJA H= E EJED FHA@IJ=L E = = I KF LA A1 , A2 , . . . , An

I KF= [n] = K IL= F =LE J= A@ FAH KJ=?E A E Sn

=JE I E L=@H=J HA@= n A n n

=JHE?= E E IK = LE A A A JE LHIJE E IL= E IA IL= E @ >H AL= 1, 2, . . . , n ! ,HKCE HE A E = LHIJA E A JA =JHE?A IK

) A n n J=>A =
@ A E E F FK A = A A A JE = E [n]  E A 2 F =J ILED n A ED = L= E = IA IL= E >H = = E K = LE A A@ LHIJE E A@ E = EL= A F=H?E = E =JE I E L=@H=J 5FA?E = =JE I E FH=L KC= E k n A F=H?E = E =JE I E L=@H=J K A A F FK A J= k FHLED LHIJ=
3

7 @A A

E?E E =JE I C L=@H=J= K H=IF HA EL=JE A A A JA >E

AIJ >H AL= E I KF= [n] K n n AC n = C I KF=

=JHE?K

"

 >A

5EIJA A@=

H= E EJED FHA@IJ=L E = E =JE I E L=@H=JE

@ = E ELED FH > A = LA = ED = =JE I A L=@H=JA A FH F AJEH= = =JE I C L=@H=J=

,= E IA A E F=H?E = E =JE I E L=@H=J n n F AJ C =JE I C L=@H=J=

A @ FK EJE @

2 I =JH= A E FHE AH= ) A EIFK A = I= FHL= LHIJ= n n =JHE?A = FHE AH I= >H ALE = 123 . . . n = A F FK EJE ?E A K =JHE?K ?E E E F AH= A K i J LHIJE IK KFEI= E >H ALE i (i + 1) . . . (n 1) n 1 . . . (i 1).

1 2 i n

2 3

3 4

i i + 1 n 1 i + 1 i + 2 n

n 1

i + 1 i + 2 2i 1 2i 1 2 i1 i

i 2 i 1 n 2 n 1
= FHEH @= >H

LE I J= A @ = = E @= = FH E L =JE I E L=@H=J n n

n F IJ E

,= A = " A FHE E AJEJE @= IA IL= E (n 1) n =JE I E FH=L KC= E A = A@E IJLA = E @ FK EJE @ =JE I C L=@H=J= 6=@= IA = i AIJK K F I A@ LHIJE IA = = E A@E E >H E [n] E A@ IJ= A KiJ E A KJE F=H?E = E =JE I E L=@H=J  !

n1 n

IA

EC A@

A @ FK EJE @

=JE I

C L=@H=J=

& A = IK k E n FHEH @ E >H ALE J= LE @= A 1 k < n 5L= E =JE I E FH=L KC= E k n IA A FH EHEJE @ =JE I C FH=L KC= E = (k + 1) n
4

6- 4- ) 

5L= E >H

i [n] IA = = E K J=

n 1 LHIJ=



5EIJA

H= E EJED FHA@IJ=L E = E =JE I E L=@H=JE

, = 5= Ai = E A A A JA E I KF= [n] E IA A F =L K K K iJ E =JE I C FH=L KC= E = k n =JE I E FH=L KC= E IA A FH EHEJE I= L LHIJ = E I= = I KF LE A1 , A2 , . . . , An E = K IEIJA H= E EJED FHA@IJ=L E = 2HE E AJE @= = ILA i [n] LHE A@E |Ai | = n k E @= IA IL= E x [n] F =LE K J= n k I KF L= A1 , A2 , . . . , An 5=@= = I LK FHE AH=  ! A = K EJE @= I KF LE A1 , A2 , . . . , An E = K IEIJA H= E EJED FHA@IJ=L E = 6= A F I =JH= E =JE I E FH=L KC= E CK A @ FK EJE I= L
) F I =JH= =JE I E FH=L KC= E k n E EI JA HA K n k FKJ= @ >E A I A@A E HA K J=J HEIJE FHAJD @ K

2 5

@ FK EJE @

-,1+) 

=JE I C L=@H=J=

' 2H E L =

=JE I E FH=L KC=

IA

A
=

,= A IL= E F=H?E = E =JE I E L=@H=J I= = A @ n KFEI= ED F CK A @ FK EJE @ =JE I C L=@H=J= F = = A K ! A@ IJ=L FHE A =JE I ED L=@H=J= HA@= n F I A@E?A  # CK A A FH ? A EJE >H

6- 4- ) 

 *H

=JE I ED L=@H=J= HA@= n A =

= A

n! (n 1)! (n 2)! 3! 2! 1!.

, = 2HLK LHIJK A  " @HKCK LHIJK >EH= = E = EJ@ . . .

@=>H=JE = n! = E = = >=H (n 1)! = E

= I LK B H K A JHA K = (n 2)!

A = A Ln >H =JE I ED L=@H=J= HA@= n SE E IA @= A = = A A J= A LHE A@ IJE = Ln @ IJ= JA = =@=J= 6= = LHE A@ IJE = Ln IK F =JA = n 9 ,= =I IK F =JA I A@A A ? A A LE@ AJE % C =LK K   = Ln n n (n!)2n L (k !) k n 2 n n k=1

 ! - K AH=?E = FHE @A IJLK CHKFA

 ! - K AH=?E = FHE @A IJLK CHKFA

2HAJF IJ=LE @= I KF A AE @HA@EJE >H A A A =J= E = A K K KJH= K IE AJHE K 6=@= E = I EI = @L= A A A J= J C I KF= = L=JE EIJE E E A LEL= A J E = IA A@= A JH= IB H EI=JE K @HKCE F K JED IE AJHE = 2HEH @ A F IJ=LEJE FEJ= A

E = AA LEL= A J ED H= E EJED > A =J= K J

I K FH = = A K AJ @= =HI E =JA =JE =H AH 2 E@A A E = E 4A@ @$ @= =I K LED =@=J= = = EL= E 2 A @= K @C =# = A IA I KF JAD = 4A@ @ JA A AE AH

I KFK
L H = L A E C E = A IA HE =

= LA E @ FHE FEJ= A A @= = @E = H= E A I E A HEIJA K H A =L=

,= >EI > A IDL=JE E FHEH @K FH > A = F E I= A@ E I=ILE A@ IJ=L E FHE

@= H A =L=

2HE

AH  !  5L= J A A = FH=LE C AIJ KC = IA > A I= @LE A > A ,L= > A = I =JH= EIJE = IA A@ A @ >EJE @ @HKC C H J=?E AIJ KC = ?A JH= FEI= A HK E?A E E = H= E EJED > A = \J= A IA @AIEJE = E > A = = IA A@ @ @HKC C CK @ >EJE I E IE AJHE = = AIJ KC = I =JH= EIJE 4 A A A 2HAJF IJ=LE
?H E >E A > 7 L I K = K @C L H @= J A A = FH=LE A C AIJ KC = > E I=

@ >EJE EIFEIK K E IL= H A A =

5 E =   5L= H= E EJ= > A = J A A = FH=LE

5 6

C AIJ KC = I= @LE A > A

/A HCA 2 O= &&% '&# D 0 M=H@ 4A@ A @ &%' '""

 ! - K AH=?E = FHE @A IJLK CHKFA = A FH L AHEJE @= IA @L= > A = = I E?E L=JE H J=?E = = ,= A >E A> A AJA A @LE A > A IA H J=?E A E@A JE L=JE I=   5J C= F IJ E " H= E EJED > A = J A A @LE A > A   A CK E@A JE = FH=LE C AIJ KC = I= A E > A A = I E?E = FH=LE C AIJ KC = I=

) A LEL= A J E > A E = I =JH= E = = IA CK @ >EJE I E IE AJHE = = FH=LE C AIJ KC = J=@= IK E @L= > A = = I E?E  EIJ=

5 E = 
IE AJHE A

,L= > A =

= IK H= E EJ= FHE H J=?E = = = EIJ= =

IA @ L A E I A

7J I K = K F IJ E J= AIJ KC =

! H= E EJED > A = J A A = FH=LE = K EJE @= >H E F I =JH=

1 L C A@ IJ=L C FHE AH= A A = =LEIE E @ >H = IE AJHE = I KF=

H= E EJED >

7 FHAJD @ FHE AHK EI >H = E IL= CK = > A = J A A = AIJ KC = 7 AIJ J C= = I KFK ILED > A = I @A EI= E HA =?E K A LEL= A ?E A E @= E >H = E =IA A LEL= A ?E A 2HE J HA =?E = A LEL= A ?E A A @A EI= = A K KJH= IE AJHE  > A J= E IA F I =JH= 1IJ= E@A = IA HEIJE E K H A = L= K F E L= E ED =@=J= = L C JEF= 5= =KJ H LA JA HE A AH 2 = A AA LEL= A J ED CKH=?E = I > EH A IA HA E @= A L= JA HE = FHE AH = CA>HA A A =I HEIJEJE K H A =L= LK AJ @K = EL= *H = A = =@=JK CHKFK FAH KJ=?E =  = IA =JA =JE E =F=H=J E K FH > A = E >E =J HE A

2 A A I= @A E?E = = A ED I L ED F L= A = A X A E I KF E A = A SX CHKF= ILED FAH KJ=?E = I KF= X

SX = { : X X | A >E A ?E = } .

&

 ! - K AH=?E = FHE @A IJLK CHKFA 4A E A @= A = CHKF= (G, ) @A IJLK A = I KFK X = A IL= A A A JK CHKFA g G @ @E A A = A = FAH KJ=?E = g SX g A >E A ?E = = X  J= @= = ILA g, h G E ILA x X LHE A@E

gh (x) = g h (x).
,HKCE HE A E = @A IJL CHKFA G = I KFK X A D H = CHKFA G K SX 5J C= AKJH= = A A A J CHKFA G @C L=H= E@A JE FHAI E =L= K = X -L  A E FHE AH= @A IJL= CHKFA I=

A = A G = (R, +) E A = G @A IJLK A = I KFK X = R2 = I A@A E = E G, (x, y ) X, ((x, y )) = (x + , y ). /A AJHE I E HA= = >H @A IJLK A = H@E =J K H=L= X J= J IL= K J= K (x, y ) JH= I EH= @AI = 1IJ= CHKF= G = (R, +) = I KFK X = R2 A @A IJL L=JE E I=ILE @HKC= E A HA= = >H @A IJLK A = X J= J IL= K J= = (x, y ) =H JEH= K I AHK = = A = I=JK = H=@E = =

= I KFK J A A = FH=LE C n J KC = X = {x1 , x2 , . . . , xn } @A IJLK K FHEH @ @LE A CHKFA /HKF= ILED E AJHE = FH=LE C n J KC = IA = EL= @EA@=HI = CHKF= Dn 6= CHKF= A HA@= 2n I= n I ED IE AJHE = E n H J=?E = /HKF= H J=?E = 6 A F @CHKF= Dn K E A I= H J=?E A 1 HB = A I= ?E E CHKF % Zn " ,A IJL >E A CHKFA A F JFK @HA A = = A F =J @A IJL CA AH=J H= = FHE AH @A IJL CHKFA G = Z3 = {0, 1, 2} = I KFK X = {a, b, c, d, e, f } A F JFK @HA A = FE A = @A IJLK A CA AH=J H 1 ) A A K @ @ A A = FAH KJ=?E = 1

1 =
J=@= A E @A

abcdef bcaef d

E?E A @A IJL= CHKFA @HA A = E FAH KJ=?E = 2

2 = 1+1 = 1 1 =
7

abcdef cabf de

.
A

+E E K CHKFK Zn A E@A JE L=JE I= I KF {0, 1, 2, . . . , n 1} = A =@= = FAH=?E = +n FHE A K A x +n y IJ=J= FHE @ A A K x + y I= n

'

 ! - K AH=?E = FHE @A IJLK CHKFA # ,A IJL CHKFA G = Z2 Z2 = X = {a, b, c, d} A =@= I=

(1,0) =

abcd bacd

; (0,1) =

abcd abdc

$ 1IJ= CHKF= G = Z2 = EIJ

I KFK X

A @A IJL L=JE E L=

(1,0) =

abcd bacd

; (0,1) =

abcd cdab

= FHEH @= A A A =J= I KF= X A KJE A = H A A A >E =J H C FH > A = = = I KF X E@A JE L A I= [n] = CHKFK FAH KJ=?E = SX I= IE AJHE CHKF Sn 7 >E =J HE?E =I A = E = I= = CHKF= G LA =I E JAHAIK A J= @A IJL CHKFA G K E E I= = E I KF X =J IA =FIJH= J = CHKF= G A E@A JE L=JE I= I E G FHE D H K E @A E A @A IJL G = X 5J C= K @= A JA IJK I =JH= @= A G F @CHKF= IE AJHE A CHKFA Sn

x X @A

,-.1 1+1 )  !

E K IA @L= L=

A = CHKF= G @A IJLK A = I KFK X =F =

= IL= E

H>EJ= A A A J= x Gx = { (x)| G} X. IJ=>E E =J H A A A J= x Gx = { G| (x) = x} < G.

H>EJ= x X A F @I KF I KF= X E E A ILE A A A JE K A IA x A FHAI E =JE FAH KJ=?E = = E G 5J=>E E =J H A A A J= x A F @CHKF= G K E A FAH KJ=?E A E = A x I = J= = 6= A = ILA G IA @A E A I KF I ED J= = = I=

F ix( ) = {x X : (x) = x} X.
) G @A IJLK A = I KFK X E = IK x, y X = A F = =JE @= IK H>EJA Gx E Gy A@ = A E E IK @EI K J A 5J C= @A IJL CHKFA G = X @A E A HA =?E K A LEL= A ?E A

x y F IJ E G J=

@= A (x) = y.

2HE E AJE @= IK =IA A LEL= A ?E A >= H>EJA FHE @A IJLK G = X 5 KF ILED H>EJ= = X FHE @A IJLK CHKFA G = E I= X/G

2HE
FHE

AH  ! ! @HA@E H>EJA E IJ=>E E =J HA K AHE = @A IJL= CHKF=

!

= FHE A F I =JH= E

 ! - K AH=?E = FHE @A IJLK CHKFA

4AA A
 H>EJK A A A J= (x0 , y0 ) E A ILA J= A I= D HE J= A FH=LA y = y0 5LA H>EJA FHE L @A IJLK IK D HE J= A FH=LA 5J=>E E =J H A JHELE = = F @CHKF= ) A (x0 , y0 ) = (0, 0) H>EJ= A HK E?= I= ?A JH K H@E =J F AJ K 5J=>E E =J H J C A A A J= A {2k : k Z} 6= = (0, 0) A I = J= = = ILA A A A JA E CHKFA G E A IJ=>E E =J H A ?E A = CHKF=

! 7 >= I K = = A ?E A E I KF X A@ = H>EJ= =@= IA J @AIE = A @= A @A IJL G = I KFK X JH= EJEL 2HE @A IJLK CHKFA H J=?E = IJ=>E E =J H IL= C A A A J= A JHELE = = F @CHKF= ) IA F I =JH= @A IJL @EA@=HI A CHKFA Dn = I KFK J A A = IJ= >E E =J H IL= C J A A = xi A @L = 2 HA@ E@A JEJAJA JK A E I = IE AJHE = E = I= FH = E H J= K xi " L@ A IK H>EJA {a, b, c} E {d, e, f } 5J=>E E =J H IL= C A A A J= A JHELE = =

I K = K IK H>EJA {a, b} E {c, d} 5J=>E E =J H A A A J= a A # 7 L Ga = {Id, (0,1) } $ 2 IJ E I= A@ = H>EJ= @ I @A IJL CHKFA G A JH= 5J=>E E =J H IL= C A A A J= E X A JHELE = = EJEL

FH E L

- )  ! "

A = = = x X LHE A@E

= CHKF= G @A IJLK A = I KFK X 6=@= =

|Gx| |Gx | = |G|.

, = = =@= E x X F I =JH= K JEI KF M = { (x) : G} I= J= |G| A A A =J= 6LH A A A A IA @ >E A =@= K E @= A A A JE H>EJA Gx E A I L E I KF = A A K JEI KF M @A EI= E @= A IL= E y M K JEF E?EJAJ= |Gx | =EIJ= = A y = (x) M J=@= A y Gx = IL= E E IJ=>E E = J H= Gx E ( )(x) M 5 KF { | Gx } G E = |Gx | H= E EJED A A A =J= ,= A = = A E G LHE A@E (x) = y J=@= A 1 Gx 5J C= A IL= E A A A J y M K JEF E?EJAJ= |Gx |

!

 ! - K AH=?E = FHE @A IJLK CHKFA 5=@= A FEI=JE I L IHA@IJL = @HA EL= A >H = H>EJ= FHE @A IJLK CHKFA G = I KF X 5 A@A A JLH A A A F =J F @ E A *AH I= @ L=& A = =@= IA K C E L H= A FH = E HA ?E K  E E !#  @= A J HA K J=J .H >A EKI=' 6= HA K J=J K I K = K JH= EJEL C @A IJL= CHKFA A >E F =J E EK

@A IJLK A

- )  ! # *AH I= @
=

= CHKF= G *H
|X/G| =

A = AX = = I KF E A = = H>EJ= FHE J @A IJLK A

1 |G| |F ix( )|.
G

A K

, = 2 I =JH= I KF F {(x, ) : x X, G, (x) = x} 2 FHE ?EF= @L IJHK C FHA>H =L= = @ >E =

|F| =
G

|F ix( )| =
xX

|Gx |.
@= LHE A@E

EI

HEIJE

HA K J=J E

A A  ! " @ >E A @ I

|F ix( )| =
G xX

|G| |Gx|

1 |G|

|F ix( )| =
G xX

1 . |Gx|

1 A O A = H>EJ= E X/G @K E A k H= = k IA F =LE K IK E 1 A@ = IL= E A A A J x O @= A k FKJ= K KF xX |Gx| F 5J C= IL= = H>EJ= E X/G K J IK E @ FHE AIA 1 F= A

1 |G|

|F ix( )| =
G xX

1 = |Gx|

1 = |X/G|.
OX/G

5=@= A HE A EJE FH > A A K AH=?E A H= E EJED > A = A C I KF= FHE @A IJLK = A CHKFA A = A X = = I KF I= n A A A =J= E A = A G F @CHKF= SX ) A B = {b1 , b2 , . . . , bm } I KF > = AE = = H=IF =C= K K E @= CHKF= G @A IJLK A E = I KFK

Y = {f |f : X B }
E E A IL= > A = A A A =J= I KF= X I= > = = E B ,A IJL CHKFA G = I KFK Y A FHEH @ @A EI= I=
8 9

9E E= *KH IE@A &# ' % .AH@E = @ /A HC .H >A EKI &"' '%

 ! - K AH=?E = FHE @A IJLK CHKFA

(f ) (x) = f (x) .

 #

,L= > A = f1 , f2 A A A =J= E X I =JH= EIJE FHE @A IJLK CHKFA G = F IJ E G J= =L @= A (f1 ) = f2 ,HKCE HE A E = > A = f1 E f2 IK EIJ= > EH = @A IJL CHKFA G = E I= = IK K EIJ H>EJE Y FHE @A IJLK G ,= A >H H= E EJED > A = A A A =J= E X I= > = = E B A A@ = >H K A A A =J= K Y /G 6= >H A @HA@EJE F K *AH I= @ LA A A 5 A@A A F= = A A >EJE HEI KJ H= K = K

> E I= m > = E B 2HEI AJE L= E I= FAH KJ=?E = = E Sn A > A A f : X B E Y A IEH= I= FAH KJ=?E J AIJ f F ixY ( ) = E I= = A f IJ= J = ILE ?E KIE = FAH KJ=?E A ) A c( ) >H ?E KI= K FAH KJ=?E E J=@= c ( ) A |F ixY ( )| = m = I LK *AH I= @ LA A A = K K A @= A >H ILED H= E EJED > A = I KF= X I= m > = FHE @A IJLK CHKFA G A@ =

241

-,*)  ! $ 2HAJF IJ=LE

@= A A A JA n = C I KF= X IA @= IK A A A JE CHKFA G E@A JE

1 |G|
F C =L = F

mc() .
G

 $ AH=  !  I= F AJ =

2HE

AH  ! %

@C L HEJE = FEJ= = E FHE K *AH I= @ LA A A

= @A IJLK A = J A A E = X = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6} A CHKF= H J=?E = {Id, r, r2 , r3 , r4 , r5 } 7 I A@A J=> E?E H= K = F JHA> A F @=J A = FHE A K B H K A  $

4 A A A /HKF=

Z6 = FAH KJ=?E = E SX m|F ixY ()| Id (1)(2)(3)(4)(5)(6) 26 r (123456) 21 r2 (135)(246) 22 3 r (14)(25)(36) 23 4 r (153)(264) 22 r5 (165432) 21
5J C= A >H H= E EJED > A = J A A = FH=LE > A FHE @A IJLK CHKFA H J=?E = A@ = C AIJ KC = I= @LE A

1 6 84 = 14. 2 + 2 21 + 2 22 + 23 = 6 6
!!

 ! - K AH=?E = FHE @A IJLK CHKFA ) AE E H= K =JE >H H= E EJED > A = FHE @A IJLK @EA@=HI A CHKFA D6 FHE A B H K A  $ @ >E =

1 6 156 2 + 2 21 + 2 22 + 23 + 3 23 + 3 24 = = 13. 12 12
A = I =JH= H EI=JE K @HKC

2HE

AH  ! & \AIJ IJH= =

EIJE E =

? A AE > EJE I= JHE > A ,L= > IA H J=?E = = ? A A@ A JH= IB E = H= E EJED > A = ? A G E = 24 A A A J= FE E ED

4 A A A /HKF= H J=?E =

a b

5 E =  ! 4 J=?E A

? A

JEF a H J=?E A C =L A @E =C = A FH=L= a = AJEHE J= LA FH=LA E IL= A @ ED F @LE A = 120 E 240 JEF b H J=?E A = 180 FH=LA = FH = E H ED ELE?=  = I E?E  ! J A FH=L= b 2 IJ E K KF AIJ H J=?E = L C JEF=

I E?E  ! 2 IJ A AE@A JE A H J=?E A F LE J= =IFH= AIJ J= LED FH=LED E

@ FH=LA = I=@H E ?A JHA =IFH= ED IJH= = ? A FH=L= c = I E?E  ! F IJ A @LE A LHIJA H J=?E = 2 IJ A JHE J= LA FH=LA
10

4 J=?E = IA>A

? A A H J=?E = FH IJ H= R3

A A FH=LA

IA

? = I E = K I= K

!"

 ! - K AH=?E = FHE @A IJLK CHKFA JEF c1 H J=?E A c = 90  @ I 270 IJAFA E A IK HA@= JHE 7 KF E = AIJ J= LED H J=?E = JEF c2 H J=?E A c = 180 A IK HA@= @L= 2 IJ A JHE L= LA H J=?E A JEF e 1@A JE FHAI E =L= A A J= A K CHKFE H J=?E = ? A = A FHE E AJEJE @= FAH KJ=?E A EIJ C JEF= IEH= K EIJE >H > A = IJH= = ? A ,= >EI C E FHE E A EJE B H K K  $ E H= K = |F ixY ( )| = ILA G JEF FAH a b c1 c2 e 5=@= @ >E = A@ = >H FAH & $ $ !  J C JEF= >H ?E KI= c( ) @ FHE ! ! " $ H= E EJED > A = I K (10.6) 8 32 6 33 6 33 3 34 36 ? A I= JHE > A

@= A JH= A E >H

1 1368 (72 + 162 + 162 + 243 + 729) = = 57. 24 24

,= A I=@= = @C L HEJE = FEJ= A E E = H= E EJED > A = = C I KF= X FHE @A IJLK G < SX I= > = = E I KF= B A KJE A F IJ=LEJE E HAJ E A FEJ= A E E = > A = IJH= = ? A I= ?HLA F =L E >E A > K E = IA ?HLA = > = KF JHA>E JHE FKJ= F =L= @L= E >E A = A@= FKJ F JE A A I A@A A FEJ= A

A = A X I KF I= n A A A =J= E A = = X @A IJLK A = = CHKF= G A = A B I KF > = E = IA > A A A A JE E X E E = H= E EJED > A = A A A =J= E X FHE @A IJLK CHKFA G K E = IA > = b1 KF JHA>E n1 FKJ= > = b2 IA KF JHA>E n2 FKJ= . . . > = bk IA KF JHA>E nk FKJ= 2HE J A A n1 + n2 + + nk = n
2HE E AJE @= K L I K = K I KF > = A @= >K@A E >AI = = 

!#

 ! - K AH=?E = FHE @A IJLK CHKFA @C L H = F IJ=L A FEJ= A A F JH= EJE K > E K BK ?E = CA AH= JHEI= A = A B = {b1 , b2 , . . . , } @ L A I KF > = = > A A n = C I KF= X = A @A IJLK A CHKF= G < SX = E E E KHA A K m J H K (n1 , n2 , n3 , . . .) K =LEI IJE @ J C= @= E A I KF > = B = E E E A = K A kN nk = n I= (n1 , n2 , n3 , . . .) = E >H H= E EJED > A = X K E = IA > = b1 KF JHA>E n1 FKJ > = b2 IA KF JHA>E n2 FKJ= EJ@ . . . ,= A @C L H = F IJ=L A FEJ= A IK A ?E A JE F E = EE IJAFA C HA@= = A I KF > = >AI = = 

FG (x1 , x2 , . . .) =
(n1 ,n2 ,...) nk =n

1 n2 n3 (n1 , n2 , n3 , . . .)xn 1 x2 x3 .

2HE

AH  ! ' @HA@EJE F E AIJ KC = I= @LE A > A

FHA>H =L= A

A FZ6 E FD6 FHE > A K J A A = I= I E A   @ >E =

4 A A A ,EHA J E

5 4 2 3 3 2 4 5 6 FZ6 (x1 , x2 ) = x6 1 + x x2 + 3x1 x2 + 4x1 x2 + 3x1 x2 + x1 x2 + x2 .

6= F E A A =J @HKC= E E = > A FHE @A IJLK @EA@=HI A CHKFA Dn

IA F I =JH= K > A = I= @LE A

5 4 2 3 3 2 4 5 6 FD6 (x1 , x2 ) = x6 1 + x x2 + 3x1 x2 + 3x1 x2 + 3x1 x2 + x1 x2 + x2 .

1 F E = E E HA@= FG IA = @ >E A >H H= E EJED > A = A A A =J= I KF= X I= > = = E B FHE @A IJLK CHKFA G < SX 6 A =FH IJ >EH ILED A ?E A =J= FG @ I FG (1, 1, . . .) 7 FHAJD @ FHE AHK A FZ6 (1, 1) = 14 E FD6 (1, 1) = 13
,= >E @HA@E E FG F I =JH= A J H CHKFA G IE AJHE A CHKFA Sn ) H KJ=?E A E G FHEI AJE FAH KJ=?E E @ @E A E A@= @HKCE F E

?E KI E @E =

,-.1 1+1 )  !  ?E KI E @E =J H

A = A G F @CHKF= A type( ) = (c1 , c2 , . . . , cn ) JEF A A FA IA @= A ck >H k ?E KI= K  J=@= IA c1 c2 cn 2 E Z = z1 z2 zn

ZG (z1 , z2 , . . . , zn ) =
K FH A ELE

1 |G|

Z .
G

z1 , z2 , . . . , zn IA = EL= ?E KI E @E =J H CHKFA G
!$

 ! - K AH=?E = FHE @A IJLK CHKFA

2HE

AH  !  1 H= K =JE ?E KI E @E =J HA CHKF= E FHE CHKFA Z6 E D6  E  ! & G A CHKF= H J=?E = ? A

AH=  ! 

4 A A A 5L= K @ F I =JH= ED CHKF= E@A JE K A

I= @C L=H= K F @CHKF IE AJHE A CHKFA = ILA A A A JA CHKFA @HA@E IJHK JKHK ?E KI= = FHE AH AJEHE H J=?E A JEF= a K FHE AHK  ! & E = K @L= ?E KI= @K E A JHE AIJ H J=?E = JEF= c1 E = K @L= ?E KI= @K E A A@= E A@= ?E KI @K E A AJEHE JHE H J=?E A JEF= c2 E = K @L= ?E KI= @K E A A@= E @L= ?E KI= @K E A @L= EJ@. . . 6= @ >E =

ZZ6 = ZD6 =

1 6 3 2 z + z2 + 2z3 + 2z6 ; 6 1

1 6 3 2 2 2 z + 4z2 + 2z3 + 2z6 + 3z1 z2 ; 12 1 1 6 2 3 2 2 2 + 8z3 + 6z2 + 6z1 z4 + 3z1 z2 ). ZG = (z1 24

HEIJA E H= E A KLA@A A K JA HE E 2 A E 4A@ @= = A I=@= A

E HA E C =L E HA K J=J FG IA @ >E A J= J i i I= IK x1 + x2 +

FH

6- 4- )  !  2
A @

ELK zi K ?E KI E @E =J HK ZG = E A E I

= '!% 2 E

2 n n FG (x1 , x2 , . . .) = ZG (x1 + x2 + , x2 1 + x2 + , . . . , x1 + x2 + ).

2HE A @ = = E KIJHK = IA FHAJD @ = JA HA = HEIJE = LA F =J FHE AHK 2HE E A E A = > A = IJH= = ? A I= JHE > A FHE @A IJLK CHKFA H J=?E = ? A ) EI HEIJE H A A A E FHE AH=  !  @ >E A

FG (x1 , x2 , x3 ) =

1 3 3 2 2 2 2 3 (x1 + x2 + x3 )6 +8(x3 1 + x2 + x3 ) +6(x1 + x2 + x3 ) + 24

4 4 2 2 2 2 2 +6(x1 + x2 + x3 )2 (x4 1 + x2 + x3 ) + 3(x1 + x2 + x3 ) (x1 + x2 + x3 ) .

*H H= E EJED > A = IJH= = ? A I= JHE ?HLA A @LE A F =LA E A@ 2 >E A IJH= A FHAF =JE = A ?E A J K x3 1 x2 x3 K H= L K L CF E = 7 = H= K = = @ >E = @= F IJ A JHE J= L= > A =

!%

 ! - K AH=?E = FHE @A IJLK CHKFA

, = A = A X I KF @ n A A A =J= E A = = X @A IJLK A A = CHKF= G 2 @I AJE IA @= A G F @CHKF= IE AJHE A CHKFA Sn ,= A A = A B = {b1 , b2 , . . .} I KF > = E A = A Y = {f |f : X B } I KF ILED > A = A A A =J= E X I= > = = E B
= E = (n1 , n2 , n3 , . . .) K A A n1 + n2 + n3 + = n K E

Y = {f Y | = ILA k A |f 1 (bk )| = nk } Y.
,= A I KF Y E A = > A = A A A =J= I KF= X I= > = = E B K E = IA > = bk F =LE HEIJE = J= nk FKJ= ,A IJL FAH KJ=?E = E CHKFA G = > A E = E Y A FEI= K  # 7 E @= = ILA G E f Y > A = f E (f ) IL= K > K E B KF JHA>A EIJE >H FKJ= ,= A = A f Y J=@= A E (f ) Y F= A I=  # @ >H @A EI= E @A IJL CHKFA G = I KFK Y  *H H>EJ= K Y FHE @A IJLK CHKFA G A >= (n1 , n2 , . . .) @ I A ?E A J K xn1 xn2 K F E K HA@K FG 6= >H A @HA@EJE HEIJA E *AH I= @ LK A K 2HE AJE @= A > A A f E Y I = E G @ I f F ixY ( ) = E I= = LHE A@E

f A IJ= J= = ILE ?E KIE = K J FAH KJ=?E A IK > A E EIJ > = IL= E k IA > = bk F =LE nk FKJ=
2 I =JH= F E E E HA@

AIJ A A A JE E EIJ C ?E KI=

F =
j

j cj ( ) 2 (xj = Z (x1 + x2 + , x2 1 + x2 + , . . .). 1 + x2 + )

F E F =FE A = >EH = FHE E AJE @= IA 1 n2 xn x K F F =LE J= | F ix ( ) | FKJ= Y 1 2 j j cj ( ) @C L=H= > A K =EIJ= E > H A C xj E E E ?= ( x + x + 1 2 ) k j A A A =J= A@ C @ cj ( ) ?E KI= @K E A j I= > bk ) IA K J nk K F =LE xk J=@= A > = bk KF JHA> A = K KF nk FKJ= 5J C= A 1 n2 F = |F ixY ( )|xn 1 x2 .

5K EH= A

F ILE

GE@A A A
!&

I= |G| @ >E =

 ! - K AH=?E = FHE @A IJLK CHKFA

1 |G|

F =
G

1 |G|

2 Z (x1 + x2 + , x2 1 + x 2 + , . . .) = G

2 = ZG (x1 + x2 + , x2 1 + x2 + , . . .).

5= @HKCA IJH= A

=@= FH

A E

F HA@= IK EH= = @ >E A

1 |G| =
= I

F =
G =(n1 ,n2 ,...)

1 |G|

1 n2 |F ixY ( )| xn 1 x2 =

LK *AH I= @ LA A A FHE

A A A = Y = FG (x1 , x2 , . . .).

K JA HA A  !  HE A EJE A@= = E EL FH > A CH E?= @K E A n A =H= = n @H=CK = = HK E?E J= @= A K@= A IJ @L= IKI A@ = @H=CK = KLE A EIJ= ) = H=IF =C= K E = b H= E EJED LHIJ= @H=CK = E = F IJ E @ L = >H @H=CK = IL= A LHIJA = E = =I E H= E EJED CH E?= @K E A n A =FH=LEJE ,LE A CH E?A I =JH= EIJE = IA H J=?E A@ A A @ >EJE @HKC= ,= A CHKF= = @A IJLK A = I KFK ILED CH E?= I= n @H=CK = A ?E E = CHKF= E HB = I= Zn ,= >EI C E FHE E A EJE JA HA K !  F JHA> A @HA@EJE ?E KI E @E =J H ZZn 7 J A A = F E I A@A = A =

5=@= A

A = A n FH E L = FHEH @= >H = IL= E d N E @E A E >H n K ?E E CHKFE Zn F IJ E (d) A A A =J= HA@= d  A AH L= BK ?E = ) Zn E JAHFHAJEH= = F @CHKFK Sn J=@= n IL= E A A A J HA@= d E = d ?E KI= @K E A d , = 4A@ A A A J= m Zn A = = E FHEH @= >H d J= =L @= A A (m, n) = LA E = A@ E E m d = k n = A E FHEH @= >H k ) @ A EJA >H AL= m E n J=@= A
d
= >H
11

- )  ! !

m n =k . (m, n) (m, n)
HA =JEL FH IJE = d = = E FHEH @= m n Ek= . Ad= (n, m) (m, n)
A

IK >H ALE I= JH= A E

m (m,n)

n (m,n)

IL IJL

) @H=CK A = EI E = J= A CH E?K @K E A n I= b LHIJ= @H=CK = E JAHFHAJEH=JE = > A A J A A = FH=LE C n J KC = I= b > =

!'

 ! - K AH=?E = FHE @A IJLK CHKFA ,= A HA@ FH E L @ A EJA >H = n C A A A J= m Zn A

n (n,m)

A IL= =

5=@= =I = E = = FH E L = >H d E @E A E n E K CHKFE Zn E = H= E EJED A A A =J= HA@= d 1 FHAJD @ C H= =JH= = A = K EJE @= A IL= E m Zn HA@= d >E =

m=k

n FHE A K IK >H ALE k E d HA =JEL d

FH IJE E k

d.

4= E EJED E > H= = J= =L k N E = J= (d) EC A@ ILA H>EJA A C A A A J= HA@= d IK > E = {x, (x), 2 (x), . . . , d1 (x)} E @K E A d 6ED H>EJ= E = n d 1 FHAJD @ A A A @ >E = @= A

ZZn (z1 , z2 , . . . , zn ) =
5=@= FHE A E

1 n

d (d)zd .

d|n

B H K K E JA HA A  !  E @ >E A

FZn (x1 , x2 , . . . , xb ) =

1 n

d d d (d)(xd 1 + x2 + + xb ) . d|n

5FA?E = >H CH E?= @K E A n I= E A ED @ b LHIJ= @H=CK = E K FHAJF IJ=L K @= IL= A LHIJA E = @ L  @ >E A =@= K FZn KLHIJE x1 = x2 = = xb = 1

1 n

(d)b d .
d|n

) K FHAJD @ K B H K K KLHIJE n = 6 E b = 2 @ >E A FHE AH=  !  I= F AJ = F C =L =

HAA AE

1 84 ((1)26 + (2)23 + (3)22 + (6)21 ) = = 14. 6 6

"

 " 2=H?E =

KHA A E I KF LE

 " 2=H?E =

KHA A E I KF LE

7 H= E > =IJE = =JA =JE A L= K K CK E = K I KF LE K E = IA = A E FHEH @= = E A A A JE CK KF HA EL=JE F LA E E E = J= LA I KF LA = A @= IK F=H?E = KHA A E -L E B H = A @A E?E A F=H?E = KHA A ED I KF L=

,-.1 1+1 )  " 

= I KFK P = A

A = AP

AFH= = I KF E A = A

HA =?E =

HA A IEL = = ILA x P LHE A@E x x = JEIE AJHE = = LHE A@E x y E y x J=@= A x = y JH= EJEL = = A x y E y z J=@= A E x z

F IAJ

7HA A

F=H (P, ) IA

= EL= F=H?E =

KHA A

I KF E E H= A

4A =?E = IA = EL= F HA@= E E KHA A A = I KFK P ) AE JA IJ= =I A F HAJ K A HE A C L HE A F IAJK P >A =C = =L= = A A F HAJ K HE A ,L= A A A J= x E y A C F IAJ= P IK KF HA@ELE = A x y EE x E = A IK AKF HA@ELE 4E A F=H?E = K E A K LA IJHK JKHA =C = =L= @= EIK K IL= = @L= A A A J= E I KF= P KF HA@EL= ) A x y = EA x = y = A @= A x = E @ y E J IA K >E = A =FE A I= x < y ) A I KF P = = = A @= A P = = F IAJ 5LE F IAJE A >K@A F I =JH= E A >EJE = EEJ A A F IA> =C = =L=JE -L A E FHE AH= F IAJ=

= I KFK [n] A F I =JH=JE K >E = A F HA@= 7 F IAJK ([n], ) IK IL= = @L= A A A J= KF HA@EL= J AIJ L= F IAJ A E A=H KHA A = ILA n N I= Bn = E F IAJ = F=HJEJEL I KFK @ [n] 4A =?E = F HAJ = K F IAJK Bn A E K E = = E I= Dn I KF ILED @ A EJA = ! = FH E L = FHEH @= >H n >H = n 2 HA@= = I KFK Dn A HA =?E = >EJE @ A EL J IA K >E = A = E I= | ,= A >H x A  = E @ y K F IAJK Dn = E I= = x @E A E y " A = A n I KF ILED F=HJE?E = I KF= [n] 2 HA@= = n IA A @A EI=JE L= = E I= = A IL= E > F=HJE?E A K E = A ED > L= F=HJE?E A

"

 " 2=H?E =

KHA A E I KF LE

2 A A I= @A E?E = = A ED I L ED F L= F IAJE = = E JAHAI L= E EJ= =? LE A E B H =?E = F IAJE = A FH = E K !" ) A x A A A J A C F IAJ= P E = A F IJ E y E P J= =L @= A y < x = A @= A x E E = = A A A J K F IAJK P = IE = = E IA @A E A E = IE = = A A A J K F IAJK P J A AA A J @ AC E A@= A A A J E F IAJ= P E A LA E 5L= E = = F IAJ E = E E = = E = IE = = A A A J = E JE A A A JE A H= K >EJE A@E IJLA E ) IK K F IAJK P E E = = E = IE = = A A A J A@E IJLA E K >E = A A JA A A A JA = EJE I= 0P E 1P ) A (P, ) A E F IAJ E = A Q P E @K L= F JF IAJ (Q, ) IA @A E A FHEH @ = x, y E Q LHE A@E x y K Q = E I= = A x y K P = x, y E P = A LHE A@E x y @A E A =JL HA E JAHL= [x, y ] = F JF IAJ @ P E @K L= I KF {z P : x z y} 5 E IA @A E A E JL HA E JAHL= (x, y ) = {z P : x < z < y } 5FA?E = A (x, x) = ) K F IAJK P LHE A@E x < y E (x, y ) = = A @= y =J HEL= x E J =FE A I= x y 5L= E = = F IAJ A = HA IJHKEI=JE E HA =?E A =J HEL= = 6= E A E?= IA HEIJE @= IA F IAJ FHA@IJ=LE CH= E  0=IA L @E =CH= F IAJ= P A CH=B E = IK J A A = A A A JE E P ) A x < y J=@= IA J= = = @C L=H= A A A JK x = = E EIF @ J= A = @C L=H= y ,= A = A x y J=@= IK J= A A @C L=H= K A A A JE = x E y IF A A ELE? 0=IA LE @E =CH= E F IAJ= A I = FHE A F I =JH= E! IK = I E?E  "

60
1234

12

20

30 123 14|23 13|24 124 12|34 134 234

10

15

12

13

14

23

24

34

5 E =  " 2HE AHE F IAJ= ([6], ) B4 D60 E 4

12 13

0A KJ 0=IIA &'& '%' > C FHAC A@ IJE EIK = A E ILE A A A JE K 0=IA LE @E =CH= E = 7 = = = A A A =J= F IAJ= 4 IK E IJ=L A E ILE A@ = E> LE

"

 " 2=H?E =

KHA A E I KF LE

= =? C K F IAJK P A F @I KF @ P K A IK IL= = @L= A A A J= KF HA@EL= ,K E = = ?= C IA = =L= I= (C ) E @A E A @= A (C ) = |C | 1 = =? C K F IAJK P A = IE = = = A F IJ E x P \ C J= =L @= A C {x} J= A = =? K P

2 IAJ P A CH=@KEI= = IK ILE = IE = E = ?E K F IAJK P EIJA @K E A E = F IAJ P E = A@E IJLA A = = E E = LA E A A A J 0P E 1P 7 CH=@KEI= F IAJK = IL= E x P ILE = IE = E = ?E K E JAHL= K [ 0, x] IK EIJA @K E A 6 IL IJL F IAJ= @A E A BK ?E K H= C= r : P N0 C@ A A r(x) = (C ) = A E = IE = = = =? C K E JAHL= K [ 0 , x] .K ?E K H= C= = CH=@KEI= F IAJK P A FEI=JE E L=

r( 0P ) = 0 E =
EIK KF HA@EL=

IK x, y P J= LE @= x y J=@= A r(y ) = r(x) + 1. A E = @L= A A A J=

) JE = =? K F IAJK P A F @I KF @ P K

241 -,*)  " ) J=@= LHE A@E |C A| 1 EC A@ = F I A@E?= LA FHE

A C = =? = A = JE = =? K F IAJK P A@>A IK I A@A = @L= JLH A =

A =FEI=JE (i) ) F IAJ P E = = =? I= r A A A =J= J=@= IA P A = @EI K J = K E = = A @ r = JE = =?= A (ii) ) F IAJ P E = = JE = =? @ m A A A =J= J=@= IA P A =FEI=JE = @EI K J = K E = = A @ m = =?= A IA F = =JE @= K FHAJD @ E JLH A E = LHE A@A A@ = IJE ,= A IL= E F IAJ IA A F @E A EJE = E = JE = =?=  = =?= E = A LA E E = = LA AC = ?= = JE = ?= K P

J=@= IA P

6- 4- )  " ! )

= @K E = =? K F IAJK P E = r A A A =J= A =FEI=JE = K E = r @EI K J ED = JE = =?=

F IAJ= P @ @E A E LEIE K v (x) := @K E = IE = = A A A J x P : v (x) = i} = A = @K E = =? K P r EC A@ A @= IK A A A JE K EIJ Ai

A A A JK x E , = 5L= = @K AC = ?= A A = 7 E I KF LA Ai := {x @K E A r J A Ai = = i AKF HA@ELE F= A

P = A0 A1 Ar1 .
JH= A H= =C= A P = = JE = ?A

"!

 " 2=H?E =

KHA A E I KF LE

6- 4- )  " " ,E L HJ"  )

P E = m A A A =J= J=@= IA P = =?=

= >H E E = JE = =? K F IAJK A =FEI=JE = K E = m @EI K J ED

F >H K A A A =J= K P

, = 6LH A A A @ = =JE E @K ?E 2 I =JH= A @L= I K = =

1 2 IJ E = JE = =? A I= m A A A =J= E I=@H E >=H A@= A A A J E E A E E = = E >=H A@= A A A J E E A = IE = = K P 6=@= IA CK K EJE AFH= E I KF LE G = {x P : F IJ E a A J= =L @= A a D = {y P : F IJ E a A J= =L @= A y x}, a}.

6=@= A G D = A = I KF LE D E G E = K = A A A A =J= @ P = E @K L= A F IAJA D E G A FHE E A EJE E @K JEL K FHAJF IJ=L K 2HE E AJE @= A A = JE = =? = LA A @K E A E K F IAJE = D E G ) IK C1 C2 Cm = D E C1 C2 Cm = G @A F E?E A F IAJ= D E G K @EI K J A = ?A IL= E @ JED = =?= I=@H E J= A@= AA A JE A =@ LA K K E = ?A Ci E D E Cj E G E I=@H A EIJE A A A J E A @ >E A F=HJE?E K F IAJ= P K m @EI K J ED = =?=

2 5L= E = IE = = = JE = =? I= m A A A =J= I=@H E I= ILA E E = A E E I= ILA = IE = A A A A JA F IAJ= P 7 L IK = K K E E E = = A A A J x P E = IE = = y P J= =L @= A x y 7 F IAJK P = P \ {x, y } = JE = =? A E =JE = LE A m 1 A A A =J= AH >E E = A F IJ = = JE = =? K F IAJK P I= m A A A =J= E A I=@H E ILA E E = A EJE ILA = IE = A A A A JA E P 5=@= EI HEIJE E @K JEL K FHAJF IJ=L K E = K E @= A F IAJ P CK A F @E A EJE K = LE A m 1 = =?= =@= IA JE = ?E = @ @= E = =? x y @ >E E I F @ A K F IAJ= P K m @EI K J ED = =?=
6A HA = 0 = IEIJA E = H= E EJED FHA@IJ=L E = IA = E LAIJE E ,E L HJ LA JA HA A
14

4 >AHJ 2=

AH ,E M HJD '" ''!

""

 " 2=H?E =

KHA A E I KF LE

A = IK A1 , A2 , . . . , An = E I KF LE 2 I =JH= F IAJ P E E A ILE A A A JE E i[n] Ai E n IFA?E = ED A A A =J= x1 , x2 , . . . xn E A FHEF=@= K E A@ @ Ai 2 HA@= = F IAJK P @A E A L= A A A JE E i[n] Ai IK E E = E @ A xi LA E @ ILED A A A =J= E Ai J AIJ a < xi = E I= = a Ai 7I L E 0 LA JA HA A = ILA {i1 , i2 , . . . , ik } [n] LHE A@E |Ai1 Ai2 Aik | = C=H= JK A @= = LA E = JE = =? A K J @ | i[n] Ai | A A A =J= F IAJK A

A@= @ = JA HA A 

A E =JE LE A

5J C= A A A JE E i[n] Ai E A = JE = =? = IE = A LA E E A K P 1I HEIJE JLH A A JA HA A  " " E FHE E AJE @= K @A F E?E E P K @EI K J A = ?A IL= E xi FHEF=@= J= A@ @ JED = =?= 7 E n = =?= > E = {ai < xi } E E = E A A A JE JED = =?= E A IEIJA H= E EJED FHA@IJ=L E =

5=@= A F = =JE = IA A A K AHE A =H= JAHEIJE A F IAJ= CK H= K =JE K =K F E A=H A = CA>HA = FH E L = F IAJ P I= 1 J(P ) = E I KF ILED =JL HA ED AFH= ED E JAHL= = K F IAJK P

,-.1 1+1 )  " # ) CA>H= E ?E@A ?E A I (P ) = F IAJK P A

I KF ILED BK ?E = f : 1 J(P ) C 7 AIJ f ([x, y ]) FEI= A f (x, y ) A A K = CA>HE I (P ) A FHAI E =L= A f g @A EI=

H= A I=

f g (x, y ) =
z [x,y ]

f (x, z ) g (z, y ).
L K?E = BK ?E = f E g

2HAI E =L= A f g IA = EL=

) A (P, ) A E F IAJ E A=H = A IJA E = F HAJ = = F IAJK P A FH EHA A HA =?E A J= @= IL= = @L= A A A J= K P >K@K KF HA@ELE ,HKCE HE A E = E A=H = A IJA E = P A FAH KJ=?E = x1 , x2 , . . . , xn AC LED A A A =J= K IA IL= E A A A J E P F =LE FHE A ILED ED @ ED A = E J AIJA LHE A@E xi < xj i < j  = FHE AH

, {1}, {2}, {1, 2}, {3}, {2, 3}, {1, 3}, {1, 2, 3}
A A@ = E A=H = A IJA E = F IAJ= B3 "#

 " 2=H?E =

KHA A E I KF LE

241

-,*)  " $ A = A x1 , x2 , . . . , xn A = E A=H = A IJA E = F HAJ = = F IAJK P .K ?E = f : 1 J(P ) C IA A E@A JE L=JE I= n n =JHE? F = fij K A
fij = f (xi , xj ), = 0, =
A xi xj xi E yj EIK KF HA@ELE

A A A A A =J= K = CA>HE I (P ) I=@= A FHAF =JE = >E A A =JHE?= ,= A A =F= EJE @= A =JHE?= FHE@HK A = FH E L BK ?E E f I (P ) KLE A C H A JH KC= = 6 A F I A@E?= E A E?A @= IK E @A IE = LHIJA E A =JHE?A E A=H = A IJA E = F IAJ= P 1 FHAJD @ A FHE @A EI= = I= A@>A A = = K EJE @= A BK ?E = : 1 J(P ) C

(x, y ) =
A@E E?= K = CA>HE I (P ) 6 f =f

1, = Ax=y 0, E = A
= E @= = ILA f I (P ) LHE A@E f =

= BK ?E K f I (P ) = A @= A E LAHJE>E = K = CA>HE I (P ) = E I= = F IJ E g I (P ) J= @= A f g = g f = ) J= L= BK ?E = g F IJ E = =L= IA I= f 1 E = EL= E LAH @ f HEIJA E =JHE K HAFHA A J=?E K A A A =J= = CA>HA I (P ) E FHE A@>A  " $ A = K EJE @= A f I (P ) E LAHJE>E = = E I= = = ILA x P LHE A@E f (x, x) = 0 2 K = CA>HA E ?E@A ?E A A @HA@EJE >H = =?= >H = IE = ED = =?= E >H K JE = =?= K A E JAHL= K [x, y ] K JE = =? @K E A k @ x @ y A E  K JEI KF x = x0 x1 xk = y A A A =J= E P AJ= BK ?E = = F IAJK P A @A EI= = I= (x, y ) = 1 = A x y K F IAJK P = = IK x E y AKF HA@ELE J=@= A (x, y ) = 0

6- 4- )  " % *H

K JE = =?= @K E A k @ x @ y A k (x, y )

, = HEIJE E @K ?E K F k = k = 1 F IJ E J= A@= = =? x = x0 x1 = y @K E A A@= = A x y  E E E A@= = IK x E y AKF HA@ELE =H=L >H K JE = =?= @K E A A@= A A@ = (x, y ) 2HE E AJE @= A
2 (x, y ) =
z [x,y ]

(x, z ) (z, y ) =
z [x,y ]

1 = [x, y ] ,

"$

 " 2=H?E = J A J= H= K =JE >H

KHA A E I KF LE K JE = =?= @K E A @L= @ x @ y ,= A A

k (x, y ) = k1 (x, y ) =
z [x,y ]

k1 (x, z ) (z, y ).
@= A

= I

LK E @K JEL A FHAJF IJ=L A @ >E =

k (x, y ) =
x=x0 x1 xk =y

1.

5J C= A >H

K JE = =?= @K E A k K E JAHL= K [x, y ] A@ = k (x, y )

241

= IE = = E IA A @ = =JE @= A >H k = =?= @K E A k @ x @ y A@ = (x, y )

1

-,*)  " &

6- 4- )  " ' *H ILED = =?= K [x, y ] A 2

(x, y )

, = A = A k @K E = = @K AC = ?= K [x, y ] 1 FHE A@>A  " & = @= A J=@= ( )k+1 (x, y ) = 0 5J C= K = CA>HE I (P ) LHE A@E
+ + + +
IJE @ >E = @= A
2 k k

(x, y ) = (x, y ).

1 FHAJD @ A A@ =

(x, y ) = (x, y )+ (x, y )+ (x, y )+ (x, y ).

A@>A  " &

6LH A A JA HA A I E A@E E FHE

7 FHAJD @ JA HA E IA F = = E LAH A A FHEH @ @A EI= A BK ?E A E = CA>HA E ?E@A ?E A A >EJE @ HEIJE K @HA EL= K A ED >E =J H ED IL IJ=L= F IAJ= P 2 IA> L= K E AIJK FHE A K E = E LAH AJ= BK ?E A

@ >E =

,-.1 1+1 )  "   A>E KI L=# BK ?E = A>E KI L= BK ?E = = F IAJK P A E LAH AJ= BK ?E A 1 KI L= =

@= A

(x, y ) =
z
15

(x, z ) =
x z y

1, = 0, =

Ax=y Ax<y

)KCKIJ .AH@E = @

>EKI %' &$&

"%

 " 2=H?E =

KHA A E I KF LE

1 FHAJD @ A A@ = IJE A = K EJE @= A A>E KI L= BK ?E = = F IAJK P @A EI= = I= (x, x) = 1 = ILA x P @ = x < y LHE A@E

(x, y ) =
z x z<y

(x, z ).
E H= K =JE A>E KI LK BK ?E K

-L

F IAJ=

ED A =

(i)

A = A ([n], ) = =? I= n A A A =J= 1 @A E?E A BK ?E A A EC A@ @= = x y K L F IAJK LHE A@E Ax=y 1, = Axy (x, y ) = 1, = 0, E = A

A>E KI LA

(ii) 7 F IAJK Bn = A B LHE A@E (A, B ) = (1)|B \A|

6 IA A F = =JE E @K ?E F |B \ A| ) A |B \ A| = k E @A E?E A  "  E E E @K JEL A FHAJF IJ=L A @ >E =
k1

(A, B ) =
C :AC B

(A, C ) =
i=0

k (1)i = (1)k . i

= FH E L A F IAJA (P, P ) E (Q, Q ) @A E A @EHA J E FH E L @ = LE F IAJ = I KFK P Q 7 J F IAJK A

(x, y )

(x , y ) =

E I=

Ax

x Ey

y.

JE = P E Q 6=@=

6- 4- )  " 
=

A = IK P E Q A>E KI LA BK ?E A = F IA A>E KI LK BK ?E K = F IAJK P Q LHE A@E

P Q (x, y ), (x , y ) = P (x, x )Q (y, y ).

, = 2 = = A @= BK ?E = P Q C = KHA A F=HK ((x, y ), (x , y )) @ @E A E P (x, x )Q (y, y ) =@ L =L= KI LA E @A E ?E A  "  ) A x = x E y = y J A EC A@ ) A x = x EE y = y J=@= A

0=
p:x p x

P (x, p)
q :y q y

Q (y, q ) =
(p,q )

P (x, p)Q (y, q ).

7 F I A@ IK E I=>EH= F ILE (p, q ) E [(x, y ), (x , y )] L= @A EI= = BK ?E = A E LAH AJ= BK ?E A F= JLH A A JA HA A I E A@E E A@E IJLA IJE E LAH = K = CA>HE I (P )

"&

 " 2=H?E =

KHA A E I KF LE

A = IK n1 , n2 , . . . , nk FHEH @ E >H ALE E A = A ([ni ], ) = =? @K E A ni 2 IAJ P = [n1 ] [n2 ] [nk ] A E@A JE L=JE I= I KF KHA A ED k J H E x = (x1 , x2 , . . . , xk ) FHE A K A 1 xi ni E LHE A@E

x
A>E KI LK BK

y=

E I=

= A

A xi

yi = ILA i [n].
HEIJA E JA HA K  " 

?E K F IAJ= P

@HA@EJE

P (x, y) =

(1) 0,

k i=1 (yi xi )

,= A yi xi A@ = 0 E E 1 = ILA i E = A

nk 1 n2 ) A = I = B= J HE =?E = FHEH @ C >H = n = pn 1 p2 pk J=@= IA F IAJ AC LED @ A EJA = Dn A E@A JE L=JE I= P = [n1 ] [n2 ] [nk ] 7 J F IAJK A x y = E I= = x|y A>E KI L= BK ?E = K F IAJK Dn A

(x, y ) =

(1)t , = 0, =

y A x FH E L @ t H= E EJED FH IJED >H AL= y L=@H=J A C FH IJ C >H = @E A E x

6= IA A>E KI L= BK ?E = L C F IAJ= KI L= BK ?E = E JA HE A >H AL=

A FHAF

=JE =

A>E

(r) =

(1)t , = A r FH E L @ t H= E EJED FH IJED >H AL= 0, E = A

@= A (r) = Dr (1, r)

 %

2HE E AJE

6- 4- )  " 

A = A P FH E L = = =L= F IAJ E IA @ >E A =@= K P @ @= @K E A k E = =?= 0 < x1 < x2 < < xk < 1

= = F IAJ E A = P 0 E 1 ) A ck >H A K 0E 1 J=@= LHE A@E

P (0, 1) = c0 c1 + c2 c3 + .

, =

1 1 P (0, 1) = (0, 1) = ( + ( )) (0, 1) = P

= ( 0, 1) ( )( 0, 1) + ( )2 ( 0, 1) = c0 c1 + c2 .
2 I A@ = A@ = IJ I E A@E = I LK FHE A@>A  " &

"'

 " 2=H?E =

KHA A E I KF LE

2HAJD @ = JA HA = A = E EL= AH F LA K A A>E KI LK BK ?E K E AH LK =H= JAHEIJE K A@= L= = F = K = CA>=HI J F CE E LA E E A K >E =J HE A E J F CE A IA C L HE K & # E " 5 A@A A JLH A A A J E = = = A@= @ H= C= = J A BK ?E = A>E KI=

6- 4- )  " !  A>E KI L= B H K = E LAH E A

A E F IAJ E A = A f : P C ) @A E A g (x) = y x f (y ) J=@= = ILA x P LHE A@E
f (x) =
y x

BK

A = AP ?E K g : P C I=

(y, x)g (y ).
E = F IAJ= P .K ?E A

, = f Eg

A = A x1 , x2 , . . . , xn A = E A=H = A IJA A =FEI=JE = LA J HA E Cn

f = f (x1 ), f (x2 ), . . . , f (xn ) E g = g (x1 ), g (x2 ), . . . , g (xn ) .

A = A Z = (zij ) =JHE E =FEI AJ= BK ?E A C H A JH KC= = zij = 1 xi xj E = A A zij = 0 F IAJ= P ,A E?E K BK ?E A g E B H K =?E A JA HA A I=@= A EI = =JE F K FH E L @= =JHE?=

g = f Z.
1 LAH = =JHE?= = Z A =JHE?= M = mij C@ A A

 &

mij =
A A

(xi , xj ), = A xi 0, E = A

xj

B H K A  & I= M @ >E =

@= A f = g M K E @= = BK ?E A f E g

1 @ = = FHAJD @ A JA HA A = LHE A@E

IA =

g (x) =
y x

f (y ) = ILA x P f (x) =
y x

(y, x)g (y ) = ILA x P.

K K

=IE = = E A @= LHE A@E

A E

=JHE?

M I E AL= E H= g = Z f =

g (x) =
y x

f (y ) = ILA x P f (x) =
y x

(y, x)g (y ) = ILA x P.

#

 " 2=H?E =

KHA A E I KF LE

8= IJ JA HA A  " ! E A K IJ= C A K J A J IK A A F =JA JA HA A A IFA?E = E I K = 5 A@A = JA HA = A L= = K JA HE E >H AL=

6- 4- )  " "
LHE A@E g (n) =
d|n

A = IK f, g : N Z J= LA @= = ILA n N f (d). 6=@= A f (n) = (n/d) g (d), C@ A A

d|n

A>E KI L= BK ?E = E JA HE A >H AL= @A

= BK ?E K f : N Z IA @A

EIE= = K B H K E  %

E A FAH=J H @EBAHA ?EH= = I=

f (n) = f (n) f (n 1).

2 @ C L HK IA I =JH= @= A f (0) = 0 FAH=J H IA A IDL=JEJE = @EI HAJ = L=HE = J= E L @= BK ?E A f 5 E @EI HAJ = = A = = E JACH= BK ?E A A FAH=J H S
n

Sf (n) =
i=1

f (i).

L = JA HA = @EBAHA ?

C H= K = A

6- 4- )  " #

= FH E L

K BK

?E K f : N Z LHE A@E

Sf (n) = f (n).
5 A@A = JA HA = A L= @ AJE HA =?E K % # K F JA A B H K A K K A = EI K A = LE

[n] @ @ A K K

6- 4- )  " $

A = IK f E g BK ?E A F A I A >H ALA E A = A
g (R) =
T :RT

A F @I KF LE = @

f (T ) = ILA R [n].

6=@= LHE A@E

f (R) =
T : R T

(1)|T \R| g (T ) = ILA R [n].

2HAJD @ A JHE JA HA A E A JA @ = =JE @EHA J = E = JE A = F JHA>A A@ IJ=L K E @= ED A @ >EJE FHE A A>E KI LA B H K A E LAH E A = F IAJA (Dn , |) ([n], ) E (Bn , ) = = K A>E KI LA BK ?E A E H= E FHE A = = LE A IA A FH EJ=JE K '  E !$ #

 #

A E A K AH=JEL E FH > A E E JA HE A CH=B L=

 #

A E A K AH=JEL E FH > A E E JA HE A CH=B L=

7 L F C =L K F I =JH= A E E JAHAI= J ED E L= ED FH > A = A K AH=JEL A >E =J HE A E IK IA F =LE E K JA HE E CH=B L= A E @ JED FH > A = A F I K EJE = E KIJH=?E K I =CA E A =I IJE AJ @= FHA>H =L= = E = A >E HE A E K L C =LE = F AJ K @= A @A E?E A I L ED F L= A A HE IJEJE =E AHAI L= E EJ= ?E LE A @AJ= = JE F LE = E CH=B LE = K F JA CK = E K & E !' . H = FH IJ CH=B G = (V, E ) A KHA A F=H I=IJ=L A @ AFH= C I KF= V J A A = CH=B= G E I KF= E ELE?A CH=B= G FHE A K A E F @I KF I KF= ILED @L = ED F @I KF L= @ V 1LE?K e = {u, v } E K CH=BK G K >E = A A H= A =FEI=JE I= e = uv ) A e = uv E = A @= IK J A A = u E v IKI A@ = K CH=BK G ELE?= e IF= = J A A = u E v  -L A E FHE AH= CH=B L=
] F AJ= CH=B I= n J A A = Kn = ([n], [n 2 ) FKJ I= n J A A = Pn = ([n], {12, 23, . . . , (n 1)n}) ?E KI I= n J A A = Cn = ([n], {12, 23, . . . , (n 1)n, 1n})

7 >E = A A CH=B FHA@IJ=LEJE ?HJA K H=L E J= @= J A A = CH=B= >K@K J= A K H=L E = ELE?A @K E E E HELA A IF= = K IKI A@ = J A A = = I E?E  # IK CH=B LE K4 , K5 , C6 E P5

5 E =  # /H=B LE K4 , K5 , C6 , P5

/H=B G1 (V1 , E1 ) A E HB= I= CH=B A ?E = f : V1 V2 J= L= @= LHE A@E

G2 (V2 , E2 ) =

F IJ E >E

uv E1 f (u)f (v ) E2 .
= J A A v V K CH=BK G IJAFA J A A = v A >H d(v ) J A A = E V E IK IKI A@ E I= v ) IK v1 , v2 , . . . , vn IL= J A A = CH=B= G E IJAFA = J A A = J C CH=B= A KHA A = n J H = (d(v1 ), d(v2 ), . . . , d(vn ))

 #

A E A K AH=JEL E FH > A E E JA HE A CH=B L=

) IK u E v J A A = CH=B= G FKJ @ u @ v A E H= E EJED J A A = u = v1 , v2 , . . . , vk , vk+1 = v K CH=BK G J= @= = ILA i [k ] LHE A@E vi vi+1 E /H=B G = (V, E ) A F LA = = = IL= = @L= J A A = u E v F IJ E FKJ @ u @ v /H=B G A K = E E =?E E =  = A I=@H E =JL HA FKJ ?E KI v1 v2 . . . vk v1 2 LA = =?E E = CH=B IA = EL= IJ=> 6A A IJAFA = A@= K IJ=> K IA = EL= EIJ A = A G CH=B I= n J A A = A IA F = =JE @= IK I A@A A JLH@ A A LEL= A J A

G A IJ=> G A F LA = CH=B I= n 1 ELE? G A =?E E = CH=B I= n 1 ELE?

*4

)S- 10 56)*) )

A@= @ = F =JE ED E = AF ED HA K J=J= K >E =J HE?E A A E AL=$ B H K = = >H = A ED IJ=>= = = A IJ=> I= n J A A = E = IEH= I KF J A A = K >E = A A J I KF [n] ,L= = A = IJ= > = IK EIJ= = IK E I KF LE CH= = A@ = E = I E?E  $ IA = = E 16 H= E EJED = A ED IJ=>= = I= AJEHE J A A =
2 1 1 1

1 4 3 4

2 3 4

3 2 3

4 2

1 1 2 3

4 2 4 1

3 3 1 2

2 4 3 4

1 1 2

2 3 3

4 2 1 1

3 4 4

1 2 2

4 1 1

4 3

3 4

5 E =  $ 5L=

= A = IJ=> = I= AJEHE J A A =

>= = I= n J A A =

6- 4- )  #   A E &&' 2 IJ E J=

nn2

= A ED IJ=

2 HA@ J C= J @= A A AC= J= E A@ IJ=L= @C L H = FHEH @ F IJ=L A FEJ= A L= JA HA = A = E EL= E E AF= E =J J IA A @ = =JE HEIJA E H= E EJA >E =J H A E E = CA>=HI A AJ @A
16

)HJDKH +=O AO &  &'#

#!

 #

A E A K AH=JEL E FH > A E E JA HE A CH=B L=

= >E A ?E

*H nn2 A = FHAF =JE = >H ILED KHA A ED (n 2) J H E A A A =J= I KF= [n] A E AL= JA HA = A >EJE @ = = = = IA F = A @= F IJ E >E A ?E = E A K I KF= ILED = A ED IJ=>= = I= n J A A = n 2 % E I KF= [n] 0= ? 2HEBAH A '& C @E A FEI= = IA IL= = A IJ=> K T I= n J A A = A @ @E A EJE 2HEBAH L E aT = n 2 (a1 , a2 , . . . , an2 ) E I KF= [n] J= @= FHAI E =L= A T aT >K@A >E A ?E = 2HAI E =L= A A = A IJ=> K T @ @E A E E aT A IA IJHKEI=JE = I A@A E = E A = A v EIJ K T I= = = = E A = A = = AC L C IKI A@= a1 6= = = a1 A FHLE = 2HEBAH L C E = 5=@= F I =JH= IJ=> T {v } K E EIJ I= = = = E KF= JE = K a2 AC L C IKI A@= K T \ {v } J= J A A = IK IKI A@ = E K F = IJ=> K T  = = a2 A @HKCE = 2HEBAH L C E = = IJ=> T L= F IJKF= F =L = n 2 FKJ= ILA @ A IJ= A I= A@ = ELE?= K T 1 @K ?E F >H K J A A = = IA A F = =JE @= IA K 2HEBA H L E K aT = (a1 , a2 , . . . , an2 ) IJ=> = T IL= J A A v F =LE J= d(v ) 1 FKJ= ,= A A@E = J A A = IJ=> = T = IA A F =LA K 2HEBAH L E K aT IK EIJ LE ,= A FHAJD @ FEI= FHAI E =L= A >E A ?E = F = A IA J= J IA FE A E LAH FHAI E =L= A A IL= E K E [n]n2 @ @E A E IJ=> ) A a = (a1 , a2 , . . . , an2 ) [n]n2 J E K @ @E A E IJ=> Ta = I A@A E = E A = A v1 = = E >H E IA A F =LE K E K a 6 A A v1 IF E I= J A A a1 ,= A K E = = E >H v2 E [n] \ {v1 } E IA A F =L K A K E K (a2 , a3 , . . . , an2 ) 6 A A v2 IF E I= J A A a2 L= F IJKF= F LE n 2 FKJ= E @ >E A =?E E = CH=B I= n 2 ELE?= E @LE A F A JA F LA = IJE @L= IJ=> = I= K KF n J A A = = H= K @L= J A A = = IA EIK F =LE = K I KFK {v1 , v2 , . . . , vn2 } F A@ K IL= @ F A JE @ I=@ IJHKEI= C CH=B= IF E ELE? E @ >E A IJ=> Ta H=?E K IJHK ?E E IJ=> = @ =@= C E = IK E LAH E E = FHE IJHK ?E E 2HEBAH L C E = @ F = C IJ=> = F= A T aT >E A ?E = A@= FHE AH HAIF @A ?E A = A C IJ=> = E 2HEBAH L C E = A = I E?E  %
17

-H IJ 2=K 0AE

2H BAH &'$ '!"

#"

 #

A E A K AH=JEL E FH > A E E JA HE A CH=B L=

2 5 8 3 7 6 1 4 3 (7) 7 8 6 1 4 3 3 (7,8) 7 5 8 6 1 4 3 (8,6) 2 5 1 3 8 7 6 1 4 dodaje se ivica 58 5 8 7 6 1 4 5 8 7 6 (6) 2 1 4 dodaje se ivica 67 2 5 8 7 6 1 4 2

brie se ivica 27 5

brie se ivica 38

brie se ivica 14

(7,8,1) 7 5 8 6

brie se ivica 16

(6,8,6) 2

(7,8,1,6) 7 5 8 6 3 (7,8,1,6,8) 5 7 8 6 3 8 7 6 5 8 7 6

dodaje se ivica 16

4 dodaje se ivica 14

brie se ivica 58

(1,6,8,6) 2

4 dodaje se ivica 38

brie se ivica 67 (7,8,1,6,8,6) 8 6

(8,1,6,8,6) 2 5 8 3 (7,8,1,6,8,6) 7 6 1 4 dodaje se ivica 27

5 E =  % 2HE AH

HAIF

@A ?E A E

A K

= A ED IJ=>= = E 2HEBAH LED E L=

##

 #

A E A K AH=JEL E FH > A E E JA HE A CH=B L=

= F
E I=

KF E

AB H KA

JA A ==

- )  #

E (d1 , d2 , . . . , dn ) A E IJAFA = A C IJ=> = I= n = LHE A@E

di N = ILA i [n] d1 + d2 + + dn = 2n 2.

, = () = IL= J A A K IJ=> K E = >=H A@ IK FHEH @ E >H ALE *H A E A A A JA I KF=

{(v, e) : v V, e E J A A v A E ?E@A J

C IKI A@= ILE di

I= ELE?

e}

= @L= = E = A = K EJE @= A K IL= CH=BK >EH IJAFA = ILED J A A = A@ = @L IJHK >H K ELE?= 5FA?E = K IJ=> K A J= >EH A@ = 2n 2

() HEIJE E @K ?E K F n = n = 2 JLH A A A EJ 7 FHA JF IJ=L K @= JLH A A LHE A@E = n 1 F = = A @= LHE A@E E = n N LA E @ 2 ) A >EH n FHEH @ ED >H AL= d1 , d2 , . . . , dn = E @ 2n >=H A@= @ ED A A@ = A@= *A I = A = F J IJE FHAJF IJ=LE @= A dn = 1 ,= A K E j [n 1] J= =L @= A dj > 1 E F I =JH= E d = (d1 , d2 , . . . , dj 1 , dj 1, dj +1 , . . . , dn1 ) 2 E @K JEL FHAJF IJ=L?E F IJ E IJ=> I= n 1 J A A = A A d E IJAFA = J A A = =@= K J IJ=> @ @= L J A A n J= @= J J A A >K@A EIJ IF A I= J A A j @ >E A IJ=> A A E IJAFA = J A A = = F = E E

A = A d = (d1 , d2 , . . . , dn ) E IJAFA = A C IJ=> = I= nJA A = ) A d I KF ILED = A ED IJ=>= = I= n J A A = E = A d E IJAFA = J A A = J=@= A

|d | = (n 2)! . (d1 1)!(d2 1)! (dn 1)!

- )  # !

, = FAJ HEIJE E @K ?E K F n = n = 2 F IJ E A@ IJ=> A A (1, 1) IJAFA E E 2HAJF IJ=LE @= A = LHE A@E = ILA >H ALA = A @ n *A I = A = F J IJE FHAJF IJ=LE @= A J A A n EIJ J AIJ @= A dn = 1 ) A J A A j IKI A@ EIJ= n J=@= A d = (d1 , d2 , . . . , dj 1 , dj 1, dj +1 , . . . , dn1 ) E IJAFA = = IJ=> I= n 1 J A A =
#$

 #

A E A K AH=JEL E FH > A E E JA HE A CH=B L= FHAJF IJ=L?E

6= LED IJ=>= = E = F E @K JEL

|d | =

(n 3)!(dj 1) . (d1 1)!(d2 1)! (dj 1)! (dn1 1)!

. H = FHAJD @ = B H K = LHE A@E E = IJ=> = K E = A j EIJ AH A J=@= dj = 1 A = A d,j I KF IJ=>= = E = A d E IJAFA = J A A = EK E = A EIJ n IKI A@= I= j 2 FHE ?EFK IK A A
n1 n1

|d | =
j =1

|d,j | =
j =1

(n 3)!(dj 1) . (d1 1)!(d2 1)! (dn1 1)!

@= A

6LH A A A A IA @ >E A =@= K E

(d1 1) + (d2 1) + + (dn1 1) = (2n 3) (n 1) = n 2

5=@= = H= K = >H
n1

ILED

= A ED IJ=>= = I= n J A A =

|d | =
d=(d1 ,d2 ,...,dn ) j =1

(n 2)! = (d1 1)!(d2 1)! (dj 1)! (dn 1)! n2 m1 , m2 , , mn = nn2 .

= [I

A = mi = di 1] =
= ILA i A mi N0 , m1 + + mn = n 2

2 I A@ = A@ = IJ K FHAJD @ B H K E IA @ >E A =@= K F E K n 2 B H K K = (x1 + x2 + + xn ) KLHIJE x1 = x2 = = xn = 1

= F

KB H KAK

K A = EI

K A =

A = A Tn I KF ILED = A ED IJ=>= = I= n J A A = E A = A Li Tn E E A IJ=> = E Tn K E = AJA A = A I= i EIJ EC A@ A

Tn = L1 L2 Ln .
1 B H KAK K A = EI K A = @ >E =

Tn =
1 i n

Li
1 i<j n

Li Lj +
i<j<k

Li Lj Lk .  '
@ FHA IJ= ED n 1 J A A =

EIJ i A >EJE IKI A@= I= >E E A |Li | = (n 1)|Tn1 | = ILA i [n] #%

 #

A E A K AH=JEL E FH > A E E JA HE A CH=B L=

,= A I KF Li1 Li2 Lik E A IJ=> = E Tn E = IK J A A = i1 , i2 , . . . , ik EIJ LE 5L= E @ JED k EIJ L= LEIE = A @JA A = = A C IJ=> = I= n k FHA IJ= ED J A A = 5J C= A

|Li1 Li2 Lik | = (n k )k |Tnk |.

=@= IA L KLHIJE K B H K K  ' @ >E =
n1

@= A  

|Tn | =
k=1

(1)k1

n (n k )k |Tnk |. k

5=@= IA FHEI AJE

IA @= A >H
n1

IKH A ?E = I= I KF= [m] K I KF [n] A@ =

nm +
k=1

(1)k
EJ

n (n k )m . k
K = 7LH J=L= A

) A m < n J= >H A FHAJD @ K B H K K @ >E =

n1

m = n2 K

n2

=
k=1

(1)k1

n (n k )k (n k )nk2 . k

7 E FHAJF IJ=LE @= = ILA k < n LHE A@E |Tk | = k k2  = k 3 J IA = FH L AHE @AI = IJH= = FHAJD @ A B H K A A EIJ= = E @AI = IJH= = B H K A   5J C= IK E E ALA IJH= A JED B H K = EIJA F= A |Tn | = nn2

= F

K HA KH EL ED HA =?E =

A = A Tn,k I KF = A ED K = CH=B LE >A ?E KI= I= n J A A = E k F A JE F LA = IJE IJ=>= = K E = IK J A A = 1, 2, . . . , k K H= E EJE F A J= = F LA = IJE 2HE E AJE @= A Tn,1 I KF ILED = A ED IJ=>= = I= n J A A = ) K A K E E Tn,k J A A 1 E = i IKI A@= >HEI= A J A A = 1 E K L = =L= A IJ= ED J A A = @ >E = K K E Tn1,k+i1 5J C= LHE A@E nk nk |Tn,k | = |Tn1,k+i1 |   i
i=0

= = ILA n N LHE A@E |Tn,n | = 1 F AJ A LHE A@ IJE = Tn,k IK |T0,0 | = 1 E |Tn,0 | = 0 = n 1 1 @K ?E A F = =JE @= = ILA #&

 #

A E A K AH=JEL E FH > A E E JA HE A CH=B L=

n N E 0 k n LHE A@E |Tn,k | = knnk1 1 B H K A   E E @K JEL A FHAJF IJ=L A @ >E =
nk

|Tn,k | =
i=0

nk (k + i 1)(n 1)n1ki = (I i
n k

A = j = n k i) =

=
j =0 nk

nk (n j 1)(n 1)j 1 = j
nk j =1

=
j =0

nk (n 1)j j
nk1

nk j (n 1)j 1 = j

= nnk (n k )
j =0

nk1 (n 1)j 1 = j

nnk (n k )nnk1 = knnk1 .

= E EL A @= A A E >H = A ED IJ=>= = FH K E @= @HA@E >H =IE A ED KC L @ E = I= EIJ H= E EJE IJHK JKH E B H K = = = = F K =L= A FEHE I =

*4

2 8- ) 10 /4). 8)

A@ IJ=L A FHA>H =JE E E = ILED CH=B L= E = A I KF J A A = [n] 5L= E @L = E I KF {i, j } [n] A = E A H= >EJE n ELE?= J= L C CH=B= 5J C= A >H ILED CH=B L= I= n J A A = A@ = 2( 2 ) A KJE @HA@EJE E E = F LA = ED CH=B L= I= n J A A = A C JA E =@=J= 7 H A =L= K J C FH > A = F E A = A IF A ?E = = B H K= n 5= fm = E >H F LA = ED CH=B L= I= m J A A = = I= hn = 2( 2 ) >H ILED CH=B L= I= n J A A = 5L= E AF LA = CH=B A I=IJ=L A  @ A E F LA = ED CH=B L= = IE = E F LA = E @E A LE CH=B= IA = EL= K F A JA F LA = IJE ,= A FH E L = CH=B I= n J A A = IA @ >E A J= @= I KF J A A = F @E A E K A E F @I KF L= F= = IL= @ ED =@= F LA = CH=B 7 JAH E E = A IF A ?E = A B H K A IJHK JKH= = IA =@= A = F @I KFK J A A = A F LA = CH=B 6= IK EIFK A E KI LE @= IA K H A =L= K L C FH > A = KF JHA>E A IF A ?E = = B H K = ) IK F (x) E H (x) A IF A ?E = A BK ?E A #'

 #

A E A K AH=JEL E FH > A E E JA HE A CH=B L= LK JLH A = (ii)

CA AH=JHEI= = E LA (fn )nN E (hn )nN J=@= A = I E F I A@E?A   H (x) = eF (x) . ) LK A@ = >E = IJ C=HEJ K A @EBAHA ?EH= EF

I= x @

xH (x) = xF (x) H (x).

7F HA K K E A ?E A JA K FHAJD @ A A@ = IJE A
xn n!

K HA@ LE = = E AL = K EJE @= LHE A@E

n

E @AI

IJH= E

nhn =
k=1

n kfk hnk . k
F E L= K = >H

6= I @ >E E HA KH EL K HA =?E K EIJE = @ IJ= F LA = ED CH=B L= I= n J A A =

n k=1
nk n n fk 2( 2 ) = n2( 2 ) . k

,EHA J E A KJE H KA K

>H = A A = FH L AHEJE @= A f1 = 1 f2 = 1; f3 = 4 LA A f4 E f5 JA E H= K =JE  =F= AJ 1 FHAJD @ A B = H= K = = @ >E = f4 = 38 E f5 = 728 =I =

1 I A@A E FHE AH F = K A E A A IF A ?E = = B H K = A K H A =L= K A K AH=JEL ED =@=J= = LA = ED = CH=B LA

2HE

A = A hn >H F A JA F LA = IJE FKJALE JHEI= = E (hn )nN A fm >H

AH  # "

CH=B L= I= n J A A = = E A IF A ?E = K BK

E = IK ILA ?E K CA AH=

4AA A
fm =

=@=J= A HE A EJE F K A IF FKJAL= = I= m J A A = = A =

A ?E = A B H K A ) K EJE @= A
xn 2 n 2

m! ( =m 2

2) f1 = 1 F= A F (x) = x +

2xx2 2(1x) .

) A hn >H CH=B L= I= n J A A = E = IK F A JA F LA = IJE FKJALE FHE A A IF A ?E = A B H K A @ >E = @= A A IF A ?E = = BK ?E = CA AH=JHEI= = J= E

H (x) =
nN0

2xx2 hn k x = eF (x) = e 2(1x) . n!

$

 #

A E A K AH=JEL E FH > A E E JA HE A CH=B L= L= L C HA@= A x2 x3 x4 x5 H (x) = 1 + x + 2 + 7 + 34 + 206 + 2! 3! 4! 5!

n

2HLED A

A ?E A J K x n! A >H F LA = IJE FKJALE

CH=B L= I= n J A A =

E = IK

F A JA

*4

-1

4. 10 /4). 8)

= I KFK ILED CH=B L= E = A I KF J A A = [n] IE AJHE = CHKF= Sn @A IJLK A = FHEH @= = E FAH KJ=?E = = 1 2 . . . n Sn I E = CH=B G = ([n], E ) K CH=B (G) = G = ([n], E ) C@ A A

E = {i j : ij E }.
A = IK G E H @L= CH=B= I= I KF J A A = [n] 6E CH=B LE IK E HB E = E I= = IA = = A K EIJ H>EJE FHE @A IJLK Sn ,= A >H = A H>EJ= FHE @A IJLK Sn = I KFK ILED CH=B L= I= n J A A = @ >E A @C L H = FEJ= A

E = AE

HB ED CH=B L= I= n J A A =

] 5= X = [n = E I KF ILED CK ED ELE?= CH=B= A A [n] 2 I KF J A A = J IK ELE?A F AJ C CH=B= Kn  5L= E CH=B G = ([n], E ) @A E A BK ?E K cG : X {0, 1} C@ A A

cG ({i, j }) = 1 =

A ij E

cG ({i, j }) = 0 =

ij / E.

,= A IL= E CH=B I= n J A A = A E JAHFHAJEH=JE = > A A ELE?= E X I= @LE A > A = I KFK ILED > A = A A A =J= X ELE?A Kn  I= @LE A > A CHKF= Sn @A IJLK A = I A@A E = E

(c) ({i, j }) = c { (i), (j )} .

= A FHE E AJEJE @= IK CH=B LE G E H E @C L=H= K = > A = cG E cH K EIJ H>EJE HB E = E I= = IK

6= A >H AE HB ED CH=B L= I= n J A A = A@ = >H K H>EJ= FHE @A IJLK CHKFA Sn = I KFK ILED > A = A A A =J= I KF= X I= @LE A $

 #

A E A K AH=JEL E FH > A E E JA HE A CH=B L= J= >H HEIJE A JA HA K  ! 

> A ,= @HA@E

A = A gk >H AE HB ED CH=B L= I= n J A A = E J= k ELE?= 6 A >H H>EJ= FHE @A IJLK Sn = I KF > A = A A A =J= E X K E = A > = 1 KF JHA> A = J= k FKJ= ) K B H K K E JA HA A  !  KLHIJE x1 = 1 E x2 = x @ >E A @= A BK ?E = CA AH=JHEI= K IJL=HE F E  = E (gk )kN0

Gn (x) =
k

gk xk = F (1, x) = ZSn (1 + x, 1 + x2 , 1 + x3 , . . .).

241 -,*)  # # ,= >EI C E HEIJEJE B H K K E JA HA A  !  F JHA> A @HA@EJE IJHK JKHK ?E KI= FH E L A FAH KJ=?E A [n] E Sn FHE @A IJLK = X = 2
E ) A C ?E C E A m 2 A @HA A JF IJ=LE KI FAH KJ=?E A Sn I= m A A A =J= A A A JE ?E KI= @L = ED F @I KF L= ,A IJL = JE F @I KF LE = I= @A IJL ?E KI= C *A I = A = F J IJE FHA @= A C = (a1 , a2 , . . . , am ) 4= E L= A @L= I K = =
m1 2

1 *H A A A =J= K ?E KIK C A AF=H= 6=@= FHE @A IJLK = X ?E KIK C @C L=H= m 7 = A FHE AHK J IK

?E KI= @K E A

(a1 a2 , a2 a3 , . . . , am a1 ), (a1 a3 , a2 a4 , . . . , a1 am1 , a2 am ), . . . . . . , (a1 a m1 , a2 a m+1 , . . . , a1 a m+1 , . . . , a m1 am )

2 2 2 2

2 *H A A A =J= K ?E KIK C A F=H= = @L = E F @I KF LE = m E C FAH KJ=?E = E = 2 1 ?E KI @K E A m E A@= ?E KI @K E A m FHE AHK ?E KI @K E A m 2 7 = A 2 A (a1 a m +1 , a2 , a m +3 , . . . , a m 1 , am ) 2 2 2

= ?E KIE @K E A m IK

(a1 a2 , a2 a3 , . . . , am a1 ), (a1 a3 , a2 a4 , . . . , a1 am1 , a2 am ), . . . . . . , (a1 a m , a2 a m +1 , . . . , a1 a m +2 , . . . , a m 1 am ). 2 2 2 2

EE A = IK C = (a1 , a2 , . . . , am ) E C = (b1 , b2 , . . . , bm ) H= E EJE ?E KIE K 6=@= F IJ E mm I KF L= > E = {ai , bj } X C@ A A i [m], j [m ] ) F A @A IJL K A @ JED I KF L= = FHE AH a1 b1 ?E KI $

 #

A E A K AH=JEL E FH > A E E JA HE A CH=B L=

(a1 b1 , a2 b2 , . . .)
IA  =JL HE = r H= = = E I= = m|r E m |r = = E J= =L r A = = E = A@ E E I=@H = =? >H AL= m E m @ I r = (mm mm ) C@ A A (mm ) = LA E = A@ E E @ A E =? >H AL= m E m 5J C= FHE @A IJLK = I KF LA > E = {ai , bj } E = (mm ) ?E KI= mm @K E A (mm ) 1 FHAJD @ C H= =JH= = A = K EJE @= FAH KJ=?E A E Sn EIJ C JEF= EIJA =IA KC=?E A E = K E EIJK IJHK JKHK ?E KI= FHE @A IJLK = X 7 I A@A A @LE A J=>A A @= A FHAC A@ IJHK JKHA ?E KI= = FAH KJ=?E A E S4 E S5

S4 type( ) K S4 >H (1)(2)(3)(4) 14 (12)(3)(4) 21 12 (12)(34) 22 (123)(4) 31 11 (1234) 41

5J C= A JH= A E F E

FAH

1 6 3 8 6

J C JEF= IJHK JKH= K X 16 22 12 22 12 32 41 21

G4 (x) =

1 (1 + x)6 + 6(1 + x)2 (1 + x2 )2 + 3(1 + x)2 (1 + x2 )2 + 24

+8(1 + x3 )2 + 6(1 + x2 )(1 + x4 ) = 1 + x + 2x2 + 3x3 + 2x4 + x5 + x6 .

S5 type( ) K S5 >H (1)(2)(3)(4)(5) 15 (12)(3)(4)(5) 21 13 (12)(34)(5) 22 11 (123)(4)(5) 31 12 (123)(45) 31 21 (1234)(5) 41 11 (12345) 51

2 E E FEIK A >H AE

FAH

J C JEF= IJHK JKH= K X 1 110 10 23 14 15 24 12 20 33 11 20 61 31 11 30 42 21 24 52

HB ED CH=B L= I= FAJ J A A = A

G5 (x) = 1 + x + 2x2 + 4x3 + 6x4 + 6x5 + 6x6 + 4x7 + 2x8 + x9 + x10 .

$!

 #

A E A K AH=JEL E FH > A E E JA HE A CH=B L=

5 E =  & 5LE AE

HB E CH=B LE I= 5 J A A = E 4 ELE?A

= I E?E  & IA AJEHE ELE?A

= = E AIJ

AE

HB ED CH=B L= I= FAJ J A A = E

04 2H=LE

)65 1 2

/4).)

c : V [n] FHE A IK IL= = @L= IKI A@ = J A A = > A = H= E EJ ,HKCE HE A E = = A uv ELE?= K CH=BK G J=@= A c(u) = c(v ) = @ L LA E FHEH @= >H m I= G (m) = E >H H= E EJED > A = CH=B= G I= m > = = FHE AH = A E H= K =JE Kn (m) = m(m 1)(m 2) (m n + 1), Pn = m(m 1)n1 .
2 = = A @= A BK ?E = m G (m) F E I= FH =J IA G (m) = EL= DH =JI E F E CH=B= G ) = CH=B G E = A E F A FH L AHEJE @= LHE A@E A JE F LA = IJE HA?E A EL

> A A CH=B= G = (V, E ) I= n > = A FHAI E =L= A

G1 , G2 , . . . , Gk

G (m) = G1 (m)G2 (m) Gk (m).

5J C= K @= A JA IJK F I =JH= I= F LA = A CH=B LA

5L= CH=BK G @ @E A E F IAJ L(G) = I A@A E = E - A A JE F IAJ= L(G) IK F=HJE?E A I KF= J A A = J= LA @= IK CH=B LE E @K L= E J A A E = K KJ=H EIJ C > = F LA = E F @CH=B LE @ G 6 = E @= = IL= = @L= J A A = = IK K EIJ > K F IJ E FKJ K A IA F =LA I= JA A =E J C> = E ED I=@H E = , L(G) = A @= A = = K E = A ED > L= E E E == F=HJE?E = K IK ILE > LE A@ = = = = A A A J 1L J C F IAJ= A F=HJE?E IA IL= E > K A @ >EJE AA A J 0L K F IAJK L(G) A E = A G F LA = = IE = I= I= A@ E >

5=@= A @A EI=JE BK ?E A f, g : L(G) C = F=HJE?E K I= g ( ) = E >H ILED > A = J A A = G I= m > = K E = IK J A A = E EIJ C > = K > A = EIJ > ) >H > L= K = E $"

 #

A E A K AH=JEL E FH > A E E JA HE A CH=B L=

I= | | J=@= A g ( ) = m|| 5= f ( ) = E >H > A = J A A = K G J= @= LHE A@E

IL= J A A = K EIJ > K IK > A = EIJ > E = IK u E v IKI A@ = J A A = K G E = FHEF=@= K H= E EJE > LE = J=@= IK > A E H= E EJE > = =
2HE E AJE @= A >H

G (m)

E JH= E

=FH=L

A@ = f ( 0L )

A = A F=HJE?E = E L(G) E A = IK J A A = CH=B= G > A = J= @= IK J A A = E EIJ C > = > A = I= EIJ > 6= L > A A IA >H E K BK ?E E g ( ) ) IK u E v J A A = =  =HK =L= K & > A A A IA >H E I= f ED LA > LA IF E 6 F LE J E FKJ= @ A @ >E A F=HJE?E K = IA >H E K BK ?E E f = I LK FHAJD @ C H= =JH= = = K K A @= = IL= > A A J A A = CH=B= A IA >H E K g ( ) F IJ E A@E IJLA = F=HJE?E = K IA EIJ > A A J A A = >H E K f ( ) 6= I F = = E @= = FH E L K F=HJE?E K L(G) LHE A@E

g ( ) =

f ( ).

) = FHAJD @ K A@ = IJ FHE E A E A>E KI LK B H K K E LAH E A @ >E A (, )g ( ). f ( ) =

5FA?E =

LHE A@E
n

L(G),| |=k

( 0L , ) mk .
F m = H= K = A F E =

G (m) = f ( 0L ) =
L(G)

( 0L , )m|| =
k=1

6=

= = E @= A G (m) =EIJ= F E

L IL= = E A = = E E = A =I E E = E G (m) LE@ AJE =@=J= !! = H= K LA C =LA

18

6 >

= E @= IK u E v IKI A@ = J A A = LE = F=HJE?E A

> A = EIJ

>

E = = A IA K H= E EJE

$#

 $

=@=?E

A KJE FH K =L= A I >E = A>E KI LA BK ?E A = A E =I= = F IAJ= L(G) A FHE AH IA E @K =H ED F IAJ= LE@ AJE K !$  A HEI AH IA A I= =JE LE A F E K G = FHE AH A IA F = =JE @= = LE A ?E A =J= K F E K G = JAH EH= K 6= A | V ( G ) | | V ( G ) | 1 A ?E A J K x A A@= = A ?E A J K x A |E (G)|

 $ =@=?E
 = E A IF A ?E = K BK ?E K CA AH=JHEI= = >H FAH KJ=?E = E = @K E A ?E KI= FHEF=@= K I KFK {n1 , n2 , . . . , nk } 2 K A = E HA KH EL K HA =?E K = E hn C@ A A hn >H FAH KJ=?E = E Sn E E IK ?E KIE @K E A @L= E E JHE = E A IF A ?E = K BK ?E K CA AH=JHEI= = >H F=HJE?E = I KF= [n] K> LA J= @= A >H A A A =J= K IL= > K FH IJ = E A IF A ?E = K BK ?E K CA AH=JHEI= = >H FAH KJ=?E = E Sn @ A ILE ?E KIE E = K >=H AJEHE A A A J= = E A IF A ?E = K BK ?E K CA AH=JHEI= = >H CH=B L= I= AF=H E >H A F A JE F LA = IJE K E = IK IL= J A A = IJAFA = A@= E E @L= @HA@E A IF A ?E = K BK ?E K CA AH=JHEI= = >H 2 HACK =H ED CH=B L= A = A {R, S, T } A = F=HJE?E = I KF= [n] 2 = E @= A >H KHA A ED JH E (, G, H ) C@ A A E L K?E = = R G E H 2 HACK =H E CH=B LE I= J A A E = S @ I T  A@ = n! A = A an >H = E = @= IA = I KFK [n] =FH=LE A = F=HJE?E = = =JE @= IA K IL= @> L= @=>AHA AFH= = F @I KF = E A IF A ?E = K BK ?E K CA AH=JHEI= = E (an )nN A = A an >H FAH KJ=?E = K Sn E = @K E = ?E KI= E A @ A EL= I= JHE @HA@E an = E = = IA = E A=H KHA A I KFK @ = A = A am >H m A A A =J= A =@=JE A = IJHK JKH= LHE A@E a0 = 0 = bn >H = E = @= IA KHA A = n J H = F @E A E = A E @E A L= = =JE = IL= @ JED @E A K =@= F I =JH= = IJHK JKH= ) IK A(x) E B (x) >E A BK ?E A CA AH=JHEI= = E LA (an )nN E (bn )nN J=@= A 1 B (x) = . 1 A(x)

! " # $ % & '

$$

 $

=@=?E

> 2 K B H K A E (a) @HA@EJE = E A = E = CK A >H ALA E [n] F @ A EJE K A E E JAHL= = = =JE ILA >H ALA > EJE I= A@ @ @LE A =@= A > A J= @= >H ALE E EIJ C E JAHL= = >K@K EIJA > A  = = E = E = A n K@E F @ A EJE K k CHKF= = =JE K@A K IL= CHKFA F HA@=JE K HA@ > , = =JE @= A
n

1+
n1 k=1

xu n! n 1 k un x = e 1u k! k 1 n!

?

= FH E L

= a N LHE A@E
n
xu n! n + (a 1)k 1 k un x = e (1u)a k! n! nk

1+
n1 k=1

  ! " #

$ %

&
19

E E = IJ=>= = I= n + 1 A = A ED J A A = E I= n = A ED ELE?= A = A an >H EIJ L= K ILE IJ=> E = I= n J A A = @HA@E an A = IK =@= E I KF LE A1 , A2 , . . . , An J= LE @= A |Ai | = i + 1 E = = A IEIJA = H= E EJED FHA@IJ=L E = E = K J B= E E E I KF L= A = A Ai = {i 1, i, i + 1} [n] = ILA i [n] E IEIJA = H= E EJED FHA@IJ=L E = E = K I KF LE A1 , A2 , . . . , An A = A A =JHE?= E E IK ILE = LE 0 E E 1 = = E >H E E =  E E = A LHIJ= E E = F JHA>= @= IA F HE K ILA A@E E?A A A@ = = IE = >H K A@E E?= K J =JHE?E A A @=>H=JE J= A F IJ A @LE A @=>H= A A@E E?A K EIJ E E E A = A A ? A >H = n n =JHE?= aij 0 = ILA i, j [n] ) A >EH A A A =J= K IL= LHIJE E IL= E A@ = l J=@= A A ' A CK A =FEI=JE = >EH l FAH KJ=?E ED =JHE?= A = A IK A1 , A2 , . . . , An E B1 , B2 , . . . , Bn A A F=HJE?E A I KF= {1, 2, . . . , nm} K n > L= J= @= IL= E > E = m A A A =J= , = E @= F IJ E FAH KJ=?E = Sn J= L= @= = ILA i [n] LHE A@E Ai B(i) = . ,L= =JA =JE =H= E L @A I A@A E JHE 1 FE = @ 52 =HJA A @=>AHA FAJ =H=J= E @=@ A ED FHL
2AH KJ=?E = IJ= IK K A =JHE?= K IL= LHIJE E IL= E E = J= A@ K A@E E?K

$%

 $ F '

=@=?E

 

"

=JA =JE =HK L= I= HE A A@ K =HJK = IJ= A AJEHE I E K E E = A @HKC =JA =JE =HK ,HKCE =JA =JE =H IECKH F C= = = A =HJ= I= HELA = > =I E = IA E L @E L= JHE  = C E E IA = = E n+1 HKC L= I A ED K n HA@ L= 7 FHL HA@K 2 A n K @HKC n 1 . . . = K F I A@ A HA@K A A@= HKC  A HA E @= IK HKC LE I A E K A@ = IJH= E E JH KC=  = E = E = A JA HKC LA CK A > =JE I= JHE > A > A = FHE @A IJLK H J=?E = IA I =JH= K EIJE  \J= IA @AIE = E@A JE K A E IL= > A = = IA A@ @ @HKC C CK @ >EJE FHE @A IJLK @EA@=HI A CHKFA D3 A = A G AJHELE = = F @CHKF= Sn J= L= @= = ILA G, = Id F IJ E A@E IJLA = I = J= = , = E @= F IJ E i [n] J= @= = ILA Sn LHE A@E (i) = i E E = H= E EJED FKJAL= @ (0, 0) @ (n, n) I= H=?E = @AI E C HA = @L= FKJ= I =JH= EIJE K E IA A@= A @ >EJE @ n @HKC C IE AJHE = FH=LK y = x E E = J= K ( n , ) 2 2 7 FH IJ HK IK =@= A AJEHE A F = =H A J= A E E = H= E EJED F=H= A FEFA@= E = IK JA J= A J A A = = E = E = A CK A > EJE J A A = FH=LE C JAJH=A@H= I= n > = = IA @L= > A = I =JH= K EIJE = IA A@ @ @HKC C A @ >EJE A I H J=?E E E A >H H= E EJED > A = = E@A JE K A E> A =F K H=L= I ED HA A IE = = E = E = A CK= A > EJE 64 F = =D LI A J=> A I= @LE A > A @L= > A = IK EIJ= = IA CK E@A JE L=JE H J=?E = = F A E E = J= LED > A = @ ED IK > A > A HE JA A A@ = >H FKJ=

# ,EA@=HI = CHKF= D4 @A IJLK A = I KFK F = =D LI A J=> A 8 8 = E >H = E = @= IA @A>AHK F=H LE F @I KF L= (A, B ) A B = IA F=H LE (A, B ) E (A , B ) E IA A@= @ @HKC C CK @ >EJE @A IJL A A A J= E D4 I =JH= K EIJE ZSn (z1 , z2 , . . .)xn . $ 1 H= K = % = ED = =?= = E E = @L = ED = JE = =?= K Bn & ,= E F IJ E F IAJ P K A A = LA = @K E = = IE = C = ?= d K A A IL= E A A A J I=@H = K A = ?K @K E A d = E P E = = IE = = = =? H= E @ d ) = ILA x, y P J= LA @= y E E = @L
nN0

$&

 $

=@=?E

=J HEL= x F IJ E = =? @K E A d E I=@H E x E y @ = E @= IK ILE = IE = E = ?E K P @K E A d ' A = A P F IAJ = I KFK [n] , = E @= IK I A@A = JLH A = A LE L= A J = = P IA A @ >EJE = FHAI A d E A=H ED KHA A = = [n] > P A E HB= I= A E F JF IAJ Nd ! ) A K FHAJD @ =@=J K d = 2 @ = E @= IK JLH A = a) E b) A LEL= A J = I= ? 2 IJ E F IAJ Q = [n] J= =L @= IK x E y KF HA@ELE K Q = E I= = EIK KF HA@ELE K P ! , = E @= = ILA n N LHE A@E n = (d)
d|n

! 1 H= K =JE n ( 0, 1) !! A = A G FH E L = CH=B E A = A e = uv FH E L = ELE?= J C CH=B= A = A G = G\e CH=B @ >E A >HEI= A ELE?A e = G = G/e CH=B @ >E A JH= ?E ELE?A e J A A = u E v IA I E AFA K L JA A A A IF A I= ILE IKI A@E = u E E v  , = E @= A

G (m) = G (m) G (m).

!" HE A J=?E = CH=B= G A E > H A@ A @ @LE A CK A HE A J=?E A = EE A  HE A J=?E = A =?E E = IL= K ELE?K  = ELE?K uv A uv vu = IA A F =LE HE A JEI= ?E KI , = E @= A >H =?E E ED HE A J=?E = CH=B= G A@ = (1)|G| G (1) !# 1 H= K = DH =JI A F E A = = IJ=> I= n J A A = > ?E KI Cn F AJ= >EF=HJEJ= CH=B Km,n ? @ F AJ= CH=B I= n J A A = E AC IK >HEI= A @LE A ELE?A !$ 7 A@ I AH K E?E IA = = E F=H E C = n =KJ >E = = F=H E C @ = E n =KJ >E =  A@= F A@=  8 = i J C =KJ >E = IA A E F=H EH=JE = AIJ ai ) A A A AIJ I > @ IA JK F=H EH= E = A IA F=H EH= = FHL I A@A A I > @ AIJ 7 E IK IL= AIJ= =K AJ= L = @ = E = A E @HKCE F=H E C E E = n E L= (a1 , a2 , . . . , an ) [n] J= @= IA IL= L E = CK F=H EH=JE A (a1 , a2 , . . . , an ) [n]n E = E IA =KJ >E E E FHAJD @ C !% ) =@=J = CK F=H EH=JE E E =  AKIF A ED F K = = F=H E H= = !& A = A k FHEH @= >H = E @ n 2HAJF IJ=LE @= IA n + 1 k =KJ >E A E F=H EH=JE = F=H E C I= n AIJ= E E = E L= $'

 % 4 A A = =@=J= =

(a1 , a2 , . . . , ank+1 ) [n]nk+1 = A IA J= L E = CK F=H EH=JE = IA = @= A FHLED k 1 AIJ= = F=H E CK HA AHLEI= !' E E = E L= (a1 , a2 , . . . , an ) [n]n = A IA =KJ >E E K =@=J K !$ CK F=H EH=JE K E = IA >H A@= F =LE J= k FKJ= " A = A S F @I KF Rn I=IJ=L A @ ILED LA J H= > E = (0, 0, . . . , 0, 1, 1, . . . , 1, , 0, 0, . . . , 0), a, b, c N0 , a + b + c = n.
a b c

E =n

= ED F @I KF L= I KF= S

E IK >= = = Rn

 % 4 A A = =@=J= =
nk  H (x) = e n1 n2 = n1 = 2 E n2 = 3 A H (x) = e 2 + 3 2 K E L @= IA @ >E A (x + x2 )H (x) = H (x) @=L@A A hn+1 = nhn1 + n(n 1)hn2 = n 4 h2 = 1, h3 = 2 xn1

+x

n2

++ x

nk

x2

x3

A FH IJ p!

xp

ex 2 3 ! H (x) = . (1 x) ! " = n > 2 >H FKJAL= @K E A n A n ?E KI= @K E A n A 2 = >H (n1)! =@= IA FHE A E (iii) E F I A@E?A   @ >E A IA JH= A = 2 BK ?E = sinh
x x2

x2

x3

1 1 x2 ln(1 x) 1 2x 2 1x 2

e 2 4 # H (x) = 1x $ ) A in >H E L K?E = K Sn = rn >H J A A = ABC = JA E LA IK I (x) = e

= A I (x)R2 (x) =
1 1x x+ x 2
2

HACK =H ED CH=B L= I= n
x x2

e 2 4 , R(x) = . 1x

J @

A I
k+l+m=n

k+l+m=n

ik rl rm =1 k !l!m!

n! ik rl rm = n! k !l!m!

%

 % 4 A A = =@=J= = % ee e & -BC = E an A

2x x

xk k1 k

x3k k1 3k

3 2 1 x3 = = (1 + x + x2 )(1 x3 ) 3 . 1x an =

5J C= A ' = 8HE A@E bn = i1 +i2 ++ik =n ai1 ai2 aik x 1x > A(x) = 12 A@ = 3n 3n1 = x B (x) = 13x F= A JH= A E >H 2 3n1 ! n1  = n k! k1 > 5 E A@E E F E?E A B H K A FHE A A A = (a) ? 8HE A@E n + (a 1)k 1 nk+1 = nk ak 1 J A >H = E = = IA A IJ=LEJE ak 1 FHACH=@= E A K n k J= = = , @= A@ K FHACH=@K = F AJ= E = H= 1IFHA@ FHACH=@= I= HA@ E >H A k 2k, . . . , a k @ @= F A@ K J= K K KF n 6= = = @ @ A E FAH KJ=?E K @ [n] = n! = E = E F I =JH= @E E A K FHACH=@= (j 1)a E ja ,E A A A I= k !  AH > LE EIK KHA A E @ >E = n! n+(a1)k1 >H = E = = IA [n] A F @E A EJE @= A k! nk = k @E A L= = IL= @E A K IA @A E A E A=H E F HA@= a1 , a2 , . . . , ar E K IL= @E A K IA @ @= a 1 FHACH=@=  A FHE A a1 = E A I E A F I E A ar  5=@= IA EI HEIJE F E?E = B H K= J A A  @=>H= = n +1 = E  = E I= 0 IJ=  ) FH E L > HE A JE A  @ K A IL= ELE?E @C L=H= A@E IJLA J A A = A I= ELE?= IA F AHA K @C L=H= K A J A A E @ >E = A@ @ (n + 1)n1 = A ED IJ=>= = I= n + 1 J A A = 6H= A E >H A (n + 1)n2 @ n J A A = A EIJ A C IJ=> = J= J IA  n(n 1)n2 5L=  = E AFE = A @ (n 1) J A A = A C IJ=> =  A@ C @ (n 1)n3  = FHA IJ= EE J A A E = ! 2n " A = A an JH= A E >H 4= E K K E I K = ALA =@= E A1 >EH= 1 E E 2 @ >E A @= A an+2 = an+1 + an = A a2 = 2 E a3 = 3 J A an = Fn %

 % 4 A A = =@=J= = A = A m = = E >H E E = F JHA>= @= IA F HE K ILA A@E E?A K A E A = A M = LA E >H A@E E?= K A J= LED @= E A@ = E E = A I=@H E @LE A A@E E?A = HEL= A JED M A@E E?= JHA>= M E E = F= A IECKH m M 2HAJF IJ=LE @= A ILA A@E E?A CK A F HEJE I= m E E = E @= I HEIJE E v LHIJ= E k = m = v + k  HEIJA E FHA = =L= A A FHAJF IJ=LEJE @= I ILA A@E E?A F HE E F K FHLED v LHIJ= E FHLED k = 5=@= = ILA i [n] F I =JH= I KF LA Ai = {j > k : aij = 1} ) >E K E = A ED k I KF L= E = = = A @ k A A A =J= J=@= IA JED k LHIJ= A = E A EJE I= = A @ k = JH=@E ?E = I= E A E? @= A m E E = =  5J C= A1 , A2 , . . . , Av E = K IEIJA H= E EJED FHA@IJ=L E = v A@E E?= K F I A@ ED n k = 5 E IA F = A @= J= =JHE?= E = k A@E E?= K F I A@ ED nv LHIJ= 6 A k +v = m A@E E?= J= LED @= E A@ = E E = A I=@H E @LE A $ 1 @K ?E F l ,A E A Ai = {j [n] : aij = 0} = A = IL= ED k I KF L= Ai1 , Ai2 , . . . , Aik >EH = L= K @C L=H= K E = = A@ = kl K >=H k = F IJ A A K = A A A JE 5J C= I KF LE A1 , A2 , . . . , An E = K IEIJA H= E EJED FHA@IJ=L E = J @C L=H= A FAH KJ=?E =JHE?E P 5=@= F I =JH= AP % A = A X = (xij )i,j [n] C@ A A xij = |Ai Aj | 1I HEIJE FHAJD @ E =@=J= FE K @ 52 & A = A X I KF ILED AJLAH = ED E L= K =@= =HJA = IL= E FAJ = E F @I KF S = {k1 , k2 , k3 , k4 , k5 } =H=J= I= AS = E I KF E L= E X E IA CK @ >EJE @ A A A =J= E S 8HE A@E |AS | = 120 E IL= E A A A J E X A I=@H = K 48 I KF L= AS 5 E = K FHE AHK  ! A = K EJE @= F I =JH= = B= E E = I KF L= E = IEIJA H= E EJED FHA@IJ=L E = =JA =JE =HE IA K =FHE A@ @ C L HA IEIJA K H= E EJED FHA@IJ=L E = F= @HKCE =JA =JE =H = E A FAJ = E I KF S E @A I = AS @= A A E =>H= = LE@ EL== AJL H = '
1 3

#

n(n+1) 2

+23 +23

n(n+1) 6 n(n+1) 6

I
+ (n+1 2 ) 2 n 2

FHE @A IJLK D3

n(n+1) 1 2 3 6

+33

A = A Gi IJ=>E E =J H A A A J= i 1 KI L= =@=J = = @= A G \{Id} @EI K J = K E = (G1 \{Id}) (G2 \{Id}) (Gn \{Id}).

 % 4 A A = =@=J= = 2HAJF IJ=LE @= IK O1 , O2 , . . . , Or H= E EJA H>EJA FHE @A IJLK G = I KF [n] E @= IK x1 , x2 , . . . , xr A A A JE E JED H>EJ= = ILE A A A JE EIJA H>EJA E = K IJ=>E E =J H EIJA LA E E A J A

|G| 1 = |O1 |(|Gx1 | 1) + |O2 |(|Gx2 | 1) + + |Or |(|Gxr | 1).

= @E A A = I= |G| @ >E A @= A

1 1 1 1 = (1 ) + (1 ) + + (1 ), |G| |Gx1 | |Gx2 | |Gxr |

@= A I E A@E @= A CK >EJE @L= H= E EJ= A A A J= E A IK H>EJA LA A @ A@= n  = AF=H n IE AJHE A K @ IK = J= K ( n 2 , 2 ) E = FH=LK y = x A IEH= K E A@= FKJ F E?E = LA @LE A IE AJHE A IEH= 2n FKJAL= > E = DGG . . . DGD GDG . . . DDG 5J C= A JH= A E >H
2n n FKJAL= = AF=H= n A@ = 1 4 n +2 n = F=H= n F IJ E FKJAL= E IK E L=HE = J E I > EH = n 2 n n IE AJHE K J= A ( 2 , 2 ) 6= A = F=H= n >H JH= A ED FKJAL= n n

' ! /HKF= H J=?E ED IE AJHE = E CHKF= ILED IE AJHE = FH=LE @H= E = K I A@A A ?E KI E @A IA

1 4

2n n

+ 2n +

n
n 2

.
C JAHJH=A

1 4 2 (z + 8z1 z3 + 3z2 ) 12 1
4 A A = =@=J = IK

1 4 2 2 (z + 8z1 z3 + 3z2 + 6z1 z2 + 6z4 ). 24 1

@ I
n4 +6n3 +11n2 +6n 24 64 1 1 = 4 32 + 2

n4 +11n2 12

32 64 17 32 ILED > A = " 1 = 1 16 4 2 +2 +2 8 + 16 > A =K A IK F 32 F = EIJA > A ?HLA F = E B \A > E F =L = IL= IJ= = # 2 =E A > E F = > E I= >E A > *H H= E EJED F=H L= F @I KF L= A A@ = >H K H= E EJED > A = 64 F = I= JHE > A FHE @A IJLK D4 6= >H A A@ =

1 64 3 + 3 332 + 2 336 + 2 316 . 8

$ = (c1 , c2 , . . . , cn ) N0 n J= =L @= A c1 + 2c2 + + ncn = n c1 c2 1 cn A ?E A J K xn z1 z2 zn =J A 1c1 c1 !2c2 c2 !ncn cn ! %! A

 % 4 A A = =@=J= =

ZSn (z1 , z2 , . . .)xn =

nN0 c1 c1 z1 x c1 ! c2 2c2 z2 x 2c2 c2 ! c3 3c3 z2 x 3c3 c3 !
3 x2 +z3 x + 2 3

= ez1 x+z2

c1

c2

c3

% *H @L = ED = =?= A 3n 2n = >H @L = ED = JE = =?= A 4n1 3n + 2n1 & 7 F IAJK a1 < a2 < a3 a4 < a3 a4 < a5 < a6 IL= E A A A J A K = ?K @K E A JHE = a4 < a3 A = IE = = = =? @K E A @L= ,HKC JLH A A IA @ = A E @K ?E F d ' a b A = A P FHAI A d E A=H ED KHA A = i = ai1 ai2 . . . ain Sn = i [d] = x [n] A = A s(x) = (x1 , x2 , . . . , xd ) C@ A A xi F E?E = x K FAH KJ=?E E i = A FH L AHEJE @= A A = {s(x) : x [n]} E HB= I= P b a A = A P E HB= I= A Nd 5 KF A =FE A = n d =JHE?K (aij ) = k J= = JA =JHE?A @A E A FAH KJ=?E K k = k1 k2 . . . kn E Sn >H i IA K k F =LE FHE A j = A aik < ajk E E A aik = ajk = i < j K F IAJK P 2HAI A E A=H ED KHA A = 1 , 2 . . . , d @= A F IAJ P A P FHAI A @L= E A=H = KHA A = @A E A @= A ! a c ) i <Q j = E I= = A i = A @ j K FHL =j = A @iK @HKC @ JED KHA A = a c IJHKE E FHL E A=H KHA A A = P K A A i = A @ j = E I= = A i <P j E E i <Q j 7 @HKC E A=H KHA A A A i = A @ j = A i <P j E E j <Q i mk 1 m2 = I = B= J HE =?E = >H = n 4A =?E K ! A = A n = pm 1 p2 pk E IA H= K = AH L= BK ?E =

(n) = n

n p1

n p2

n p + k

n p1 p2

+ + (1)r pi

p pir 1 i2

A =FEI=JE I= g (n) = d|n (d, n)f (d) C@ A A g (x) = (x) = f (x) = x 5=@= JLH A A I E A@E E A>E KI LA E LAH E A 2HEI AJE IA @= A 0 F=HJE?E = [n] I= n A@ = ED > L= = 1 E = A@= > I= n A A A =J= = FH E L = FHEH @= >H x E n I= g ( ) = E >H BK ?E = h : [n] [x] @ ED IK AFH= E F @I KF LE h 1 ({1}), h1 ({2}), . . . , h1 ({n}) J= > LE F=HJE?E A = FHE AH LHE A@E g ( 0) = x(x 1) (x n +1) %"

 % 4 A A = =@=J= = @A E A BK ?E K f : n C I= f ( ) = A>E KI LK E LAH E K @ >E = @= A g ( ) = | | IA KL AHEJE @= A f ( ) = x C@ A A | | >H > )

g ( ) HEIJA E ( )f ( ) = L= K 5=@= E

x(x 1) (x n + 1) = g ( 0) =

( 0, )x| |

= K KA @= A JH= A = LHE A@ IJ A>E KI LA BK ?E A A ?E A J K x 6 A ()n1 (n 1)! !! 2H=LE = > A = CH=B= G I= m > = IK E FH=LE = > A = CH=B= G IE K I K = K =@= IK u E v > A E EIJ > ) IA J A A = u E v E@A JE K K J= L= > A = IK J= FH=LE = > A = CH=B= G !" A IA F = =JE @= >H HE A J=?E = = CH=BK G =@ L =L= EIJK HA KH EL K HA =?E K = DH =JI E F E E FHAJD @ C =@=J = !# HEIJA E @A E?E K DH =JI C F E = E E H A A A =@=J = !! @ >E = @= A G (m) A@ = = m(m 1)n1 > (m 1)n + (1)n (m 1) ?
m i=1 n i+j j =1 S (m, i)S (n, j )m

@ m(m 1) (m n + 4)(m n + 3)2 (m n + 2) !$ , @= A@ AIJ = F=H EH= A E =H= EH= F=H E C = HK E J F I E A AIJ= n + 1 @ = E AIJ 1 5=@= @ L E @= IA A A E F=H EH=JE E = AIJ n +1 = IL= E E (a1 , a2 , . . . , an ) [n + 1]n =KJ >E E IA CK F=H EH=JE 6ED E L= E = (n + 1)n = IFEI= A = (a1 , a2 , . . . , an ) =KJ >E E IA CK F=H EH=JE E = IJ=HE F=H E C = E I= = A AIJ n + 1 K HK F=H E CK IJ= I > @ /HKF= Zn+1 @A IJLK A = IFEI K A = [n + 1]n @ @= K E 1 = IL= K H@E =JK K HK F=H E CK A n + 2 = 1 @ I F AH= K E =KJ >E A = F=H E CK = A@= 7 IL= H>EJE F IJ E J= A@= IFEI= A = K A A AIJ n + 1 I > @ 6H= A E >H E L= A (n + 1)n1 n !% n i=1 ai 2 !& HEIJE A I E K E@A K = E K =@=J K !$ = K IL= H>EJE E = k E L= = A A n + 1 >EJE FH= = H A A A A k (n + 1)nk K H A A = FHAJD @ C =@=J = @ >E A @= A H A A A !' 2

n knnk1 = k
%#

n 1 n k n . k1

 % 4 A A = =@=J= = " 1 A K H@E =J= LA J H= E Rn E FHE A FHLA E = F I A@ A H@E =JA KFE E >H ALA 1, 2, . . . , n + 1 5L= E LA J H E S  IE K = LA J H= E E A E JAHAI= J= = >= K A @HA A I= F=H >H AL= (p, q ) C@ A A p F E?E = F I E A A F E A E A@E E?= = q A F E?E = FHE A A E A@E E?= =LH =L=  =J I KF S E = n+1 + 1 LA J H= 2 = J= = E LA J HK E S A @ @E A EJE ELE?K pq K CH=BK A A I KF J A A = [n + 1] A E n = E F @I KF @ S A >= = = E I= = A CH=B I= n ELE?= =I ?EH= E LA J HE = E J C I KF= =?E E =  =J >= = K S E = E E = A ED IJ=>= = = [n + 1] n 1 @= A (n + 1)

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EJAH=JKH=

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