EDMA310: Assessment task 2- insights from research for classroom planning
EDMA310 Assessment task 2: CONTENTS
SECTION 1 Research Paper: Introduction Literature review Critique of Curriculum Conclusion References
SECTION 2 Unit Planner: Unit Overview Unit of work References Appendix
Tanya Valencic S00122203
EDMA310: Assessment task 2- insights from research for classroom planning
Introduction: Fractions play a central role in mathematics learning. They are theoretically important because they require a deeper understanding of numbers than that typically gained from experience with whole numbers (Siegler, Fazio, Bailey, & Zhou, 2013, p.13). Once fully understood fractions enable advances in students future mathematical achievement (Bailey, Hoard, Nugent, & Geary, 2012, p.454). Fractions relate to other content areas, such as algebra, and are important for students later on in life (Fuchs, Schumacher, Long, Namkung, Hamlett, Cirino, Jordan, Siegler, Gersten, & Changas, 2013, p.683). This research paper explores what students need to learn, what misconceptions they tend to have and the best way for teachers to approach these issues.
Literature review: Students need to understand is the role of the numerator and denominator in relation to each other (Chinnappan, 2005, p.242). Students must understand that when looking at fractions they are looking at equal parts of a whole (Chinnappan, 2005, p.242). The number of parts identified is the denominator and tells us the amount of equal parts represented, and the number of parts selected is the numerator (Chinnappan, 2005, p.242). Students need to be able to combine both of these understandings to be able to correctly identify and understand fractions (Chinnappan, 2005, p.242). It isnt enough for students to simply identify the numerator and denominator, they also need to be able to use fractional language to show their understanding (Pearn, 2003, p.404). Van de Walle, Karp and Bay-Williams (2010) believes this fractional language helps students develop further understanding of the numerator and EDMA310 assessment task 2: Gaining insights from research for classroom planning RESEARCH PAPER Tanya Valencic S00122203 FOCUS AREA 2.1: This literature review demonstrates my knowledge and understanding of the concepts, substance and structure of the content and teaching strategies of the teaching area of fractions. Tanya Valencic S00122203
EDMA310: Assessment task 2- insights from research for classroom planning
denominator (p.294). Kieren (as cited in Pearn, 2003) also suggests that students need to develop proper fractional language before formal work with fractions begins (p.404). Fractions have always represented a considerable challenge for students (Van de Walle et al., 2010, p.286). One of those challenges includes students using prior generalisations of whole numbers and applying these to fractions (Streefland, as cited in Clarke & Roche, 2009, p.128). A common misconception that students tend to hold is that multiplication produces larger numbers and division produces smaller ones, although this is true with whole numbers, the same generalisation cannot be said for fractions (Clarke, Roche, & Mitchell, 2008, p.374). Learning fractions requires a reorganization of numerical knowledge, one that allows a deeper understanding of numbers than is ordinarily gained through experience with whole numbers (Siegler et al., 2013, p.13). It is because of this teachers need to be able to help students see how fractions are like and different from whole numbers (Van de Walle, et al., 2010, p. 287). Another problematic area that students generally face when learning about fractions is dealing with part-whole representations (Chinnappan, 2005, p.241). Siegler et al. (2013) believes this is because students are not exposed to varying fractional constructs (p.14). Behr and Post (as cited in Pearn, 2003) believe students who are exposed to fractions across all five constructs (part-whole, measurement, division, operator and ratio) are able to build their understanding of rational numbers (p.404). Fractions are difficult to teach and to learn, but they should not be viewed as a lost cause (Clarke et al., 2008, p.373). It is important to identify and understand students misconceptions so you are then able to address these issues presented (Wong, 2010, p.673). Kilpatrick, Swafford and Findell, (as cited in Clarke et al.,2008) point out that many students are confused when faced with the different constructs, models and coding conventions that are involved with fractions (p.373). Van de Walle et al (2010) suggests that teachers should ensure that students are able to view and represent fractions in all three models (set, area and length models) to offer students different opportunities to learn (p.288). Another important teaching practice includes getting students to have experiences with estimating through the use of benchmarking, which according to Clarke and Roche (as cited in Sexton, Brown, & Downton, 2010) allows students to FOCUS AREA 2.5: This section lists some of the numeracy strategies that can be used when teaching fractions. Tanya Valencic S00122203
EDMA310: Assessment task 2- insights from research for classroom planning
compare two fractions (p.3). This thinking strategy helps students to develop a relational understanding of fractions (Reys, Ok-Keyong, & Bay, as cited in Sexton et al., 2010, p.3). Many students are unable to construct or identify equivalent fractions (Bana, Farrell, & McIntosh; Pearn; Siemon, Virgona, & Corneille, as cited in Wong, 2010, p.673). Larson (as cited in Kamii & Clark, 1995) explains that many students dont understand that a fraction represents a number that can be named in numerous ways (p.367). Kamii and Clark (1995) suggest teachers shun traditional instruction and teach proper fractions, improper fractions and mixed numbers at the same time to allow students to think about parts and wholes at the same time, leading to an understanding of equivalence (p.375).
Critique of the Curriculum: As stated by the Victorian Curriculum and Assessment Authority (2013), students are first introduced to fractions in level 1 (VCAA, 2013). Clarke (2006) believes that event though there is extensive research about how students learn fractions, our curriculum documents fail to reflect or take this literature into account (p.6). According to Siegler, et al (2013) at age four, children show symbolic fractional knowledge when given representations of half (p.15). However, this is concept is not explored in the Australian curriculum until level 1 (VCAA, 2013). Van de Walle et al (2010) explains that understanding equivalent fractions is critical (p. 286). However, this understanding is not explored in the Australian curriculum until level 4 (VCAA, 2013). Clarke and Roche (2010) have noted that many teachers find our current curriculum documentation overwhelming and that as a result of trying to get through it all many mathematical topics are only being taught from a surface level (p.19). Students need to be given time to understand what fractions are about (rather than moving quickly to computation) and that the ultimate goal should be to develop students who can reason proportionally (Clarke, et al., 2008, p.374). In regards to fractions this tends to mean that teachers will focus their attention on the four operations with decimals and fractions, leaving students with little or no knowledge of more important foundational notions including fractions as division, operator and measure (Clarke & Roche, 2010, p.19). Tanya Valencic S00122203
EDMA310: Assessment task 2- insights from research for classroom planning
Conclusion: This paper clearly identifies the teaching and learning of fractions as detrimental in the primary school curriculum. It explores the teaching and learning difficulties teachers and students face throughout the content knowledge involved with fractions. Research highlights the importance of students understanding the numerator and denominator through the use of fractional language and the difficulties that arise when whole-number concepts are applied to fractions. It states the importance of teachers exposing the students to multiple representations and models of fractions, and the importance of students estimating fractions through the use of benchmarking. This research also explores how teachers need to shy away from traditional teaching instruction to provide students with an understanding of equivalent fractions. This research tells us that it takes time for students to understand these concepts and that they cant be rushed through. However, many teachers and education professionals believe our curriculum to be crowded, meaning these key concepts may never truly be understood by students.
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Tanya Valencic S00122203
EDMA310: Assessment task 2- insights from research for classroom planning
References
Bailey, D. H., Hoard, M. K., Nugent, L., & Geary, D. C. (2012). Competence with fractions predicts gains in mathematics achievement. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 113(3), 447-445. Retrieved from http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jecp.2012.06.004
Clarke, D. M. (2006). Fractions as division: the forgotten notion? APMC, 11(3), 4-10. Retrieved from http://www.acu.edu.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0007/374029/apmc11-3- Clarke_Fractions_as_division.pdf
Clarke, D. M., Roche, A., & Mitchell, A. (2008). Ten practical tips for making fractions come alive and make sense. Mathematics Teaching in the Middle School, 13(7), 373-380. Retrieved from http://www.acu.edu.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0019/374032/MTMS_Clarke_Ro che_and_Mitchell_Ten_practical_tips_for_making_fractions_come_alive.pdf
Clarke, D. M., & Roche, A. (2009). Students fraction comparison strategies as a window into robust understanding and possible pointers for instruction. Educational Studies in Mathematics, 72(1), 127-138. Doi:10.1007/s10649-009-9198-9
Clarke, D. & Roche, A. (2010). The power of a single game to address a range of important ideas in fraction learning. Australian Primary Mathematics Classroom, 15(3), 18-24. Retrieved from http://search.informit.com.au.ezproxy2.acu.edu.au/fullText;dn=183645;res=AEI PT Chinnappan, M. (2005). Children's mappings of part-whole construct of fractions. Paper presented at the 28th annual conference of the Mathematics Education Research Group of Australasia'. Retrieved from http://www.merga.net.au/documents/RP232005.pdf Tanya Valencic S00122203
EDMA310: Assessment task 2- insights from research for classroom planning
Fuchs, L.S., Schumacher, R. F., Long, J., Namkung, J., Hamlett, C. L., Cirino, P. T., Jordan, N. C., Siegler, R., Gersten, R., and Changas, P. (2013). Improving At-Risk Learners Understanding of Fractions. Journal of Educational Psychology, 105(3), 683700. Doi: 10.1037/a0032446
Kamii, C., & Clark, F. B. (1995). Equivalent Fractions: Their Difficulty and Educational Implications. Journal of Mathematical behavior, 14(December 1995), 365-378. Retrieved from http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0732-3123(95)90035-7
Pearn, C. (2003). Fractions: using the measurement model to develop understanding. Paper presented at the proceedings of the Nineteenth Biennial Conference of the Australian Association of Mathematics Teachers, University of Queensland. Retrieved from http://trove.nla.gov.au/work/153095877?q&versionId=166849037 Sexton, M., Brown, J., & Downton, A. (2010). Understanding Fractions. Prime Number, 25(4), 3-7. Retrieved from http://search.informit.com.au.ezproxy2.acu.edu.au/fullText;dn=4159447990108 19;res=IELHSS
Siegler, R. S., Fazio, L. K., Bailey, D. H., & Zhou, X. (2013). Fractions: the new frontier for theories of numerical development. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 17(1), 13-19. Retrieved from http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2012.11.004
Van de Walle, J. A., Karp, K. S., Bay-Williams, J. M (2010). Elementary and middle school mathematics: Teaching Developmentally. (7th ed.). Boston: Pearson.
Victorian Curriculum and Assessment Authority. (2013). Mathematics- curriculum. Retrieved from http://ausvels.vcaa.vic.edu.au/Mathematics/Curriculum/F- 10#level=4
Tanya Valencic S00122203
EDMA310: Assessment task 2- insights from research for classroom planning
EDMA310 assessment task 2: Gaining insights from research for classroom planning MATHEMATICS UNIT PLANNER Tanya Valencic S00122203
Unit Overview: Unit title Fraction FUN-damentals Content maths area Number and Algebra: Fractions and decimals Grade/year level Year 4 Learning Focus:
Fraction FUN-damentals allows for teaching the fundamentals of fractions, through the teaching and learning of equivalence.
Rationale: I decided to focus on equivalence because many students are unable to construct or identify equivalent fractions (Bana, Farrell, & McIntosh, Pearn, Siemon, Virgona, & Corneille, as cited in Wong, 2010, p.673). Equivalence as it is a critical understanding required for the learning of fractions (Van de Walle, Karp, & Bay-Williams, 2010, p.286). Assumed prior knowledge of students: It is assumed that students would have arrived with the knowledge required for understanding fractions at level 3 standards. It is assumed that students should be able to model and represent unit fractions including 1/2, 1/4, 1/3, 1/5 and their multiples to a complete whole (ACMNA058) (Victorian Curriculum and Assessment Authority, 2013). Students have been exposed to the numerous fraction models in prior lessons. Grouping strategies to support learning: Grouping isnt specified within most lessons to enable teachers to tailor to their classroom. However, studies have found that its possible for all students to learn effectively in a mixed-ability classroom setting (Linchevski & Kutscher, 1998, p.551). In every lesson students were brought together to reflect upon the task, meaning all students shared a common experience in varying levels of difficulties allowing them to discuss and reflect with one another (Ferguson, 2009, p.35). FOCUS AREA 2.3: This assumed prior knowledge of students sections shows how I have used curriculum knowledge to gain an understanding of prior knowledge before designing learning sequences and lesson plans. Tanya Valencic S00122203
EDMA310: Assessment task 2- insights from research for classroom planning
Overview of assessment: Students in this unit are assessed on their ability to: Identify equivalent fractions. Create equivalent fractions using manipulatives. Communicate in writing an understanding of equivalent fractions. Use fractional language. Create equivalent fractions using multiple models. Mode of assessment: Work samples/worksheets- summative (session 1, 2, 3 & 4) Students written reflections- summative (session 2 & 4) Observation- formative (session 1)
Tanya Valencic S00122203
EDMA310: Assessment task 2- insights from research for classroom planning
References: Clarke, D. M., & Roche, A. (2009). Students fraction comparison strategies as a window into robust understanding and possible pointers for instruction. Educational Studies in Mathematics, 72(1), 127-138. Doi:10.1007/s10649-009-9198-9
Clarke, D. & Roche, A. (2010). The power of a single game to address a range of important ideas in fraction learning. Australian Primary Mathematics Classroom, 15(3), 18-24; 2010. Retrieved from http://search.informit.com.au.ezproxy2.acu.edu.au/fullText;dn=183645;res=AEIPT
Ferguson, S. (2009). Same Task, Different Paths: Catering for Student Diversity in the Mathematics Classroom. Australian Primary Mathematics Classroom, 14(2), 32-36. Retrieved from http://search.informit.com.au.ezproxy1.acu.edu.au/fullText;dn=179490;res=AEIPT
Jigyel, K., & Afamasaga-Fuata'i, K. (2007). Students' conceptions of models of fractions and equivalence. Australian Mathematics Teacher, 63(4), 17-25. Retrieved from http://search.informit.com.au.ezproxy2.acu.edu.au/fullText;dn=167553;res=AEIPT
Kamii, C., & Clark, F. B. (1995). Equivalent Fractions: Their Difficulty and Educational Implications. Journal of Mathematical behavior, 14(December 1995), 365-378. Retrieved from http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0732-3123(95)90035-7
Lenard, M. (2009). Lesson 10- Fraction Bingo. Retrieved from http://betterlesson.com/lesson/1146/lesson-10-fraction-bingo
Tanya Valencic S00122203
EDMA310: Assessment task 2- insights from research for classroom planning
Linchevski, L., & Kutscher, B. (1998). Tell Me With Whom Youre Learning, and Ill Tell You How Much Youre Learned: Mixed-Ability Versus Same-Ability Grouping in Mathematics. Journal for Research in Mathematics Education, 29(5), 533-554. Retrieved from http://academic.sun.ac.za/mathed/174/Tap.pdf
Oxford University Press. (2013). Oxford Dictionaries. Retrieved from http://oxforddictionaries.com/
Van de Walle, J. A., Karp, K. S., Bay-Williams, J. M (2010). Elementary and middle school mathematics: Teaching Developmentally. (7th ed.). Boston: Pearson.
Victorian Curriculum and Assessment Authority. (2013). Mathematics- curriculum. Retrieved from http://ausvels.vcaa.vic.edu.au/Mathematics/Curriculum/F-10#level=4
Watanabe, T. (2002). Representations in teaching and learning fractions. Teaching Children Mathematics, 8(8), 457-463). Retrieved from Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/214134551?accountid=8194
Wong, M. (2010). Equivalent fractions: developing a pathway of students' acquisition of knowledge and understanding. Paper presented at the thirty-third annual conference of the Mathematics Education Research Group of Australasia'. Retrieved from http://www.merga.net.au/documents/MERGA33_Wong.pdf
Tanya Valencic S00122203
EDMA310: Assessment task 2- insights from research for classroom planning
Unit of work: MATHEMATICS UNIT PLANNER Topic: Fraction FUN-damentals Year Level: 4 Term: 2 Week: 6 Date: 02/10/13 Key mathematical understandings: A fraction represents a number that can be named in numerous ways. Equivalent fractions can be constructed from manipulatives or represented in numerous ways. Key AusVELS Focus / Standard: Content strand(s): Number and Algebra Sub-strand(s): Fractions and Decimals
Level descriptions: Investigate equivalent fractions used in contexts (ACMNA077) Count by quarters halves and thirds, including with mixed numerals. Locate and represent these fractions on a number line (ACMNA078) Recognise that the place value system can be extended to tenths and hundredths. Make connections between fractions and decimal notation (ACMNA079) (VCAA, 2013).
Proficiency strand(s): Understanding Understanding includes making connections between representations of numbers, partitioning and combining numbers flexibly, extending place value to decimals, using appropriate language to communicate times, and describing properties of symmetrical shapes (VCAA, 2013). Possible misconceptions: Whole number thinking- students using prior generalisations of whole numbers and applying these to fractions (Streefland, as cited in Clarke & Roche, 2009, p.128). Students thinking of the numerator and denominator as two unrelated whole numbers (Jigyel, & Afamasaga-Fuata'i, 2007, p.24). Key skills to develop and practise: Identify equivalent fractions. Create equivalent fractions using manipulatives. Communicate in writing an understanding of equivalent fractions. Use fractional language. Create equivalent fractions using multiple models. Key equipment / resources: Interactive Whiteboard (IWB) Paper strips (A4 paper cut up into strips) Colour in fractions worksheet (appendix 1) Dice in two different colours- 6 sided Coloured pencils/textas Think board (appendix 2) Fraction Bingo card (appendix 3) FOCUS AREA 2.3: This section of the unit planner shows that I have used curriculum, assessment and reporting knowledge to design learning sequences. Tanya Valencic S00122203
EDMA310: Assessment task 2- insights from research for classroom planning
Key probing questions: Is the same part of the whole shaded? Can the fraction be said in a different way? Is your fraction equivalent to another? What other fractions represents? Are they representing the same fraction? How? Links to other contexts:
Key vocabulary: Numerator/Denominator Proper/improper Whole (instead of always using one) Equivalent Equal parts Naming of fractions: Thirds, fourths, fifths. comparison vocabulary: more than, less than, equal to, the same as (see appendix 4 for definitions) L e a r n i n g
Seeing patterns Selecting information Self-assessing Sharing ideas Summarising Synthesising
Testing Viewing Visually representing Working independently Working to a timetable
MATHEMATICAL FOCUS
TUNING IN (WHOLE CLASS FOCUS) INVESTIGATIONS SESSION (INDEPENDENT LEARNING) REFLECTION & MAKING CONNECTIONS SESSION (WHOLE CLASS FOCUS) ADAPTATIONS
- Enabling prompt - Extending prompt
ASSESSMENT STRATEGIES
Session 1 Identify equivalent fractions. Create equivalent fractions using manipulatives.
Get students to fold paper strips in half and label them 1/2, 2/2. Fold paper strips into thirds and label them 1/3, 2/3, 3/3. Ask students to continue this process for halves, thirds, fourths, sixths, eights and twelfths. Briefly talk about equal parts. Students are to: make as many equivalent fractions using the fraction 2/3 and then 3/4. record and draw their findings in their books.
Discuss as a class the numerous equivalent fractions of 2/3 and 3/4. What other fractions could you find? See if students can make generalisations What if we had made fraction strips up to the hundredths? Would we ENABLING PROMPT What can you match up with what you have already coloured? If you shaded that part does that mean the same part of the whole is still shaded?
EXTENDING PROMPT Assess students work samples to see whether they have identified the correct equivalent fractions and created these using paper strips. Observe students discussions to see whether they have made any FOCUS AREA 2.2: This unit planner displays my ability in organising content into an effective learning and teaching sequence. Tanya Valencic S00122203
EDMA310: Assessment task 2- insights from research for classroom planning
Get students to shade 2/3. Ask thinking questions: What other fraction strips represent 2/3? Is the same part of the whole shaded in both strips? have more equivalent fractions? What do you think they would be? Why? Students can find other equivalent fractions by looking at the paper strips and record.
generalisations. Session 2 Identify equivalent fractions. Communicate in writing an understanding of equivalent fractions using fractional language.
Ideas in this session taken from Clarke and Roche (2010). Have large version of fraction wall (top half of colour in fractions worksheet- appendix 1) on whiteboard. Explain game- Roll dice to create a fraction (blue dice represents the numerator and red represents the denominator). In turns, roll and shade the fraction rolled or an equivalent fraction. If you cannot shade a fraction, you miss your turn. First to shade their whole wall wins Demonstrate colour in fractions game using Students are split into pairs and each given a colour in fractions worksheet.
Students are to: Play the game using different pencil/textas colours to shade the required section after each roll. Students to reflect in their books, explaining what parts of the fraction wall they shaded in to begin with and if they were to play again, what they would change (example- shading the larger sections first or last, etc.). ENABLING PROMPT Students can use fraction strips from previous lesson to visually see equivalent fractions.
EXTENDING PROMPT Students can only shade an equivalent fraction, not fraction rolled.
Assess students worksheets to see whether they have identified equivalent fractions. Look at reflection in book to see whether fractional language and an understanding of equivalence is shown. Tanya Valencic S00122203
EDMA310: Assessment task 2- insights from research for classroom planning
1/4. If I rolled 1/4 what could I shade? What if I rolled it again?and again?... Session 3 Create equivalent fractions using multiple models.
Revisit fraction models- set, area and length models. (see appendix 5 for examples)
In each of these models is the same part of the whole shaded? Explain. Are they representing the same fractions? How? Teacher is to give each student a fraction (varying on their ability). Students are to: Represent the fraction given in each section of the think board. In each section they must represent the fraction ONLY using an equivalent fraction. Show and share. Select a few students (mixed- ability) to show and share their think board and explain their thinking. ENABLING PROMPT Students will receive an easier fraction for the lesson
EXTENDING PROMPT Students will be given a harder fraction (perhaps an improper fraction) for the lesson and asked to represent the fraction at least two different ways in each section.
Assess students think board and observe whether students are able to create equivalent fractions using multiple models. Tanya Valencic S00122203
EDMA310: Assessment task 2- insights from research for classroom planning
Session 4 Identify equivalent fractions. Communicate in writing an understanding of equivalent fractions.
Ideas in this session adapted from Lenard, (2009).
Teacher places 15 different fractions on the IWB. Students to choose 9 fractions and write them on their Fraction Bingo worksheet. Students broken up into mixed ability pairs.
Teacher calls out different fractions. Students colour in either the fraction called out, or an equivalent fraction. Pair with 5 in a row coloured in first wins. Can your fraction be said a different way? Is your fraction equivalent to another? Students record their strategies of finding the equivalent fraction. Students write down reflections in their books. Questions they are to answer include: What did you like? What did you find difficult? What did/didnt you understand? What do you think you need more work on? Discuss as a class. ENABLING PROMPT Give students fraction wall, so they can visually see the equivalence between the fractions. Can gain help from partner.
EXTENDING PROMPT Students required to show at least 4 different equivalent fractions. Assess students worksheets and reflections to understand what students struggled/excelled with and what needs more attention with understanding equivalent fractions.
Tanya Valencic S00122203
EDMA310: Assessment task 2- insights from research for classroom planning
Appendix 1: Colour in fractions worksheet- used in session 2 Worksheet adapted from Clarke & Roche (2010). Colour in Fractions Activity sheet name_______________________ .
Tanya Valencic S00122203
EDMA310: Assessment task 2- insights from research for classroom planning
Appendix 2: Think board- used in session3
Tanya Valencic S00122203
EDMA310: Assessment task 2- insights from research for classroom planning
Appendix 3: Fraction Bingo worksheet- used in session 4. Worksheet adapted from Lenard (2009).
Fraction called out Fraction shaded/other equivalent fractions
Tanya Valencic S00122203
EDMA310: Assessment task 2- insights from research for classroom planning
Appendix 4: Definitions of key vocabulary- used throughout unit of work Numerator- the number above the line in a vulgar fraction showing how many of the parts indicated by the denominator are taken, for example, 2 in 2/3 (Oxford University Press *OUP+, 2013). Denominator- the number below the line in a vulgar fraction; a divisor For example, a figure representing the total population in terms of which statistical values are oppressed (OUP, 2013). Proper- denoting a subset or subgroup that does not constitute the entire set or group, especially one that has more than one element (OUP, 2013). Improper- not in accordance with accepted standards (OUP, 2013). Whole- instead of always using the number one (OUP, 2013). Equivalent- equal in value, amount, function, meaning (OUP, 2013). Equal parts- o Equal- being the same in quantity, size, degree or value (OUP, 2013). o Parts- an amount or section which, when combined with others, makes up the whole of something (OUP, 2013). Naming of fractions- These could include thirds, fourths, fifths. Comparison vocabulary- which could include more than, less than, equal to, the same as
Appendix 5: Examples of LENGTH, AREA and SET (or discrete) models- used in session 3 These examples are to be drawn on whiteboard, might use different fractions for different examples instead of the same as shown here. Examples taken from Watanabe (2002, p.458).