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\par\pard\plain\hyphpar}\par\pard\plain\hyphpar}
{\par\pard\hyphpar
}{\page } {
\~\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
\u191?Sab\u237?a que el Tetris, del que se han vendido m\u225?s de 140 millones
de todas sus versiones, fue inventado tras el tel\u243?n de acero?\par\pard\plai
n\hyphpar} {
\u191?Que el famos\u237?simo Donkey Kong, que salv\u243? de la quiebra a Nintend
o, fue obra de un becario?\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
\u191?Conoce el origen de los hackers o c\u243?mo se invent\u243? el correo elec
tr\u243?nico?\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
\u191?Por qu\u233? Bill Gates decidi\u243? crear Microsoft?\par\pard\plain\hyphp

ar} {
\u191?Sab\u237?a que la empresa que hoy es IBM se fund\u243? en\u8230? 1896?\par
\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
\u191?C\u243?mo surgi\u243? el Altair 8080, el primer ordenador personal?\par\pa
rd\plain\hyphpar} {
Ceros y unos es un viaje por la breve pero intensa historia de la inform\u225?ti
ca. Desde los primeros artilugios que apenas eran capaces de realizar una sencil
la operaci\u243?n hasta los m\u225?s modernos y complejos videojuegos, pasando p
or cl\u225?sicos como Amstrad, el Comecocos o la batalla campal entre compa\u241
?\u237?as durante las \u250?ltimas d\u233?cadas del siglo XX.\par\pard\plain\hyp
hpar} {
Lejos de lo que pudiera pensarse, la historia de la inform\u225?tica es profunda
mente humana. En ella se encuentran enga\u241?os, traiciones, \u233?xitos, infor
tunios\u8230? A trav\u233?s de decenas de sorprendentes an\u233?cdotas de la his
toria de la inform\u225?tica, Daniel Rodr\u237?guez Herrera nos descubre un mund
o apasionante, en el que los triunfos son tan dulces y notorios como amargos e i
mpopulares los fracasos. Es un mundo nuevo, un mundo sin fin, un mundo de ceros
y unos.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {\par\pard\hyphpar }{\page } {
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Daniel Rodr\u237?guez Herrera\par\pard\plain\hyphpar}\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {\

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Ceros y unos\par\pard\plain\hyphpar}\par\pard\plain\hyphpar}\par\pard\plain\hyph
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La increible historia de la inform\u225?tica, internet y los videojuegos}\par\pa
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Daniel Rodr\u237?guez Herrera, 2011\par\pard\plain\hyphpar}\par\pard\plain\hyphp
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A mi padre, sin cuya vocaci\u243?n no habr\u237?a encontrado la m\u237?a.\par\pa
rd\plain\hyphpar} \par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {\par\pard\hyphpar }{\page } {\s2 \af
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AGRADECIMIENTOS\par\pard\plain\hyphpar}\par\pard\plain\hyphpar}\par\pard\plain\h
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{
{\b
E}l primer gracias, bien grande, debe ir a Mario Noya, que me anim\u243? a comen
zar a escribir para el suplemento de historia de Libertad Digital y corrigi\u243
? con paciencia todos los art\u237?culos que fui escribiendo, a pesar de que el
pobre no se enteraba de la mitad de la jerga que empleaba y tuvo que irla elimin
ando lo mejor posible. Fernando D\u237?az Villanueva fue la inspiraci\u243?n de
hacer una serie de historia de la inform\u225?tica con sus pasajes de la histori
a de Espa\u241?a. Y Antonio Arcones, con su tempranero \u171?oye, que aqu\u237?
hay un libro\u187?, me ayud\u243? a tener la constancia necesaria para poder ter
minarlo antes de agosto de 2023, que es cuando lo hubiera finalizado si me dejo
llevar por esa vocecita que me suger\u237?a que hiciese algo distinto de escribi
r los fines de semana, que despu\u233?s de todo son para divertirse. Los \u225?n
imos de los lectores tambi\u233?n ayudaron, qu\u233? duda cabe.\par\pard\plain\h
yphpar} {
Evidentemente, si mi vida no fuera m\u225?s sencilla gracias a mi familia y mis
amigos, nada de esto hubiera sido posible. Entre ellos, debo mencionar a Guiller
mo Echeverr\u237?a y Mar\u237?a D\u237?ez que, con su Museo Hist\u243?rico de la
Inform\u225?tica, me metieron el gusanillo en el cuerpo. Antonio Miranda, que m
e propuso un t\u237?tulo inmejorable. Patricia Campuzano me dio confianza con su
empe\u241?o de que yo acabar\u237?a publicando alg\u250?n libro, fuese de lo qu
e fuese. Mar Moscoso, la agente de viajes, inspir\u243? uno de los cap\u237?tulo
s. Mi padre me meti\u243? en este proceloso mundo de la inform\u225?tica cuando
no llegaba a los diez a\u241?os y ha sido siempre un ejemplo a seguir. Y sin mi
madre no habr\u237?a llegado entero y con los tornillos m\u225?s o menos en su s
itio al final de este libro.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {

De entre todos los que han escrito antes que yo sobre esto, debo destacar la lab
or de Martin Campbell-Kelly, autor del que creo es el mejor libro sobre la histo
ria de la inform\u225?tica, y Miquel Barcel\u243?, a quien creo el \u250?nico en
haber escrito un volumen sobre estos asuntos en nuestro idioma, y a quien le\u2
37?a y admiraba ya antes por su labor con la literatura de ciencia ficci\u243?n,
una de mis mayores debilidades.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Evidentemente, me dejo a mucha gente, que espero que me sepa perdonar por ello.
Pero tampoco es cuesti\u243?n de hacer esto interminable, caramba.\par\pard\plai
n\hyphpar} {\par\pard\hyphpar }{\page } {\s2 \afs28
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{
{\b
U}n ingeniero colombiano pasaba las fiestas de a\u241?o nuevo de 2008 con su fam
ilia en su ciudad natal de Barranquilla. Como tantos otros, estaba especialmente
cabreado despu\u233?s de que las FARC hubiesen prometido liberar a Clara Rojas
y su Emmanuel y entreg\u225?rselos a Hugo Ch\u225?vez en diciembre y a\u250?n no
hubieran cumplido su promesa. En ese momento, Alvaro Uribe anunci\u243? que los
terroristas ni siquiera ten\u237?an al ni\u241?o de cuatro a\u241?os en su pode
r; hab\u237?a enfermado y lo hab\u237?an dejado con una familia de campesinos y
ahora el Gobierno lo hab\u237?a recuperado. \u161?Las FARC hab\u237?an negociado
con la vida de un ni\u241?o que ni siquiera ten\u237?an en su poder! Como les s
ucediera a tantos otros colombianos, la ira de Oscar Morales contra las FARC alc
anz\u243? nuevas alturas.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
En otro momento, la ira se hubiera quedado ah\u237?, in\u250?til, improductiva.
Pero Morales ten\u237?a a su disposici\u243?n una herramienta nueva, las redes s
ociales. Herederas de una tradici\u243?n tecnol\u243?gica que se remonta a los p
rimeros ordenadores construidos durante la Segunda Guerra Mundial, estas redes p
ermiten encauzar todo tipo de ideas y coordinar las m\u225?s variadas cruzadas,
ya sean pol\u237?ticas o de cualquier naturaleza. As\u237?, en la madrugada del
4 de enero fund\u243? un grupo en Facebook llamado \u171?Un mill\u243?n de voces
contra las FARC\u187?. Corr\u237?a un riesgo, pues lo hac\u237?a con su propio
nombre y apellidos. A la ma\u241?ana siguiente, el grupo ya ten\u237?a 1500 miem
bros. Dos d\u237?as despu\u233?s, ya con 8000 personas, decidi\u243? organizar u
na manifestaci\u243?n. El 4 de febrero, un mes despu\u233?s de que un ingeniero
cualquiera diera un primer paso en una red social, se calcula que alrededor de d
iez millones de personas caminaron por las calles de ciudades de todo el mundo c
lamando por el fin del terrorismo en Colombia, por el fin de las FARC, sus asesi
natos y sus secuestros.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Los pioneros de la inform\u225?tica no ten\u237?an algo as\u237? en mente cuando
empezaron a dar aquellos primeros pasos. Los ordenadores fueron creados como so
luci\u243?n a dos problemas: resolver c\u225?lculos complejos de forma autom\u22
5?tica y ordenar, almacenar y procesar grandes vol\u250?menes de informaci\u243?
n. Por suerte, su denominaci\u243?n en la lengua espa\u241?ola refleja esa doble
vertiente: en casi toda Hispanoam\u233?rica se les llama computadoras, del ingl
\u233?s computer, y en Espa\u241?a los llamamos ordenadores, vocablo procedente
del franc\u233?s ord\u237?nateur.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
No obstante, una vez introducidos en la vida cotidiana, fueron encontr\u225?ndos
eles usos para los que no se pens\u243? en un principio: desde convertirse en la
s estrellas del ocio y el entretenimiento hasta formar la primera red de comunic
aci\u243?n global. La propia tecnolog\u237?a fue abriendo nuevos campos en los q
ue s\u243?lo hab\u237?a entrado antes la imaginaci\u243?n de algunos escritores
de ciencia ficci\u243?n.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
El libro que tiene entre sus manos fue publicado originalmente en el suplemento
de historia de Libertad D\u237?g\u237?tal entre octubre de 2009 y enero de 2011,
aunque ha sido convenientemente editado para poder leerse en este formato de tr
ozos de \u225?rboles muertos que tiene entre sus manos, y que posiblemente en po
cos a\u241?os se convierta, siquiera en parte, en una nueva v\u237?ctima de la v
oracidad de la electr\u243?nica por ocupar todos los nichos de mercado posibles.
Fue escrito como una serie de art\u237?culos m\u225?s o menos independientes qu
e contaban historias concretas, ya fuera de un inventor, de un modelo de ordenad
or, de un programa o lenguaje de programaci\u243?n o de una compa\u241?\u237?a e

specialmente importante. Debido a esto y a que cubre un periodo muy corto de la

historia de la humanidad, su desarrollo no es estrictamente cronol\u243?gico, si
no tem\u225?tico, solap\u225?ndose entre s\u237? unas historias que, en muchos c
asos, cubren varias etapas de la brev\u237?sima historia de nuestra ciencia.\par
\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Comenzaremos con la prehistoria, con los primeros intentos por automatizar tanto
los c\u225?lculos como los procesos de tratamiento de la informaci\u243?n; inte
ntos que tuvieron lugar antes de la invenci\u243?n de los primeros ordenadores y
que abarcan desde el \u225?baco hasta el aritm\u243?metro del genio espa\u241?o
l Torres Quevedo. Cubriremos luego el herc\u250?leo proceso de creaci\u243?n en
los a\u241?os cuarenta de las primeras m\u225?quinas capaces de hacer c\u225?lcu
los autom\u225?ticamente siguiendo un programa, intentando contestar a una pregu
nta m\u225?s dif\u237?cil de lo que parece: \u191?cu\u225?l fue el primer ordena
dor? A partir de ah\u237?, la historia entra en lo que se ha llamado la inform\u
225?tica cl\u225?sica. Las enormes y car\u237?simas m\u225?quinas de los a\u241?
os cincuenta y sesenta, generalmente construidas por IBM para ser usadas por gra
ndes empresas e instituciones, fueron haci\u233?ndose progresivamente m\u225?s r
\u225?pidas y peque\u241?as, hasta desembocar en los ordenadores personales que
casi todos usamos diariamente, ya sea en casa o en el trabajo.\par\pard\plain\hy
phpar} {
De este m\u237?nimo resumen de la historia de la inform\u225?tica se separar\u22
5?n tres cap\u237?tulos que forman cada uno de ellos una historia propia: el sof
tware, los videojuegos e Internet. Los primeros inventores de ordenadores no se
dieron cuenta de la importancia del software hasta que tuvieron que elaborar sus
propias rutinas. Si al principio cre\u237?an que construir las m\u225?quinas er
a lo complicado, aquellos pioneros no tardaron en comprender las enormes dificul
tades de hacer programas que funcionaran correctamente y fueran \u250?tiles.\par
\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Los videojuegos son un buen ejemplo de una aplicaci\u243?n de la inform\u225?tic
a que a nadie se le habr\u237?a ocurrido a priori. Es normal: cuando las computa
doras eran car\u237?simos artefactos disponibles s\u243?lo en las mayores empres
as y los laboratorios m\u225?s avanzados, \u191?c\u243?mo podr\u237?amos pensar
que su potencial se desperdiciar\u237?a \u8212?p\u243?ngase en la siguiente pala
bra todo el desprecio posible\u8212? jugando? Sin embargo, actualmente los video
juegos se han convertido en una industria que rivaliza en facturaci\u243?n, cuan
do no supera, a las m\u225?s cl\u225?sicas formas de entretenimiento como el cin
e o la m\u250?sica.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Pero la principal revoluci\u243?n que han tra\u237?do consigo los ordenadores ha
n sido las comunicaciones y las redes. Al fin y al cabo, si vivimos \u8212?como
se dice frecuentemente\u8212? una \u171?era de la informaci\u243?n\u187? es grac
ias a Internet y las posibilidades que nos ofrece. La red de redes ha transforma
do la comunicaci\u243?n, cambi\u225?ndola de una v\u237?a unidireccional, en la
que el mensaje iba de un emisor a miles o millones de telespectadores, oyentes o
lectores, hasta una conversaci\u243?n en la que potencialmente cualquiera puede
ser escuchado, sin que haga falta ser famoso o estar contratado en una empresa
con posibles. Eso fue lo que descubri\u243? el ingeniero colombiano Oscar Morale
s.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Pero hasta llegar ah\u237? hubo que recorrer un largo camino. Empezamos.\par\par
d\plain\hyphpar} {\par\pard\hyphpar }{\page } {\s2 \afs28
{\b
{\ql
1
{\line }
{\line }
LA PREHISTORIA DE LA INFORM\u193?TICA\par\pard\plain\hyphpar}\par\pard\plain\hy
phpar}\par\pard\plain\hyphpar}
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{
{\b
L}a primera ayuda t\u233?cnica, por as\u237? decir, que tuvimos los humanos a la
hora de hacer cuentas fueron los dedos de las manos y, aquellos m\u225?s h\u225
?biles, los de los pies. De ah\u237? que utilicemos el sistema decimal para hace
r cuentas y bastantes gentes por todo el mundo, incluyendo tanto a los vascos co
mo a los mayas, emplearan el vigesimal. No obstante, en cuanto empezamos a civil
izarnos un pel\u237?n desarrollamos maneras algo m\u225?s sofisticadas de c\u225
?lculo, en parte porque tambi\u233?n aumentaban nuestras necesidades. Naturalmen
te, lo primero no fueron los ordenadores sino el \u225?baco. Desde entonces, la
humanidad ha desarrollado un sinf\u237?n de ingenios para ayudarse en las tareas
matem\u225?ticas. Pero fue a partir de la revoluci\u243?n industrial cuando el
proceso se aceler\u243?, empezando a dar frutos, tambi\u233?n en el \u225?mbito
del tratamiento de la informaci\u243?n. Antes era un poco dif\u237?cil: no hab\u
237?a muchas oficinas en el siglo XIII que pudieran automatizarse\u8230?\par\par
d\plain\hyphpar}

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}}
{\s3 \afs28
{\b
{\ql
EN BUSCA DEL C\u193?LCULO: DE LA M\u193?QUINA DE ANTIQUITERA AL ARITM\u211?METRO
\par\pard\plain\hyphpar}\par\pard\plain\hyphpar}\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
En 1900, una tormenta oblig\u243? a un peque\u241?o nav\u237?o de pescadores de
esponjas a atracar en la deshabitada isla de Antiquitera, al norte de Creta. Vis
to que no pod\u237?an salir, se pusieron a hacer su trabajo all\u237? mismo. En
sus inmersiones descubrieron un viejo nav\u237?o naufragado; un nav\u237?o muy a
ntiguo, pues se hab\u237?a hundido en el 80 antes de Cristo, a\u241?o m\u225?s,
a\u241?o menos.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Cuando los arque\u243?logos se hicieron cargo de la recuperaci\u243?n de los res
tos encontraron la chatarrilla habitual: estatuas de bronce, m\u225?rmoles, alfa
rer\u237?a diversa, monedas\u8230? pero tambi\u233?n un extra\u241?o artefacto d
e apariencia mec\u225?nica que clasificaron como astrolabio. Estos ingenios perm
it\u237?an conocer la hora exacta si se conoc\u237?a la latitud y viceversa, y s
e pod\u237?an emplear para calcular distancias. Pero la m\u225?quina de Antiquit
era ten\u237?a muchas m\u225?s placas que los astrolabios, aunque hasta m\u225?s
de cincuenta a\u241?os despu\u233?s de su hallazgo no se empez\u243? a comprend
er para qu\u233? serv\u237?an.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Los engranajes de aquel aparato eran tan complejos y precisos como los de un rel
oj mec\u225?nico del siglo XIX de los buenos, es decir, suizo. Construido entre
los a\u241?os 150 y 100 a. C., seguramente siguiendo las instrucciones de Hiparc
o de Nicea, era una suerte de calculadora astron\u243?mica que calculaba la posi
ci\u243?n de todos los cuerpos celestes. Era capaz de predecir los eclipses sola
res y lunares, as\u237? como las fechas de los Juegos Ol\u237?mpicos. Hasta 2006
, los cient\u237?ficos no lograron descifrar su funcionamiento.\par\pard\plain\h
yphpar} {
La m\u225?quina era un ordenador anal\u243?gico, un tipo de aparato que recibe i
nformaci\u243?n de una fuente poco precisa como, por ejemplo, la posici\u243?n d
el sol en un sextante, y devuelve datos tambi\u233?n de manera aproximada, como
sucede cuando se lee la hora en un reloj de los de antes, en el que nunca sabes
exactamente d\u243?nde narices est\u225? la pu\u241?etera manecilla. Estos apara
tos continuaron siendo \u250?tiles a lo largo de los siglos, y alcanzaron su pun
to m\u225?s alto de desarrollo con el predictor de mareas de Lord Kelvin (1873)
y el calculador diferencial de Vannevar Bush (1931).\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
El hallazgo confirmaba la necesidad de ayudas autom\u225?ticas para el c\u225?lc
ulo que toda civilizaci\u243?n tiene cuando llega a un punto de desarrollo sufic

ientemente alto. El m\u225?s longevo de los artilugios dise\u241?ados con este f

in ha sido, sin duda, el \u225?baco, desarrollado o copiado por pr\u225?cticamen
te todas las civilizaciones que en el mundo han sido. De su utilidad dio prueba
la competici\u243?n organizada en el Jap\u243?n ocupado de 1946, que enfrent\u24
3? al nativo Kiyoshi Matsuzake, con su \u225?baco, con el militar norteamericano
Thomas Wood, con su calculador electromec\u225?nico. Gan\u243? el de la antigua
lla.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Un primer avance en los mecanismos de ayuda al c\u225?lculo fue el {\i
\u225?baco neperiano}, del que s\u243?lo se supo tras la muerte, en 1617, de su
creador, John Napier, porque a este le parec\u237?a un invento demasiado tonto c
omo para ir publicit\u225?ndolo por ah\u237?. Permit\u237?a reducir las multipli
caciones y divisiones a una serie de sumas y restas. El sistema consist\u237?a e
n un tablero en el que se insertaban varillas etiquetadas con cada uno de los d\
u237?gitos de uno de los n\u250?meros participantes en el c\u225?lculo. Por ejem
plo, si hab\u237?a que multiplicar 2366 por algo, se cog\u237?a una varilla con
el 2, otra con el 3 y otras dos con el 6. Cada casilla de la varilla conten\u237
?a dos n\u250?meros, que eran los que se sumaban, o restaban, para hacer la mult
iplicaci\u243?n, o divisi\u243?n. Suena complicado, pero era algo as\u237? como
una tabla de multiplicar\u8230? s\u243?lo que a base de varillas.\par\pard\plain
\hyphpar} {
En cualquier caso, el propio Napier hab\u237?a hecho tres a\u241?os antes, en 16
14, un descubrimiento te\u243?rico fundamental para facilitar el c\u225?lculo: l
os logaritmos. Pese a que hallar el logaritmo de un n\u250?mero es una tarea muy
compleja, una vez estimado facilita enormemente los pasos siguientes: para mult
iplicar dos n\u250?meros, por ejemplo, basta con sumar sus logaritmos. Gracias a
ellos no tardar\u237?a en desarrollarse la regla de c\u225?lculo.\par\pard\plai
n\hyphpar} {
El primer paso en su dise\u241?o lo dio Edward Gunter en 1620, cuando cre\u243?
una regla en la que la escala era logar\u237?tmica. Es decir, dado que el logari
tmo de 2 es 0,301023 (por redondear), el n\u250?mero 2 estar\u237?a colocado 3,0
1 cent\u237?metros a la derecha del 1. El n\u250?mero 3, a su vez, estar\u237?a
a 4,77 cent\u237?metros, y as\u237? sucesivamente. El a\u241?o siguiente William
Oughtred junt\u243? dos de estas reglas, de modo que pudieran hacerse c\u225?lc
ulos {\i
sencillos} con ellas. Para multiplicar, por ejemplo, se alineaba el n\u250?mero
1 de la segunda regla con el multiplicando en la primera. Luego se buscaba en la
segunda regla el multiplicador y el n\u250?mero con el que se alineaba en la pr
imera regla era el resultado de la operaci\u243?n. Es decir, que si quer\u237?am
os saber cu\u225?nto eran 2 x 4, aline\u225?bamos con el 1 de la primera regla e
l 2 de la segunda, y luego busc\u225?bamos en esta \u250?ltima el n\u250?mero 4,
que estaba alineado \u8212?si la regla estaba bien hecha, claro\u8212? con el 8
, que era el resultado que busc\u225?bamos.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
El dispositivo pas\u243? por diversos cambios, alguno de ellos debido a James Wa
tt, el inventor de la m\u225?quina de vapor, y fue la herramienta esencial en el
trabajo de los ingenieros de los siglos XIX y XX hasta la aparici\u243?n de la
calculadora de bolsillo, en los a\u241?os setenta. Su precisi\u243?n no era much
a, como sabr\u225? cualquiera que haya medido cualquier distancia con una regla
o un metro, pero lo suficiente para la mayor\u237?a de los usos. Con ella se con
struyeron rascacielos y hasta se viaj\u243? a la Luna. Y se dise\u241?aron orden
adores.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Aparte de este ingenio, que no dejaba de ser una simple ayuda, hubo intentos por
mecanizar completamente los c\u225?lculos. El primero en ser empleado de forma
pr\u225?ctica fue la pascalina, un complejo juego de ruedas y engranajes capaz d
e sumar y restar y que gestionaba autom\u225?ticamente los acarreos. Terminada e
n 1642, tras tres a\u241?os de trabajo, por el matem\u225?tico franc\u233?s Blai
se Pascal, que contaba entonces diecinueve a\u241?os, estaba especializada en so
lucionar problemas de aritm\u233?tica contable, porque el amigo Blaise la dise\u
241?\u243? para poder ayudar a su padre en el duro trabajo de recaudar impuestos
. La de Leibniz, terminada en 1674 e inspirada en la pascalina, tambi\u233?n pod
\u237?a multiplicar, pero necesitaba en ocasiones la ayuda del operador para los

acarreos. Ni la una ni la otra fueron demasiado populares, m\u225?s que nada po

rque eran caras hasta decir basta.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Hubo que esperar hasta que el oficial franc\u233?s Charles Xavier de Colmar inve
ntara el aritm\u243?metro, una evoluci\u243?n del cacharro de Leibniz que elimin
aba la necesidad de intervenci\u243?n humana y tambi\u233?n pod\u237?a dividir,
lo que lo convert\u237?a en la primera calculadora mec\u225?nica capaz de hacer
las cuatro reglas. La dise\u241?\u243? teniendo en cuenta las necesidades de la
fabricaci\u243?n en serie, por lo que pudo hacerse de forma barata, y llegaron a
venderse unas 1500 unidades, todo un \u233?xito para la \u233?poca. A lo largo
de los a\u241?os vieron la luz diversas mejoras del aparato, como el aritm\u243?
metro electromec\u225?nico del espa\u241?ol Torres Quevedo (1914) que, como tant
as otras de sus innovaciones, jam\u225?s lleg\u243? al mercado.\par\pard\plain\h
yphpar} {
Otros, en cambio, tuvieron mucho m\u225?s \u233?xito en el empe\u241?o, y divers
as m\u225?quinas de calcular, como el compt\u243?metro o la sumadora de Burrough
s, se vendieron por miles en Estados Unidos a finales del siglo XIX. Al igual qu
e suceder\u237?a con la regla de c\u225?lculo, seguir\u237?an emple\u225?ndose a
siduamente hasta la aparici\u243?n de las calculadoras, en los a\u241?os sesenta
y setenta. Porque no basta con inventar una tecnolog\u237?a como el c\u225?lcul
o electr\u243?nico: hay que hacerla lo suficientemente pr\u225?ctica y barata co
mo para que sea provechoso sustituir lo antiguo por lo nuevo. Y ya me dir\u225?n
ustedes en qu\u233? habitaci\u243?n pod\u237?as meter un bicho como el {\i
Eniac} y sus 18 000 v\u225?lvulas de vac\u237?o.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar}
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{\s3 \afs28
{\b
{\ql
LOS INVENTORES DE LOS CEROS Y LOS UNOS\par\pard\plain\hyphpar}\par\pard\plain\hy
phpar}\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Vamos a volver al colegio. Hagamos un ejercicio sencillito. Vamos a contar de ce
ro en adelante: 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10\u8230? \u161?eh! \u161?Quieto p
arao! Este \u250?ltimo n\u250?mero es ya distinto: tiene dos d\u237?gitos, y los
que le siguen tambi\u233?n. Si examinamos la serie veremos que en realidad s\u2
43?lo tenemos diez cifras distintas. De ah\u237? viene el nombre de este modo de
hacer n\u250?meros: el sistema decimal.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Las razones por las que contamos de diez en diez son sencillas. M\u237?rese las
manos y cuente. Salvo que la gen\u233?tica o una m\u225?quina de picar carne le
hayan hecho una gracieta tendr\u225? usted diez dedos. Por eso ha sido empleado

de forma casi universal, aunque algunas culturas como la de los mayas hayan empl
eado un sistema de numeraci\u243?n vigesimal. Quiz\u225? porque iban descalzos p
or ah\u237?.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
En cualquier caso, no es dif\u237?cil imaginar un sistema de numeraci\u243?n dis
tinto. Pensemos en c\u243?mo ser\u237?a un sistema octal, es decir, uno en el qu
e hubiera s\u243?lo ocho cifras distintas. Contar\u237?amos as\u237?: 0, 1, 2, 3
, 4, 5, 6, 7, 10, 11, 12\u8230? en este caso, el 10 del sistema octal ser\u237?a
equivalente al 8 del decimal.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Pues bien, all\u225? por el siglo XVII, el alem\u225?n Gottfried Leibniz public\
u243? un art\u237?culo titulado \u171?Explicaci\u243?n de la aritm\u233?tica bin
aria\u187?. Consist\u237?a, resumi\u233?ndolo mucho, en lo mismo que yo he hecho
en el p\u225?rrafo anterior pero limit\u225?ndose a dos cifras: el cero y el un
o, as\u237? como el estudio de las distintas operaciones aritm\u233?ticas que po
d\u237?an hacerse con estos n\u250?meros. Curiosamente, unos a\u241?os antes, el
monje espa\u241?ol Juan Caramuel tambi\u233?n estudi\u243? el sistema binario,
as\u237? como los que tienen las bases 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 12 y 60, aunque
no con tanta profundidad.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Leibniz, que tambi\u233?n inventar\u237?a el c\u225?lculo diferencial de forma i
ndependiente a Newton, se inspir\u243? en el {\i
I Ching} y el asunto del yin y el yang, y concluy\u243? que los 64 hexagramas de
l famoso libro chino no son m\u225?s ni menos que los n\u250?meros del 0 al 63 e
xpresados en binario. Eso lo llev\u243? a considerar este sistema num\u233?rico
como una suerte de lenguaje universal que unir\u237?a a todas las naciones y raz
as; tambi\u233?n a percibir en \u233?l la creaci\u243?n, en la que el uno era Di
os y el cero el Vac\u237?o. Ser un genio no supone necesariamente tener la azote
a en su sitio.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Durante un par de siglos, aquello del sistema binario no tuvo mucho m\u225?s rec
orrido, principalmente porque no serv\u237?a para nada \u250?til. En esto lleg\u
243? un se\u241?or llamado George Boole, matem\u225?tico y el principal responsa
ble junto a De Morgan del nacimiento de la disciplina de la l\u243?gica formal,
un campo que desde Arist\u243?teles hab\u237?a avanzado m\u225?s bien poquito.\p
ar\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Boole naci\u243? en 1815 en Lincolnshire, un condado rural del que salieron, ent
re otros, personajes como Isaac Newton o Margaret Thatcher. Era hijo de un zapat
ero remend\u243?n, as\u237? que a pesar de que su familia le permiti\u243? estud
iar, tuvo que abandonar el colegio a los diecis\u233?is para ayudar en casa. Dad
o que en su escuela no lo ense\u241?aban, aprendi\u243? lat\u237?n y griego de f
orma autodidacta, lo que le permiti\u243? encontrar empleo como profesor y halla
r en las matem\u225?ticas su vocaci\u243?n.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Boole cre\u237?a ya entonces que todo el pensamiento humano pod\u237?a formulars
e en t\u233?rminos matem\u225?ticos, pero no pudo dedicarle tiempo a desarrollar
su idea, que si no su familia se mor\u237?a de hambre. S\u243?lo cuando prosper
\u243?, abriendo su propia escuela de matem\u225?ticas, empez\u243? a investigar
y a publicar su trabajo, lo que le vali\u243? un puesto en la Queen\u8217?s Col
lege de Cork, Irlanda, donde se cas\u243? con la sobrina de George Everest, el d
e la monta\u241?a, y public\u243? su trabajo fundamental sobre l\u243?gica: {\i
Las leyes del pensamiento}. En su obra, redujo todos los razonamientos humanos a
decisiones de s\u237? o no, o lo que es lo mismo, de uno o cero. Encontr\u243?
la manera de formalizar lo que pensamos en f\u243?rmulas matem\u225?ticas y pode
r operar con ellas para extraer conclusiones nuevas. En definitiva, se adelant\u
243? como cien a\u241?os al trabajo que har\u237?an los ordenadores y quienes lo
s programan.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
En 1864, George Boole muri\u243? de una neumon\u237?a tras caminar dos millas ba
jo una intensa lluvia para ir a dar una clase. Su \u250?ltimo trabajo era tan ra
ro que ni los miembros de la Royal Society pudieron descifrarlo. No obstante, su
s \u171?leyes del pensamiento\u187? fueron m\u225?s o menos ignoradas por los ci
ent\u237?ficos al no encontrarle una utilidad pr\u225?ctica. Eso no significa qu
e no tuvieran influencia en nadie; Lewis Carroll era un gran fan suyo y buena pa
rte de sus libros sobre Alicia est\u225?n escritos con la l\u243?gica de Boole e
n mente, como muestra este di\u225?logo de {\i

A trav\u233?s del espejo}:\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {

\u8212?Es larga \u8212?dijo el Caballero\u8212? pero es muy, muy hermosa\u8230?
A todo el que me la oye cantar, o se le llenan los ojos de l\u225?grimas\u8230?\
par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
\u8212?\u191?O qu\u233?? \u8212?pregunt\u243? Alicia, al ver que el Caballero se
hab\u237?a quedado a media frase.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
\u8212?O no se le llenan.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Su labor fue continuada por Claude Shannon, quien ha hecho tantas contribuciones
a la ciencia de la inform\u225?tica y las telecomunicaciones que vamos a empeza
r por la menor: buscando una palabra para los d\u237?gitos binarios invent\u243?
el {\i
bit}, resultado de contraer {\i
BInary digiT}. Tambi\u233?n cre\u243? la disciplina conocida como \u171?teor\u23
7?a de la informaci\u243?n\u187?, que es la base matem\u225?tica que permite, en
tre otras cosas, que a ratos a usted le funcione el m\u243?vil. Tambi\u233?n pub
lic\u243? un art\u237?culo en 1949 sobre la automatizaci\u243?n del juego del aj
edrez, que es la base de todos los jugadores computerizados, incluyendo al c\u23
3?lebre Deep Blue. No obstante, su mayor contribuci\u243?n fue tambi\u233?n la p
rimera, la que puso negro sobre blanco en su tesis, comenzada en 1935 y terminad
a en 1937.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Nacido en un distrito rural, aunque en este caso del medio oeste norteamericano,
Shannon hizo el doctorado en el Instituto Tecnol\u243?gico de Massachusetts, el
c\u233?lebre MIT. All\u237? abord\u243? el problema al que se enfrentaban los c
readores de computadoras: el dise\u241?o de circuitos electr\u243?nicos que pudi
eran realizar funciones \u250?tiles, como pueda ser la suma de dos n\u250?meros.
Sin ning\u250?n sustento te\u243?rico que les facilitara la vida, el problema r
esultaba enormemente complejo. En realidad, ya estaba casi resuelto, s\u243?lo q
ue nadie lo sab\u237?a.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Shannon se encontr\u243? por casualidad con un ejemplar de {\i
Las leyes del pensamiento} y se dio cuenta r\u225?pidamente de que el libro cont
en\u237?a la soluci\u243?n a sus problemas. Bastaba con considerar que falso, o
cero, era equivalente a estar apagado, o lo que es lo mismo, no tener corriente
el\u233?ctrica; y verdadero, o uno, a estar encendido. A partir de ah\u237?, con
struy\u243? sobre las operaciones l\u243?gicas del \u225?lgebra de Boole (AND, O
R y NOT), que pod\u237?an implementarse con v\u225?lvulas de vac\u237?o \u8212?e
l componente electr\u243?nico disponible en la \u233?poca\u8212?, y termin\u243?
su tesis mostrando que un circuito que sumara en sistema binario pod\u237?a hac
erse con veintiuna operaciones l\u243?gicas: doce \u171?y\u187?, seis \u171?o\u1
87? y tres \u171?no\u187?.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Desde entonces, la tecnolog\u237?a ha evolucionado mucho, primero con la invenci
\u243?n del transistor y luego con el circuito integrado. Pero todos los ordenad
ores emplean las llamadas \u171?puertas l\u243?gicas\u187?, que no son m\u225?s
que implementaciones de las operaciones de l\u243?gica binaria, de s\u237?es y n
oes, de ceros y unos. Eso s\u237?, en un microprocesador actual puede haber vari
os centenares de millones.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Shannon siempre fue muy modesto, y parec\u237?a avergonzarse cuando los alumnos
a los que ense\u241?aba teor\u237?a de la informaci\u243?n en el MIT le recordab
an que la disciplina la hab\u237?a inventado \u233?l. En 2001, Bell Labs organiz
\u243? una exposici\u243?n en la que detallaba la importancia de sus contribucio
nes en el d\u237?a a d\u237?a del hombre del siglo XXI. No apareci\u243? por la
inauguraci\u243?n y muri\u243? s\u243?lo dos semanas despu\u233?s, recibiendo un
breve obituario en algunos peri\u243?dicos. Pocos saben cu\u225?nto le debemos,
a \u233?l y a sus predecesores. Gracias al trabajo te\u243?rico de Leibniz, Boo
le y Shannon, aunque s\u243?lo el \u250?ltimo lo hiciera consciente de su objeti
vo, tenemos ordenadores.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar}
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{\s3 \afs28
{\b
{\ql
LAS COMPUTADORAS HUMANAS\par\pard\plain\hyphpar}\par\pard\plain\hyphpar}\par\par
d\plain\hyphpar} {
Hubo un tiempo, bastante prolongado por lo dem\u225?s, en que la palabra {\i
computador} se refer\u237?a no a un cacharro m\u225?s o menos sofisticado, sino
a una persona cuyo trabajo consist\u237?a en hacer c\u225?lculos de sol a sol.\p
ar\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
El cometa {\i
Halley} fue el responsable de que se hiciera necesario el contar con personas qu
e se dedicaran s\u243?lo a calcular. Edmund Halley fue quien relacion\u243? la l
legada de ese cuerpo celeste en 1682 con anteriores observaciones de cometas con
similares trayectorias, hechas por Peter Apian en 1541 y Kepler en 1607. La apa
rente periodicidad le llev\u243? a intentar estimar, con m\u225?s bien poca prec
isi\u243?n, el regreso del cometa que lleva su nombre en 1758. D\u233?cadas desp
u\u233?s, un matem\u225?tico franc\u233?s llamado Alexis-Claude Clairaut se puso
manos a la obra para intentar hacer un c\u225?lculo m\u225?s preciso.\par\pard\
plain\hyphpar} {
La labor era dif\u237?cil: hab\u237?a que tener en cuenta las fuerzas gravitator
ias de los planetas que el cometa se encontraba a su paso. Para ello, Clairaut t
uvo que reclutar a otros dos matem\u225?ticos para que hicieran las cuentas, Jos
eph-J\u233?r\u243?me Le Francais de Lalande y NicoleReine \u201?table de la Bri\
u233?re Lepaute. Sus esfuerzos tuvieron resultados: la predicci\u243?n de Halley
ten\u237?a un rango de error de 600 d\u237?as y los franceses lo redujeron a 60
: del 15 de marzo al 15 de mayo. Desgraciadamente, el jod\u237?o lleg\u243? el 1
3, dos d\u237?as antes de lo previsto. El problema no hab\u237?a consistido tant
o en errores en los c\u225?lculos como en el peque\u241?o detalle de que a\u250?
n no se hab\u237?an descubierto todos los planetas del sistema solar. Pero, en c
ualquier caso, de este modo naci\u243? la profesi\u243?n de computador.\par\pard
\plain\hyphpar} {
El primer intento de establecer una oficina que produjera c\u225?lculos de forma
casi industrial se debe a Gaspard de Prony. El ingeniero se encontr\u243? dirig
iendo el Catastro en plena Revoluci\u243?n Francesa, y, claro, sus subordinados
prefer\u237?an quedarse en Par\u237?s en lugar de arriesgarse a salir por ah\u23
7? para que les cortaran la cabeza. Con tanta gente ociosa a su cargo, De Prony
acept\u243? el trabajo de elaborar tablas trigonom\u233?tricas para los nuevos g
rados impuestos por el sistema m\u233?trico decimal, que requer\u237?an que los
\u225?ngulos rectos tuvieran 100 grados en lugar de 90.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar}
{
Inspirado por la descripci\u243?n que hac\u237?a Adam Smith de las mejoras en la
fabricaci\u243?n de alfileres gracias a la divisi\u243?n del trabajo, decidi\u2

43? hacer lo propio. Dividi\u243? a sus empleados en dos grupos. El mayor de ell
os estaba compuesto por unos noventa trabajadores, casi todos peluqueros o modis
tos que hab\u237?an perdido su empleo por la inquina revolucionaria a los trajes
y peinados estilo Luis XIV, que no sab\u237?an m\u225?s que sumar y restar. Y e
so hac\u237?an todo el d\u237?a. Otro grupo, de unas ocho personas, reduc\u237?a
los complicados c\u225?lculos que deb\u237?an resolverse a un porr\u243?n de es
as operaciones simples. No existir\u237?a otra oficina de c\u225?lculo tan numer
osa hasta la d\u233?cada de 1930.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Sin embargo, su trabajo no ser\u237?a publicado. El intento de rehacer la medida
habitual de los \u225?ngulos no fue incluido en la ley que regulaba los pesos y
medidas y el proyecto perdi\u243? todo su sentido. De Prony guard\u243? el manu
scrito de diecinueve vol\u250?menes con las tablas de c\u225?lculos y sigui\u243
? intentando que lo publicara alguien, pero nadie se interes\u243?. Cosas de los
proyectos gubernamentales.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
La principal funci\u243?n, esta algo m\u225?s \u250?til, que tuvieron los comput
adores durante el siglo XIX fue el c\u225?lculo de la posici\u243?n de los diver
sos cuerpos celestes. Estas tablas, publicadas en almanaques n\u225?uticos, perm
it\u237?an a los navegantes estimar con cierta rapidez y precisi\u243?n d\u243?n
de demonios estaban sus barcos. Asimismo, personajes como Francis Galton o Karl
Pearson se centraron en la llamada {\i
bioestad\u237?stica}, con la que med\u237?an ciertas caracter\u237?sticas f\u237
?sicas de plantas y animales para probar que se heredaban, dando respaldo a las
teor\u237?as de Darwin. Estos trabajos de computaci\u243?n fueron desempe\u241?a
dos con gran frecuencia por mujeres que, en muchas ocasiones, no pod\u237?an asp
irar a nada mejor, pese a su talento matem\u225?tico.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Pero los laboratorios de c\u225?lculo pronto acometieron otra labor: el an\u225?
lisis de las trayectorias de proyectiles. El principal proyecto de este g\u233?n
ero tendr\u237?a lugar durante la Primera Guerra Mundial en Estados Unidos, y fu
e un esfuerzo comparable al del Proyecto Manhattan de la siguiente. En Aberdeen,
Maryland, se dispararon miles de proyectiles, cuyas trayectorias se analizaron
para ver c\u243?mo les afectaban las condiciones ambientales; tambi\u233?n se pr
obaron nuevas armas y se analizaron problemas nuevos, como los referidos a la ar
tiller\u237?a antia\u233?rea.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
En las primeras d\u233?cadas del siglo XX empezaron a proliferar los m\u233?todo
s de c\u225?lculo mec\u225?nicos, pero s\u243?lo serv\u237?an como ayuda, no com
o sustituto. Es como si se cambiara el papel y el l\u225?piz por una m\u225?quin
a de hacer cuentas; pero siempre hab\u237?a un computador, es decir un se\u241?o
r de carne y hueso, encarg\u225?ndose de accionarla. Mientras algunos cient\u237
?ficos e ingenieros pensaban en c\u243?mo sustituirlos, la profesi\u243?n empez\
u243? a organizarse, con publicaciones propias y un comit\u233? dedicado a catal
ogar todas las tablas generadas. En definitiva: pretend\u237?an convertirla en u
na ocupaci\u243?n respetable.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
La Gran Depresi\u243?n dar\u237?a forma al mayor centro de computaci\u243?n huma
na que vieron los siglos: el Proyecto de Tablas Matem\u225?ticas, que arrancar\u
237?a en 1938 como parte del WPA, que fue algo as\u237? como el PER de Roosevelt
. Dirigido por Arnold Lowan y Gertrude Blanch, era mirado por encima del hombro
por el {\i
establishment} cient\u237?fico, ya que por aquel entonces no estaba muy bien vis
to que alguien trabajara a costa del contribuyente s\u243?lo porque el Gobierno
quisiera reducir el desempleo. Man\u237?a que seguro encontrar\u225?n incomprens
ible los votantes socialistas de todos los partidos. El proyecto lleg\u243? a su
punto culminante cuando alcanz\u243? los doscientos computadores trabajando, y
colabor\u243? en la Segunda Guerra Mundial con el sistema de posicionamiento mar
\u237?timo Loran, que sigui\u243? en uso hasta que el GPS comenz\u243? a sustitu
irlo. Poco despu\u233?s de la guerra fue desmantelado, y ya nunca volver\u237?a
a existir un centro de computaci\u243?n humana tan numeroso.\par\pard\plain\hyph
par} {
El c\u225?lculo del regreso del cometa {\i
Halley} en 1986 se program\u243? en Fortran en un ordenador Univac. La estimaci\
u243?n, realizada en 1977, fall\u243? por cinco horas y dos minutos, dentro del

margen de error de seis horas que puso su autor, Donald Yeomans. Algo hemos mejo
rado desde la \u233?poca en que los c\u225?lculos se hac\u237?an a mano\u8230?\p
ar\pard\plain\hyphpar}
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{\s3 \afs28
{\b
{\ql
DE LOS AUT\u211?MATAS JUGONES A LA PRIMERA COMPUTADORA COMO DIOS MANDA\par\pard\
plain\hyphpar}\par\pard\plain\hyphpar}\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
En 2006 pudimos disfrutar de dos pel\u237?culas inspiradas en los ilusionistas d
el siglo XIX, un mundo poco explorado por el cine. La base de ese arte eran los
ingenios mec\u225?nicos; aunque, claro, sus posibilidades estaban algo exagerada
s en la gran pantalla, para que las audiencias del siglo XXI quedaran tan asombr
adas como las de aquellos prestidigitadores.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
En realidad, los trucos no eran tan complicados como esa m\u225?quina que hac\u2
37?a crecer un peque\u241?o \u225?rbol y que tan escamado dejaba a Paul Giamatti
en {\i
El Ilusionista}. Uno de los m\u225?s famosos ingenios se llamaba {\i
El Turco}. Construido por Wolfgang von Kempelen en 1769, era un aut\u243?mata qu
e jugaba al ajedrez, y encima ganaba. Con lo que le cost\u243? a IBM derrotar a
Kasparov, y resulta que ya se hab\u237?a hecho algo parecido m\u225?s de dos sig
los antes\u8230? Bueno, no.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
{\i
El Turco} era una figura con turbante y ropas de otomano (de ah\u237? el nombre,
claro); ten\u237?a el aspecto de un mago oriental. Ante s\u237? hab\u237?a un e
scritorio con varias puertas y un caj\u243?n. Cuando el ilusionista comenzaba su
n\u250?mero, abr\u237?a las puertas y dejaba que la gente mirara en su interior
. Todas ellas escond\u237?an complicados mecanismos de relojer\u237?a, y algunas
permit\u237?an ver a trav\u233?s del aut\u243?mata. Evidentemente, no todos los
recovecos del ingenio quedaban expuestos al escrutinio del personal. Bien ocult
o estaba, por ejemplo, el individuo de carne y hueso que jugaba al ajedrez y que
pod\u237?a ver la situaci\u243?n del tablero porque las piezas contaban con un
im\u225?n que le facilitaba la tarea.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
{\i
El Turco} pereci\u243? en 1854 en un incendio. Tuvo {\i
descendientes} como {\i
El Egipcio} (1868) y {\i
Mephisto} (1876), pero ninguno de ellos era otra cosa que un truco de ilusionism

o. Bien distinto fue {\i

El Ajedrecista}, construido en 1912 por el genio espa\u241?ol Leonardo Torres Qu
evedo, que pod\u237?a jugar con una torre y un rey contra el rey de su oponente
humano y fue el primer jugador de ajedrez realmente autom\u225?tico, el verdader
o predecesor de {\i
Deep Blue}.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Durante sus ochenta y cinco a\u241?os de vida, {\i
El Turco} jug\u243? contra numerosos humanos, y gan\u243? a unos cuantos, entre
ellos a Napole\u243?n y Benjamin Franklin. Ahora bien, sus partidas m\u225?s mem
orables fueron las dos que le enfrentaron al matem\u225?tico ingl\u233?s Charles
Babbage en 1821. No porque fueran de tal nivel que se hayan ganado un puesto de
honor en los anales del ajedrez, sino porque dejaron al genio pensativo. Babbag
e ten\u237?a claro que {\i
El Turco} estaba manejado de alguna manera por un jugador humano, pero no supo a
veriguar c\u243?mo.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Como dicen en {\i
El truco final}, el espectador no debe creer que est\u225? contemplando un acto
verdaderamente m\u225?gico, porque podr\u237?a quedarse perturbado; lo mejor es
que asuma que se trata de un truco\u8230? pero no sepa cu\u225?l, o c\u243?mo se
hace. Babbage sab\u237?a que {\i
El Turco} no era un jugador autom\u225?tico, pero empez\u243? a pensar en si pod
r\u237?a construirse uno.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
El se\u241?or Babbage fue, como muchos cient\u237?ficos de su \u233?poca, un hom
bre que destac\u243? en campos bien diferentes. Aparte de su trabajo como pioner
o de la inform\u225?tica, que le califica como uno de los m\u225?s firmes candid
atos a ser considerado el padre de esta ingenier\u237?a, logr\u243? desarrollar
una t\u233?cnica para descifrar el llamado {\i
cifrado de autoclave}, aunque su descubrimiento fue ocultado durante a\u241?os p
or el ej\u233?rcito ingl\u233?s, usuario exclusivo del mismo durante ese tiempo.
Incluso describi\u243? un principio econ\u243?mico que apuntaba que se pod\u237
?an reducir costes de manufactura si se contrataba a obreros poco cualificados y
mal pagados para que descargaran de tarea a los m\u225?s cualificados y mejor r
emunerados, que as\u237? podr\u237?an dedicarse por completo a lo que mejor se l
es daba. A Marx la idea no le hizo mucha gracia.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Al a\u241?o siguiente de su encuentro con {\i
El Turco}, Babbage envi\u243? una carta a Humphry Davy \u8212?eminencia de la \u
233?poca cuya fama acab\u243? siendo totalmente eclipsada por la de su disc\u237
?pulo Michael Faraday\u8212?, en la que describ\u237?a los principios de una m\u
225?quina calculadora mec\u225?nica que sustituyera a los computadores humanos y
su algo elevadilla tasa de error. Aquellos obreros del c\u225?lculo empleaban p
ara su labor tablas impresas con c\u225?lculos ya hechos \u8212?y llenos de erro
res\u8212?; una de las colecciones m\u225?s completas era, precisamente, la de B
abbage. Las exigencias cada vez m\u225?s altas de la ciencia y, sobre todo, la i
ngenier\u237?a clamaban por un sistema mejor. Y Babbage pens\u243? que una m\u22
5?quina calculadora permitir\u237?a reducir los problemas derivados de nuestra i
ncapacidad para la exactitud.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Ese mismo a\u241?o (1822) present\u243? en la Royal Astronomical Society su prim
er dise\u241?o de una {\i
m\u225?quina diferencial}, as\u237? llamada porque utilizaba el m\u233?todo de l
as diferencias de Newton para resolver polinomios. Durante los siguientes once a
\u241?os, y gracias a una subvenci\u243?n del Gobierno brit\u225?nico, estuvo tr
abajando en su construcci\u243?n; pero nunca lleg\u243? a concluirla. Por divers
os motivos. El principal era la extremada complejidad de la m\u225?quina: comple
tada hubiera pesado unas quince toneladas y constado de 25 000 componentes. Las
f\u225?bricas de la \u233?poca no eran capaces de producir piezas exactamente ig
uales, que era lo que necesitaba Babbage. Adem\u225?s, este no paraba de hacer r
edise\u241?os. Finalmente, tras terminar una parte del aparato y discutir con Jo
seph Clement, el ingeniero que le ayudaba, porque le ofrec\u237?a una miseria po
r trasladar el taller al lado de su casa, se dio por vencido.\par\pard\plain\hyp
hpar} {

Por supuesto, Babbage no fue Edison. Dise\u241?\u243? mucho, pero no construy\u2

43? nada. Ni siquiera el quitapiedras que perge\u241?\u243? para colocar delante
de las locomotoras y evitar descarrilamientos, ese enorme tri\u225?ngulo que fi
nalmente incorporaron las m\u225?quinas de vapor y que hemos visto en tantas pel
\u237?culas del Oeste. Sin embargo, tuvo grandes ideas, y las mejores las aplic\
u243? a su m\u225?quina anal\u237?tica, el primer ordenador no construido\u8230?
\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Es dif\u237?cil definir qu\u233? es un computador, pero en general todos estarem
os de acuerdo en que es un sistema autom\u225?tico que recibe datos y los proces
a de acuerdo con un programa. El primer ordenador, por tanto, ten\u237?a, para p
oder recibir esa distinci\u243?n, la {\i
obligaci\u243?n} de recibir esos datos y ser programable; es decir, no deb\u237?
a tener una \u250?nica funci\u243?n, como la m\u225?quina diferencial, sino que
habr\u237?a de ser capaz de hacer tantas cosas como programas se le suministrara
n.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
En eso consist\u237?a, precisamente, la m\u225?quina anal\u237?tica, cuyos prime
ros dise\u241?os datan de 1837 y que Babbage estuvo refinando hasta su muerte, e
n 1871. Los datos se le suministraban mediante tarjetas perforadas, y ten\u237?a
una memoria capaz de almacenar 1000 n\u250?meros de 50 d\u237?gitos cada uno. P
ara mostrar los resultados, Babbage no s\u243?lo perforaba sino que lleg\u243? a
dise\u241?ar una impresora. El lenguaje de programaci\u243?n empleado inclu\u23
7?a bucles (la posibilidad de repetir una operaci\u243?n un determinado n\u250?m
ero de veces) y saltos condicionales (que permiten al programa seguir uno u otro
camino, en funci\u243?n del resultado de un c\u225?lculo anterior). Seg\u250?n
descubrir\u237?a Turing muchos a\u241?os m\u225?s tarde, con esos bloques se pue
de reproducir cualquier programa que pueda concebirse.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Babbage no hizo muchos esfuerzos por hacer realidad esta m\u225?quina, despu\u23
3?s de su fracaso con la anterior. Le hubiera resultado a\u250?n m\u225?s dif\u2
37?cil, y habr\u237?a necesitado de una m\u225?quina de vapor para hacerla funci
onar. Ahora bien, no dej\u243? de redise\u241?arla e intentar hacer un modelo de
prueba. Eso s\u237?, lo que aprendi\u243? le permiti\u243? redise\u241?ar la m\
u225?quina diferencial entre 1847 y 1849, hasta reducir a un tercio el n\u250?me
ro de piezas necesarias para su construcci\u243?n.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
En 1991, bicentenario del nacimiento de Babbage, el Museo de las Ciencias de Lon
dres termin\u243? una m\u225?quina diferencial que segu\u237?a sus \u250?ltimos
dise\u241?os. Trataron de limitarse a las posibilidades de fabricaci\u243?n del
siglo XIX. Y el caso es que el ingenio funcion\u243? a la perfecci\u243?n.\par\p
ard\plain\hyphpar}
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{\s3 \afs28
{\b
{\ql
LA M\u193?QUINA FAVORITA DE MARK TWAIN\par\pard\plain\hyphpar}\par\pard\plain\hy
phpar}\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Las tres principales funciones que realiza un ordenador en una oficina son: prep
arar documentos, almacenar y recuperar datos y encargarse del an\u225?lisis fina
nciero y contable. Esas tres funciones las llevan a cabo, respectivamente, los p
rocesadores de texto, las bases de datos y las hojas de c\u225?lculo, componente
s que incluye todo paquete ofim\u225?tico que merezca tal nombre: Microsoft Word
, Open Office, Corel WordPerfect Office, Lotus SmartSuite, Gnome Office\u8230?\p
ar\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Esas necesidades no son nuevas: existen desde que existen las oficinas. De hecho
, podr\u237?a decirse que las oficinas existen para satisfacer esas necesidades.
Ya en el siglo XIX se hac\u237?an grandes esfuerzos por mecanizar, siquiera en
parte, esas tareas, a fin de reducir personal, abaratar costes y abordar empresa
s m\u225?s ambiciosas. Sea como fuere, la historia de la inform\u225?tica ha sid
o impulsada, principalmente, por la necesidad de hacer c\u225?lculos complejos d
e la forma m\u225?s r\u225?pida posible y \u8212?en menor medida\u8212? de almac
enar y tratar grandes vol\u250?menes de datos. La cosa de los documentos siempre
ha estado en segundo plano.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Eso no significa que fuera una actividad poco lucrativa: justo antes del {\i
crash} burs\u225?til de 1929, los principales proveedores de aparatos de oficina
eran cuatro, y de los cuatro la mayor empresa no era IBM sino Remington, especi
alizada en m\u225?quinas de escribir y sistemas de archivo.\par\pard\plain\hyphp
ar} {
Facilitar la escritura por medio de ingenios mec\u225?nicos no se le ocurri\u243
? a alguien un buen d\u237?a, as\u237? sin m\u225?s. Se estima que hubo alrededo
r de cincuenta inventos independientes desde que el ingl\u233?s Henry Mill recib
iera una patente en 1714 por una m\u225?quina, al parecer, enorme y muy poco pr\
u225?ctica. La mayor parte de esos cacharros eran m\u225?s lentos que escribir a
mano, as\u237? que no tuvieron \u233?xito alguno. Hubo que esperar hasta 1870 p
ara la comercializaci\u243?n de uno de ellos. Se trataba de la bola de Hansen, c
reada en Dinamarca por el reverendo Rasmus Mailing-Hansen, un extra\u241?o apara
to con las teclas en la parte superior de una esfera y las letras m\u225?s usada
s, al alcance de los dedos m\u225?s r\u225?pidos. Nietszche tuvo una y nunca lle
g\u243? a estar satisfecho con ella, principalmente porque no lleg\u243? a sus m
anos en perfecto estado; y cuando la llev\u243? a arreglar el asombrado mec\u225
?nico \u8212?que no ten\u237?a mucha idea de qu\u233? era aquello\u8212? no hizo
sino estropearla m\u225?s. Pero igual la explicaci\u243?n del malestar haya que
buscarla en el hecho de que el inventor fuera un hombre religioso, que ya sabem
os todos c\u243?mo era Nietszche con esas cosas.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Aquellas bolas se fabricaban a mano, lo que merm\u243? sus posibilidades de expa
nsi\u243?n. Muy otro fue el destino de la considerada habitualmente como la prim
era m\u225?quina de escribir, el {\i
piano literario} creado en Milwaukee por un inventor de Wisconsin, dos de tantos
lugares empleados como sin\u243?nimos del c\u233?lebre Quinto Pino. El editor d
e peri\u243?dicos retirado Christopher Latham Sholes, despu\u233?s de perge\u241
?ar una m\u225?quina para imprimir n\u250?meros de serie en billetes de tren, fu
e convencido por el tambi\u233?n inventor aficionado Carlos S. Gliden para que a
mpliara su invento e imprimiera todo tipo de caracteres. Sholes embarc\u243? a S
amuel W. Soule en la empresa, y en septiembre de 1867 consiguieron alumbrar su p
rimer modelo.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
El cacharro s\u243?lo pod\u237?a escribir en may\u250?sculas y no permit\u237?a
ver lo que se estaba escribiendo, pero ten\u237?a algunos de los principios que
compartieron despu\u233?s todas las m\u225?quinas de escribir. As\u237?, cada le
tra ten\u237?a su propio tipo al final de una barra que se accionaba pulsando la
tecla. Uno de los fallos que tuvieron que arreglar es que, despu\u233?s de hace
r su trabajo, la barra ca\u237?a por su propio peso, con lo cual era muy f\u225?

cil que se estorbasen las teclas pulsadas. Aunque Sholes mejor\u243? el sistema,
el problema segu\u237?a ah\u237?, por lo que decidi\u243? ralentizar la velocid
ad de escritura cambiando el orden de las teclas, que inicialmente era alfab\u23
3?tico, por el Qwerty que todos usamos y amamos, por decirlo as\u237?. (De todas
formas, si se fijan en su teclado ver\u225?n la herencia de la disposici\u243?n
alfab\u233?tica en la segunda l\u237?nea, con la serie F-g-h,j-k-l).\par\pard\p
lain\hyphpar} {
La m\u225?quina Sholes-Glidden \u8212?como se la suele conocer, obviando al pobr
e Soule\u8212? fue comercializada con un \u233?xito muy moderado hasta que llam\
u243? la atenci\u243?n del fabricante de armas Remington, que tras el final de l
a guerra civil americana estaba necesitado de nuevos negocios, porque por mucho
Salvaje Oeste que hubiera lo cierto es que los rifles ya no se colocaban igual.
Su concurso fue una buena cosa: y es que, seg\u250?n algunos expertos, la m\u225
?quina de escribir fue el aparato m\u225?s complicado de manufacturar para la in
dustria americana en todo el siglo XIX. No s\u243?lo ten\u237?a cientos de parte
s m\u243?viles que ensamblar, sino que usaba materiales entonces poco habituales
, como la goma, el cristal y el acero.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Remington vendi\u243? sus primeras m\u225?quinas en 1874, y le llev\u243? cinco
largos a\u241?os colocar el primer millar. Las oficinas no fueron sus primeros c
lientes, sino los escritores, los periodistas, los abogados y los cl\u233?rigos.
Uno de ellos fue Mark Twain, autor de esta petici\u243?n inefable:\par\pard\pla
in\hyphpar} {
Caballeros:\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Por favor, no usen mi nombre de ninguna manera. De hecho, les rogarla que no dij
eran a nadie que tengo una de sus m\u225?quinas. He dejado de usarla completamen
te, porque no puedo escribir una carta con ella sin recibir como respuesta una p
etici\u243?n de que la describa, de los progresos que he hecho en su uso, etc. N
o me gusta escribir cartas, as\u237? que no quiero que nadie sepa que tengo esta
peque\u241?a broma generadora de curiosidad.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
{\qr
Suyo atentamente,\par\pard\plain\hyphpar}\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
{\qr
Saml. L. Clemens.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar}\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Para la d\u233?cada de 1890, Remington estaba vendiendo alrededor de 20 000 unid
ades al a\u241?o, de modo que le sali\u243? competencia de empresas como Smith P
remier, Oliver, Underwood o Royal. Para entonces las m\u225?quinas ya pod\u237?a
n escribir en min\u250?sculas y se pod\u237?a leer lo que se estaba tecleando. C
omo eran aparatos delicados que se estropeaban con facilidad, Remington mont\u24
3? una amplia red de talleres de reparaci\u243?n, ejemplo que siguieron otras mu
chas firmas especializadas en maquinaria. A su vez, las escuelas de telegraf\u23
7?a aprovecharon para montar cursos de mecanograf\u237?a, y de los 5000 profesio
nales del tecleo que hab\u237?a en todo Estados Unidos en 1880 se pas\u243? a 11
2 000 en 1900; 86 000 eran mujeres, lo que llev\u243? a cierta feminista a concl
uir con sorna que el lugar de la mujer no era la cocina sino la m\u225?quina de
escribir.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Alrededor de los a\u241?os veinte, el dise\u241?o de las m\u225?quinas se estand
ariz\u243? y dej\u243? de haber diferencias significativas entre fabricantes. El
rodillo, la palanca de carro, la cinta entintada\u8230? incluso el sonido era s
imilar en todas. En los a\u241?os cuarenta se intent\u243? comercializar una m\u
225?quina de escribir silenciosa, pero fue un intento que concluy\u243? en un so
noro fracaso. La gente se hab\u237?a hecho al sonido. Se dice que cuando Henry J
ames tuvo que cambiar la Remington que empleaba su amanuense por una m\u225?s mo
derna y ruidosa, el cambio le volvi\u243? loco. En 1950 Leroy Anderson compuso s
u m\u250?sica para m\u225?quina de escribir y orquesta que Jerry Lewis har\u237?
a famosa en una de sus pel\u237?culas.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
S\u243?lo las m\u225?quinas de escribir electr\u243?nicas consiguieron desplazar
a las de toda la vida. Pero su poder\u237?o dur\u243? muy poco: enseguida llega
ron los ordenadores personales, con sus silenciosos procesadores de texto.\par\p
ard\plain\hyphpar}

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}}
{\s3 \afs28
{\b
{\ql
LOS OR\u205?GENES CENSORES DE IBM\par\pard\plain\hyphpar}\par\pard\plain\hyphpar
}\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Hoy d\u237?a, cualquiera que monte una p\u225?gina web ingeniosa y de cierto \u2
33?xito es calificado de {\i
visionario}. Pero cualquiera de los logros de estos genios de \u250?ltima hora p
alidece ante la historia de Herman Hollerith, que fund\u243? una empresa de info
rm\u225?tica\u8230? en 1896. Tras innumerables dimes, diretes y fusiones, hoy es
a empresa es conocida como El Gigante Azul, o IBM.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Herman Hollerith naci\u243? en Buffalo, esa otra ciudad del estado de Nueva York
, el 29 de febrero de 1860, y a los diecinueve a\u241?os se gradu\u243? en la Un
iversidad de Columbia como ingeniero de minas. Se ve que aquello no daba para mu
cho, porque se puso a trabajar en la oficina del censo, donde coincidi\u243? con
un cirujano y bibliotecario, John Shaw Billings, creador \u8212?entre otras cos
as\u8212? del {\i
Index Medicus}, un cat\u225?logo de art\u237?culos m\u233?dicos que se public\u2
43? desde 1879 hasta 2004, cuando Internet lo hizo obsoleto.\par\pard\plain\hyph
par} {
El caso es que Billings coment\u243? a nuestro h\u233?roe en una pausa para come
r all\u225? por 1881 que la cosa del censo hab\u237?a que automatizarla de algun
a manera: de lo contrario, iban a tener un problema. No le faltaba raz\u243?n, d
esde luego. La poblaci\u243?n de Estados Unidos estaba creciendo a raz\u243?n de
un 25 por ciento cada d\u233?cada, m\u225?s o menos. El censo de 1880, entonces
en proceso, tard\u243? siete a\u241?os en completarse, y dio como resultado una
poblaci\u243?n de 50 millones de personas. Si no encontraban alguna manera de h
acerlo m\u225?s r\u225?pido, para cuando se publicase el de 1890 ya habr\u237?a
terminado el siglo.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Hay que tener en cuenta que el trabajo del censo tambi\u233?n ten\u237?a, y tien
e, cierta importancia pol\u237?tica. Aunque, en Estados Unidos, senadores hay si
empre dos por cada estado, la representaci\u243?n de cada distrito electoral en
la C\u225?mara de Representantes var\u237?a en funci\u243?n de la poblaci\u243?n
. Adem\u225?s, el n\u250?mero de votos electorales, es decir, el peso que tiene
cada estado en la elecci\u243?n del presidente, var\u237?a tambi\u233?n con la p
oblaci\u243?n. A mayor retraso en los datos del censo, menos representativo ser\
u225? el reparto. La cosa, en fin, ten\u237?a m\u225?s importancia que el mero h
echo de saber cu\u225?ntos estadounidenses hab\u237?a en tal o cual a\u241?o.\pa

r\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Hollerith solicit\u243? la primera patente de sus m\u225?quinas para procesar in
formaci\u243?n tres a\u241?os despu\u233?s de hablar con Billings. Pero ten\u237
?a todo preparado en 1886, cuando el ayuntamiento de Baltimore emple\u243? su m\
u225?quina para procesar las estad\u237?sticas de mortalidad. Dos a\u241?os desp
u\u233?s, la Oficina del Censo organiz\u243? un concurso para encontrar un m\u23
3?todo mejor para procesar los datos que recib\u237?a. Junto a \u233?l se presen
taron otros dos inventores, Charles F. Pidgin y William C. Hunt, que emplearon s
istemas parecidos, en los que se codificaban en colores los distintos datos.\par
\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
El concurso consist\u237?a en dos pruebas: la primera era la {\i
captura} de informaci\u243?n, es decir, el tiempo que se tardaba en pasar los da
tos al sistema de cada uno de los participantes. La segunda era el procesamiento
en s\u237?, es decir, sumar los datos hasta llegar al n\u250?mero de personas q
ue viv\u237?an en los cuatro distritos de la ciudad de San Luis que se emplearon
en el concurso, as\u237? como cu\u225?ntas de ellas eran hombres y cu\u225?ntas
mujeres, cu\u225?ntas eran negras y cu\u225?ntos blancas, etc\u233?tera.\par\pa
rd\plain\hyphpar} {
Decir que gan\u243? Hollerith es minimizar la paliza que dio a sus contrincantes
. La captura de datos fue lo que llev\u243? m\u225?s tiempo a todos: 72 horas y
media a nuestro hombre, mientras que sus contrincantes invirtieron 100,5 y 144,5
, respectivamente. Pero fue su ventaja al procesar los datos lo que asombr\u243?
a todos: 5 horas y media, frente a las 44,5 y 55,5 de sus rivales. As\u237? que
lo contrataron, y variantes de sus m\u225?quinas siguieron haciendo ese trabajo
hasta que fueron reemplazadas por ordenadores, en los a\u241?os cincuenta del s
iglo XX.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
El sistema de Hollerith empleaba tarjetas perforadas para el an\u225?lisis de da
tos. Herman las dise\u241?\u243? de modo que tuvieran el mismo tama\u241?o que l
os billetes de d\u243?lar de la \u233?poca, con objeto de que pudieran almacenar
se en las cajas que se comercializaban para los billetes. Cada dato (edad, raza,
sexo, etc.) se codificaba como un agujero. Para facilitar la tarea exist\u237?a
n m\u225?quinas perforadoras. La parte del sistema que se dedicaba a contar cons
ist\u237?a en unos circuitos que s\u243?lo se cerraban si no encontraban un mate
rial aislante que no dejara paso a la electricidad; es decir, que dejaban pasar
la corriente s\u243?lo si la tarjeta estaba perforada en el punto en cuesti\u243
?n. Si eso suced\u237?a, el dato le\u237?do quedaba registrado en unos contadore
s en forma de disco, con su aguja se\u241?alando la cifra correcta. Hab\u237?a c
uarenta, uno por cada cosa que se contaba en el censo.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Las m\u225?quinas de Hollerith tambi\u233?n facilitaban la ordenaci\u243?n de la
s tarjetas. Junto al lector hab\u237?a unos armarios llenos de compartimentos. C
uando la m\u225?quina le\u237?a una tarjeta, daba una orden al armario para que
abriera la tapa adecuada y as\u237? el operario no tuviera que enredarse en esa
tarea.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
El sistema funcion\u243? perfectamente. El censo de 1890 cost\u243? cinco millon
es de d\u243?lares menos que si se hubiera hecho a mano, un ahorro diez veces ma
yor del previsto, y se llev\u243? a cabo en un a\u241?o, cuando se pens\u243? qu
e llevar\u237?a tres, pese a que se incluyeron tres datos que antes no se pregun
taban porque no habr\u237?a tiempo para procesar los resultados.\par\pard\plain\
hyphpar} {
El problema es que dio como resultado que Estados Unidos ten\u237?a 63 millones
de habitantes, en lugar de los 75 que esperaba la gente\u8230? y la prensa. El {
\i
New York Herald} llev\u243? a primera plana el \u171?esc\u225?ndalo\u187?, acusa
ndo al censo de hacer todo muy r\u225?pido, s\u237?, pero no saber contar.\par\p
ard\plain\hyphpar} {
En general, ni las empresas ni los gobiernos de otros pa\u237?ses hicieron mucho
caso de estas acusaciones, y empezaron a pedir m\u225?quinas a Hollerith como l
ocos. El Imperio Austro-H\u250?ngaro, Italia, Canad\u225? y Rusia hicieron sus c
ensos con estos ingenios, que les vendi\u243? la Tabulation Machine Company, fun
dada por nuestro inventor en 1896.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {

En 1905 Hollerith aport\u243? su \u250?ltima innovaci\u243?n: un panel de contro

l que permit\u237?a {\i
programar} su m\u225?quina de tabular datos, es decir, adaptarla para distintos
usos. Hasta ese momento hab\u237?a que hacerlas {\i
ex profeso} para cada tipo de tarjeta perforada. Su Type I, en cambio, dispon\u2
37?a de un panel al estilo de las antiguas centrales telef\u243?nicas, con cable
s que pod\u237?an cambiar de posici\u243?n para leer distintos tipos de tarjeta.
Eso le facilit\u243? el poder vender su invento a m\u225?s clientes, desde comp
a\u241?\u237?as de ferrocarril hasta mutuas de seguros.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar}
{
Hollerith, con problemas de salud y algunos pleitos con el Gobierno norteamerica
no, que modific\u243? sus aparatos sin permiso, vendi\u243? la empresa en 1911.
La uni\u243?n de esta con otras tres del ramo dio lugar a Computing-Tabulating-R
ecordings Company, o CTR, que a\u241?os m\u225?s tarde pas\u243? a llamarse Inte
rnational Bussiness Machines. Es decir, IBM. No me negar\u225?n que lo suyo tien
e m\u225?s m\u233?rito que fundar una puntocom\u8230?\par\pard\plain\hyphpar}
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{\s3 \afs28
{\b
{\ql
EL TIRANO DE LAS CAJAS REGISTRADORAS Y EL HEREDERO QUE NO HERED\u211?\par\pard\p
lain\hyphpar}\par\pard\plain\hyphpar}\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
En 1871 James Ritty abri\u243? en Dayton, Ohio, un bar; o, m\u225?s bien, dada l
a \u233?poca, un {\i
saloon}. Pese a que las cosas no le iban mal, ten\u237?a la certeza de que algun
os de sus camareros se quedaban parte del dinero que pagaban los clientes, detal
le que no le hac\u237?a mucha gracia, claro. En un viaje a Europa, qued\u243? fa
scinado por el mecanismo que ten\u237?a el barco para contar el n\u250?mero de v
eces que giraba la h\u233?lice, y pens\u243? si se podr\u237?a adaptar. A la vue
lta, y con la ayuda de su hermano John, pari\u243? la Registradora Incorruptible
Ritty.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Los problemas con los empleados parecen animar bastante la inventiva de los jefe
s. Sin ir m\u225?s lejos, el lavavajillas lo invent\u243? una ricachona, Josephi
ne Cochrane, para evitar que el servicio la dejara sin su querida porcelana chin
a. Pero, en fin, volvamos con Ritty y su notable invento. No ten\u237?a a\u250?n
el cl\u225?sico armarito para guardar monedas y billetes, pero ya exhib\u237?a
las cifras de forma prominente, de modo que el cliente pudiera comprobar la hone
stidad del cobrador. Cuando se pulsaba la tecla del total, sonaba un timbre, de

modo que el jefe pudiera estar al tanto de cu\u225?ndo se realizaba una transacc
i\u243?n.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
En 1879 los Ritty montaron un taller para fabricar y vender cajas registradoras,
pero no tuvieron mucho \u233?xito. Al poco, agobiado por la falta de ventas y e
l l\u237?o que supon\u237?a gestionar dos negocios a la vez, James coloc\u243? l
a compa\u241?\u237?a a un empresario de la zona, que a su vez la vender\u237?a,
en 1884, a John H. Patterson, el cual le cambiar\u237?a el nombre por el de Nati
onal Cash Register Company, o NCR.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Patterson hab\u237?a sido uno de los pocos clientes de Ritty; seg\u250?n algunos
historiadores, el \u250?nico. Cogi\u243? las riendas del negocio con apenas cua
renta a\u241?os: para cuando muri\u243?, en 1922, hab\u237?a conseguido colocar
en el mercado dos millones de cajas registradoras.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
\u191?C\u243?mo tuvo tanto \u233?xito? Para empezar, incorpor\u243? algunas mejo
ras al ingenio de Ritty. La primera, un rollo de papel en el que quedaban regist
radas las transacciones, lo que facilitaba al due\u241?o del comercio de turno h
acer caja al final de la jornada. Algo m\u225?s tarde, en 1906, uno de sus emple
ados, Charles Kettering, a\u241?adi\u243? a la m\u225?quina un motor el\u233?ctr
ico. Sea como fuere, la clave residi\u243? en el talento empresarial del se\u241
?or Patterson. Al igual que hicieron firmas como Remington, NCR estableci\u243?
una serie de talleres de reparaci\u243?n de las cajas, en los que adem\u225?s te
ofrec\u237?an una de sustituci\u243?n mientras {\i
curaban} la tuya. Asimismo, cre\u243? el primer departamento estable de I+D, ent
onces conocido como {\i
departamento de inventos}. Y, sobre todo, se puso por bandera el lema: \u171?Las
cajas registradoras no se compran, se venden\u187?.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Patterson sab\u237?a, por experiencia propia, que el de vendedor es un oficio so
litario y destructivo. As\u237? que motiv\u243? a los suyos a base de dinero, of
reci\u233?ndoles suculentos complementos y premios. En 1887 pidi\u243? a su mejo
r vendedor que escribiera un manual; se titul\u243? {\i
NCR Primer} y se emple\u243? como libro de texto para la escuela de la compa\u24
1?\u237?a. A ella asistir\u237?a un tal Thomas J. Watson, al que le cambi\u243?
por completo la vida. Manual en mano, Watson, ex vendedor de pianos, se convirti
\u243? en uno de los mejores comerciales de NCR, en la que ingres\u243? en 1895.
Asistir a la escuela de la compa\u241?\u237?a le permiti\u243? doblar sus venta
s, y sus \u233?xitos le permitieron ir ascendiendo hasta que Patterson le reclam
\u243?, en 1903, para trabajar en la sede central \u8212?que segu\u237?a estando
en Dayton\u8212?. Le encarg\u243? una misi\u243?n especialmente sucia, incluso
para lo que se estilaba por entonces en el mundo de los negocios\u8230?\par\pard
\plain\hyphpar} {
La compraventa de cajas registradoras de segunda mano se hab\u237?a convertido e
n un problema para NCR. Watson fund\u243? la Watson Cash Register, que, con los
fondos de Patterson y sin necesidad, claro, de obtener beneficios, se dedic\u243
? a vender las m\u225?quinas mucho m\u225?s baratas que nadie; compr\u243? o lle
v\u243? a la ruina a sus competidores. Para Patterson, la cuesti\u243?n era simp
le: \u171?Para matar a un perro, lo mejor es cortarle la cabeza\u187?, era uno d
e sus infinitos lemas; tambi\u233?n lo eran: \u171?Quien deja de ser mejor, deja
de ser bueno\u187? y \u171?no podemos permitirnos tener un solo cliente insatis
fecho\u187?, entre muchos otros.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
La misi\u243?n permiti\u243? a Watson seguir ascendiendo, no sin ciertos remordi
mientos. En 1908 fue nombrado jefe de ventas y responsable de su querida escuela
. Entonces pudo dedicarse, \u233?l tambi\u233?n, a acu\u241?ar esl\u243?ganes: p
ronto, su \u171?Think\u187? (piensa) estar\u237?a colgado de las paredes de toda
s las oficinas de NCR.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Y entonces, en 1911, cuando todo el mundo pensaba que ser\u237?a el sucesor de P
atterson, este lo despidi\u243?. Porque s\u237?. El mandam\u225?s de NCR era as\
u237?: tan pronto premiaba a un empleado porque hac\u237?a cualquier tonter\u237
?a que le agradaba como desped\u237?a a un directivo porque no montaba a caballo
como estaba mandado \u8212?o, para ser exactos, como Patterson mandaba\u8212?.
Igual prohib\u237?a a sus empleados comer pan y mantequilla por ser supuestament
e perjudiciales para la salud como constru\u237?a una f\u225?brica con grandes v

entanales en una \u233?poca en que las condiciones de trabajo no estaban precisa

mente en el {\i
top ten} de las preocupaciones de los empresarios. Igual obligaba a los trabajad
ores a pesarse y medirse cada seis meses que los pon\u237?a a hacer balsas a tod
a prisa para rescatar a las v\u237?ctimas de la Gran Inundaci\u243?n de Dayton (
1913).\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
En 1912 Patterson, Watson y otros 28 directivos de NCR fueron acusados de atenta
r contra la libre competencia con pr\u225?cticas como las ya referidas maniobras
para deshacerse de los vendedores de segunda mano o la contrataci\u243?n de mat
ones para amenazar a los tenderos que pudieran tener la tentaci\u243?n de compra
r su caja registradora a otras empresas. Fueron condenados a un a\u241?o de pris
i\u243?n y el pago de una multa, una condena inusualmente dura para la \u233?poc
a. Sea como fuere, sus recursos prosperaron, en buena parte por la buena imagen
que se labr\u243? la NCR durante la Gran Inundaci\u243?n.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar
} {
Como dec\u237?amos, Patterson muri\u243? en 1922. La empresa, entonces, cambi\u2
43? de rumbo para diversificarse y dejar de ser {\i
monoproducto}. Se expandi\u243? en muchas direcciones y no muri\u243? con el sal
to a lo electr\u243?nico. Hoy d\u237?a, su especialidad son los cajeros autom\u2
25?ticos, y ha trasladado su sede a Georgia.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
El bar de Ritty continu\u243? funcionando hasta 1967; durante los a\u241?os de l
a Prohibici\u243?n, fue hotel, restaurante y caf\u233?. Ahora forma parte de los
monumentos hist\u243?ricos de Dayton.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Watson pas\u243? un tiempo pleiteando y decidiendo cu\u225?l de las m\u250?ltipl
es ofertas que hab\u237?a recibido aceptaba. Tuvo tiempo para casarse y traer al
mundo a Thomas J. Watson Jr. En 1914 opt\u243? por ponerse al frente de una emp
resa no demasiado grande, pero que el heredero despojado pens\u243? ten\u237?a m
ucho futuro: CTR. \u201?l, primero, y su hijo, despu\u233?s, la convirtieron en
un gigante. Azul, para m\u225?s se\u241?as.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {\par\pard\h
yphpar }{\page } {\s2 \afs28
{\b
{\ql
2
{\line }
{\line }
LOS PRIMEROS ORDENADORES\par\pard\plain\hyphpar}\par\pard\plain\hyphpar}\par\pa
rd\plain\hyphpar}
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{
{\b

D}urante los a\u241?os cuarenta del siglo XX se dio el paso fundamental. De m\u2
25?quinas m\u225?s o menos sofisticadas que podr\u237?amos calificar de calculad
oras, como el analizador diferencial de Vannevar Bush, se pas\u243? a construir
el primer ordenador. El problema con el que nos encontramos es que resulta dif\u
237?cil definir con precisi\u243?n qu\u233? narices es una computadora, y as\u23
7? es muy dif\u237?cil coger el punto en la historia en que un cacharro concreto
, y no este otro de aqu\u237?, puede considerarse el primer ordenador de verdad.
\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
\u191?Qu\u233? le pedimos que sea a una computadora? Para algunos, el primer req
uisito es que sea electr\u243?nica. En tal caso, algunas m\u225?quinas calculado
ras como el ABC o el Colossus ser\u237?an las primeras. No obstante, el criterio
m\u225?s universal es que todo ordenador debe ser una m\u225?quina de Turing: e
s decir, debe pasar una prueba que dictamina si es te\u243?ricamente capaz de re
solver cualquier problema que pueda resolverse con una m\u225?quina, suponiendo
que tuviera tiempo y memoria infinitos. Seg\u250?n ese razonamiento, los primero
s ordenadores fueron los construidos por el alem\u225?n Konrad Zuse durante la d
ictadura de Hitler.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
En cualquier caso, el primer aparato en cumplir ambos requisitos fue el Eniac, q
ue tradicionalmente se ha considerado el primer ordenador de la historia. Pese a
no estar de acuerdo, pues pienso que un ordenador se define por su funcionalida
d y no por la tecnolog\u237?a concreta con que se fabrica, de lo que no cabe dud
a es de que los ordenadores que empleamos hoy d\u237?a no son herederos directos
de los construidos por Zuse ni por ning\u250?n otro: son tataranietos del Eniac
. As\u237? que, por m\u225?s que no fuera el primero de la fila, sin duda es el
m\u225?s importante de todos los que se dise\u241?aron en la d\u233?cada inaugur
al de la historia de la inform\u225?tica.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar}
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{\s3 \afs28
{\b
{\ql
\u191?ROBARON EL ABC DE LOS ORDENADORES?\par\pard\plain\hyphpar}\par\pard\plain\
hyphpar}\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Los a\u241?os cuarenta vieron el nacimiento de los primeros ordenadores electr\u
243?nicos en Estados Unidos, Gran Breta\u241?a y Alemania; en buena medida por l
as necesidades de c\u225?lculo que les exig\u237?a el esfuerzo b\u233?lico. El t
rabajo de uno de los pioneros en este campo fue desconocido hasta los a\u241?os
setenta. Pero no por razones de seguridad nacional, sino porque sus ideas se las
apropiaron otros sin reconocerlo.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {

Durante los primeros a\u241?os de su vida, John Vincent Atanasoff no disfrut\u24

3? de luz el\u233?ctrica en casa. Estudi\u243? matem\u225?ticas por su cuenta, y
cuando lleg\u243? a las Aulas Magnas lo hizo con la idea de ser f\u237?sico te\
u243?rico, pero la Universidad de Florida era un pel\u237?n cutre y no ten\u237?
a cursos de eso, as\u237? que se hizo ingeniero el\u233?ctrico, como su padre. N
o obstante, persever\u243? y se gradu\u243? en Matem\u225?ticas en Iowa y se doc
tor\u243? en F\u237?sica en Wisconsin.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Ya como profesor de Matem\u225?ticas en la Universidad de Iowa, pronto se vio fr
ustrado \u8212?igual que muchos antes que \u233?l\u8212? por el tiempo que hac\u
237?a falta para completar ciertos c\u225?lculos complicados, especialmente los
que ten\u237?an como protagonistas a las ecuaciones diferenciales. Prob\u243? ca
charros mec\u225?nicos de todo tipo, y fue el primero en usar la palabra {\i
anal\u243?gico} para referirse a algunas de las computadoras de entonces, que no
daban resultados num\u233?ricos precisos sino que, por decirlo as\u237?, {\i
se\u241?alaban} el resultado, de ah\u237? que este siempre fuera aproximado. Aun
que no inventara tambi\u233?n la palabra {\i
digital}, se dio cuenta de que eso era lo que necesitaba, un ordenador digital.
Pero es que no hab\u237?a\u8230?\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Atanasoff fue un inventor renuente. Ten\u237?a tres hijos, y no le apetec\u237?a
nada gastar el escaso tiempo libre que le quedaba en la creaci\u243?n de un ord
enador. Sin embargo, se puso a ello, y pronto decidi\u243? emplear en su proyect
o v\u225?lvulas de vac\u237?o, dispositivos que aprovechaban el llamado {\i
efecto Edison} (posiblemente el \u250?nico descubrimiento cient\u237?fico adjudi
cado al c\u233?lebre inventor) y que pod\u237?an actuar como interruptores: el f
lujo de electrones que van del c\u225?todo al \u225?nodo pod\u237?a regularse a
trav\u233?s de otro electrodo, llamado {\i
rejilla}. Es todo lo que tiene que tener un componente electr\u243?nico para pod
er ser empleado como base de un circuito l\u243?gico, para poder ser el {\i
ladrillo} de un ordenador: los transistores hacen lo mismo, s\u243?lo que mucho
m\u225?s eficientemente, claro.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
El inventor decidi\u243? que lo mejor ser\u237?a emplear el sistema binario. Por
aquel entonces conocer sistemas de numeraci\u243?n distintos al decimal no era
muy habitual; \u233?l tuvo la suerte de haber aprendido matem\u225?ticas gracias
a un viejo libro de su madre en el que se informaba, entre otras cosas, de que
los mayas hab\u237?an usado la base 20 y los babilonios la base 60, raz\u243?n p
or la cual tenemos actualmente 60 segundos y 60 minutos.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar}
{
El principal obst\u225?culo que se encontr\u243? fue el almacenamiento de inform
aci\u243?n, que \u233?l (y nosotros) llam\u243? memoria. Un d\u237?a del inviern
o de 1937, llevado por la frustraci\u243?n, se puso a conducir como Lewis Hamilt
on cuando no est\u225? en un F\u243?rmula 1, es decir, a toda leche; lleg\u243?
hasta Illinois y, luego de tomarse un par de copas en un bar de carretera, se le
encendi\u243? la bombilla: usar\u237?a condensadores para almacenar los bits; p
ero como estos componentes ir\u237?an perdiendo poco a poco el valor que en un p
rimer momento tuvieran, peri\u243?dicamente har\u237?a pasar por ellos una corri
ente el\u233?ctrica, que les har\u237?a recuperar por completo el valor del bit
que guardaran. Denomin\u243? a esta t\u233?cnica {\i
jogging}; no porque implicara tener a nadie corriendo, sino porque la palabra in
glesa jog tambi\u233?n puede significar refrescarle la memoria a alguien. El {\i
jogging} se sigue usando en los chips de memoria que todos ustedes tienen en sus
ordenadores personales, y permiti\u243? al inventor renuente regresar a casa a
velocidades m\u225?s pausadas.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Teniendo claro c\u243?mo iba a acometer la tarea, Atanasoff pidi\u243? financiac
i\u243?n y un ayudante, y tuvo la suerte de que se los concedieran en 1939. Come
nz\u243? a trabajar con \u233?l Clifford Berry, un joven ingeniero el\u233?ctric
o de talento. A finales de ese a\u241?o ya ten\u237?an una m\u225?quina funciona
ndo, y aunque s\u243?lo pod\u237?a sumar y restar, empleaba muchas de las ideas
y componentes que permitir\u237?an posteriormente construir ordenadores electr\u
243?nicos completos: v\u225?lvulas, sistema binario, circuitos l\u243?gicos para
hacer los c\u225?lculos, memoria con refresco autom\u225?tico\u8230?\par\pard\p

lain\hyphpar} {
Atanasoff escribi\u243? un art\u237?culo en el que describi\u243? lo que hab\u23
7?an hecho y que le permiti\u243? lograr m\u225?s financiaci\u243?n para, as\u23
7?, construir un ordenador de verdad y que la universidad contratara a un abogad
o de patentes a cambio de compartir la autor\u237?a de la invenci\u243?n con \u2
33?l. Desgraciadamente, el leguleyo deb\u237?a de ser bastante malo, porque no r
egistr\u243? el invento en la Oficina de Patentes al no tener clara la documenta
ci\u243?n necesaria. Vamos, que no entend\u237?a qu\u233? estaban haciendo Atana
soff y Berry.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
A finales de 1940, nuestro h\u233?roe conoci\u243? a un tal John Mauchly en unas
jornadas cient\u237?ficas y qued\u243? encantado de que alguien m\u225?s estuvi
era interesado en el asunto de los ordenadores, de modo que le invit\u243? a que
fuera a Iowa a ver de primera mano sus progresos, cosa que hizo en verano de 19
41. Mauchly tuvo ocasi\u243?n de contemplar lo que despu\u233?s se llamar\u237?a
{\i
ABC}, por Atanasoff Berry Computer. Aunque la m\u225?quina no estaba terminada d
el todo, supo de las t\u233?cnicas que la hab\u237?an hecho posible y hasta tom\
u243? notas del borrador de art\u237?culo que estaba escribiendo Atanasoff sobre
su criatura.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Entonces vino la guerra. En el verano de 1942, tanto Berry como Atanasoff dejaro
n sus trabajos y pasaron a ocupar puestos relacionados con la contienda. Ninguno
regres\u243? a Iowa. Su m\u225?quina se qued\u243? en los s\u243?tanos de la un
iversidad, que acab\u243? desmont\u225?ndola para hacer sitio para unas cuantas
aulas. El abogado nunca lleg\u243? a registrar una petici\u243?n de patente. El
trabajo qued\u243? olvidado durante d\u233?cadas; y en el olvido seguir\u237?a d
e no haberse desatado una lucha legal a finales de los a\u241?os sesenta entre v
arias empresas que se negaron a pagar {\i
royalties} a Sperry Rand por la patente del ordenador electr\u243?nico registrad
a en 1947 por Presper Eckert y\u8230? John Mauchly.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
S\u237?, el mismo que hab\u237?a visitado a Atanasoff fue uno de los creadores d
el primer ordenador electr\u243?nico: Eniac. Ambos se volvieron a encontrar dura
nte la guerra, y Mauchly le dijo que estaba creando una computadora basada en pr
incipios muy distintos al ABC, algo que sigui\u243? sosteniendo durante el resto
de su vida. En parte tiene raz\u243?n. Eniac fue la primera computadora electr\
u243?nica de verdad. Su estructura l\u243?gica, su dise\u241?o, nada ten\u237?a
que ver con el cacharro de Atanasoff, que era m\u225?s bien una m\u225?quina dis
e\u241?ada para resolver ecuaciones diferenciales de forma r\u225?pida y precisa
, no un ordenador programable de uso general. Por recordar la prehistoria de la
inform\u225?tica: el ABC era como la primera m\u225?quina diferencial de Babbage
, y el Eniac, como la m\u225?quina anal\u237?tica. Pero lo cierto es que s\u237?
cogi\u243? muchas de las ideas del ABC a la hora de construir su computadora, e
mpezando por el uso de v\u225?lvulas y terminando por el empleo de circuitos l\u
243?gicos para resolver los c\u225?lculos.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
As\u237? lo entendi\u243? el juez que en 1973 anul\u243? la patente de Eckert y
Mauchly, decisi\u243?n que no fue recurrida. Atanasoff fue entonces honrado por
unos m\u233?ritos que hasta el momento se le desconoc\u237?an. Incluso la Bulgar
ia comunista le otorg\u243?, por tener padre b\u250?lgaro y apellido a\u250?n m\
u225?s b\u250?lgaro, su m\u225?xima distinci\u243?n cient\u237?fica: la Orden de
los Santos Cirilo y Metodio, Primera Clase, nombre que no deja de ser curioso p
ara un r\u233?gimen marxista. Berry no tuvo tanta suerte: se hab\u237?a suicidad
o en 1963 por causas desconocidas. Pero igualmente su nombre qued\u243? para sie
mpre ligado a la primera m\u225?quina de c\u225?lculo electr\u243?nica y a la hi
storia de la inform\u225?tica.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Ah: la misma Universidad de Iowa que hab\u237?a desmantelado el ABC se lo hizo p
erdonar construyendo, en 1997, una r\u233?plica que cost\u243? 350 000 d\u243?la
res. Esa m\u225?quina est\u225? ahora alojada en la entrada de su Facultad de In
form\u225?tica.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar}
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{\s3 \afs28
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{\ql
ZUSE, EL PIONERO QUE TUVO LA DESGRACIA DE SER ALEM\u193?N\par\pard\plain\hyphpar
}\par\pard\plain\hyphpar}\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Si bien los primeros ordenadores se construyeron durante la Segunda Guerra Mundi
al, con objetivos y financiaci\u243?n militares, hubo un ingeniero civil que se
meti\u243? en la creaci\u243?n de estos cacharros para solventar necesidades de
c\u225?lculo del sector privado. No es una figura demasiado conocida. Es lo que
tiene haber trabajado en la Alemania nazi.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Konrad Zuse, ingeniero de caminos, canales y puertos, naci\u243? en Bonn en 1910
y se gradu\u243? en 1935. Siendo estudiante, acab\u243? hart\u225?ndose de las
complicadas operaciones matem\u225?ticas que deb\u237?a hacer. Para ello s\u243?
lo contaba con una regla de c\u225?lculo, herramienta con la que hubo de apa\u24
1?arse el personal hasta la aparici\u243?n de las calculadoras de bolsillo, cuar
enta a\u241?os despu\u233?s. Berl\u237?n era una ciudad donde resultaba f\u225?c
il pas\u225?rselo bien, y Zuse estaba perdi\u233?ndose demasiadas oportunidades
de salir y conocer chicas guapas por hacer c\u225?lculos.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar
} {
El principal problema al que se enfrentaba eran los c\u225?lculos complejos que
requer\u237?an un cierto n\u250?mero de pasos intermedios, en los que se deb\u23
7?an guardar los resultados y aplicarlos a las siguientes operaciones. Zuse pens
\u243? en hacer tablas con los resultados intermedios de los c\u225?lculos m\u22
5?s frecuentes.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Pronto tuvo un mont\u243?n de tablas llenas de flechas que enlazaban un c\u225?l
culo con el siguiente. As\u237? las cosas, pens\u243? que quiz\u225? podr\u237?a
ser m\u225?s pr\u225?ctico que una m\u225?quina se encargara de hacer los c\u22
5?lculos de forma autom\u225?tica; pues bien: se puso a dise\u241?arla en 1934.
Dos a\u241?os despu\u233?s abandon\u243? su trabajo en la industria aeron\u225?u
tica y se puso a construir su primera calculadora mec\u225?nica, la Z1, en el sa
l\u243?n de la casa de sus padres, a quienes no les hizo ninguna gracia que deja
ra un trabajo seguro para dedicarse a semejante aventura; pero lo apoyaron de to
dos modos, como buenos padres que eran.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Zuse no sab\u237?a nada del trabajo de Babbage y, dado que estaba en el bando de
los malos durante la guerra, no tuvo conocimiento de los avances te\u243?ricos
y pr\u225?cticos que Turing, Von Neumann, Shannon, Wilkes, Aiken, Atanasoff, Ech
ert, Mauchly y dem\u225?s pioneros anglosajones estaban desarrollando. Sin embar
go, lleg\u243? a pr\u225?cticamente las mismas conclusiones de forma independien
te. Sus dise\u241?os inclu\u237?an todos los componentes que forman parte de los
ordenadores: una {\i

unidad de memoria} para almacenar los datos, un selector que le\u237?a y escrib\
u237?a en la memoria, un {\i
dispositivo de control} que ejecutaba las operaciones en el orden previsto en un
{\i
plan de c\u225?lculo} y una {\i
unidad aritm\u233?tica} para hacer los c\u225?lculos. Incluso intent\u243? paten
tar la idea, que rescatar\u237?a con gran \u233?xito Von Neumann a\u241?os m\u22
5?s tarde, de almacenar el programa en la memoria de la computadora.\par\pard\pl
ain\hyphpar} {
Su Z1 empleaba un sistema mec\u225?nico como memoria y no dejaba de ser s\u243?l
o una plasmaci\u243?n parcial de sus ideas; m\u225?s que un ordenador, era una c
alculadora programable. Pero, como buen alem\u225?n, Zuse era un tipo pr\u225?ct
ico, y quiso tener resultados tangibles lo antes posible; todo lo contrario que
el bueno de Babbage, que muri\u243? sin terminar m\u225?quina alguna. Ya funcion
aba con un sistema binario, es decir, con ceros y unos, y b\u225?sicamente pod\u
237?a sumar y restar; empleaba estas operaciones como base para otras m\u225?s c
omplejas, como la multiplicaci\u243?n y la divisi\u243?n. El {\i
plan de c\u225?lculo}, lo que ahora se llama {\i
programa}, se escrib\u237?a en una cinta de pel\u237?cula de 35 mil\u237?metros
perforada. El Z1 tambi\u233?n inclu\u237?a traductores de decimal a binario y vi
ceversa, para que fuese m\u225?s f\u225?cil de operar.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
El caso es que aquel primer cacharro no lleg\u243? a funcionar de forma completa
mente precisa debido a problemas en las distintas partes mec\u225?nicas. As\u237
? que Zuse se puso a trabajar en su sucesor, el Z2, en el que buena parte de las
funciones las realizaban rel\u233?s. Aunque funcionaba mejor, lo cierto es que
por lo general, en vez de ir como la seda, fallaba. Lo termin\u243? en 1939 e hi
zo una demostraci\u243?n al a\u241?o siguiente; fue una suerte que justo entonce
s funcionara, porque as\u237? consigui\u243? que la Luftwaffe le eximiera de seg
uir en el Ej\u233?rcito como soldado raso y le financiara, siquiera en parte, su
s pr\u243?ximos inventos.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Con la experiencia de sus dos primeros prototipos, con m\u225?s dinero y hasta c
on empleados que lo ayudaran, Zuse no tard\u243? mucho en completar el Z3, la pr
imera de sus m\u225?quinas que realmente pod\u237?a emplearse en la confianza de
que iba a funcionar la mayor\u237?a de las veces.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
El Z3 ya era un ordenador con todas las de la ley\u8230? excepto en un peque\u24
1?o detalle: no incorporaba el salto condicional, la t\u233?cnica que permite es
cribir programas del tipo \u171?Si pasa esto, entonces h\u225?gase esto otro; y
si no, lo de m\u225?s all\u225?\u187?. Pese a esta carencia, que compart\u237?a
con el posterior Harvard Mark 1, muchos lo consideran el primer ordenador de la
historia. Tampoco importa demasiado si lo fue o no. Terminado en 1941, cuatro a\
u241?os m\u225?s tarde, en 1945, antes de que acabara la guerra, tendr\u237?a un
sucesor con salto condicional incorporado: el Z4, que vio la luz antes que el E
niac.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
O sea que, con independencia de los requisitos que estimemos necesarios para juz
gar si un aparatejo puede ser considerado todo un se\u241?or ordenador, el prime
ro fue cosa del amigo Zuse.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
El Z4 consum\u237?a unos 4 kilovatios, empleaba tarjetas perforadas en lugar de
cinta de pel\u237?cula, tardaba 4 d\u233?cimas de segundo en hacer una suma y, c
omo los dos modelos anteriores, usaba rel\u233?s: en concreto, 2500. Zuse no pud
o emplear v\u225?lvulas de vac\u237?o como sus hom\u243?logos americanos, m\u225
?s que nada porque el Estado alem\u225?n se neg\u243? a financi\u225?rselas, al
no considerar su trabajo esencial para el esfuerzo b\u233?lico. No deja de ser c
urioso que, en cambio, los pa\u237?ses aliados consideraran los intentos de sus
t\u233?cnicos y cient\u237?ficos por crear los primeros ordenadores como proyect
os b\u233?licos clave y que estos terminaran sus computadoras una vez finalizada
la contienda, mientras Zuse logr\u243? sin ese apoyo tener los suyos listos cua
ndo el conflicto a\u250?n segu\u237?a en curso.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
A diferencia de lo que ocurri\u243? con sus anteriores m\u225?quinas, destruidas
todas ellas en distintos bombardeos aliados, Zuse pudo salvar la Z4 desmont\u22
5?ndola y meti\u233?ndola en un cami\u243?n de la Wehrmacht. Ayudado por un amig

o de Von Braun \u8212?el creador de las bombas V1 y V2\u8212?, y ocult\u225?ndos

e por las noches en los establos, consigui\u243? llevarla hasta un pueblo de los
Alpes suizos, donde se escondi\u243? en espera de tiempos mejores.\par\pard\pla
in\hyphpar} {
Tras acabar la guerra, el bueno de Konrad fund\u243? en Suiza una empresa llamad
a\u8230? Zuse, gracias al dinero que sac\u243? alquilando su Z4 \u8212?que se em
ple\u243?, entre otras tareas, para construir la presa Grande Dixence, entonces
la m\u225?s alta del mundo\u8212? y al que recibi\u243? de IBM a cambio de permi
tirle usar sus patentes. Durante unos a\u241?os no pudo construir ning\u250?n ca
charro m\u225?s, as\u237? que se dedic\u243? a pensar en modo acad\u233?mico, lo
que le llev\u243? a perge\u241?ar el primer lenguaje de programaci\u243?n de al
to nivel, al que llam\u243? Plankalk\u252?l, que, s\u237?, significa \u171?plan
de c\u225?lculo\u187?. Pero como no hizo compilador alguno, nadie lo us\u243? ja
m\u225?s, por lo que se qued\u243? en un ejercicio meramente te\u243?rico.\par\p
ard\plain\hyphpar} {
En 1950 logr\u243? vender su milagrosamente salvado Z4 a la Escuela Polit\u233?c
nica Federal de Z\u250?rich. Su empresa construir\u237?a la friolera de 251 comp
utadoras antes de caer en manos de Siemens (1967).\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Con los a\u241?os, Zuse fue reconocido por muchos como el padre de la computador
a moderna. No cabe duda de que fue un reconocimiento merecido.\par\pard\plain\hy
phpar}
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{\s3 \afs28
{\b
{\ql
HARVARD MARK I, EL SUE\u209?O DE BABBAGE HECHO REALIDAD\par\pard\plain\hyphpar}\
par\pard\plain\hyphpar}\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Un compa\u241?ero del laboratorio de f\u237?sica de la Universidad de Harvard ec
h\u243? en cara a Howard Aiken que intentara fabricar una m\u225?quina para hace
r c\u225?lculos cuando \u171?ten\u237?an ya una y nadie la usaba\u187?. Asombrad
o, Aiken le acompa\u241?\u243? al \u225?tico y vio que ah\u237? ten\u237?an, cog
iendo polvo, un fragmento de la m\u225?quina diferencial de Babbage. En 1886, a\
u241?o en que cumpl\u237?a 250 primaveras, Harvard hab\u237?a recibido un regalo
: uno de los seis fragmentos de la m\u225?quina diferencial dise\u241?ada por Ba
bbage que su hijo hab\u237?a fabricado tras su muerte. Henry Babbage ten\u237?a
la esperanza de que se convirtiera en una semilla que germinara en el nuevo mund
o. Y en cierto modo acert\u243?, aunque fuera mucho despu\u233?s de pasar a mejo
r vida, en 1910, y con la opini\u243?n en contra de los prebostes de Harvard.\pa

r\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
En 1936, Aiken necesitaba resolver algunas ecuaciones no lineales para su tesis,
y como no hab\u237?a m\u225?quina que pudiera ayudarlo, pens\u243? en hacerla \
u233?l mismo. Aquello fue recibido con un entusiasmo perfectamente descriptible
en la universidad. Aiken no hab\u237?a o\u237?do hablar jam\u225?s de Babbage, p
ero despu\u233?s de ver su m\u225?quina \u8212?que seguramente hac\u237?a d\u233
?cadas que viv\u237?a en la m\u225?s absoluta soledad, la pobre\u8212? le pic\u2
43? la curiosidad, claro, y se abalanz\u243? sobre la biblioteca de la universid
ad, donde encontr\u243? una copia de la autobiograf\u237?a del inventor ingl\u23
3?s. Una frase en especial se qued\u243? grabada en su mente:\par\pard\plain\hyp
hpar} {
Si hubiera alguien que, a pesar de mi ejemplo, decidiera acometer el esfuerzo de
construir una m\u225?quina que supliera todo el trabajo de un departamento ejec
utivo de an\u225?lisis matem\u225?tico y tuviera \u233?xito, ya fuera bajo princ
ipios distintos o por medios mec\u225?nicos m\u225?s sencillos, no tendr\u237?a
miedo de poner mi reputaci\u243?n en sus manos, pues s\u243?lo \u233?l podr\u237
?a apreciar la naturaleza de mis esfuerzos y el valor de los resultados que obtu
ve.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
El norteamericano se sinti\u243? como si Babbage se estuviera dirigiendo a \u233
?l personalmente desde el pasado. Y como en la universidad no ten\u237?a apoyo,
lo busc\u243? fuera. Primero acudi\u243? a Monroe, entonces uno de los principal
es fabricantes de m\u225?quinas de sumar, donde encontr\u243? en su ingeniero je
fe, George Chase, a un entusiasta de su idea. Pero los barandas no les hicieron
caso, as\u237? que Chase le aconsej\u243? acudir a IBM. Habl\u243? con James Bry
ce, el hom\u243?logo de Chase en esta \u250?ltima, que, por lo visto, inspiraba
m\u225?s confianza en sus jefes, que aprobaron el proyecto con un presupuesto in
icial de 15 000 d\u243?lares de entonces.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Aiken empez\u243? a detallar m\u225?s su propuesta, que present\u243? en diciemb
re de 1937. Era poco m\u225?s que una descripci\u243?n funcional que dec\u237?a
lo que deb\u237?a hacer la m\u225?quina\u8230? pero no c\u243?mo. Este ser\u237?
a el trabajo de los ingenieros de IBM.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Tras asistir a algunos cursos ofrecidos por la empresa y captar los l\u237?mites
y capacidades de la tecnolog\u237?a de la \u233?poca, Aiken pas\u243? a trabaja
r con otro de los mejores profesionales de la compa\u241?\u237?a, Clair D. Lake.
El presupuesto se ampli\u243? a 100 000 d\u243?lares, y en 1939 comenzaron a tr
abajar de verdad en el dise\u241?o y construcci\u243?n de la m\u225?quina, que I
BM llam\u243? Automatic Sequence Controlled Calculator (ASCC), en referencia a s
u caracter\u237?stica m\u225?s singular: la capacidad de ejecutar un programa de
forma autom\u225?tica.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Durante su construcci\u243?n, Aiken fue m\u225?s un consultor que otra cosa, que
dando su dise\u241?o a cargo de gente de IBM. Considerada la obra maestra de la
tecnolog\u237?a electromec\u225?nica, una vez terminada const\u243? de 765 000 p
iezas, 3300 rel\u233?s, alrededor de 800 kil\u243?metros de cable y m\u225?s de
175 000 conexiones. Pesaba 5 toneladas, med\u237?a 16 metros de largo, 2,4 de al
to y s\u243?lo 61 cent\u237?metros de ancho, y cost\u243? finalmente 200 000 d\u
243?lares. Cuando funcionaba hac\u237?a el ruido de una habitaci\u243?n repleta
de se\u241?oras haciendo punto. Pod\u237?a realizar las cuatro reglas con n\u250
?meros de hasta 23 d\u237?gitos. Recib\u237?a las instrucciones en una cinta per
forada e imprim\u237?a los resultados mediante m\u225?quinas de escribir el\u233
?ctricas. Pero era muy lenta incluso para la \u233?poca: cada segundo pod\u237?a
hacer tres sumas o restas, y una operaci\u243?n compleja como calcular un logar
itmo le llevaba un minuto.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Aiken hab\u237?a sido reclutado en 1941 por la Armada, de modo que cuando la m\u
225?quina estuvo terminada, en 1943, hac\u237?a casi dos a\u241?os que no ten\u2
37?a nada que ver con ella. En cualquier caso, sus superiores se dieron cuenta d
el potencial del aparato y lo destinaron a fines militares, principalmente el c\
u225?lculo de tablas matem\u225?ticas, que en aquel momento eran realizadas por
verdaderos ej\u233?rcitos de {\i
computadoras} humanas, generalmente mujeres. As\u237?, devolvieron a Aiken a Har
vard, quien declarar\u237?a que era \u171?el \u250?nico oficial del mundo al man

do de un ordenador\u187?.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
As\u237?, en medio de la guerra, se prepar\u243? la presentaci\u243?n en socieda
d de la m\u225?quina. Thomas Watson, el jefazo de IBM, deseoso de sacar rendimie
nto, aunque fuera s\u243?lo publicitario, a su inversi\u243?n, pidi\u243? a su d
ise\u241?ador industrial Norman Bel Geddes que le lavara la cara al ordenador; p
ara disgusto de Aiken, que prefer\u237?a mantenerlo tal cual para facilitar su m
antenimiento. La decisi\u243?n de Watson se demostr\u243? un acierto, porque el
nuevo aspecto de acero inoxidable y cristal que le proporcion\u243? Geddes cauti
var\u237?a a la prensa.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
En la presentaci\u243?n \u8212?el 7 de agosto de 1944\u8212? de la m\u225?quina,
a la que llamar\u237?a Harvard Mark 1, Aiken cometer\u237?a un peque\u241?o olv
ido. Nada, una cosa m\u237?nima, sin importancia: se le pas\u243? mencionar a IB
M. Watson estaba furioso. Al fin y al cabo, Aiken hab\u237?a tenido la idea y la
hab\u237?a impulsado hasta encontrar los o\u237?dos adecuados, pero hab\u237?a
sido IBM quien hab\u237?a financiado el proyecto y lo hab\u237?a dise\u241?ado p
r\u225?cticamente en su totalidad. \u191?C\u243?mo se atrev\u237?a ese jovenzuel
o a ignorarlo? Seg\u250?n sus bi\u243?grafos, pocas cosas en su vida lo cabrearo
n tanto. Con el tiempo, esa ira se fue calmando y convirti\u233?ndose en un fr\u
237?o deseo de venganza, que cristaliz\u243? en la orden de fabricar una m\u225?
quina mucho mejor que la del maldito Aiken.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Los ingenieros de la empresa se pusieron a trabajar en el Selective Sequence Ele
ctronic Calculator (SSEC). Nunca hubo intenci\u243?n de comercializarlo, pero s\
u237? de aprender cosas provechosas para proyectos m\u225?s pr\u225?cticos. Cost
\u243? 950 000 d\u243?lares, y cuando fue terminado, a comienzos de 1948, Watson
orden\u243? colocarlo en la planta baja de las oficinas centrales de IBM, en Ma
nhattan, para que pudiera ser admirada desde la calle. Se pod\u237?an incluso ha
cer visitas organizadas, en las que se explicaba el funcionamiento del aparato,
que recibi\u243? toda la admiraci\u243?n que Watson esperaba recibir del Mark I.
\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Aiken sigui\u243? haciendo m\u225?quinas, progresivamente menos exitosas y m\u22
5?s alejadas del estado de la tecnolog\u237?a de su tiempo. Y aunque su primera
computadora cumpli\u243? el sue\u241?o de Babbage, fue tecnol\u243?gicamente una
v\u237?a muerta, pues todos los dem\u225?s ordenadores que se dise\u241?aron y
construyeron en la \u233?poca ser\u237?an totalmente electr\u243?nicos.\par\pard
\plain\hyphpar}
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{\s3 \afs28
{\b

{\ql
TURING, EL COLOSO QUE DESCIFR\u211? EL ENIGMA\par\pard\plain\hyphpar}\par\pard\p
lain\hyphpar}\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
El final del matem\u225?tico austriaco Kurt Godel fue cuando menos singular: pen
saba que lo quer\u237?an envenenar, y no probaba bocado si su se\u241?ora no hab
\u237?a hecho la comida. Cuando a esta la ingresaron en el hospital, en 1978, de
j\u243? de comer. Muri\u243? de hambre.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
En 1931, no obstante, ese fin a\u250?n estaba lejos, y los teoremas godelianos d
e {\i
incompletitud} causaron una gran conmoci\u243?n en el mundo de las matem\u225?ti
cas. Entre los m\u225?s conmovidos estaba un ingl\u233?s llamado Alan Turing.\pa
r\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
El trabajo de Godel hab\u237?an echado por tierra buena parte de la matem\u225?t
ica del momento, especialmente los esfuerzos de Bertrand Russell y David Hilbert
; pero adem\u225?s hab\u237?a recortado las posibilidades te\u243?ricas de los o
rdenadores del futuro, pues establec\u237?a que exist\u237?an problemas absoluta
mente insolubles. Alonso Church y Alan Turing tomaron el testigo y, con distinto
s m\u233?todos, delimitaron el \u225?mbito de los problemas solubles con un comp
utador.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
El m\u225?s joven de los dos, Turing, fue algo m\u225?s original: dise\u241?\u24
3? una suerte de m\u225?quina virtual capaz de hacer operaciones muy sencillas.
Constaba de un cabezal, una memoria \u8212?que guardaba los distintos estados en
que pod\u237?a hallarse la m\u225?quina, as\u237? como lo que esta deb\u237?a h
acer cuando se encontraba en cada uno de ellos\u8212? y una cinta de longitud in
finita que el cabezal pod\u237?a leer o escribir. En principio, cada m\u225?quin
a serv\u237?a a un solo problema. De ah\u237? que hubiera otra, la llamada \u171
?m\u225?quina de Turing universal\u187?, que pod\u237?a simular cualquier m\u225
?quina de Turing concreta.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Como dise\u241?o de ordenador era una porquer\u237?a, y de hecho los \u250?nicos
intentos de construir una han sido m\u225?s por jugar a \u171?mira, mam\u225?,
he construido una m\u225?quina de Turing\u187? que por otra cosa. Programar algo
para que funcione en ella es una tortura china; cr\u233?anme, me obligaron en l
a facultad. Pero adem\u225?s de servir para su prop\u243?sito original de artifi
cio matem\u225?tico permiti\u243? establecer una prueba te\u243?rica para decidi
r qu\u233? es y qu\u233? no es un ordenador: para considerar algo una computador
a, debe ser un sistema Turing completo, es decir, equivalente a una m\u225?quina
de Turing universal, obviando, eso s\u237?, el asuntillo ese de que la memoria
tenga que ser infinita.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
En los felices a\u241?os treinta, Turing era uno de tantos j\u243?venes idiotas
brit\u225?nicos que parec\u237?an creerse que, siendo todos muy buenos, nunca m\
u225?s habr\u237?a guerras.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Mientras, los nazis se preparaban para ganar la pr\u243?xima en todos los frente
s, incluyendo el de la criptograf\u237?a. Adoptaron el sistema de cifrado de una
m\u225?quina comercial, llamada {\i
Enigma}, que hab\u237?a sido patentada en 1919 con el prop\u243?sito de ayudar a
las empresas a salvaguardar sus secretos comerciales de la competencia, pero mo
dific\u225?ndola para hacer el cifrado m\u225?s robusto y dif\u237?cil de romper
. Fueron probadas en nuestra Guerra Civil, lo que permiti\u243? a Franco protege
r sus comunicaciones. Tan seguros estaban de s\u237? mismos que incluso permitie
ron que se siguieran vendiendo m\u225?quinas {\i
Enigma} normales.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Los polacos contaban desde 1919 con una unidad especializada en descifrar mensaj
es. Cada mensaje en {\i
Enigma} usaba una clave de cifrado particular; al ser sim\u233?trica, se usaba l
a misma tanto para codificar como para descodificar. Estas claves, claro, eran s
ecretas a m\u225?s no poder; la Marina las escrib\u237?a con tinta roja soluble
en agua, para asegurarse de que no cayeran en manos enemigas. Pero un agente fra
nc\u233?s se hizo con las tablas de claves de dos meses, y gracias a ellas el ma
tem\u225?tico Manan Rejewski pudo averiguar c\u243?mo funcionaban exactamente la
s {\i

Enigma} con las modificaciones militares. As\u237?, \u233?l y su equipo dise\u24

1?aron un artefacto electromec\u225?nico capaz de descifrar los mensajes de los
nazis. Lo llamaron {\i
Bomba} por el ruido que hac\u237?a al funcionar, que cabe deducir era un pel\u23
7?n infernal.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
El 25 de julio de 1939, muy poco antes de que los nazis se quedaran con Polonia
por toda la cara, el servicio de inteligencia polaco, que naturalmente estaba al
cabo de la calle de las intenciones de Hitler porque las hab\u237?a descifrado,
inform\u243? de todos sus logros a ingleses y franceses. A los segundos les sir
vi\u243? de poco, pero los brit\u225?nicos formaron una divisi\u243?n criptogr\u
225?fica llamada Bletchley Park y situada unos 80 kil\u243?metros al norte de Lo
ndres. En el barrac\u243?n n\u250?mero 8 trabajaba el anta\u241?o pacifista Turi
ng, cuya primera labor fue mejorar las {\i
bombas} polacas, a lo que se aplic\u243? con notable \u233?xito. De hecho, cuand
o los alemanes comenzaron a sospechar que los aliados estaban descifrando sus me
nsajes modificaron una vez m\u225?s la {\i
Enigma}, pero el error del operador de un submarino alem\u225?n, que envi\u243?
el mismo mensaje con la m\u225?quina anterior y tambi\u233?n con la modificada,
permiti\u243? a los matem\u225?ticos de Bletchley Park reventar tambi\u233?n la
nueva {\i
Enigma}, que se sigui\u243? usando hasta el final de la guerra.\par\pard\plain\h
yphpar} {
En 1940 los nazis empezaron a emplear otro tipo de cifrado, llamado Lorenz, con
el que enviaban mensajes largos y de mayor importancia estrat\u233?gica. Por sue
rte, el error de otro operador alem\u225?n facilit\u243? el trabajo de los matem
\u225?ticos de Bletchley Park: tras el env\u237?o de un mensaje de unos 4000 car
acteres, se le pidi\u243? que retransmitiera porque hab\u237?a habido un error d
e recepci\u243?n. Lo hizo, pero acortando las terminaciones de algunas palabras.
Eso dio una pista fundamental que permiti\u243? descifrarlo y averiguar c\u243?
mo funcionaba Lorenz. Para poder leer esos mensajes en el d\u237?a en que eran i
nterceptados y no unas semanas m\u225?s tarde, que era lo que pod\u237?an tardar
en lograrlo, se dise\u241?\u243? y construy\u243? en 1943 una m\u225?quina elec
tr\u243?nica llamada {\i
Colossus}, gracias al impulso del ingeniero Tommy Flowers, que fue quien decidi\
u243? que se usaran v\u225?lvulas, unas 1500, para acelerar el proceso.\par\pard
\plain\hyphpar} {
Aunque el {\i
Colossus} no era una m\u225?quina programable y de prop\u243?sito general, es de
cir, no era un ordenador, la tecnolog\u237?a que emple\u243? s\u237? era la mism
a que la de los ordenadores de la \u233?poca. Turing centr\u243? su inter\u233?s
en \u233?l y dise\u241?\u243? en 1946 una computadora, que denomin\u243? Automa
tic Computing Engine (ACE) y cuya construcci\u243?n lleg\u243? a presupuestar. E
mpleaba muy pocas v\u225?lvulas, unas 1000 (frente a las 18 000 del Eniac), lo q
ue le hizo muy fiable, adem\u225?s de usar l\u237?neas de mercurio para la memor
ia que resultaban especialmente r\u225?pidas para su tiempo. Pero su construcci\
u243?n fue bastante lenta y hasta 1950 no se puso en marcha.\par\pard\plain\hyph
par} {
Para entonces, Turing ya hab\u237?a dejado el proyecto para centrarse en otro ca
mpo, el de la inteligencia artificial. Ah\u237? realiz\u243? su \u250?ltima gran
aportaci\u243?n a la joven ciencia de la inform\u225?tica te\u243?rica, el test
de Turing, la prueba que deb\u237?a pasar todo ordenador para dictaminar que er
a un ser inteligente. Para el ingl\u233?s, no hab\u237?a diferencia real entre s
er inteligente y parecerlo, de modo que si pon\u237?amos a una persona a convers
ar a trav\u233?s de un terminal con otra persona y un ordenador, este ser\u237?a
considerado inteligente si no hab\u237?a manera de saber qui\u233?n era qui\u23
3?n. Turing vaticin\u243? en 1950 que en cincuenta a\u241?os alguna computadora
pasar\u237?a la prueba, lo que llev\u243? a Arthur C. Clarke a llamar {\i
2001} a su m\u225?s famosa novela.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
A comienzos de 1952, un joven amante de Turing rob\u243? en su casa. Al denuncia
rlo, Turing reconoci\u243? su homosexualidad ante la polic\u237?a, con la misma

naturalidad con que lo hab\u237?a hecho durante toda su vida. El problema es que
por aquel entonces era ilegal, as\u237? que fue detenido y condenado. Pese a qu
e su papel crucial en la guerra no fue completamente conocido hasta los a\u241?o
s setenta, se le permiti\u243? cambiar la c\u225?rcel por un tratamiento de horm
onas, por deferencia a sus m\u233?ritos militares. Turing, que siempre hab\u237?
a sido un atleta, vio c\u243?mo con aquellas drogas le crec\u237?an los pechos y
se pon\u237?a fofo, lo que le llev\u243? a la depresi\u243?n.\par\pard\plain\hy
phpar} {
Se le encontr\u243? muerto en el verano de 1954. Hab\u237?a mordido una manzana
impregnada con cianuro. Ten\u237?a cuarenta y un a\u241?os. El dictamen de la po
lic\u237?a fue que se hab\u237?a suicidado. No est\u225? del todo claro, pues ya
hab\u237?an transcurrido muchos meses desde el final del tratamiento y por sus
\u250?ltimas cartas se sabe que hab\u237?a recuperado el entusiasmo por su traba
jo cient\u237?fico. Aunque quiz\u225? deba ser as\u237?, y que su muerte sea tam
bi\u233?n un enigma.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar}
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{\s3 \afs28
{\b
{\ql
ENIAC, EL PRIMER ORDENADOR ELECTR\u211?NICO\par\pard\plain\hyphpar}\par\pard\pla
in\hyphpar}\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Considerado durante d\u233?cadas el primer ordenador jam\u225?s construido, el E
niac fue en cualquier caso un hito clave en la historia de la inform\u225?tica:
no s\u243?lo fue la primera computadora electr\u243?nica, sino que, sobre todo,
es el hilo del que fueron tirando todos sus sucesores, desde los Univac a los IB
M.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
John Mauchly era profesor asistente en una facultad de ingenier\u237?a el\u233?c
trica de segunda fila, la Moore School de la Universidad de Pennsylvania. Se hab
\u237?a declarado la Segunda Guerra Mundial. Su mujer, Mary, dirig\u237?a un gru
po numeroso de computadoras humanas, dedicadas al c\u225?lculo bal\u237?stico pa
ra el cercano campo de pruebas de artiller\u237?a de Aberdeen, que ya hab\u237?a
tenido un papel destacado en el conflicto anterior. Hacer una tabla corriente d
e 3000 trayectorias llevaba al grupo un mes de trabajo intenso, lo que supon\u23
7?a un enorme cuello de botella para el desarrollo y uso de nuevas y mejores arm
as. As\u237? que Mauchly propuso en el 42 sustituirlo por un ordenador electr\u2
43?nico.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
No es que le saliera la idea de la nada, claro. Llevaba tiempo interesado en el
tema y hab\u237?a visitado en el verano de 1941 a Atanasoff para ver en vivo y e

n directo su calculadora electr\u243?nica, de la cual extraer\u237?a muchas de l

as ideas para poner en pr\u225?ctica su proyecto. En cualquier caso, nadie le hi
zo demasiado caso, aparte de un joven ingeniero llamado John Presper Eckert. Mau
chly y Eckert ya hab\u237?an trabajado juntos, sustituyendo piezas mec\u225?nica
s de un calculador anal\u243?gico muy empleado por aquel entonces, el analizador
diferencial de Vannevar Bush, por unos componentes electr\u243?nicos que permit
ieron mejorar la rapidez y precisi\u243?n del aparato. Se complementaban bien: M
auchly era el visionario, el que dise\u241?aba desde su torre de marfil, y Ecker
t el que lograba volcar aquellas ideas en un cacharro.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Pero un buen equipo no sirve de nada si no hay proyecto que desarrollar. Y no lo
hab\u237?a. No obstante, Mauchly encontr\u243? unos o\u237?dos atentos en el te
niente Herman Goldstine, doctor en matem\u225?ticas y responsable militar de que
el grupo de computadoras humanas trabajara como Dios manda e hiciera los c\u225
?lculos que necesitaban para la guerra. As\u237?, en abril de 1943 Mauchly y Eck
ert recibieron el visto bueno a un proyecto mucho mayor que su idea original: en
lugar de constar de 5000 v\u225?lvulas de vac\u237?o y costar 150 000 d\u243?la
res, tendr\u237?a 18 000 de las primeras y valdr\u237?a 400 000 de los segundos.
Si es que en cuanto metes al Gobierno y los bur\u243?cratas de por medio, los c
ostes se disparan\u8230?\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
La idea no gust\u243? demasiado. Cada v\u225?lvula ten\u237?a una vida media de
3000 horas, lo cual, dado el gran n\u250?mero que habr\u237?a en el aparato, hub
iera supuesto que sufrir\u237?an un fallo cada diez minutos. Pero ah\u237? fue d
onde empez\u243? a brillar el genio ingenieril de Eckert. Viendo que era en el e
ncendido cuando m\u225?s fallaban, decidi\u243? que el ordenador estuviera siemp
re dale que te pego, sin apagarse ni, por tanto, encenderse jam\u225?s. Adem\u22
5?s, para sus prop\u243?sitos las v\u225?lvulas pod\u237?an funcionar con mucho
menos voltaje que el m\u225?ximo, alargando su vida \u250?til a decenas de miles
de horas. Gracias a esos trucos, fallaba una v\u225?lvula cada dos d\u237?as m\
u225?s o menos. Pero eso no era todo. Adem\u225?s de las v\u225?lvulas, el dise\
u241?o obligaba a realizar 5 millones de soldaduras e inclu\u237?a 70 000 resist
encias, 10 000 condensadores, 6000 interruptores y 1500 rel\u233?s. Eckert tuvo
que ingeni\u225?rselas para probar en masa todos estos componentes y asegurarse
de que s\u243?lo se empleaban los que funcionaban como Dios manda.\par\pard\plai
n\hyphpar} {
El principal problema en el dise\u241?o del Electronic Numerical Integrator And
Computer, que as\u237? se llamaba el bicho, de ah\u237? las siglas (Eniac), era
la forma de programarlo. Ser\u237?a capaz de ejecutar 5000 instrucciones por seg
undo, pero cuando terminara una tarea habr\u237?a que cambiar los cables de siti
o para ordenarle que hiciera otra, una labor que realiz\u243? un grupo de seis m
ujeres\u8230? entre las que Betty Snyder fue la m\u225?s destacada. En cierto mo
do, era como una gigantesca centralita telef\u243?nica de las de antes, de esas
en las que una se\u241?orita te pon\u237?a la conferencia poniendo el cablecito
en la clavija adecuada. La tarea pod\u237?a durar d\u237?as, lo que eliminaba en
parte esa ventaja de la rapidez. Pero no del todo: aquellas malditas tablas que
llevaban un mes de trabajo a un numeroso grupo de j\u243?venes calculadoras hum
anas, la maquinita las resolv\u237?a en 30 segundos.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Las caracter\u237?sticas del Eniac pronto dejaron de ser espectaculares. S\u243?
lo pod\u237?a almacenar unos veinte n\u250?meros, y funcionaba seg\u250?n el sis
tema decimal y no el binario, lo que supon\u237?a parte de su complejidad. Pero
en lo que no tuvo parang\u243?n fue en la cantidad de componentes, electricidad
consumida y calor generado: hubo que instalar dos inmensos ventiladores de 20 ca
ballos de potencia para refrigerarlo. Consum\u237?a 150 kilovatios, pesaba 27 to
neladas y ocupaba 63 metros cuadrados. No se hizo jam\u225?s un ordenador con v\
u225?lvulas tan complicado: s\u243?lo cuando los transistores lo hicieron posibl
e se igual\u243? semejante n\u250?mero de componentes. Ahora bien, lo de que las
luces de la ciudad de Filadelfia se apagaban cuando pon\u237?an en marcha el En
iac no es m\u225?s que un mito. M\u225?s que nada porque estaba siempre encendid
o.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Cuando a\u250?n estaba en construcci\u243?n, Eckert y Mauchly empezaron a dise\u
241?ar su sucesor, y poco despu\u233?s fundar\u237?an su propia empresa, la prim

era dedicada al dise\u241?o y fabricaci\u243?n de ordenadores. Debido al salto d

e sus creadores al mundo comercial, casi todas las computadoras que en el mundo
han sido pueden se\u241?alar al Eniac como su torpe y entra\u241?able abuelo. El
muy venerable sigui\u243? funcionando con denuedo hasta octubre de 1955. Quiene
s m\u225?s lloraron su deceso fueron las compa\u241?\u237?as el\u233?ctricas, cl
aro.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {\par\pard\hyphpar }{\page } {\s2 \afs28
{\b
{\ql
3
{\line }
{\line }
LA INFORM\u193?TICA CL\u193?SICA\par\pard\plain\hyphpar}\par\pard\plain\hyphpar
}\par\pard\plain\hyphpar}
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{
{\b
S}e habla de inform\u225?tica cl\u225?sica, o la era del {\i
mainframe}, para referirse a las d\u233?cadas de los cincuenta, sesenta y primer
os setenta del siglo XX. Fue el periodo en que los ordenadores eran m\u225?quina
s enormes y caras, que s\u243?lo las empresas e instituciones m\u225?s important
es pod\u237?an adquirir y cuyo acceso deb\u237?a ser compartido entre numerosos
usuarios.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
En los primeros a\u241?os de la inform\u225?tica, el trabajo del programador sol
\u237?a consistir en preparar su programa pacientemente en papel, pasarlo despu\
u233?s a tarjetas perforadas y d\u225?rselo despu\u233?s al operador, una suerte
de sumo sacerdote que era el encargado de la sagrada tarea de poner a funcionar
aquella m\u225?gica m\u225?quina. Cuando terminaba, el cuidador de tan m\u237?s
tico aparato daba al programador otro grupo de tarjetas perforadas con los resul
tados de la computaci\u243?n. Eso si no le daba una parca explicaci\u243?n de qu
e su programa hab\u237?a fallado porque hab\u237?a olvidado poner una coma en el
sitio que deb\u237?a y ahora tendr\u237?a que esperar a que decenas de usuarios
hicieran funcionar sus programas para poder volver a ejecutar el suyo a ver si
ahora le daba por funcionar, al maldito.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Para cuando acab\u243? el periodo de inform\u225?tica cl\u225?sica, lo normal er
a que cada programador tuviera un terminal al que se llamaba \u171?tonto\u187? p
orque consist\u237?a s\u243?lo en un teclado, un monitor y la electr\u243?nica i
mprescindible para comunicarlo con el ordenador. Cada usuario trabajaba con la c
omputadora como si fuera el \u250?nico que lo estuviera haciendo y el ordenador
cambiaba continuamente de tarea para atender a todos aquellos que estuvieran acc
ediendo a ella en un momento dado para que pudieran trabajar sin esperas. Ning\u
250?n programador pod\u237?a emplear \u233?l solo toda la potencia de la m\u225?
quina, a no ser que la usara a las cuatro de la ma\u241?ana, pero al menos ya no
hab\u237?a sumo sacerdote y la forma de operar era mucho m\u225?s r\u225?pida.\
par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Entre ambos escenarios sucedieron muchas cosas que permitieron ese progreso: los
transistores, la memoria de ferrita, el chip y otras innovaciones. Tambi\u233?n
fue la \u233?poca en la que se dise\u241?aron los primeros lenguajes de program
aci\u243?n y naci\u243? la industria del software. Pero eso lo veremos m\u225?s
adelante.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar}
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{\s3 \afs28
{\b
{\ql
UNIVAC Y LA VICTORIA DE EISENHOWER\par\pard\plain\hyphpar}\par\pard\plain\hyphpa
r}\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
En la noche electoral de 1952, aquel cerebro electr\u243?nico llamado Univac ant
e las c\u225?maras de la CBS y a partir de los primeros datos que llegaron de la
s urnas, que Eisenhower arrasar\u237?a por 438 a 93 votos electorales. Las encue
stas de Gallup y Roper que se hab\u237?an hecho el d\u237?a anterior auguraban,
en cambio, una victoria del republicano mucho m\u225?s ajustada.\par\pard\plain\
hyphpar} {
Los t\u233?cnicos, asustados porque las probabilidades de victoria de Eisenhower
que manejaban eran \u171?de 00 a 1\u187? (en realidad, eran de 100 a 1, pero no
hab\u237?an previsto que hicieran falta tres cifras a la hora de imprimir los r
esultados), decidieron alterar a mano el programa sobre el que trabajaba Univac,
para que diera algo mucho m\u225?s modesto: en concreto, 8 a 7. El caso es que
el resultado final fue de 442 a 89. Por supuesto, los directivos y programadores
de Remington Rand se dieron de cabezazos contra la pared por no haber confiado
en los resultados iniciales, pero dif\u237?cilmente podr\u237?an haber inventado
una demostraci\u243?n mejor de las posibilidades de su m\u225?quina: ten\u237?a
raz\u243?n incluso cuando sus creadores pensaban que se equivocaba.\par\pard\pl
ain\hyphpar} {
Univac fue el primer ordenador de prop\u243?sito general producido en serie \u82
12?aunque el segundo en ser comercializado, tras el brit\u225?nico Manchester Ma
rk 1\u8212?. La primera unidad fue enviada a la Oficina del Censo de Estados Uni
dos en junio de 1951. Se completaron y vendieron cuarenta y seis unidades, a un
mill\u243?n de d\u243?lares de la \u233?poca cada uno. Univac tuvo el m\u233?rit
o de poner algo nervioso al ya por entonces gigante IBM, que pese a su fama de d
inosaurio reaccion\u243? con rapidez y termin\u243? imponi\u233?ndose; gracias,
sobre todo, a su enorme capacidad de venta, desarrollada a lo largo de las anter
iores tres d\u233?cadas.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Univac fue una creaci\u243?n de John Mauchly y Presper Eckert, que hab\u237?an s
ido los responsables del primer ordenador electr\u243?nico de prop\u243?sito gen
eral, Eniac, dise\u241?ado por y durante la guerra y finalizado en noviembre de
1945, quiz\u225? un pel\u237?n tarde. En el \u237?nterin, el proyecto lleg\u243?
a los o\u237?dos de Von Neumman. Este matem\u225?tico h\u250?ngaro y jud\u237?o
, que se hab\u237?a establecido en Estados Unidos en 1930, era considerado el ma
yor genio de la Universidad de Princeton en la \u233?poca en que Albert Einstein
trabajaba all\u237?, lo cual nos da una idea de la reputaci\u243?n que ten\u237
?a. Hizo importantes contribuciones a la teor\u237?a de juegos, la f\u237?sica c
u\u225?ntica, la teor\u237?a de conjuntos, el an\u225?lisis num\u233?rico y otro
mont\u243?n de disciplinas matem\u225?ticas. Incluso perge\u241?\u243? el conce
pto de Destrucci\u243?n Mutua Asegurada, idea en la que se basar\u237?a la pol\u
237?tica exterior americana durante toda la Guerra Fr\u237?a. En 1944 estaba ya
involucrado en el Proyecto Manhattan, y preocupado por los complejos c\u225?lcul
os que conllevaba la construcci\u243?n de una bomba at\u243?mica. Cuando supo de
l proyecto del Eniac, acudi\u243? a conocer a sus inventores.\par\pard\plain\hyp
hpar} {
Al parecer, Mauchly hab\u237?a comentado que se creer\u237?a que Von Neumann era
el genio que todos dec\u237?an que era si su primera pregunta iba orientada a c
onocer la arquitectura de la m\u225?quina, entonces llamada estructura l\u243?gi
ca. Y, naturalmente, eso fue lo primero que pregunt\u243?.\par\pard\plain\hyphpa
r} {

La visita termin\u243? con la creaci\u243?n de un grupo de trabajo dedicado al d

ise\u241?o del sucesor de Eniac, proyecto que ya ten\u237?an en mente sus creado
res. Ser\u237?a llamado Edvac, y deb\u237?a solucionar varios de los problemas q
ue ten\u237?a la primera m\u225?quina, especialmente su poca capacidad de almace
namiento, de s\u243?lo veinte n\u250?meros. De resultas de aquellas reuniones se
tomaron dos decisiones que desde entonces formar\u237?an parte del dise\u241?o
de todas las computadoras: el empleo del sistema binario (Eniac era decimal), pa
ra aprovechar mejor la tecnolog\u237?a de almacenamiento disponible, y el almace
namiento del programa en la memoria.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Tanto en el Eniac como en otros ingenios electr\u243?nicos y electromec\u225?nic
os de la \u233?poca, programar requer\u237?a recablear las tripas de las m\u225?
quinas y colocar un mont\u243?n de interruptores. Von Neumann pens\u243? en divi
dir la estructura l\u243?gica del ordenador en cinco partes: la memoria, donde s
e almacenar\u237?an los datos y tambi\u233?n los programas; la unidad de control
, que leer\u237?a las instrucciones y, por as\u237? decir, dirigir\u237?a el cot
arro; la unidad aritm\u233?tica, que har\u237?a los c\u225?lculos; y los \u171?\
u243?rganos\u187? (seg\u250?n los llam\u243?) de entrada y de salida. Esa estruc
tura es conocida como {\i
arquitectura Von Neumann} y sigue siendo la empleada hoy en d\u237?a, uniendo lo
s papeles de las unidades aritm\u233?tica y de control en el procesador.\par\par
d\plain\hyphpar} {
La pol\u233?mica de la paternidad de estos avances sigue sin resolverse. El brit
\u225?nico Alan Turing desarroll\u243? te\u243?ricamente estos conceptos ya en 1
936, y dise\u241?\u243? una m\u225?quina basada en ellos diez a\u241?os despu\u2
33?s. Por otro lado, parece claro que muchas de las ideas que surgieron de aquel
grupo de trabajo pertenec\u237?an a Mauchly y, sobre todo, a Eckert. Pero fue V
on Neumann quien se ofreci\u243? a escribir las conclusiones del grupo de trabaj
o; el art\u237?culo \u171?Primer borrador de un informe sobre el Edvac\u187?, te
rminado en junio de 1945, fue puesto en circulaci\u243?n por Herman Goldstine, o
tro de los miembros del grupo, con s\u243?lo el nombre del h\u250?ngaro. Esto, y
la fama que ya ten\u237?a acumulada Von Neumann, hizo que la paternidad de los
relativamente desconocidos Eckert y Mauchly quedase completamente oculta.\par\pa
rd\plain\hyphpar} {
Cabreados en parte por la falta de reconocimiento y en parte porque la circulaci
\u243?n del informe podr\u237?a impedirles patentar las tecnolog\u237?as que for
maban la base de Edvac, Eckert y Mauchly decidieron abandonar la universidad e i
ntentar ganar dinero con las computadoras. Tras estudiar y rechazar varias ofert
as, una de ellas especialmente golosa, de IBM, montaron en 1946 su propia empres
a.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
En aquel tiempo la cosa de las compa\u241?\u237?as de capital riesgo no estaba t
an bien desarrollada como ahora, as\u237? que su forma de financiarse consisti\u
243? en lograr que les contrataran antes de tener nada construido. Estimaron que
construir su ordenador, el Univac, les costar\u237?a 400 000 d\u243?lares, y se
conformaron con un contrato por 300 000 que les ofreci\u243? la Oficina del Cen
so: pensaban que as\u237?, aunque perdieran, tendr\u237?an un buen escaparate pa
ra lograr unas ventas m\u225?s lucrativas. El plan no era malo del todo. El prob
lema es que fueron incre\u237?blemente ingenuos con el coste que supondr\u237?a
construir el primer Univac, que ascendi\u243? al mill\u243?n de d\u243?lares. As
\u237? que, pese a lograr un contrato para una m\u225?quina m\u225?s sencilla ll
amada Binac, que adem\u225?s carec\u237?a de la principal innovaci\u243?n que es
taban desarrollando \u8212?el uso de una cinta magn\u233?tica en lugar de las pe
rforadas para introducir datos y programas en el equipo\u8212?, finalmente tuvie
ron que claudicar y ofrecerse en el mercado. Quer\u237?an que les comprara IBM,
pero les dijeron con total franqueza que si lo hac\u237?an los procesar\u237?an
a todos por crear un monopolio, as\u237? que tuvieron que conformarse con Reming
ton Rand, s\u237?, la que vend\u237?a m\u225?quinas de escribir. Univac fue el n
ombre que recibi\u243? la reci\u233?n creada divisi\u243?n de ordenadores de la
compa\u241?\u237?a.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Remington Rand se hizo cargo de los problemas financieros y de la gesti\u243?n d
e esos mundanos asuntos de las ventas y la obtenci\u243?n de beneficios, as\u237

? que Eckert y Mauchly pudieron dedicarse a lo que sab\u237?an hacer, que era fa
bricar computadoras. A comienzos de 1951 Univac ya era algo que pod\u237?a llama
rse {\i
ordenador} y estaba listo para comenzar las exigentes pruebas de la Oficina del
Censo, que super\u243? en marzo: funcion\u243? diecisiete horas seguidas sin un
solo fallo. Pesaba siete toneladas, estaba compuesto de m\u225?s de 5000 v\u225?
lvulas, ten\u237?a memorias de mercurio y ocupaba 35 metros cuadrados de superfi
cie, m\u225?s que los minipisos de Trujillo. Para cuando la CBS mont\u243? el es
pect\u225?culo de la predicci\u243?n del resultado de las elecciones de 1952, Re
mington Rand hab\u237?a construido y vendido otras dos unidades y ten\u237?a ped
idos para tres m\u225?s.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Tras aquella memorable noche electoral, y el acierto del programa de predicci\u2
43?n que hab\u237?a programado Mauchly \u8212?quien, dicho sea de paso, fue el p
rimero en usar la palabra \u171?programar\u187? en este contexto\u8212?, el nomb
re de Univac se convirti\u243? en sin\u243?nimo de ordenador en la mente de los
estadounidenses, tal y como d\u233?cadas m\u225?s tarde Google ser\u237?a sin\u2
43?nimo de b\u250?squeda en Internet. Por ejemplo, Asimov dedic\u243? unos relat
os a un ordenador complej\u237?simo, de varios kil\u243?metros de extensi\u243?n
, al que llam\u243? {\i
Multivac}, en clara alusi\u243?n a nuestra criatura. Y un servidor de ustedes ll
eva unos diecisiete a\u241?os usando el apodo de Multivac en foros y blogs de In
ternet, algo que quiz\u225? no sea un detalle de la misma importancia.\par\pard\
plain\hyphpar} {
Sin embargo, su reinado fue muy corto. En 1955 ya se vendieron m\u225?s ordenado
res de IBM que de Univac. Remington Rand fue incapaz de colocar computadoras con
la misma eficacia con que vend\u237?a el equipamiento de oficina que ten\u237?a
en su cat\u225?logo tradicional, y pas\u243? a convertirse en el m\u225?s alto
de los siete enanitos con que compiti\u243? IBM hasta comienzos de los a\u241?os
ochenta, con apenas un 12 por ciento del mercado. Tras diversas fusiones, ahora
se llama Unisys.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Eckert trabaj\u243? como directivo en la empresa el resto de su vida, mientras q
ue Mauchly se dedic\u243? a la consultor\u237?a. Y pese a que la {\i
arquitectura Von Neumann} seguramente debi\u243? llamarse {\i
arquitectura Eckert}, lo cierto es que ambos reciben el cr\u233?dito de haber cr
eado el primer {\i
cerebro electr\u243?nico}. Que no es poca cosa.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar}
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{\s3 \afs28

{\b
{\ql
EL PARANOICO QUE LLEV\u211? EL SILICIO A SILICON VALLEY\par\pard\plain\hyphpar}\
par\pard\plain\hyphpar}\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
En 1956, tres cient\u237?ficos compartieron el Premio Nobel de F\u237?sica por h
aber creado el transistor. Para entonces, John Bardeen y Walter Brattain hab\u23
7?an sido apartados de ese campo de investigaci\u243?n por William Shockley, su
antiguo jefe, y la relaci\u243?n entre este y aquellos no era, por decirlo suave
mente, demasiado buena. Sea como fuere, entre los tres hab\u237?an inventado un
componente electr\u243?nico que revolucionar\u237?a la inform\u225?tica.\par\par
d\plain\hyphpar} {
Cuando comenz\u243? la Segunda Guerra Mundial, Shockley hab\u237?a terminado hac
\u237?a poco su doctorado. Durante la contienda trabaj\u243? para su pa\u237?s \
u8212?Estados Unidos\u8212? dise\u241?ando t\u225?cticas de lucha submarina y or
ganizando un programa de entrenamiento para pilotos de bombardero. En julio de 1
945, el Departamento de Guerra le pidi\u243? un informe que evaluara el n\u250?m
ero de bajas que podr\u237?a suponer una invasi\u243?n de Jap\u243?n. Shockley c
alcul\u243? que Estados Unidos tendr\u237?a que matar entre 5 y 10 millones de j
aponeses y perder entre 400 000 y 800 000 hombres. No obstante, se ignora si su
opini\u243?n fue una de las que llevaron al lanzamiento de las bombas de Hiroshi
ma y Nagasaki; al parecer, tuvo m\u225?s peso en el \u225?nimo de Truman un c\u2
25?lculo similar del general Marshall.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Terminada la guerra, Shockley se puso al frente del equipo de investigaci\u243?n
en semiconductores de Bell Labs, de la compa\u241?\u237?a telef\u243?nica enton
ces monop\u243?lica AT&T: de ah\u237? saldr\u237?an muchos avances relacionados
con las tecnolog\u237?as de la informaci\u243?n. Se le pidi\u243? dar con un sus
tituto de las v\u225?lvulas que se estaban empleando como base para todo tipo de
equipos electr\u243?nicos, incluyendo los primeros ordenadores, pues ten\u237?a
n numerosos defectos: malgastaban mucha electricidad, ocupaban mucho espacio, ge
neraban mucho calor y fallaban (mucho) m\u225?s que una escopeta de feria. Como
se utilizaban much\u237?simo, especialmente en receptores de radio, cualquier po
sible alternativa pod\u237?a deparar f\u225?cilmente jugosos beneficios.\par\par
d\plain\hyphpar} {
Los materiales semiconductores funcionan como aislantes o como conductores en fu
nci\u243?n de la temperatura o de la energ\u237?a que se les aplique. Shockley e
staba convencido de que se les pod\u237?a cambiar de estado (de conductor a aisl
ante o viceversa) aplic\u225?ndoles una corriente el\u233?ctrica, pero ten\u237?
a que demostrarlo. Una teor\u237?a de Bardeen parec\u237?a probar por qu\u233? l
a cosa no funcionaba. A finales de 1947, este y Brattain lograron fabricar el pr
imer transistor, en unos experimentos en los que no particip\u243? su jefe, o se
a Shockley.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
El transistor es un componente electr\u243?nico que permite hacer pasar electron
es desde un punto de conexi\u243?n llamado {\i
emisor} a otro que se denomina {\i
colector}, siempre y cuando llegue corriente a un tercer punto, llamado {\i
base}, que funciona como si fuera un interruptor. Cumpl\u237?a con la misma func
i\u243?n que la v\u225?lvula en el dise\u241?o de un ordenador, pues permit\u237
?a crear los circuitos l\u243?gicos que hab\u237?a ideado Claude Shannon, y que
son los ladrillos con que se construyen las computadoras. Hay que recordar que e
l primer ordenador electr\u243?nico, Eniac, ten\u237?a 18 000 v\u225?lvulas, lo
que provocaba un consumo de 174 kw, es decir, lo que 2900 bombillas de 60 vatios
puestas en fila. Los transistores, adem\u225?s de ser m\u225?s fiables y peque\
u241?os, promet\u237?an hacer la misma labor con un consumo infinitamente menor.
\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Tambi\u233?n permiti\u243? sustituir a las v\u225?lvulas en los receptores de ra
dio. Despu\u233?s de varios prototipos, el primero que s\u243?lo empleaba transi
stores comenz\u243? a comercializarse en 1954. Este cambio tecnol\u243?gico perm
iti\u243? que los receptores de marras fueran m\u225?s peque\u241?os y funcionar
an a pilas. Su \u233?xito fue enorme; tanto, que para mucha gente \u171?transist
or\u187? es sin\u243?nimo de radio port\u225?til. Aunque no todo fue bueno: la m

an\u237?a de llevarlo encendido hasta en los lugares menos apropiados llev\u243?

a decir a la gente en los sesenta: \u171?No hay mocita sin amor ni hortera sin
transistor\u187?. Los transistores pasaron de moda, pero los horteras sobrevivie
ron: se pasaron primero al radiocasete \u8212?o {\i
loro}\u8212? y luego al m\u243?vil.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
El invento de Bardeen y Brattain presentaba, de todos modos, algunos problemas.
Hab\u237?a que crear cada unidad a mano, en un proceso que parec\u237?a dif\u237
?cil de automatizar; y adem\u225?s eran muy fr\u225?giles: con cualquier golpeci
to pod\u237?an dejar de funcionar. Para Shockley ten\u237?a un fallo a\u250?n m\
u225?s gordo: que no lo hab\u237?a inventado \u233?l, aunque la teor\u237?a en q
ue descansaba fuera suya, y la patente que hab\u237?a presentado Bell Labs no te
n\u237?a su nombre. As\u237? las cosas, hizo saber a sus dos subordinados que in
tentar\u237?a hacer desaparecer sus nombres de la petici\u243?n de patente, mien
tras en secreto trabajaba en un transistor que solucionara los problemas que pre
sentaba el dise\u241?o original. Lo logr\u243? al a\u241?o siguiente.\par\pard\p
lain\hyphpar} {
Su creaci\u243?n se llama oficialmente {\i
transistor de uni\u243?n bipolar}, pero \u233?l lo llamo {\i
sandwich} porque constaba de varias capas superpuestas de material semiconductor
. El {\i
sandwich} sent\u243? las bases de la electr\u243?nica moderna, y, aunque a un ta
ma\u241?o microsc\u243?pico, podemos encontrarlo en microprocesadores, memorias
y dem\u225?s chips que se ocultan en los aparatos que empleamos todos los d\u237
?as.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Como es de imaginar, el ambiente en el laboratorio se hab\u237?a convertido en u
n infierno. Bardeen recordar\u237?a a\u241?os despu\u233?s que todo hab\u237?a i
do como la seda hasta ese fat\u237?dico 23 de diciembre de 1947 en que vio la lu
z el primer transistor. Shockley, que al fin y al cabo era su jefe, se dedic\u24
3? a impedir que su amigo Brattain y \u233?l mismo trabajaran en proyectos que p
udieran interesarles, lo que les llev\u243? a salir de la empresa. No ser\u237?a
esta la \u250?ltima vez que la personalidad de Shockley llevara a gente de su a
lrededor a huir de \u233?l lo m\u225?s lejos posible.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Nuestros tres hombres volvieron a encontrarse en la gala de los Nobel. Durante u
na noche compartieron mesa y recordaron los buenos viejos tiempos en que eran am
igos y formaban un grupo de investigaci\u243?n de primera l\u237?nea.\par\pard\p
lain\hyphpar} {
En cuanto a Bardeen, no le fue mal. Empez\u243? a investigar los materiales supe
rconductores, y sus hallazgos le valieron otro Nobel de F\u237?sica m\u225?s, en
1972, lo que le convirti\u243? en el \u250?nico en conseguirlo en dos ocasiones
en dicha categor\u237?a.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Shockley decidi\u243? marcharse de Bell Labs en 1953, al ver que le negaban el a
cceso a puestos de m\u225?s responsabilidad; decisi\u243?n que sin duda tomaron
los barandas al ver c\u243?mo hab\u237?a gestionado su equipo de investigaci\u24
3?n. Regres\u243? al lugar donde hab\u237?a crecido, en Palo Alto, California, c
erca de la Universidad de Stanford, y unos a\u241?os despu\u233?s fund\u243? una
divisi\u243?n de semiconductores \u8212?a su nombre\u8212? con el capital de la
empresa de un amigo suyo, Beckman Instruments.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
No es que le fuera muy bien. Su prestigio y la cercan\u237?a de Stanford le hab\
u237?an permitido reclutar un buen n\u250?mero de j\u243?venes talentos, pero a
pesar de que el laboratorio ten\u237?a como primera misi\u243?n desarrollar tran
sistores de silicio en un momento en que se hac\u237?an de germanio, pronto se e
mpe\u241?\u243? en investigar un nuevo tipo de componente electr\u243?nico, el t
iristor. De modo que dividi\u243? a sus empleados: la mitad trabajar\u237?a en s
u proyecto, y no podr\u237?a decir nada a la otra mitad.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar}
{
En ese ambiente de secretismo, Shockley se volvi\u243? un poco paranoico. Una ve
z que una secretaria se hizo da\u241?o en una mano con un objeto punzante que al
guien dej\u243? por accidente en una puerta, quiso hacer pasar a toda la plantil
la por un detector de mentiras, pues estaba convencido de que detr\u225?s del in
cidente hab\u237?a un prop\u243?sito oculto.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {

Finalmente, en 1957, y despu\u233?s de intentar sin \u233?xito que Beckman pusie

ra orden, los que acabaron siendo conocidos como \u171?Los Ocho Traidores\u187?
decidieron dejar la empresa y fundar otra similar, Fairchild Semiconductor. Entr
e ellos se contaban Robert Noyce, uno de los dos inventores del chip, y Gordon M
oore, que acu\u241?ar\u237?a la ley que lleva su apellido, en la que predijo que
el n\u250?mero de transistores que se pueden meter en un circuito integrado se
duplica cada dieciocho meses. En 1968, Noyce y Moore fundar\u225?n Intel.\par\pa
rd\plain\hyphpar} {
Fairchild triunf\u243? donde no lo hizo Shockley, y ser\u237?a la primera de un
buen n\u250?mero de empresas de semiconductores que se establecer\u237?an en lo
que acab\u243? conoci\u233?ndose como Silicon Valley, el Valle del Silicio, y no
de la silicona, como algunas veces se traduce espantosamente mal.\par\pard\plai
n\hyphpar} {
Shockley volvi\u243? como profesor a Stanford, y desde entonces dedic\u243? la m
ayor parte de sus esfuerzos a unas pol\u233?micas teor\u237?as sobre gen\u233?ti
ca. Sosten\u237?a que los padres sin cualificaci\u243?n profesional ten\u237?an
muchos m\u225?s hijos que los que ten\u237?an alg\u250?n tipo de educaci\u243?n,
y que, como la inteligencia ser\u237?a hereditaria, la abundancia de los primer
os provocar\u237?a a largo plazo el colapso de la civilizaci\u243?n. Le preocup\
u243? especialmente el caso de la raza negra, donde la diferencia en los niveles
de procreaci\u243?n era mucho mayor, y predijo que este estado de cosas impedir
\u237?a a los negros salir del hoyo, pese a los logros registrados en materia de
derechos civiles. Como soluci\u243?n, lleg\u243? a proponer que se incentivara
la esterilizaci\u243?n voluntaria de las personas con un coeficiente inferior a
100. No se hizo muy popular con esas ideas, claro, y lo llamaron de todo menos b
onito.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Entre su car\u225?cter imposible y unas ideas tan pol\u237?ticamente incorrectas
, su papel en la invenci\u243?n del transistor fue dej\u225?ndose de lado. Cuand
o muri\u243?, en 1989, lo hizo acompa\u241?ado s\u243?lo de su segunda mujer; in
cluso los hijos de su primer matrimonio se enteraron de su fallecimiento por la
prensa. Jacques Beaudouin, un ingeniero que trabaj\u243? con \u233?l en Stanford
, necesit\u243? once a\u241?os para conseguir que el Ayuntamiento de Mountain Vi
ew pusiera una placa en el lugar donde estuvo el Shockley Semiconductor Laborato
ry. Y eso que Shockley fue el hombre que llev\u243? el silicio a Silicon Valley\
u8230?\par\pard\plain\hyphpar}
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{\s3 \afs28
{\b

{\ql
IBM Y LOS SIETE ENANITOS\par\pard\plain\hyphpar}\par\pard\plain\hyphpar}\par\par
d\plain\hyphpar} {
IBM hab\u237?a perdido la iniciativa en el mercado de los ordenadores electr\u24
3?nicos y en Univac se las promet\u237?an muy felices. Pero entonces el Gobierno
de Estados Unidos concedi\u243? a la primera el contrato para construir las m\u
225?quinas que conformar\u237?an su sistema de defensa antia\u233?rea SAGE, lo q
ue le permiti\u243? adquirir la experiencia y saber hacer de sus rivales; experi
encia y saber hacer que no tardar\u237?a en trasladar al \u225?mbito civil. A\u2
41?os m\u225?s tarde, ese mismo Gobierno la demandar\u237?a por abuso de monopol
io.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
El fabuloso contrato para fabricar las 52 enormes computadoras AN/FSQ-7, las m\u
225?s grandes jam\u225?s construidas, permiti\u243? al gigante azul colocarse co
mo n\u250?mero uno del sector, relegando a Univac y compa\u241?\u237?a al papel
de segundonas. Su mejor m\u225?quina, la 1401, super\u243? a sus rivales gracias
a que los gestores de la casa entendieron que no hab\u237?a que poner tanto \u2
33?nfasis en el ordenador en s\u237? como en el sistema, que comprend\u237?a lec
tores de impresoras, teletipos y el software necesario para hacerlo funcionar.\p
ar\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
A comienzos de los sesenta el mercado estaba dominado en cosa de un 70 por cient
o por IBM. Muy de lejos, con alrededor del 10 por ciento, le segu\u237?an Univac
y Control Data, empresa especializada en supercomputadoras. Burroughs y NCR, an
tigua competencia de IBM, se aseguraron una cuota de alrededor del 3 por ciento
gracias a los clientes que compraban sus equipos mec\u225?nicos de oficina antes
del advenimiento del ordenador. Los grandes del equipamiento el\u233?ctrico: RC
A, Honeywell y General Electric, decidieron invertir en el negocio para quitarle
parte del pastel al gigante azul. Durante aquellos a\u241?os, la industria de l
a inform\u225?tica era conocida como \u171?Blancanieves y los siete enanitos\u18
7?, con IBM en el papel de la hermosa jovenzuela.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Pese a todo, en IBM no acababan de ver las cosas claras. Ten\u237?an en total si
ete l\u237?neas de ordenadores distintas e incompatibles entre s\u237?, de modo
que se ve\u237?an obligados a dise\u241?ar y fabricar las partes por separado \u
8212?desaprovechando as\u237? las econom\u237?as de escala\u8212? y, sobre todo,
a programar el software de cada una. En cuanto sacaran m\u225?s computadoras, e
l caos crecer\u237?a sin remedio. De modo que pusieron una comisi\u243?n a traba
jar sobre el tema, y a finales de 1961 esta dio su dictamen: hab\u237?a que crea
r una nueva gama de computadoras, compatibles entre ellas, que difirieran en cua
nto a potencia, de modo que las mejores, y m\u225?s caras, llegaran a ser 25 vec
es m\u225?s capaces que el modelo m\u225?s b\u225?sico. De este modo, como IBM n
o vend\u237?a m\u225?quinas, sino que las alquilaba, un cliente pod\u237?a pedir
un modelo m\u225?s barato y, si sus necesidades crec\u237?an, cambiar a otro m\
u225?s potente sin necesidad de volver a programar todo su software.\par\pard\pl
ain\hyphpar} {
En retrospectiva, puede parecer obvio. Al fin y al cabo, si comparamos los prime
ros PC de los ochenta con cualquiera que podamos encontrar hoy en un supermercad
o, la diferencia superar\u225? con mucho esa cifra; pues bien, ambos ordenadores
tienen una arquitectura com\u250?n. Pero entonces parec\u237?a una locura, y al
gunos de los ingenieros que liderar\u237?an su desarrollo estaban en contra. No
ve\u237?an de qu\u233? manera los distintos modelos de esta nueva gama podr\u237
?an estar a la altura de las computadoras de la competencia siendo compatibles e
ntre s\u237?.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
La soluci\u243?n consisti\u243? en a\u241?adir una capa m\u225?s en el dise\u241
?o. Normalmente, los programas se escriben en un lenguaje de alto nivel (como Fo
rtran o C) y un compilador se encarga de traducirlos a c\u243?digo m\u225?quina,
que es el que entiende el ordenador y el que realmente se ejecuta en el procesa
dor. La t\u233?cnica de microprogramaci\u243?n consiste en que el mismo procesad
or traduce en tiempo real ese c\u243?digo m\u225?quina a un microc\u243?digo pro
pio, que es el que realmente se ejecuta.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Ese nivel extra reduce las prestaciones, y por eso no se emplea en los actuales
microprocesadores. Pero en aquel entonces permit\u237?a simplificar mucho la tar

ea de los ingenieros responsables de lo que se terminar\u237?a llamando System/3

60. El c\u243?digo m\u225?quina ser\u237?a igual en todas las computadoras, con
lo que quedar\u237?a asegurada la compatibilidad, pero el procesador de cada una
tendr\u237?a un microc\u243?digo distinto, adaptado al dise\u241?o y prestacion
es de cada modelo. Adem\u225?s, ten\u237?a una ventaja adicional: se pod\u237?a
trastear el procesador y microprogramarlo de modo que aceptara un c\u243?digo m\
u225?quina distinto, como, por ejemplo, el del IBM 1401, que tanta aceptaci\u243
?n ten\u237?a. De este modo, el gigante azul se garantizaba retener a sus antigu
os clientes mientras adoptaba otros nuevos.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
El esfuerzo de poner en marcha el System/360 fue comparado con el Proyecto Manha
ttan por su complejidad y por la cantidad de pasta que se invirti\u243?: unos 50
0 millones de d\u243?lares de comienzos de los a\u241?os sesenta s\u243?lo en in
vestigaci\u243?n, y se calcula que unas diez veces m\u225?s para acondicionar la
s f\u225?bricas, reeducar a los vendedores y dem\u225?s. Como dijo un ingeniero,
b\u225?sicamente consist\u237?a en \u171?apostarse la compa\u241?\u237?a\u187?
a que tuviera \u233?xito. A finales de 1963 IBM recibi\u243? un duro golpe cuand
o Honeywell lanz\u243? su modelo 200, compatible con el 1401 pero m\u225?s barat
o y r\u225?pido. En pocas semanas recibi\u243? cuatrocientos pedidos, m\u225?s q
ue en sus anteriores ocho a\u241?os en el negocio juntos, y muchos clientes de I
BM empezaron a devolver sus ordenadores alquilados a la compa\u241?\u237?a para
comprar a su competidor.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
IBM decidi\u243? contraatacar adelantando el lanzamiento del System/360. As\u237
?, Thomas Watson Jr. tom\u243? las riendas para hacer \u171?el anuncio m\u225?s
importante de la historia de la compa\u241?\u237?a\u187? en Nueva York, mientras
sus empleados daban ruedas de prensa ese mismo d\u237?a en otras sesenta y dos
ciudades norteamericanas y catorce extranjeras. Fue un \u233?xito arrollador, ta
nto que durante los dos a\u241?os siguientes IBM s\u243?lo fue capaz de atender
la mitad de los 9000 pedidos que recibi\u243?.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Este pu\u241?etazo encima de la mesa dej\u243? a los siete enanitos temblando. C
ada uno respondi\u243? a su manera. RCA decidi\u243? lanzar una gama de ordenado
res, llamada Spectra 70, compatibles con los System/360. Honeywell se qued\u243?
con el nicho de clientes que hab\u237?a logrado con su modelo 200. Control Data
opt\u243? por seguir ofreciendo superordenadores, un sector al que no llegaban
los modelos m\u225?s potentes de IBM. Univac, Burroughs y NCR lograron mantener
su negocio aprovech\u225?ndose de su relaci\u243?n con sus clientes antiguos. Y
General Electric se hizo con un sector que IBM hab\u237?a descuidado: el de los
sistemas de tiempo compartido, en los que varios usuarios tienen acceso simult\u
225?neo a la m\u225?quina, que en realidad lo que hace es dedicar una parte de s
us recursos a cada uno, d\u225?ndoles la sensaci\u243?n de que todo el ordenador
es para ellos.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
No todos sobrevivieron. La recesi\u243?n de inicios de los setenta hizo abandona
r a RCA y General Electric, con lo que los siete enanitos se convirtieron en \u1
71?la pandilla\u187? (por el acr\u243?nimo Bunch, formado por la letra inicial d
el nombre de cada uno de los supervivientes). IBM acentu\u243? su dominio con el
System/370, compatible con el anterior y que facilitaba el uso de sistemas de t
iempo compartido; tan exitosa fue esta arquitectura, que se siguieron vendiendo
modelos hasta los a\u241?os noventa. De modo que desde mediados de los a\u241?os
cincuenta hasta entrados los ochenta, y a pesar de los esfuerzos de las autorid
ades antimonopolio, IBM domin\u243? por completo el panorama inform\u225?tico, u
n logro que ni siquiera Microsoft parece capaz de igualar.\par\pard\plain\hyphpa
r} {
S\u243?lo cuando aparecieron los ordenadores personales, que hicieron cambiar el
modo de dise\u241?ar, fabricar, vender y consumir la inform\u225?tica, el gigan
te azul hinc\u243? la rodilla. Como terminan haciendo todas las empresas, por ot
ra parte.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar}
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{\s3 \afs28
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{\ql
\u191?Y EN ESPA\u209?A QU\u201?? \u191?HAC\u205?AMOS ALGO?\par\pard\plain\hyphpa
r}\par\pard\plain\hyphpar}\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Mientras Estados Unidos lideraba el mercado de aquellos {\i
peazo} ordenadores que ocupaban una habitaci\u243?n ellos solos, y pa\u237?ses c
omo Reino Unido o Francia intentaban estar a la altura, en Espa\u241?a las cosas
eran bien distintas: llegamos tarde, y cuando lo hicimos no fue para competir,
sino simplemente para ser clientes de IBM o Univac.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
No obstante, tambi\u233?n hay que pensar que, en los tiempos de la inform\u225?t
ica cl\u225?sica, para comprar y emplear un ordenador ya hab\u237?a que saber ba
stante del asunto. No es como ahora, que tenemos un teclado y una pantalla y un
buen mont\u243?n de hermosos iconos y programas que intentan facilitarnos la vid
a. Entonces hab\u237?a que saber, y en Espa\u241?a no sab\u237?a ni el tato. As\
u237? que los encargados de poner en marcha esos cacharros ten\u237?an que irse
al extranjero para aprender el oficio.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Los primeros ordenadores que llegaron a Espa\u241?a fueron un IBM 650, alquilado
por Renfe en 1957, y un Univac UCT, uno de los primeros parcialmente transistor
izados en la Junta de Energ\u237?a Nuclear, organismo ahora conocido como Ciemat
. Este \u250?ltimo se compr\u243? para que lo emplearan los investigadores del c
entro, pero un voluntarioso profesor mercantil, Anselmo Rodr\u237?guez, pens\u24
3? que pod\u237?a servir para funciones administrativas, y a base de meterle tar
jetas perforadas en horario poco habitual fue reescribiendo parte del sistema op
erativo y programando aplicaciones de n\u243?mina y gesti\u243?n de almacenes.\p
ar\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Primero aprendi\u243? a lo bruto, para m\u225?s tarde viajar a Mil\u225?n, Lausa
na o Hamburgo a ampliar conocimientos, que luego brindar\u237?a en cursos realiz
ados en Espa\u241?a a trav\u233?s de la empresa Rudi Meyer, en aquellos tiempos
representante exclusivo en nuestro pa\u237?s de Remington Rand, casa madre de Un
ivac.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
A todo esto: don Anselmo Rodr\u237?guez M\u225?yquez es mi padre.\par\pard\plain
\hyphpar} {
Aquella forma de introducci\u243?n a la inform\u225?tica fue la habitual en los
a\u241?os sesenta. Por ejemplo, la empresa textil La Seda de Barcelona decidi\u2
43? comprar un IBM System 360/20 en 1964, pero no lleg\u243? a instalarse hasta
1967, para lo cual hubo que derribar una pared, porque si no el trasto no entrab
a en el centro de c\u225?lculo de la compa\u241?\u237?a. Para entonces ya hab\u2
37?a estudiado c\u243?mo hacerlo funcionar el ingeniero industrial y economista
Manuel Costa, que aprendi\u243? lo suyo en Holanda, donde se encontraba la sede
central de la multinacional propietaria de La Seda, y gracias a unos cursos impa
rtidos por IBM en Barcelona. Ahora bien, al igual que mi padre, en buena medida

tanto Costa como sus subordinados tuvieron que inventar todo desde cero, ante la
falta de informaci\u243?n \u250?til incluso en la propia IBM.\par\pard\plain\hy
phpar} {
Y as\u237?, a trancas y barrancas, con un cuasi monopolio de IBM m\u225?s unas m
igajas que se repart\u237?an Univac y la francesa Bull, lleg\u243? el a\u241?o 1
969: fue entonces cuando por fin se empezaron a impartir ense\u241?anzas reglada
s en el Instituto de Inform\u225?tica de Madrid, germen de la futura facultad qu
e encontrar\u237?a acomodo en la Universidad Polit\u233?cnica en 1976. Barcelona
y Bilbao contaron tambi\u233?n con sendas facultades de la cosa.\par\pard\plain
\hyphpar} {
La \u250?nica excepci\u243?n a este panorama fue la empresa Telesincro, fundada
en 1963 por Joan Maj\u243?. En principio se dedic\u243? a otras cosas, pero en 1
966 se puso a dise\u241?ar ordenadores. Al a\u241?o siguiente present\u243? el F
actor-P, el primer ordenador creado en Espa\u241?a con software y tecnolog\u237?
a propios. Durante los siguientes a\u241?os present\u243? nuevos Factores: el Q,
el R y el S. Eran ordenadores especializados en facturaci\u243?n que incluso in
corporaron una versi\u243?n castiza del lenguaje Cobol, en el que las instruccio
nes no eran del tipo \u171?Move A to B\u187? sino de las de \u171?Mover A hacia
B\u187?.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Pese a competir con cierto \u233?xito durante unos pocos a\u241?os en el mercado
de ordenadores peque\u241?ajos con fabricantes extranjeros como Phillips o NCR,
en 1975 Telesincro se vio con el agua al cuello\u8230? y fue rescatada al estil
o del capitalismo de aquel entonces: se cre\u243? una empresa con capital del Es
tado, varios bancos, Telef\u243?nica y la japonesa Fujitsu. Al final, la compa\u
241?\u237?a Secoinsa sirvi\u243? principalmente como v\u237?a de entrada de Fuji
tsu en Espa\u241?a y termin\u243? convirti\u233?ndose en su filial, mientras que
Telesincro acab\u243? en manos de Bull. Ahora se dedica a fabricar terminales d
e punto de venta (TPV).\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Durante aquellos primeros a\u241?os, los compatriotas de Torres Quevedo seguimos
en l\u237?neas generales aquello tan nuestro del \u171?que inventen ellos\u187?
. Tampoco es que despu\u233?s nos hayamos convertido en l\u237?deres mundiales d
e casi nada, la verdad, pero algo hemos avanzado, especialmente a partir la expl
osi\u243?n de la inform\u225?tica personal, en los ochenta. A veces incluso Goog
le o Microsoft compran una empresa espa\u241?ola. De verdad de la buena.\par\par
d\plain\hyphpar}
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{\s3 \afs28
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{\ql
EL CHIP\par\pard\plain\hyphpar}\par\pard\plain\hyphpar}\par\pard\plain\hyphpar}
{
Uno gan\u243? el Premio Nobel, el otro se hizo multimillonario. Sus empresas luc
haron en los tribunales para dirimir qui\u233?n hab\u237?a sido el responsable d
e uno de los inventos que m\u225?s han cambiado nuestras vidas en los siglos XX
y XXI: el circuito integrado, m\u225?s conocido como chip. Pero ellos siempre re
conocieron el m\u233?rito del otro. Se llamaban Jack Kilby y Robert Noyce.\par\p
ard\plain\hyphpar} {
El invento del transistor hab\u237?a permitido jubilar los viejos tubos de vac\u
237?o como amplificadores y ladrillos con que construir los circuitos l\u243?gic
os que alimentaban los ordenadores y dem\u225?s artefactos electr\u243?nicos. Si
n embargo, ya a mediados de los a\u241?os cincuenta se hab\u237?a empezado a vis
lumbrar un grave problema. Mientras los ingenieros perge\u241?aban circuitos cad
a vez m\u225?s complejos y \u250?tiles, las f\u225?bricas les contestaban que aq
uello no se pod\u237?a construir de ninguna de las maneras. Lo bautizaron como \
u171?la tiran\u237?a de los n\u250?meros\u187?.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Hay que pensar que cada transistor (y cada resistencia, cada diodo y cada conden
sador, que eran los otros tres elementos de todo circuito electr\u243?nico) era
un objeto en s\u237? mismo, que deb\u237?a conectarse con los dem\u225?s por med
io de cables soldados a las patas del componente. En cuanto el circuito empezaba
a crecer, tambi\u233?n lo hac\u237?a el n\u250?mero de cables y soldaduras, de
modo que un circuito con 100 000 elementos pod\u237?a requerir un mill\u243?n de
conexiones, la mayor parte de las cuales deb\u237?an hacerse a mano. Esto no s\
u243?lo desorbitaba el coste, sino que hac\u237?a casi inevitable la aparici\u24
3?n de errores. Adem\u225?s, imped\u237?a reducir el tama\u241?o de los componen
tes, porque el que fueran m\u225?s peque\u241?os s\u243?lo serv\u237?a para hace
r m\u225?s dif\u237?cil la labor de conectarlos.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
A finales de los a\u241?os cincuenta, al optimismo que hab\u237?a dado br\u237?o
a la industria tras la aparici\u243?n del transistor le hab\u237?a sucedido un
fuerte pesimismo, ante los l\u237?mites pr\u225?cticos que impon\u237?a la tiran
\u237?a de los n\u250?meros. Naturalmente, eso no implicaba que no hubiera gente
buscando una soluci\u243?n al problema. Lo hac\u237?an todos. Pero no se encont
raba la v\u237?a hasta que Kilby y Noyce tuvieron la misma idea, independienteme
nte, con s\u243?lo unos meses de distancia: la \u171?idea monol\u237?tica\u187?.
\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Kilby era ingeniero; o, como dir\u237?a \u233?l, era un tipo al que le gustaba e
ncontrar soluciones a los problemas, no explicar c\u243?mo funciona el mundo. Tr
abajaba para una peque\u241?a empresa de electr\u243?nica donde supo de primera
mano el grave problema al que se enfrentaba la industria, y pens\u243? que la co
mpa\u241?\u237?a que lo solucionara tendr\u237?a que invertir muchos recursos en
ello, algo fuera del alcance de Centralab, que era donde curraba. As\u237? que
emigr\u243? a Dallas y en 1958 comenz\u243? a trabajar para Texas Instruments, l
a empresa que hab\u237?a popularizado el transistor gracias a la idea de su pres
idente, Patrick Haggerty, de colocarlo en las radios port\u225?tiles.\par\pard\p
lain\hyphpar} {
TI estaba trabajando en algo que gustaba mucho al Ej\u233?rcito: los microm\u243
?dulos. La idea era construir todos los componentes del mismo tama\u241?o y form
a, con las conexiones ya hechas. Luego bastar\u237?a ensamblarlos como si fueran
piezas de Lego para formar un circuito. Kilby odiaba la dichosa idea, pues pens
aba que era una soluci\u243?n equivocada para el problema, as\u237? que aprovech
\u243? la llegada del verano y que todo el mundo se hab\u237?a ido de vacaciones
menos \u233?l, que era el nuevo y no ten\u237?a ese derecho, para pensar, lo m\
u225?s r\u225?pido que pudiera, en una soluci\u243?n alternativa que acabara con
la tiran\u237?a de los n\u250?meros de una vez por todas. Y se le ocurri\u243?
que aunque los semiconductores se utilizaran s\u243?lo para construir transistor
es y diodos, tambi\u233?n pod\u237?an funcionar como resistencias y condensadore
s. No tan bien como los materiales que se empleaban espec\u237?ficamente para el
lo, pero s\u237? lo suficiente como para hacer su funci\u243?n. De modo que podr
\u237?a emplearse una pieza de silicio o germanio para construir en ella todos l

os componentes necesarios para que funcionara un circuito electr\u243?nico.\par\

pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Cuando los dem\u225?s regresaron de sus vacaciones, Kilby ense\u241?\u243? su id
ea al jefe, el cual\u8230? pues tampoco es que se mostrara demasiado entusiasmad
o. Sin embargo, le propuso un trato: si lograba construir con semiconductores un
a resistencia y un condensador, le permitir\u237?a usar los recursos necesarios
para hacer un circuito integrado. Kilby, por supuesto, cumpli\u243? con su parte
, y el 12 de septiembre de 1958 probaron el primer circuito completamente constr
uido con una sola pieza ({\i
chip}) de germanio. Y funcion\u243? perfectamente. Pero no lo patentaron porque
segu\u237?a teniendo un problema: aunque los componentes estuvieran juntos, no h
ab\u237?a forma de conectarlos entre s\u237? que no fuera con cables soldados a
lo bruto. As\u237? que Kilby se puso manos a la obra.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Robert Noyce era un l\u237?der nato a quien con el tiempo llamar\u237?an el \u17
1?alcalde de Silicon Valley\u187?. Esa habilidad lo acompa\u241?ar\u237?a en tod
o lo que hiciera, fuera profesional o no: en los a\u241?os ochenta, por ejemplo,
ingres\u243? en un coro para cantar madrigales y a las pocas semanas ya lo esta
ba dirigiendo. As\u237?, no fue raro que cuando ocho ingenieros \u8212?los \u171
?Ocho Traidores\u187?\u8212? que trabajaban para el inventor del transistor y Pr
emio Nobel, William Shockley, decidieron dejar la empresa, se convirtiera en el
director de la filial de semiconductores de Fairchild, que fue donde terminaron
todos dando el callo.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
El \u233?xodo tuvo lugar en 1957, y al a\u241?o siguiente ya hab\u237?an encontr
ado su primera gran y patentable idea: uno de los ocho, el f\u237?sico suizo Jea
n Hoerni, hab\u237?a encontrado una v\u237?a para evitar los problemas que daba
la contaminaci\u243?n del silicio cuando se fabricaban los transistores: colocar
encima de las placas donde se \u171?imprim\u237?an\u187? estos una capa de \u24
3?xido de silicio que los aislaba del exterior y sus impurezas. El abogado de la
compa\u241?\u237?a quer\u237?a que la patente fuera lo m\u225?s amplia posible,
de modo que le pregunt\u243? a Noyce qu\u233? m\u225?s se pod\u237?a hacer con
esa idea. Y Noyce pens\u243? que se podr\u237?a aprovechar la capa de \u243?xido
para hacer las conexiones de los transistores, \u171?pinchando\u187? el cable e
n el \u243?xido como si fuera una vela en una tarta de cumplea\u241?os. Era el m
es de enero de 1959.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
D\u225?ndole a\u250?n m\u225?s vueltas, se le ocurri\u243? que ya teniendo el tr
ansistor y sus conexiones hechas, no ser\u237?a dif\u237?cil enlazar entre s\u23
7? dos transistores de una misma capa de silicio poniendo una l\u237?nea de meta
l entre esas conexiones hechas a trav\u233?s del \u243?xido. Es m\u225?s, se pod
r\u237?an imprimir por medio de m\u225?quinas, solucionando el problema que supo
n\u237?a hacerlo a mano. Y una vez ah\u237?, no tard\u243? mucho en darse cuenta
de que el resto de componentes tambi\u233?n pod\u237?an hacerse en el silicio,
lo cual implicar\u237?a un circuito electr\u243?nico completo en un solo fragmen
to de material. Hab\u237?a llegado, por una v\u237?a completamente distinta, a l
a misma \u171?idea monol\u237?tica\u187? que Kilby.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Cinco d\u237?as despu\u233?s de que Noyce tuviera su idea y se la contara a su c
olega Gordon Moore, llegaron a TI rumores de que alguien m\u225?s hab\u237?a lle
gado a la soluci\u243?n de Kilby. Pero no es que Moore se hubiera ido de la leng
ua; el rumor era completamente falso, pues dec\u237?a que era RCA quien hab\u237
?a tenido la idea. Pero aunque no fuera verdad, tuvo la virtud de espolear tanto
a ingenieros como a los abogados de TI para poder enviar una solicitud de paten
te lo antes posible.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Las patentes son de dos tipos. Las {\i
ofensivas} suelen proteger ideas verdaderamente revolucionarias y est\u225?n exp
resadas en t\u233?rminos amplios y generales para atacar a cualquiera que tenga
una innovaci\u243?n parecida o derivada; el mejor ejemplo es la del tel\u233?fon
o. Por el contrario, las {\i
defensivas} protegen una idea que, aunque importante, no supone un cambio tan no
table sobre lo que ya hay, y suelen redactarse con mucha precisi\u243?n para pro
tegerse de las ofensivas. Algunas de ellas son muy famosas, como la radio de Mar
coni, el avi\u243?n de los hermanos Wright o el dirigible de Zeppelin.\par\pard\

plain\hyphpar} {
Texas Instruments registr\u243? una solicitud de patente ofensiva. Sin embargo,
con las prisas, tuvo que incluir el dise\u241?o original de Kilby, en el que a\u
250?n se usaban conexiones hechas a mano sobre el germanio. No obstante, se incl
uy\u243? un texto en el que se indicaba que estas pod\u237?an realizarse con otr
as t\u233?cnicas, incluyendo la posibilidad de pincharlas sobre una capa de \u24
3?xido de silicio, la t\u233?cnica de Fairchild, que en TI a\u250?n no hab\u237?
an logrado hacer funcionar.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Unos meses despu\u233?s lleg\u243? a Silicon Valley el rumor de que TI hab\u237?
a logrado un gran avance, y en Fairchild se temieron lo peor. Como empresa joven
y preocupada por su supervivencia, no hab\u237?an avanzado en la idea de Noyce,
que tardar\u237?a todav\u237?a un tiempo en dar sus frutos, pero de todos modos
solicitaron una patente, en este caso defensiva, en la que se detallaba con tod
o lujo de detalles el dise\u241?o del chip, con su capa de \u243?xido de silicio
, sus {\i
velas de cumplea\u241?os} y sus l\u237?neas de metal impresas por encima.\par\pa
rd\plain\hyphpar} {
A comienzos de los a\u241?os sesenta los abogados de una y otra compa\u241?\u237
?a ya estaban pele\u225?ndose para ver qui\u233?n era el beneficiado de la inven
ci\u243?n, con documentos enviados a la junta que tomaba esas decisiones dentro
de la Oficina de Patentes con t\u237?tulos como \u171?Respuesta a la Petici\u243
?n para la Suspensi\u243?n de la Acci\u243?n contra la Petici\u243?n de Aceptar
o Rechazar el Testimonio de la Contrarrefutaci\u243?n y para la Moci\u243?n Cond
icional de Aceptar el Testimonio de ContraContrarrefutaci\u243?n\u187?. S\u237?,
en serio. Finalmente, en 1967 decidieron otorgar la patente a Kilby. Pero Fairc
hild reclam\u243? a los tribunales y, por fin, en 1970, el Supremo decidi\u243?
a favor de Noyce.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Tampoco tuvo mayor importancia. Evidentemente, ninguna empresa pod\u237?a espera
r tanto, as\u237? que TI y Fairchild acordaron regalarse cada uno la licencia de
l otro y obligar a las dem\u225?s empresas que quisieran entrar en el mercado a
comprar las dos. Y as\u237?, pese a que al principio los chips no fueran una gra
n sensaci\u243?n, la decisi\u243?n del jefazo de TI, Haggerty, de construir calc
uladoras de bolsillo \u8212?cuya invenci\u243?n y patente, de nuevo, correspondi
\u243? a Kilby\u8212? llev\u243? los circuitos integrados a comienzos de los set
enta a los hogares de todos los norteamericanos, y enseguida del resto del mundo
desarrollado. Lo mismo que hizo con los transistores, vamos.\par\pard\plain\hyp
hpar} {
Kilby recibi\u243? el Nobel de F\u237?sica en el a\u241?o 2000, y en su discurso
afirm\u243? que, de estar vivo Noyce, lo habr\u237?a compartido con \u233?l, de
l mismo modo que ambos hab\u237?an aceptado siempre el t\u237?tulo de coinventor
es del circuito integrado. Gordon Moore, que hab\u237?a acudido a Estocolmo, est
aba de acuerdo. En 1968 se hab\u237?a marchado de Fairchild con Noyce para funda
r con \u233?l Intel. Se hicieron multimillonarios. Pero el segundo inventor del
chip hab\u237?a muerto diez a\u241?os antes de un ataque al coraz\u243?n, mientr
as se daba un chapuz\u243?n matutino en su piscina, y no pudo recibir ese honor.
Para que luego digan que el deporte es bueno.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar}
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{\s3 \afs28
{\b
{\ql
SEYMOUR CRAY Y LOS SUPERORDENADORES\par\pard\plain\hyphpar}\par\pard\plain\hyphp
ar}\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Cuando visit\u233? el centro de c\u225?lculo del Ciemat, donde trabaj\u243? mi p
adre hasta su jubilaci\u243?n, me ense\u241?aron las distintas m\u225?quinas que
albergaba. Una de ellas despert\u243? mi atenci\u243?n. \u171?Es un Cray\u187?,
me dijeron con indisimulado orgullo. Fue como si me hubieran dicho que en la es
tanter\u237?a de al lado guardaban el Santo Grial.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Durante a\u241?os, las Cray fueron las computadoras m\u225?s r\u225?pidas del me
rcado, los mejores {\i
superordenadores}, que fue como las bautizaron. El respeto que se ten\u237?a en
el gremio a su creador, Seymour Cray, era casi infinito. En 1976 dio \u8212?cosa
rara entre las raras\u8212? una conferencia en Colorado; acudieron ingenieros d
e todas partes de Estados Unidos para escucharle\u8230? pero nadie se atrevi\u24
3? a hacerle preguntas en el turno de \u237?dem. Despu\u233?s de marcharse, el o
rganizador de la conferencia pregunt\u243? enfadado a los asistentes por qu\u233
? hab\u237?an perdido esa oportunidad. \u171?\u191?C\u243?mo se habla con Dios?\
u187?, le contest\u243? uno de ellos.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Todo empez\u243? al finalizar la guerra. Pese a que los principales responsables
de descifrar los c\u243?digos alemanes fueron los brit\u225?nicos, en Estados U
nidos ten\u237?an un equipo dedicado en pleno al asunto; un equipo cuyos integra
ntes se preguntaron a qu\u233? se iban a dedicar cuando ganaran. El teniente Wil
liam C. Norris pensaba que las m\u225?quinas que empleaban en su tarea podr\u237
?an utilizarse tambi\u233?n en la empresa privada, y convenci\u243? al resto de
los descifradores para fundar una empresa que tuviera a la Marina como principal
pero no \u250?nico cliente.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
La compa\u241?\u237?a que fundaron, Engineering Research Associates (ERA), resul
t\u243? ser el para\u237?so de los ingenieros. Ubicada en una antigua f\u225?bri
ca de planeadores, sus empleados vest\u237?an de manera informal y no ten\u237?a
n clientes que les obligaran a ajustar sus dise\u241?os; vend\u237?an al Gobiern
o, que les garantizaba sus ingresos, y le vend\u237?an lo mejor, sin atender a l
os costes. Pero en el 51, cuando Norris pens\u243? que estaban listos para compe
tir con los grandes en el dise\u241?o de ordenadores, el socio capitalista vendi
\u243? la empresa a Remington Rand. Se convirtieron, as\u237?, en los hermanos p
obres del departamento que constru\u237?a los Univac. Los relegaron a ser la {\i
divisi\u243?n cient\u237?fica} de la empresa, pero con cada vez menos capacidad
de decisi\u243?n. As\u237? que en 1957, pel\u237?n hartos, se lanzaron a la pisc
ina y dimitieron en masa para fundar Control Data Corporation (CDC).\par\pard\pl
ain\hyphpar} {
Con ellos se fue un gach\u243? al que hab\u237?an contratado en 1951 y que hab\u
237?a resultado ser un aut\u233?ntico genio en el dise\u241?o y construcci\u243?
n de ordenadores. Seymour Cray entr\u243? con veinticinco a\u241?os, y a las dos
semanas ya estaba rehaciendo los ordenadores de la compa\u241?\u237?a. Fue quie
n tom\u243? la decisi\u243?n de que deb\u237?an usarse transistores, entonces un
a tecnolog\u237?a tremendamente novedosa, para fabricar computadoras m\u225?s r\
u225?pidas. Y eso hizo cuando se march\u243? al muy lujoso almac\u233?n que serv
\u237?a de sede a CDC, local que tambi\u233?n empleaba el {\i
Minneapolis Star} para guardar sus bobinas de papel.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Pero la empresa se hab\u237?a formado a base de vender acciones en peque\u241?as

reuniones de una docena de personas en casas particulares, al estilo de las {\i

fiestas Tupperware}, de modo que no ten\u237?a un duro. As\u237? que Cray compr\
u243? los transistores m\u225?s baratos, que eran los que no hab\u237?an pasado
las pruebas de calidad. Agot\u243? todos los que ten\u237?an los fabricantes. En
tonces, sus subordinados emplearon las muestras gratuitas que les ofrec\u237?an
los vendedores, con quienes quedaban a la hora de comer para disfrutar de un alm
uerzo por la cara. Cray dise\u241?\u243? el ordenador de tal manera que unos tra
nsistores compensaran los posibles fallos de otros. El resultado fue el CDC 1604
, el m\u225?s r\u225?pido del mundo hasta ese momento.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Empez\u243? a venderse como rosquillas, gracias especialmente al inter\u233?s qu
e pusieron los laboratorios que ten\u237?an que sustituir por simulaciones los e
xperimentos con armamento nuclear. Una de las m\u225?quinas fue comprada por el
Gobierno de Israel, con el supuesto objetivo de hacerse con la bomba at\u243?mic
a, que todos sabemos posee, aunque no haya confirmaci\u243?n oficial. CDC creci\
u243? y se puso como objetivo entrar en el mercado corporativo con una m\u225?qu
ina\u8230? con la que Cray se neg\u243? a trabajar, pues obligaba a comprometer
la velocidad de c\u225?lculo para hacerla m\u225?s vers\u225?til. As\u237? que,
en 1960, se march\u243? con un grupo de ingenieros a otro local, una antigua f\u
225?brica de ropa interior, para estar m\u225?s alejado de la creciente masa de
bur\u243?cratas que gestionaba la compa\u241?\u237?a. Dos a\u241?os despu\u233?s
decidi\u243? que no estaba suficientemente lejos y se afinc\u243? en un pueblo
situado a 150 kil\u243?metros de distancia, y que, por mera casualidad, result\u
243? ser el mismo en el que hab\u237?a nacido: Chippewa Falis, en Wisconsin.\par
\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Al a\u241?o siguiente lleg\u243? el triunfo. Ten\u237?an un prototipo del CDC 66
00, para el que hab\u237?an empleado transistores de silicio \u8212?en lugar del
entonces habitual germanio\u8212?, una densidad de componentes brutal y refrige
raci\u243?n l\u237?quida, para que las superpobladas placas no se quemasen a los
dos minutos. Era 50 veces m\u225?s r\u225?pido que su predecesor, y fue el prim
ero que recibi\u243? el nombre de {\i
superordenador}.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
De pronto, todos los laboratorios del mundo parec\u237?an tener problemas que ne
cesitasen de una de estas m\u225?quinas. Aquel ordenador lleg\u243? incluso a fo
rmar parte de la pol\u237?tica exterior de Estados Unidos. Llev\u243? a impulsar
un acuerdo de prohibici\u243?n de pruebas nucleares con la Uni\u243?n Sovi\u233
?tica, pues los ruskis sab\u237?an que el 6600 permitir\u237?a a los americanos
simularlas. Y encabron\u243? a Thomas Watson Jr., jefazo de IBM, hasta el extrem
o. Su Goliat hab\u237?a sido vencido por un David de 34 empleados, contando al p
ortero. El gigante azul intent\u243? contraatacar y se gast\u243? m\u225?s de ci
en millones de d\u243?lares en el IBM 360/90, pero fracas\u243? miserablemente.\
par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
CDC empez\u243? a tener problemas para gestionar el enorme crecimiento que le ha
b\u237?a proporcionado Cray, y tuvo que recortar fondos por aqu\u237? y por all\
u225?. Cuando le comunicaron que deb\u237?a reducir costes de personal, Cray pre
firi\u243? no cobrar ni un duro antes que despedir a nadie. El 7600 ya estaba en
el mercado, pero {\i
s\u243?lo} era entre tres y cuatro veces m\u225?s r\u225?pido que su predecesor,
gracias a una t\u233?cnica llamada {\i
pipelining}, que consiste en comenzar a leer una instrucci\u243?n antes de que t
ermine de ejecutarse la anterior. Para el CDC 8600, Cray quer\u237?a dar un nuev
o salto cualitativo, y para lograrlo quer\u237?a hacer funcionar varios procesad
ores en paralelo. Pero la cosa se le resist\u237?a, as\u237? que decidi\u243? ol
vidarse del dise\u241?o que hab\u237?a creado y empezar otra vez de cero. Pero n
o hab\u237?a dinero. De modo que puso tierra de por medio, y con el tiempo CDC s
er\u237?a dividida en cachitos y vendida a empresas tan dispares como Seagate, S
iemens o Citigroup.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
En 1972 nuestro hombre fund\u243? Cray Research, con seis empleados de CDC, y co
menz\u243? el trabajo en el Cray-1, que estar\u237?a terminado cuatro a\u241?os
despu\u233?s. Por primera vez emple\u243? chips y, aunque abandon\u243? la idea
de usar varios procesadores, opt\u243? por incorporar procesamiento vectorial, e

sto es, la habilidad de hacer una misma operaci\u243?n matem\u225?tica sobre un

conjunto de datos a la vez y no sobre un solo n\u250?mero. Este modo de calcular
es habitual en las tareas que requieren de superordenadores, y permiti\u243? al
cacharr\u237?n alcanzar los 80 MFLOPS, es decir, que era capaz de hacer 80 mill
ones de operaciones con n\u250?meros decimales por segundo. Ah\u237? es nada, \u
191?no? Bueno, el ordenador que tiene usted en su casa es m\u225?s r\u225?pido.\
par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
El Cray-1 fue lanzado en 1976 y resulto ser un \u233?xito extraordinario, que pe
rmiti\u243? a la empresa fardar de tener el superordenador m\u225?s r\u225?pido
y crecer a base de bien, como le hab\u237?a pasado a CDC.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar
} {
Al poco de terminar el Cray-1, nuestro hombre se puso a pensar en un nuevo trast
o. Como ya le hab\u237?a ocurrido otras veces, tuvo que desechar diversos dise\u
241?os ante dificultades insalvables. Hasta 1981 no encontr\u243? la soluci\u243
?n que buscaba: cada m\u243?dulo del ordenador estar\u237?a compuesto por ocho p
lacas cubiertas de chips una encima de la otra, casi unidas. Aquello era una loc
ura, pues generaba calor a base de bien y, estando todo tan compacto, no se pod\
u237?an meter ventiladores ni tubos para refrigerar. Pero Cray decidi\u243? que
todo el ordenador estar\u237?a sumergido en l\u237?quido; uno especial, que no c
ondujera la electricidad, llamado Fluorinert.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
S\u237?, se le encendi\u243? la bombilla, pero a\u250?n tardar\u237?a cuatro a\u
241?os en tener terminada su obra. Algunos de sus empleados decidieron coger s\u
243?lo algunas de sus ideas para el Cray-2 y hacer un superordenador algo m\u225
?s modesto. As\u237? nacieron el Cray X-MP, en 1982, y su sucesor, el Y-MP, en 1
988; fue este \u250?ltimo el que pude contemplar, con admiraci\u243?n nada disim
ulada, en el centro de datos del Ciemat.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Cray intent\u243? repetir sus \u233?xitos con el Cray-3, para el que sustituy\u2
43? el silicio por arseniuro de galio, m\u225?s r\u225?pido pero m\u225?s dif\u2
37?cil de fabricar. De nuevo, las dificultades retrasaron los plazos. Adem\u225?
s, la Guerra Fr\u237?a hab\u237?a terminado, y con ella las principales fuentes
de financiaci\u243?n de los fabricantes de superordenadores. As\u237? que fund\u
243? otra empresa, Cray Computer, para poder terminar su proyecto, puesto que la
original decidi\u243? optar por los dise\u241?os de otros cuando no pudo seguir
pagando dos l\u237?neas de desarrollo independientes. Pero cuando lo termin\u24
3?, ya en los noventa, s\u243?lo vendi\u243? uno, as\u237? que el Cray-4 nunca l
leg\u243? a terminarse, pues la empresa entr\u243? en bancarrota.\par\pard\plain
\hyphpar} {
Pero Cray no se rindi\u243?. A los setenta a\u241?os, en 1996, fund\u243? una nu
eva compa\u241?\u237?a, SRC (Seymour Roger Cray) Computers, cuyo objetivo era cr
ear superordenadores con microprocesadores de Intel, a los que por fin consider\
u243? dignos de ser utilizados en sus m\u225?quinas. Pero en septiembre muri\u24
3? en un accidente de tr\u225?fico.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Su antigua empresa, sin embargo, sigui\u243? vivita y coleando, y haciendo los s
uperordenadores m\u225?s r\u225?pidos del mundo. Desde noviembre de 2009 el cetr
o lo ten\u237?a el Cray Jaguar, con una velocidad de 1,75 petaflops. Unas 12 500
veces m\u225?s r\u225?pido que el Cray-1.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar}
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{\s3 \afs28
{\b
{\ql
DIGITAL Y LOS MINI COMPUTADORES\par\pard\plain\hyphpar}\par\pard\plain\hyphpar}\
par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Los primeros ordenadores eran grandes dinosaurios a los que hab\u237?a que alime
ntar con un programa, ya estuviera en unas tarjetas perforadas o en una cinta ma
gn\u233?tica; despu\u233?s, tocaba esperar a que los operadores lo ejecutaran y,
finalmente, recibir el resultado. Si se hab\u237?a producido alg\u250?n error,
hab\u237?a que volver a repetir todo el proceso. Aquello era, en parte, producto
de la tecnolog\u237?a de tubos de vac\u237?o, pero tambi\u233?n fruto de la \u2
33?poca en que las labores que comenzaban a hacer las computadoras las realizaba
n artefactos electromec\u225?nicos, que no pod\u237?an funcionar de otra forma.\
par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Las bases de la computaci\u243?n interactiva, en la que los resultados son servi
dos inmediatamente, fueron puestas por el proyecto SAGE, un sistema de alerta te
mprana ante un hipot\u233?tico ataque con bombarderos encargado por el Ej\u233?r
cito de Estados Unidos. Pero el mundo real segu\u237?a empleando el viejo sistem
a, llamado {\i
procesamiento por lotes}. Esta situaci\u243?n comenzar\u237?a a cambiar gracias
al nacimiento de unas computadoras que ahora considerar\u237?amos enormes, pero
que, comparadas con las que por aquel entonces estaban en boga, y que ocupaban h
abitaciones enteras, pudieron ser comercializadas como {\i
miniordenadores}. Posteriormente, y para distinguirse, los personales se llamar\
u237?an {\i
microordenadores}.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
En 1957 se fundaron dos empresas clave para el nacimiento de los miniordenadores
: Control Data Corporation, donde trabajaba el genial Seymour Cray, y Digital Eq
uipment Corporation. En 1960, despu\u233?s de crear el CDC-1604 para la Marina n
orteamericana, Cray dise\u241?\u243?, en tres d\u237?as, una versi\u243?n m\u225
?s peque\u241?a, inicialmente pensada como terminal del gran ordenador pero que
se comercializ\u243? aparte como CDC 160A. Con una arquitectura de 12 bits \u821
2?cuando por aquel entonces lo normal eran las arquitecturas de treinta o cuaren
ta y pico\u8212? y el tama\u241?o de un escritorio de oficina, el considerado pr
imer miniordenador costaba algo m\u225?s de 60 000 d\u243?lares, pero diez veces
menos que su hermano mayor, que ya era considerado especialmente barato.\par\pa
rd\plain\hyphpar} {
No obstante, CDC no ten\u237?a intenci\u243?n de continuar por esa l\u237?nea. E
n cambio, DEC, o Digital, fue fundada precisamente para llevar al mercado ordena
dores m\u225?s baratos e interactivos. Sin embargo, para convencer al general Ge
orges Doriot, uno de los primeros inversores en capital riesgo, de que pusiera d
inero en su empresa los fundadores de la casa, Ken Olsen y Harlan Anderson, tuvi
eron que prometer que no se meter\u237?an en el mercado de los ordenadores hasta
convertirse en una empresa de venta de m\u243?dulos electr\u243?nicos con benef
icios. Lo hicieron bien, y Digital tuvo beneficios desde el primer a\u241?o, as\
u237? que en 1959 comenzaron a dise\u241?ar el PDP-1, cuyas siglas significan Pr
ocesador de Datos Programable: he aqu\u237? un nuevo intento de no usar la palab
ra {\i
computadora}, a la que tan al\u233?rgico era Doriot.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
El PDP-1 era un miniordenador en algunos aspectos: por ejemplo, en lo relacionad
o con la interactividad o por su relativo bajo precio; pero no tanto en otros: p

or ejemplo, en lo relacionado con el\u8230? tama\u241?o. Se vendieron como medio

centenar, y uno de ellos fue donado al MIT, donde ser\u237?a clave en el nacimi
ento de una nueva cultura: la de los {\i
hackers}. Con su PDP-1, los alumnos del MIT crear\u237?an el primer videojuego p
ara ordenadores ({\i
Spacewar}), el primer editor de textos (TECO, {\i
antepasado} de Emacs), el primer programa para generar m\u250?sica, el primer de
purador de c\u243?digo y el primer programa que realmente pod\u237?a jugar al aj
edrez y ganar a alguien, entre otras muchas cosas. Y es que, a diferencia de los
grandes ordenadores, los hackers pod\u237?an usar el PDP-1 directamente, escrib
iendo un c\u243?digo y viendo c\u243?mo funcionaba, sin necesidad de esperar, lo
que les permit\u237?a estar continuamente trasteando con \u233?l.\par\pard\plai
n\hyphpar} {
Digital sigui\u243? ofreciendo ordenadores peque\u241?os, y con el PDP-8 de 1965
lleg\u243? el \u233?xito. Este ya era suficientemente peque\u241?o como para oc
upar un escritorio o un solo armario, y fue el primero en tener un precio de ven
ta inferior a los 25 000 d\u243?lares, cifra que algunos consideraban el l\u237?
mite m\u225?ximo que pod\u237?a tener un miniordenador para ser considerado como
tal. Adem\u225?s, fue el primero en recibir ese nombre, que se le ocurri\u243?
a un comercial ingl\u233?s, no se sabe si inspirado en la minifalda o en el Mini
. Se vendieron 50 000 unidades, una aut\u233?ntica locura en una \u233?poca en q
ue los ordenadores se vend\u237?an de uno en uno; a\u241?os despu\u233?s, fueron
muchos m\u225?s, cuando se pudieron meter en un solo chip todas las funciones d
el original.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Durante todo este tiempo, Digital sigui\u243? gestion\u225?ndose como una empres
a peque\u241?a. Anderson se fue en 1966, pero Ken Olsen sigui\u243? en el machit
o, d\u225?ndole a la compa\u241?\u237?a una forma de funcionar y una filosof\u23
7?a muy particulares. Cada l\u237?nea de producto era responsable de sus propios
beneficios y p\u233?rdidas, los vendedores no se llevaban comisi\u243?n; \u171?
Haz lo correcto\u187? era el principio que se grababa a fuego en los reci\u233?n
llegados; y si cre\u237?as que hac\u237?as lo mejor para la empresa pod\u237?as
discutir las \u243?rdenes de tus jefes y pelear por lo tuyo, siempre y cuando e
stuvieras dispuesto a seguir la segunda m\u225?xima: \u171?El que propone, hace\
u187?. Olsen cre\u237?a por encima de todo en la responsabilidad individual de t
odos y cada uno de sus empleados. Las reuniones directivas eran agrias discusion
es en las que cada uno defend\u237?a su punto de vista, hasta que finalmente se
llegaba a un acuerdo. Esto ralentizaba la toma de decisiones, pero aseguraba que
cada una fuera aceptada por toda la empresa, lo que aceleraba su puesta en marc
ha. Sin duda, Google le debe mucho.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
DEC sigui\u243? creciendo. Adem\u225?s de miniordenadores y alguna computadora g
rande, hac\u237?a impresoras, redes, cintas magn\u233?ticas, m\u243?dulos electr
\u243?nicos\u8230? Abarcaba todo lo que daba de s\u237? la inform\u225?tica. En
1976 lanz\u243? VAX, una arquitectura que le permiti\u243? construir desde orden
adores muy peque\u241?os hasta enormes m\u225?quinas compatibles entre s\u237? y
bajo el mismo sistema operativo, el VMS que a\u241?os m\u225?s tarde tomar\u237
?a Microsoft como base para Windows NT, 2000, XP, Vista y 7.\par\pard\plain\hyph
par} {
Fue su momento de mayor esplendor. El sistema de red que adopt\u243? fue Etherne
t, que se convirti\u243? en el referente, superando al Token Ring de IBM. Tambi\
u233?n sus terminales, los VT, marcaron la pauta. Ide\u243? un sistema que permi
t\u237?a unir varios VAX y que se comportaran como uno solo, lo que daba al comp
rador la tranquilidad de saber que su ordenador jam\u225?s se le quedar\u237?a p
eque\u241?o. En mi facultad hab\u237?a uno de ellos, llamado {\i
Zipi} y dedicado a que los alumnos nos conect\u225?ramos a Internet. Fue en \u23
3?l donde escrib\u237? mi primer correo electr\u243?nico y aloj\u233? mi primera
web.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Pero mientras triunfaba, ve\u237?a pasar la revoluci\u243?n de los ordenadores p
ersonales y Digital no hac\u237?a nada al respecto. En 1984 un grupo de ingenier
os propuso comercializar dos clones del IBM PC: DEC PC25 y PC5O, pero Ken Olsen
se neg\u243? a copiar el dise\u241?o de otros, especialmente ese, que considerab

a bastante cutre. Pero eso era lo que empezaban a hacer otras compa\u241?\u237?a
s, como Compaq, nacida dos a\u241?os antes. En su lugar puso en marcha tres proy
ectos de ordenador personal enfocados a distintos mercados e incompatibles entre
s\u237?: Professional 350, Rainbow 100 y DECmate H. Demasiado tarde: IBM (y Mic
rosoft) hab\u237?an creado el est\u225?ndar. S\u243?lo una empresa, Apple, sobre
vivir\u237?a compitiendo con \u233?l. Y Digital no era Apple.\par\pard\plain\hyp
hpar} {
El no entrar en el mercado de los PC no ten\u237?a por qu\u233? haber hundido la
empresa. De hecho, durante unos pocos a\u241?os sigui\u243? marchando bien; gra
cias a los VAX, que estaban siendo un \u233?xito sin precedentes para la compa\u
241?\u237?a y logrando hacer mella en el negocio de IBM. Pero las semillas de la
destrucci\u243?n ya hab\u237?an sido plantadas. Tras alcanzar su r\u233?cord de
beneficios, en 1987, Digital empieza a perder pie y a tener p\u233?rdidas.\par\
pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Fiel a su filosof\u237?a de dejar que los ingenieros decidieran el camino, DEC n
o opt\u243? a mediados de los ochenta por ninguno de los que se le propusieron,
as\u237? que termin\u243? por intentar tener \u233?xito en todos, principalmente
con la serie VAX 9000 y el procesador Alpha de 64 bits, que ser\u237?a muy popu
lar en la gama alta de servidores de los noventa. Eso cost\u243? mucho dinero.\p
ar\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Finalmente, en 1991 Olsen acept\u243? comercializar clones del IBM PC; pero, de
nuevo, ya era demasiado tarde. Al a\u241?o siguiente dejar\u237?a su cargo, sien
do sustituido por Robert Palmers, quien se dedic\u243? a dividir la empresa en p
edazos, que fue vendiendo a distintas compa\u241?\u237?as. En 1998 dej\u243? la
\u250?ltima que quedaba, la divisi\u243?n de ordenadores, a Compaq. No deja de s
er un final ir\u243?nico\u8230?\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {\par\pard\hyphpar }{\pa
ge } {\s2 \afs28
{\b
{\ql
4
{\line }
{\line }
EL SOFTWARE\par\pard\plain\hyphpar}\par\pard\plain\hyphpar}\par\pard\plain\hyph
par}
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{
{\b
A}hora pensamos que todo el software del mundo lo hace Microsoft, o casi. Pero e
so ni siquiera es cierto hoy d\u237?a. No digamos ya en la \u233?poca en la que
la empresa de Bill Gates no exist\u237?a\u8230?\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Desde el momento en que nacieron los primeros ordenadores hasta nuestros d\u237?
as, la creaci\u243?n de programas ha estado repleta de grandes \u233?xitos y est
repitosos fracasos. Y no me refiero s\u243?lo a Windows Vista.\par\pard\plain\hy
phpar} {
Los primeros grandes cambios que vivi\u243? esta disciplina fueron los lenguajes
de programaci\u243?n, dirigidos a facilitar el proceso tedioso y propenso a err
ores de escribir las rutinas \u8212?que es como se llamaba al principio a los pr
ogramas\u8212? directamente en el lenguaje de unos y ceros, que es el que entend
\u237?a la m\u225?quina. Gracias a ellos pudo acometerse la dif\u237?cil tarea d
e crear programas m\u225?s y m\u225?s complejos, que automatizaban toda la opera
tiva de una empresa o, al menos, una parte importante.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Algunos de los mayores fracasos en la historia de la creaci\u243?n del software
llevaron a esfuerzos por intentar formalizar la profesi\u243?n y convertirla en
una ingenier\u237?a fiable como la de caminos, canales y puertos. Pero programar
sigue siendo en buena medida un arte en el que han destacado grandes y peque\u2
41?os genios, a los que llamamos hackers pese a que el nombre ha sido en buena m
edida manchado por quienes han empleado su talento en asuntos m\u225?s bien turb
ios.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Mientras Microsoft lucha a brazo partido contra las creaciones libres y gratuita
s de estos hackers, existe un mundo desconocido para el gran p\u250?blico, el de
l software empresarial, que no s\u243?lo dio nacimiento a esta industria sino qu
e, con la excepci\u243?n de los de Gates, es el que domina en t\u233?rminos de f
acturaci\u243?n y beneficios los listados de las mayores empresas de software. N
ombres como SAP o Computer Associates no suelen salir mucho en los papeles ni em
pleamos tampoco sus creaciones fuera de la oficina. Pero como Teruel, existen.\p
ar\pard\plain\hyphpar}
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{\s3 \afs28
{\b
{\ql
FORTRAN, O \u161?VIVAN LOS VAGOS!\par\pard\plain\hyphpar}\par\pard\plain\hyphpar
}\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Suelo decir a quien quiera escucharme cuando hablo de estos temas \u8212?no suel
en ser muchos\u8212? que una de las principales virtudes de un buen programador
es la vaguer\u237?a. Pero me refiero a una vaguer\u237?a especial, esa que te ha
ce aborrecer las tareas repetitivas pero tambi\u233?n quedarte trabajando hasta
las tantas en algo que resulta creativo. Debemos el primer lenguaje de programac
i\u243?n a un se\u241?or bien afectado por esa vaguer\u237?a buena.\par\pard\pla
in\hyphpar} {
El brit\u225?nico Maurice Wilkes, responsable de la construcci\u243?n de Edsac \
u8212?la segunda computadora capaz de almacenar los programas en memoria\u8212?,
pronto se dio cuenta de las dificultades que entra\u241?aba programar un ordena
dor. Pese a que se hab\u237?a pasado de la necesidad de cambiar cables e interru
ptores a poder alimentar a las criaturejas con tarjetas perforadas que conten\u2
37?an las instrucciones pertinentes, estas estaban escritas en binario; y, la ve
rdad, nuestra capacidad de manejar largas series de ceros y unos con \u233?xito
es m\u225?s bien limitadilla. As\u237? pues, cre\u243? lo que luego se llamar\u2
37?a {\i
lenguaje ensamblador}, una serie de instrucciones en texto que luego hab\u237?a
que traducir a mano a c\u243?digo binario, pero que permit\u237?an {\i
programar} en papel antes de que el programa fallara estrepitosamente en el orde
nador. As\u237?, T123S significaba colocar en la posici\u243?n de memoria 123 el
contenido del registro A, y en binario se traduc\u237?a por 00101000011110110.\
par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Wilkes se dio cuenta de que la traducci\u243?n a binario, trabajo tedioso y prop
enso a errores, pod\u237?a hacerla el propio ordenador, ya que, al fin y al cabo
, las letras las representaba internamente como n\u250?meros. Le encarg\u243? a
un joven matem\u225?tico de veinti\u250?n a\u241?os llamado David Wheeler la tar
ea, y este logr\u243? programar un traductor (que luego ser\u237?a llamado {\i
ensamblador}), de s\u243?lo 30 l\u237?neas de c\u243?digo, capaz de leer el prog
rama en texto, traducirlo, ponerlo en memoria y ejecutarlo. Una obra maestra de
la ingenier\u237?a.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Eso s\u243?lo fue el primer paso. Como les suceder\u237?a a todos los que constr
uyeron las primeras computadoras, enseguida comprobaron lo dif\u237?cil que era
programar y la de errores que ten\u237?an las {\i
rutinas}, que era como se llamaba entonces a los programas. Curiosamente, nadie
hab\u237?a previsto esa dificultad hasta que se dieron de bruces con ella. As\u2
37? que, para reducir el n\u250?mero de fallos, Wheeler recibi\u243? el encargo
de construir una librer\u237?a de subrutinas que ejecutasen tareas comunes a los
programas, como calcular una ra\u237?z cuadrada, y que estuvieran libres de fal
los y se pudieran reutilizar. Esta funci\u243?n se denominar\u237?a, en un alard
e de optimismo, {\i
programaci\u243?n autom\u225?tica}.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Pronto hubo m\u225?s personas deseando ahorrarse trabajo al programar. Un emplea
do de IBM de veintinueve a\u241?os encontraba el proceso de operar con las prime
ras computadoras de la compa\u241?\u237?a, del modelo 701, bastante aburrido. \u
171?Buena parte de mi trabajo ha sido producto de ser vago. No me gusta programa
r, de modo que, cuando estaba trabajando en el IBM 701 con una aplicaci\u243?n q
ue calculaba trayectorias de misiles, comenc\u233? a pensar en un sistema que hi
ciera m\u225?s f\u225?cil programar\u187?, recordar\u237?a a\u241?os despu\u233?
s el amigo John Backus. As\u237? que a finales de 1953 propuso a sus superiores
dise\u241?ar un lenguaje inform\u225?tico que facilitara la vida a los programad
ores. Aceptaron con cierta reticencia, y nuestro h\u233?roe se puso a trabajar c
on un peque\u241?o n\u250?mero de ayudantes.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Tanto el inter\u233?s como la desconfianza estaban justificados. La creaci\u243?

n de un lenguaje inform\u225?tico de {\i

alto nivel}, como se dir\u237?a despu\u233?s, supondr\u237?a un gran ahorro tant
o en tiempo de trabajo de los programadores \u8212?y sus correspondientes sueldo
s\u8212? como en el entonces car\u237?simo tiempo que los ordenadores tardaban e
n ejecutar programas con errores\u8230? que despu\u233?s deb\u237?an depurarse.
Por otro lado, los intentos que hab\u237?an tenido lugar hasta ese momento de ha
cer algo parecido se hab\u237?an encontrado todos con el mismo escollo: los prog
ramas resultantes eran muy lentos, demasiado lentos para ser pr\u225?cticos, y m
uchos cre\u237?an que esa barrera no se podr\u237?a superar. As\u237? que para I
BM resultaba interesante tener abierta esa puerta; pero no ten\u237?an tanta con
fianza como para darle al proyecto mucha prioridad.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Backus sacrific\u243? desde el principio el dise\u241?o del lenguaje a la eficie
ncia de la traducci\u243?n a c\u243?digo m\u225?quina, ese de los unos y los cer
os. Era la \u250?nica v\u237?a que podr\u237?a llevarle, eventualmente, al \u233
?xito. Ni a \u233?l ni a nadie de su equipo se le ocurri\u243? que, m\u225?s de
cincuenta a\u241?os m\u225?s tarde, todav\u237?a habr\u237?a gente us\u225?ndolo
. Despu\u233?s de terminar el dise\u241?o del lenguaje en 1954, al a\u241?o sigu
iente comenzaron con el traductor, y las fechas l\u237?mite empezaron a ech\u225
?rseles encima. El primer manual de su lenguaje Fortran (por FORmula TRANslator,
traductor de f\u243?rmulas) apareci\u243? con fecha de octubre de 1956. No esta
r\u237?a terminado hasta abril del a\u241?o siguiente.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Dos a\u241?os y medio hab\u237?a durado el proyecto del vago.\par\pard\plain\hyp
hpar} {
Los primeros usuarios de Fortran fueron los programadores de una central nuclear
de Maryland. Crearon un primer programa de prueba e intentaron ejecutarlo\u8230
? para encontrarse con que la impresora s\u243?lo les devolvi\u243? un mensaje:
\u171?El par\u233?ntesis derecho no est\u225? seguido de una coma\u187?. Como no
pod\u237?a ser de otro modo, el primer programa produjo el primer error de sint
axis. Tras corregirlo, el programa estuvo ofreciendo resultados correctos durant
e los siguientes 22 minutos.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Fortran caus\u243? sensaci\u243?n. Backus hab\u237?a triunfado en su objetivo m\
u225?s importante: los programas eran en un 90 por ciento tan eficientes como lo
s hechos a mano, una p\u233?rdida m\u237?nima que quedaba m\u225?s que subsanada
por la reducci\u243?n del n\u250?mero de errores cometidos y del trabajo que ll
evaba un programa de semanas a horas o, como mucho, un par de d\u237?as. La mayo
r parte de los compradores del IBM 704, la computadora que incluy\u243? Fortran,
decidi\u243? usarlo, y pronto su equipo, que se hab\u237?a visto forzado a dorm
ir de d\u237?a y a trabajar de noche para poder emplear las computadoras de IBM
que otros usaban a horas decentes, se ampli\u243? y comenz\u243? a trabajar en u
na nueva versi\u243?n del lenguaje, que saldr\u237?a en 1959.\par\pard\plain\hyp
hpar} {
Que con Fortran todo fuera m\u225?s f\u225?cil y r\u225?pido no significa que es
tuviera exento de problemas. De hecho, uno de los casos m\u225?s famosos de desa
stres provocados por peque\u241?os errores de programaci\u243?n fue protagonizad
o por este lenguaje. La primera sonda {\i
Mariner} fue lanzada en julio de 1962, y, tras perder el cohete el contacto con
la Tierra, la computadora de a bordo se hizo cargo. Pero el programador olvid\u2
43? poner una coma y el cohete se desvi\u243? en exceso: hubo que hacerlo explot
ar.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
En cualquier caso, tropiezos como este no impidieron que Fortran se convirtiera
poco menos que en la {\i
lingua franca} inform\u225?tica de cient\u237?ficos e ingenieros. Su \u250?ltima
revisi\u243?n data de 2003, y se sigue empleando asiduamente: sin ir m\u225?s l
ejos, en las supercomputadoras m\u225?s potentes, que entre otras cosas utilizan
aplicaciones programadas en \u233?l para comparar su rendimiento con las dem\u2
25?s m\u225?quinas.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Para que luego digan que los vagos no pueden triunfar en la vida.\par\pard\plain
\hyphpar}
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{\s3 \afs28
{\b
{\ql
{\i
AMAZING GRACE}, LA INVENTORA DE LOS LENGUAJES DE PROGRAMACI\u211?N\par\pard\plai
n\hyphpar}\par\pard\plain\hyphpar}\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Entre los inform\u225?ticos est\u225? generalizada la idea de que la primera pro
gramadora fue Ada Lovelace, de Lord Byron, que ayud\u243? a Charles Babbage a pr
omocionar su M\u225?quina Anal\u237?tica con un art\u237?culo en el que daba alg
unos ejemplos de c\u243?mo podr\u237?a funcionar, incluyendo un programa que cal
culaba la serie de n\u250?meros de Bernoulli. Lo malo es que es m\u225?s leyenda
que otra cosa.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
El art\u237?culo existi\u243?, claro; en principio iba a ser la traducci\u243?n
de otro escrito por el matem\u225?tico italiano Luigi Menabrea, pero Ada termin\
u243? ampli\u225?ndolo enormemente y a\u241?adi\u233?ndole un cierto toque po\u2
33?tico, adem\u225?s de alg\u250?n ejemplo de c\u243?mo se podr\u237?a utilizar
la m\u225?quina para cualquier c\u225?lculo. El algoritmo descrito para calcular
los n\u250?meros de Bernoulli se considera el primer programa jam\u225?s escrit
o, pero por lo que se ve fue obra del propio Babbage, quien no obstante siempre
reconoci\u243? el valor del trabajo de Ada, una de las primeras personas capaces
de entender, apreciar y comunicar al mundo qu\u233? estaba haciendo el inventor
ingl\u233?s.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Lo cierto es que los primeros programadores de los primeros ordenadores de verda
d, all\u225? por los a\u241?os cuarenta, fueron, casi todos, de sexo femenino. E
l Eniac, el primer computador electr\u243?nico, fue construido por hombres, pero
programado por un grupo de seis mujeres comandadas por Betty Snyder. Y el Harva
rd Mark 1, el ordenador electromec\u225?nico inspirado en el trabajo de Babbage,
fue programado bajo las directrices de Richard Bloch y Grace Hopper, quiz\u225?
la programadora m\u225?s influyente de los primeros a\u241?os de la historia de
la inform\u225?tica.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
La mayor parte de estas programadoras eran j\u243?venes que ven\u237?an de traba
jar como computadoras humanas; personas que se encargaban de hacer a mano los c\
u225?lculos necesarios para, por ejemplo, generar tablas que permitiesen a los a
rtilleros dar en el blanco a la primera. Un trabajo perfectamente in\u250?til, d
ado que en el campo de batalla los militares no empleaban las tablas, sino que t
rabajaban a ojo. Sin embargo, Grace Hopper fue una excepci\u243?n. El ataque a P
earl Harbor pill\u243? ya con treinta y cinco a\u241?os a esta matem\u225?tica d
octorada en Yale. Pronto decidi\u243? abandonar su c\u243?modo trabajo como prof
esora universitaria en el entonces femenino Vassar College para ingresar en la M

arina, donde esperaba formar parte del grupo dedicado a descifrar los mensajes n
azis. En cambio, fue destinada a una \u171?nave en tierra\u187?, como la llamaba
su comandante, Howard Aiken: la Harvard Mark I.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Grace se pas\u243? la guerra haciendo jornadas interminables, programando junto
a Richard Bloch y organizando el equipo de modo que la m\u225?quina estuviera fu
ncionando las veinticuatro horas del d\u237?a. Durante este tiempo perge\u241?\u
243? una forma de trabajar, basada en buena medida en copiar y pegar, con los ca
mbios necesarios, trozos de c\u243?digo con prop\u243?sitos espec\u237?ficos, co
mo calcular una ra\u237?z cuadrada y cosas as\u237?.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Tambi\u233?n fue entonces cuando tuvo lugar una de las an\u233?cdotas m\u225?s r
ecordadas de la inform\u225?tica.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Desde al menos los tiempos de Edison se ven\u237?a hablando de un {\i
bug} (bicho) en el \u225?mbito de la ingenier\u237?a para referirse a un fallo m
ec\u225?nico. El t\u233?rmino se traslad\u243? a la inform\u225?tica cuando una
noche la Mark 1 dej\u243? de funcionar y descubrieron que la causa era en una po
lilla que se hab\u237?a colado en sus intrincados mecanismos. Pegaron el bicho e
n el cuaderno de incidencias y desde entonces se llam\u243? {\i
bugs} a los errores de programaci\u243?n.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Termin\u243? la guerra y Grace, reci\u233?n divorciada de su marido y enamorada
de su m\u225?quina, fue rechazada por la Marina, en la que quer\u237?a seguir, p
or ser demasiado mayor: cuarenta a\u241?os, ni m\u225?s ni menos. Opt\u243? por
pasar a la reserva y seguir trabajando como asistente en Harvard y como segunda
de Aiken. Pese a que la guerra hab\u237?a terminado, su jefe opt\u243? por segui
r con su estilo marcial de mando. Esto provoc\u243? la marcha de buena parte del
talento que se hab\u237?a juntado en el laboratorio de Harvard, lo que hizo que
Grace cada vez trabajara m\u225?s, y a m\u225?s presi\u243?n. Empez\u243? a beb
er m\u225?s de la cuenta.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Grace dej\u243? Harvard en 1949 y entr\u243? a trabajar para EMCC, la empresa qu
e estaba fabricando el primer Univac. Se decidi\u243? por la peque\u241?a {\i
startup} tras conocer a Mauchly y a algunas de sus programadoras, especialmente
a Betty Snyder, que la impresion\u243?. El cambio de ambiente le vino estupendam
ente, pero pronto los nubarrones \u8212?en forma de ruina\u8212? amenazaron la e
mpresa, que pas\u243? a formar parte de Remington Rand, una firma que no ten\u23
7?a idea de c\u243?mo iba esto de las computadoras ni parec\u237?a mostrar demas
iado inter\u233?s en ello. Finalmente, tras alg\u250?n intento de suicidio y ser
detenida luego de una borrachera, Grace comenz\u243? a recuperarse e interesars
e en un nuevo proyecto: el compilador A-0, que termin\u243? en 1951.\par\pard\pl
ain\hyphpar} {
Nuestra mujer llev\u243? la idea de copiar y pegar a un nuevo nivel. Su compilad
or cog\u237?a un c\u243?digo algo m\u225?s abstracto que el lenguaje de la m\u22
5?quina, al que ella llamaba \u171?pseudoc\u243?digo\u187?, le a\u241?ad\u237?a
las funciones gen\u233?ricas y produc\u237?a un programa listo para usar. Calcul
aba que esto ahorrar\u237?a mucho tiempo y permitir\u237?a emplear los ordenador
es a personas no tan expertas como las de la primera generaci\u243?n de programa
dores. El lenguaje era burdo, estaba demasiado apegado al modo de funcionamiento
del Univac, y los programas que generaba eran lentos de narices. Pero poco impo
rtaba, pues aquello era s\u243?lo el comienzo. Pocos a\u241?os despu\u233?s logr
\u243? que Remington Rand creara un departamento de {\i
programaci\u243?n autom\u225?tica}, que es como llamaba al invento, y la pusiera
al mando. En pocos a\u241?os lanz\u243? dos compiladores comerciales de cierto
\u233?xito, a los que los marquetinianos de la empresa llamaron Math-Matic y Flo
w-Matic. Estuvieron a punto en 1956 y 1958, respectivamente.\par\pard\plain\hyph
par} {
Para entonces IBM se hab\u237?a puesto las pilas y hab\u237?a desbancado a las p
rometedoras Univac del liderazgo del naciente mercado de los ordenadores, creand
o de paso su primer lenguaje de programaci\u243?n y compilador: Fortran. Math-Ma
tic, orientado tambi\u233?n al \u225?mbito cient\u237?fico e ingenieril, no pudo
competir con \u233?l. Sin embargo, el lenguaje orientado a la gesti\u243?n y la
empresa, Flow-Matic, tuvo un \u233?xito enorme. La idea de Hopper consist\u237?
a en que programas creados en un ingl\u233?s m\u225?s o menos comprensible y sin

t\u225?cticamente correcto se documentar\u237?an a s\u237? mismos, solucionando

el cl\u225?sico problema del programador que meses despu\u233?s no entiende qu\u
233? hacen sus propios programas, adem\u225?s de permitir a personas de fuera de
l gremio entenderlos, incluso hacer los suyos propios.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Lo m\u225?s criticado del lenguaje fue precisamente lo que muchos consideraron u
n abuso en el uso del ingl\u233?s. Las f\u243?rmulas deb\u237?an ser escritas en
ese idioma, y no en el com\u250?n de las matem\u225?ticas. As\u237?, {\i
A X B = C} se convert\u237?a en {\i
BASE-PRICE AND DISCOUNT-PERCENT GIVING DISCOUNT-PRICE}.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar}
{
Naturalmente, al tener \u233?xito le salieron competidores. Grace y otros desarr
olladores de diversas empresas vieron con preocupaci\u243?n que en breve podr\u2
37?an enfrentarse a una suerte de torre de Babel en que cada m\u225?quina tuvier
a su propio lenguaje de programaci\u243?n orientado a la gesti\u243?n, y cambiar
de ordenador conllevara enormes costes de traducci\u243?n de las aplicaciones d
e la empresa. As\u237? que crearon un peque\u241?o comit\u233? de sabios, que pr
opuso a la Marina, primero, y al Ej\u233?rcito, despu\u233?s, la creaci\u243?n d
e un lenguaje de programaci\u243?n est\u225?ndar. Basado principalmente en el Fl
ow-Matic, en enero de 1960 un comit\u233? llamado Codasyl lo tuvo listo. Se llam
\u243? Common Business-Oriented Language, o Cobol.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
De ah\u237? en adelante, el principal trabajo de quien ser\u237?a conocida m\u22
5?s tarde como Amazing Grace fue promocionarlo. Su \u233?xito fue apote\u243?sic
o. En 1997 se estim\u243? que el 80 por ciento de todas las l\u237?neas de c\u24
3?digo escritas hasta la fecha hab\u237?an sido programadas en Cobol, que se ha
ido adaptando a los tiempos seg\u250?n se inventaban nuevas t\u233?cnicas, desde
la programaci\u243?n estructurada a la orientaci\u243?n a objetos. Incluso hay
quien lo usa para crear sitios web. Como el comit\u233? que estandariz\u243? Cob
ol decidi\u243? emplear s\u243?lo dos caracteres para almacenar los a\u241?os, h
ubo que adaptar todos esos programas para evitar lo que se dio en llamar Efecto
2000, que iba a provocar el fin del mundo pero que al final qued\u243? en nada.\
par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Grace sigui\u243? trabajando en Remington Rand, luego Sperry Rand, hasta lo que
parec\u237?a que iba a ser su jubilaci\u243?n. Pero la Marina, que cuando cumpli
\u243? sesenta a\u241?os la hab\u237?a retirado de la reserva por ser \u8212?\u1
91?no lo adivinan?\u8212? demasiado mayor, le pidi\u243? siete meses despu\u233?
s, en 1967, que por favor se hiciera cargo del desastroso estado de sus sistemas
de gesti\u243?n. La aplicaci\u243?n de n\u243?minas hab\u237?a sido reescrita y
a 823 veces y segu\u237?a sin funcionar bien. Nuestra hero\u237?na iba a volver
a su querida Armada unos seis meses, pero la cosa se alarg\u243? un poco: finalm
ente se retir\u243?, o m\u225?s bien la retiraron, por razones que a estas altur
as no creo que haga falta explicarles a ustedes, a la edad de setenta y nueve a\
u241?os, con el rango de contraalmirante: fue la primera mujer en alcanzarlo.\pa
r\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
\u191?Creen que se jubil\u243? por fin entonces? Ja. Como si no la conocieran. L
a firma Digital aprovech\u243? para contratarla como consultora y ah\u237? estuv
o hasta su muerte, que no tard\u243? en llegar sino tres a\u241?os, en 1992.\par
\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Amazing Grace fue homenajeada, premiada y reconocida en todo el mundo, y hoy un
destructor norteamericano lleva su nombre: el primer barco de la Armada en tener
nombre de mujer desde la Segunda Guerra Mundial. El {\i
USS Hopper} tiene su base en Pearl Harbor, cuyo bombardeo cambi\u243? la vida de
nuestra hero\u237?na y la llev\u243? a convertirse en una de las m\u225?s desta
cadas pioneras de la inform\u225?tica.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar}
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{\s3 \afs28
{\b
{\ql
LOS HACKERS QUE MIRABAN PASAR LOS TRENES\par\pard\plain\hyphpar}\par\pard\plain\
hyphpar}\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Aunque actualmente la palabra {\i
hacker} se suele endilgar a gentes de mal vivir que se dedican a crear virus y m
eterse en los ordenadores del Pent\u225?gono, en sus or\u237?genes se limitaba a
describir a quienes eran capaces de encontrar soluciones r\u225?pidas y brillan
tes a los problemas inform\u225?ticos. Gente que viv\u237?a por y para los orden
adores. Y que emergieron de un club dedicado\u8230? a hacer maquetas de trenes.\
par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Como todas las universidades norteamericanas, el Massachusetts Institute of Tech
nology, m\u225?s conocido como MIT, ofrece un sinf\u237?n de actividades extracu
rriculares a los estudiantes. Hermandades, asociaciones pol\u237?ticas, clubes d
edicados a los m\u225?s diversos hobbys\u8230? Uno de ellos, el Club de Modelism
o Ferroviario, en la \u233?poca que nos ocupa, estaba dividido en dos grandes gr
upos. El primero se dedicaba a reproducir trenes en miniatura y recrear escenari
os; el segundo, en cambio, se ocupaba de las entra\u241?as, de lo que sus miembr
os llamaban El Sistema: un completo jaleo de cables, interruptores, rel\u233?s y
todo tipo de ingenios el\u233?ctricos que hac\u237?a posible que los trenes obe
decieran a sus due\u241?os y circularan como deb\u237?an, sin chocar ni descarri
lar.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Para los responsables del Sistema, un {\i
hack} era una soluci\u243?n \u8212?o un producto\u8212? que cumpl\u237?a correct
amente una funci\u243?n\u8230? y que hab\u237?a sido creado por el mero placer i
nherente a la creaci\u243?n. Naturalmente, los creadores de {\i
hacks} se llamaban a s\u237? mismos con orgullo {\i
hackers}.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Bob Saunders, Peter Samson, Alan Kotok y compa\u241?\u237?a pasaron de cacharrea
r con cables a hacerlo con ordenadores. Fue en 1959, tras un curso de inteligenc
ia artificial en el que se ense\u241?aba un nuevo lenguaje de programaci\u243?n
llamado LISP. Pronto, los hackers fueron los principales usuarios del ordenador
del MIT, un IBM que funcionaba con tarjetas perforadas y contaba con su propia {
\i
casta sacerdotal} encargada de hacerlo funcionar, meter las tarjetitas y devolve
r los resultados. Y esos guardianes de la sagrada m\u225?quina les imped\u237?an
cacharrear.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Por suerte, no tard\u243? en llegar al Laboratorio de Inteligencia Artificial un
ordenador completamente nuevo, un prototipo creado en parte por uno de los futu
ros fundadores de Digital: el TX-0. Era uno de los primeros ordenadores en emple
ar transistores, pero estaba el pobre un poco {\i
disminuido}, porque, al estilo de lo que les pas\u243? a las pir\u225?mides de E
gipto, le hab\u237?an cogido cachos para construir el m\u225?s potente TX-2. El

caso es que era un ordenador con pantalla que no funcionaba con tarjetas sino co
n una cinta perforada, que podr\u237?a escribirse con otras m\u225?quinas para l
uego alimentar el ordenador. Y, milagro de milagros, se pod\u237?a editar el pro
grama directamente en la pantalla, lo que permit\u237?a corregir errores. Es dec
ir, se pod\u237?a cacharrear. La era de los {\i
hackers} quedaba as\u237? oficialmente inaugurada.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Aquellos hackers que pasaron de las maquetas a los ordenadores, as\u237? como su
s herederos, dejaron algunos logros t\u233?cnicos, desde el primer programa capa
z de jugar al ajedrez y el primer videojuego para ordenador hasta el primer edit
or de c\u243?digo para programadores, cuyo desarrollo contin\u250?a hoy bajo el
nombre de Emacs. No obstante, su principal producto fue cultural. Los {\i
hackers} cre\u237?an que la informaci\u243?n estaba ah\u237? para ser compartida
, y ninguna autoridad ni burocracia deb\u237?a ponerle l\u237?mites. Pensaban qu
e no deb\u237?a negarse a nadie el acceso a un ordenador, y les importaban una h
iga los t\u237?tulos; alg\u250?n adolescente de catorce a\u241?os pas\u243? a fo
rmar parte de su grupo porque demostr\u243? ser bueno con el TX-0. Tambi\u233?n
fueron los primeros en valorar la belleza de un fragmento de c\u243?digo o {\i
hack} bien hecho, capaz de hacer en pocas l\u237?neas lo que un programador meno
s avezado se ve\u237?a obligado a hacer en m\u225?s. En resumen, eran bastante {
\i
hippies}, pero en versi\u243?n inform\u225?tica.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Por supuesto, tambi\u233?n eran lo que ahora llamamos {\i
frikis}. Cojamos por ejemplo a Bob Saunders, quien, cosa rara entre la tropa, se
cas\u243?. Marge French, que as\u237? se llamaba de soltera su mujer, le pregun
taba si quer\u237?a acompa\u241?arla a hacer la compra, y Bob le contestaba siem
pre que no. Hasta que un s\u225?bado mont\u243? en c\u243?lera y, tras soltar lo
s tacos y maldiciones de rigor, le pregunt\u243? por qu\u233? no quer\u237?a aco
mpa\u241?arla. \u171?Esa es una pregunta est\u250?pida\u187?, contest\u243? Bob.
\u171?Si me preguntas si quiero ir a hacer la compra, la respuesta es no, claro
. Otra cosa ser\u237?a si me pidieras que te ayudara a hacer la compra\u187?. La
pobre Marge hab\u237?a programado mal el ordenador que ten\u237?a Bob por cereb
ro.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
El laboratorio cambi\u243?, unos se fueron y otros, como Richard Greenblatt y Bi
ll Gosper, llegaron y se convirtieron en los machos alfa del grupo. El TX-0 fue
relegado en beneficio de nuevas m\u225?quinas, generalmente fabricadas por Digit
al, como el PDP-1 o el PDP-6. La \u233?tica {\i
hacker} se fue expandiendo por Estados Unidos a medida que la tribu se mov\u237?
a por su territorio. No hab\u237?a Internet y no lo pod\u237?an hacer m\u225?s r
\u225?pido, caramba. Aunque concentrados en lugares como el MIT, la Universidad
de Stanford o el Carnagie Mellon, hab\u237?a inform\u225?ticos por todos lados q
ue se consideraban a s\u237? mismos {\i
hackers} o que actuaban como tales.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
En 1969 un {\i
hacker} que trabajaba para los laboratorios Bell de la compa\u241?\u237?a telef\
u243?nica AT&T empez\u243? a trabajar en un sistema operativo nuevo. Ken Thompso
n hab\u237?a participado en el desarrollo de Multics, que pretender\u237?a ser u
n hito pero que result\u243? ser demasiado complejo. As\u237? que llam\u243? a s
u proyecto Unics, como burl\u225?ndose del que hab\u237?a abandonado, y trabaj\u
243? en \u233?l con la idea de que deb\u237?a mantenerlo simple y no caer en los
errores que hab\u237?an lastrado a su predecesor.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Por su parte, Dennis Ritchie cre\u243? un lenguaje de programaci\u243?n para un
sistema novedoso llamado C, tambi\u233?n con la filosof\u237?a de la sencillez p
or bandera. Result\u243? un lenguaje especialmente dotado para crear {\i
software}, que anta\u241?o, para aprovechar al m\u225?ximo la capacidad de los o
rdenadores, se escrib\u237?a directamente en c\u243?digo m\u225?quina, como los
sistemas operativos y los compiladores. De modo que pronto reescribi\u243? el co
mpilador de C en este lenguaje, y junto a Thompson reescribi\u243? Unix, que as\
u237? se termin\u243? llamando el sistema operativo, en el a\u241?o 1973.\par\pa
rd\plain\hyphpar} {
Puede parecer una tonter\u237?a, pero aquello supuso un cambio clave en la histo

ria de la inform\u225?tica. Unix pudo ser adaptado a cualquier m\u225?quina con

compilador de C, y muy pronto la mayor\u237?a lo tuvo. El software que antes hab
\u237?a que reprogramar cuando el ordenador en que funcionaba quedaba obsoleto p
udo funcionar en muchas m\u225?quinas distintas y sobrevivir al cambio de comput
adoras. {\i
Hackers} de todo el mundo adoptaron Unix, que pronto fue el sistema m\u225?s pop
ular en las universidades. Una empresa llamada Sun, fundada en los ochenta, se e
ncargar\u237?a de llevarlo a las empresas y hacerlo omnipresente.\par\pard\plain
\hyphpar} {
Con el tiempo, el mundo de los sistemas operativos para ordenadores se ha reduci
do principalmente a dos agentes: Unix y Windows. Cierto es que Unix tiene infini
dad de variantes. Una de ellas, por ejemplo, es Mac OS X, el sistema operativo d
e Apple y sus Mac. La m\u225?s conocida es Linux, que cualquiera puede bajarse d
e Internet y colaborar en su desarrollo. Que es una de las cosas que m\u225?s ha
cen los {\i
hackers} de hoy, aunque todos piensen que s\u243?lo se dedican a infiltrarse en
el ordenador del vecino.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar}
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{\s3 \afs28
{\b
{\ql
SABRE, EL PROGRAMA QUE LLEVA CINCUENTA A\u209?OS FUNCIONANDO\par\pard\plain\hyph
par}\par\pard\plain\hyphpar}\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Una buena amiga, agente de viajes ella, tiene en su {\i
curr\u237?culum} sus conocimientos sobre un sistema de reservas de vuelos, hotel
es, alquiler de coches y ese tipo de cosas llamado Sabre. No es que sea el m\u22
5?s utilizado, ni de lejos, pero el caso es que sigue funcionando y se sigue usa
ndo, cincuenta a\u241?os despu\u233?s de su creaci\u243?n.\par\pard\plain\hyphpa
r} {
Durante los a\u241?os cuarenta y cincuenta, contemplar una oficina de reservas d
e una gran aerol\u237?nea era como viajar hacia atr\u225?s en el tiempo, hasta f
inales del siglo XIX, a antes de que las m\u225?quinas que procesaban la informa
ci\u243?n contenida en tarjetas perforadas llegasen a bancos y compa\u241?\u237?
as de seguros. El n\u250?cleo lo formaban unas sesenta personas, que atend\u237?
an a clientes y agentes de viajes, gestionando una compra, una reserva, una canc
elaci\u243?n o una consulta de disponibilidad. Grandes tablones les informaban d
e los datos de los vuelos de los pr\u243?ximos d\u237?as. Si necesitaban consult
ar algo m\u225?s lejano, ten\u237?an que levantarse y consultar los archivadores

correspondientes. Cuando terminaban una transacci\u243?n, y atend\u237?an unas

mil al d\u237?a, la describ\u237?an en una ficha. Cada pocos minutos, esas ficha
s eran recogidas y llevadas a la {\i
parte de atr\u225?s}, donde otras cuarenta personas actualizaban los datos de lo
s vuelos. Si hab\u237?a una venta, los datos del cliente se llevaban a una ofici
na contigua, donde otras cuarenta personas emit\u237?an los billetes y gestionab
an la informaci\u243?n del pasajero. Y si un viaje requer\u237?a tomar varios vu
elos, hab\u237?a que ponerse en contacto con otras oficinas similares para que g
estionaran su parte. Un sistema bien engrasado, complejo y casi imposible de esc
alar para que una aerol\u237?nea pudiera tener muchos m\u225?s vuelos.\par\pard\
plain\hyphpar} {
La raz\u243?n por la que las compa\u241?\u237?as a\u233?reas continuaban con un
esquema completamente manual era que tanto las m\u225?quinas de oficina, hereder
as de aquella primera que construy\u243? Hollerith para el censo, como los nuevo
s ordenadores que estaban saliendo al mercado funcionaban de un modo conocido co
mo {\i
procesamiento por lotes}. Era lo m\u225?s pr\u225?ctico, dado el estado de la te
cnolog\u237?a: consist\u237?a en meterle a la m\u225?quina un conjunto muy grand
e de informaci\u243?n y esperar a que lo procesara entero. Pero resultaba incomp
atible con las necesidades de la aviaci\u243?n civil, que requer\u237?a la gesti
\u243?n individual y en tiempo real de cada transacci\u243?n.\par\pard\plain\hyp
hpar} {
American Airlines fue pionera en cambiar este orden de cosas mediante Reservisor
. El sistema manual estaba llegando al l\u237?mite, y algunos de sus oficinistas
ten\u237?an que emplear prism\u225?ticos para ver los tablones de los vuelos. A
s\u237? que pusieron un ingenio electromec\u225?nico que guardaba la ocupaci\u24
3?n de los asientos en cada avi\u243?n y un terminal para cada persona que atend
\u237?a al tel\u233?fono, de modo que su n\u250?mero pudiera aumentar y adem\u22
5?s lograran eliminar de la ecuaci\u243?n los dichosos tablones.\par\pard\plain\
hyphpar} {
Pero se estaba acercando la era de los aviones de pasajeros con motores de reacc
i\u243?n, y ni siquiera Reservisor era capaz de gestionar las reservas si los vu
elos entre la Costa Este y la Oeste de Estados Unidos pasaban de durar diez hora
s a s\u243?lo seis. Sin embargo, quiso la casualidad que en uno de esos vuelos e
l sistema sentara, uno junto al otro, al presidente de American Airlines, C. R.
Smith, y a uno de los principales vendedores de IBM, Blair Smith. Era la primave
ra de 1953. En ese momento comenz\u243? la relaci\u243?n entre ambas empresas, q
ue llevar\u237?a a lo largo de los a\u241?os a la creaci\u243?n e implantaci\u24
3?n de la aplicaci\u243?n inform\u225?tica de uso civil m\u225?s exitosa hasta e
sa fecha.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
El trabajo de un equipo conjunto formado por empleados tanto de la aerol\u237?ne
a como de IBM llev\u243? a una curiosa estrategia, planteada en verano de 1954:
se mejorar\u237?a el sistema existente y se ir\u237?a preparando su sucesor, por
que hasta que no se generalizaran los ordenadores equipados con transistores y n
\u250?cleos de ferrita no resultar\u237?a rentable. As\u237?, durante unos a\u24
1?os las oficinas de reservas de American Airlines se llenaron de equipos de IBM
que pronto quedar\u237?an obsoletos. Mientras, se dise\u241?aba Sabre, un progr
ama cuyo nombre se puso en 1960 en referencia a un popular coche de la \u233?poc
a, el Buick LeSabre, y para el cual se busc\u243? luego un acr\u243?nimo. Algo a
s\u237? como el Grupo Independiente Liberal, vamos.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
El sistema se implement\u243? entre 1960 y 1963, y requiri\u243? la mayor invers
i\u243?n en tecnolog\u237?a de la informaci\u243?n que empresa alguna hubiera ac
ometido hasta el momento. La factura lleg\u243? a los 40 millones de d\u243?lare
s de entonces, y se necesitaron doscientos t\u233?cnicos trabajando a jornada co
mpleta en el proyecto, programadores que generaron m\u225?s de un mill\u243?n de
l\u237?neas de c\u243?digo. La central de reservas ten\u237?a dos grandes compu
tadoras (o {\i
mainframes}) IBM 7090, una de ellas a la espera por si la otra fallaba, conectad
as al mayor sistema de almacenamiento de la \u233?poca, capaz de almacenar unos
800 megas, poco m\u225?s que un CD. Unos 20 000 kil\u243?metros de l\u237?neas d

e telecomunicaciones permit\u237?an a 1100 agentes distribuidos en 50 ciudades o

perar con el sistema, capaz de gestionar unos 10 millones de reservas al a\u241?
o. Vamos, que para su tiempo aquello era la releche; tanto que, pese a su precio
, se tard\u243? s\u243?lo un a\u241?o en rentabilizar la inversi\u243?n.\par\par
d\plain\hyphpar} {
Otras aerol\u237?neas se dieron cuenta de que corr\u237?an el riesgo de ser fago
citadas por American Airlines y decidieron seguir sus pasos. Delta y Panam firma
ron en 1960 y 1961 con IBM \u8212?que desarroll\u243? para ellas Deltamatic y Pa
namac\u8212?, y otras compa\u241?\u237?as a\u233?reas dentro y fuera de Estados
Unidos siguieron sus pasos, ya fuera con el gigante azul o con otros proveedores
, de modo que a comienzos de los a\u241?os setenta todas contaban con sistemas s
imilares, que adem\u225?s comenzaron a ampliarse para gestionar el alquiler de c
oches, la reserva de hoteles y otros tr\u225?mites relacionados.\par\pard\plain\
hyphpar} {
Con el tiempo, Sabre se abri\u243? a otras compa\u241?\u237?as a\u233?reas, y se
convirti\u243? en la manera en que muchos agentes de viajes realizaban las rese
rvas. En 1981 American Airlines descubri\u243? que m\u225?s de la mitad de las v
eces estos vagos eleg\u237?an el primer vuelo que aparec\u237?a entre los result
ados, y en un 92 por ciento de los casos un vuelo que saliera en la primera pant
alla. Algo as\u237? como lo que hacemos actualmente con Google. La compa\u241?\u
237?a decidi\u243? cocinar los resultados, al principio con buenas intenciones,
como colocar m\u225?s arriba los vuelos con la hora de salida m\u225?s cercana a
la solicitada y cosas as\u237?. Pero luego us\u243? esta t\u233?cnica para hace
r {\i
desaparecer} vuelos que compet\u237?an demasiado con ellos. Una peque\u241?a com
pa\u241?\u237?a, New York Air, tuvo que eliminar una ruta entre Nueva York y Det
roit que ten\u237?a ocho vuelos diarios cuando American decidi\u243? colocarla a
l final de la primera pantalla de resultados de Sabre: tal fue la ca\u237?da en
las reservas.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Posiblemente esa fuera una de las razones por las que varias aerol\u237?neas eur
opeas fundaron en 1987 la empresa Amadeus, con sede en Madrid, que actualmente e
s la empresa con mayor cuota en el mercado de los sistema de reservas, y la que
tienes que saber manejar por narices si quieres trabajar en el gremio. De hecho,
desde sus comienzos publicitaron el hecho de que eran el \u250?nico neutral ent
re los sistemas de este tipo existentes. Pero Sabre sigue existiendo como compa\
u241?\u237?a independiente despu\u233?s de que American Airlines la vendiera en
oferta p\u250?blica en el a\u241?o 2000. Cincuenta a\u241?os despu\u233?s de emp
ezar a implantarse, est\u225? en tercer lugar en el mercado, tras Amadeus y otro
sistema de reservas llamado Galileo. No es mal resultado para una conversaci\u2
43?n en un vuelo de Los \u193?ngeles a Nueva York.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar}
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{\s3 \afs28
{\b
{\ql
EL NACIMIENTO DE LA INDUSTRIA DEL SOFTWARE\par\pard\plain\hyphpar}\par\pard\plai
n\hyphpar}\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Bill Gates se convirti\u243? en el hombre m\u225?s rico del mundo vendiendo prog
ramas de ordenador. Pero, claro, no fue el pionero en este campo, aunque la indu
stria dar\u237?a sus primeros pasos muchos a\u241?os despu\u233?s de que los ord
enadores estuvieran en el mercado.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
La raz\u243?n era clara: los fabricantes hac\u237?an buena parte de los programa
s necesarios para sus clientes, y se los daban gratis, o los dise\u241?aban a me
dida cobrando su buen dinero, como fue el caso de Sabre. Adem\u225?s, las m\u225
?quinas eran caras, por lo que el desarrollo de software era un gasto menor en c
omparaci\u243?n, y generalmente incompatibles entre s\u237?, de modo que el prog
rama hecho para una no funcionaba en otra. No era raro en aquellos primeros tiem
pos que incluso compa\u241?\u237?as que compet\u237?an fieramente en un sector d
eterminado compartieran sus esfuerzos en el campo de la programaci\u243?n.\par\p
ard\plain\hyphpar} {
Pero los tiempos fueron cambiando y los ordenadores empezaron a tener un precio
suficientemente bajo como para que empresas menos grandes y pudientes pudieran p
ermitirse tener uno; lo que no pod\u237?an era permitirse un departamento dedica
do a programarlos a la medida de sus necesidades. As\u237? que empezaron a surgi
r compa\u241?\u237?as dedicadas a eso, precisamente. El punto de inflexi\u243?n
lleg\u243? cuando una de ellas, ADR, hizo un programa en 1964 para que el fabric
ante de ordenadores RCA lo ofreciera gratis a sus clientes, como era la costumbr
e.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
El programa se llam\u243? Autoflow y ADR pidi\u243? por \u233?l 25 000 d\u243?la
res, pasta que RCA se neg\u243? a pagar. La aplicaci\u243?n hac\u237?a diagramas
de flujo, unos esquemas que mostraban lo que suced\u237?a dentro de un programa
. \u191?Ha visto en Internet esos gr\u225?ficos frecuentemente chistosos de caja
s unidas por flechas etiquetadas con un {\i
s\u237?} y un {\i
no}, que llevan de una situaci\u243?n a otra? Pues eso, pero en serio, es un dia
grama de flujo. En aquella \u233?poca formaban parte de la documentaci\u243?n qu
e ten\u237?an que hacer los programadores para explicar c\u243?mo funcionaban lo
s programas que hac\u237?an. Como a los desarrolladores nunca nos ha gustado doc
umentar nuestro trabajo, lo normal es que no lo hicieran o que lo hicieran una s
ola vez, de modo que si se reescrib\u237?a el programa, como es lo habitual, el
diagrama ya no se correspond\u237?a. Pues bien, Autoflow cog\u237?a el c\u243?di
go de un programa e imprim\u237?a autom\u225?ticamente el diagrama. Una maravill
a, vamos.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Como RCA no quiso pagar, ADR lo vendi\u243? por su cuenta, a 2400 d\u243?lares l
a unidad. Coloc\u243? s\u243?lo dos, pero Martin Goetz, el responsable del desar
rollo de Autoflow, no cej\u243? en su empe\u241?o. Lo reescribi\u243? para el le
nguaje m\u225?s popular, Autocoder, del ordenador m\u225?s vendido del momento,
el IBM 1401, y ah\u237? la cosa cambi\u243?. Pero no demasiado, no crean. Muchos
clientes esperaban que el gigante azul terminara produciendo un programa simila
r. As\u237? que ADR patent\u243? el suyo para asegurarse de tener la exclusiva.
Y para prevenir que sus clientes copiaran el programa, en lugar de venderlo hizo
firmar contratos de arrendamiento en cuyas condiciones se inclu\u237?a la prohi
bici\u243?n de copiarlo. Para 1970, el programa ten\u237?a un par de miles de us
uarios, cifra bastante alta para una \u233?poca en que no hab\u237?a ordenadores
personales.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Otros siguieron la estela. El programa que marcar\u237?a la l\u237?nea que segui
r\u237?an la mayor\u237?a de empresas a partir de entonces se llam\u243? Mark IV
, y fue puesto a la venta por la empresa Informatics en 1967. Era un gestor de f
icheros, es decir, un precursor de las modernas bases de datos, como las que ven

de Oracle, escrito para la gama de computadores System/360 de IBM, lo que le per

mit\u237?a un p\u250?blico potencial muy alto. A un precio de 30 000 d\u243?lare
s, alcanz\u243? el mill\u243?n en ventas el primer a\u241?o, y los t\u233?rminos
en que ofrec\u237?a su software, similares a los de Autoflow, se convirtieron e
n el est\u225?ndar que seguir\u237?a la industria hasta nuestros d\u237?as: alqu
iler indefinido del programa y unos t\u233?rminos y condiciones que prohib\u237?
an la copia a terceros. Al principio ofrec\u237?a gratuitamente a sus clientes l
as mejoras al programa, pero tras cuatro a\u241?os decidi\u243? cambiar de pol\u
237?tica y cobrar por las versiones nuevas. Lo mismito que ahora.\par\pard\plain
\hyphpar} {
Pero tanto ADR como Informatics eran pioneros, y pioneros a los que no segu\u237
?a ni el tato. Hasta que en 1969 IBM, presionada por una investigaci\u243?n de l
as autoridades antimonopolio, decidi\u243? separar el hardware del software y ve
nderlos por separado. No afectaba a todo, pues los sistemas operativos y los len
guajes de programaci\u243?n segu\u237?an incluidos en el precio de la m\u225?qui
na, pero con este movimiento los programas del principal vendedor de ordenadores
se pon\u237?an a la par que las de otros proveedores, que inmediatamente se lan
zaron a competir. Si en aquel a\u241?o la industria ingres\u243? unos 20 millone
s de d\u243?lares, para 1975 la cifra se hab\u237?a disparado hasta los 400. De
ese dinero, 7,4 millones correspond\u237?an a Mark IV.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Pese a que la imagen que todos tenemos en mente cuando se habla de software es M
icrosoft, lo cierto es que todo el negocio de la industria entonces se correspon
d\u237?a a aplicaciones destinadas a empresas. Hoy en d\u237?a las principales e
mpresas del ramo, quitando la compa\u241?\u237?a de Bill Gates, tienen nombres t
an poco conocidos como SAP, Computer Associates, Software AG, Sybase, Informix\u
8230? y algunos algo m\u225?s familiares como IBM, HP, Oracle o Ericsson. Pero t
odos ellos se dedican al aburrido trabajo de hacer programas \u250?tiles para qu
e los usemos en la oficina. Un co\u241?azo de empresas, vamos.\par\pard\plain\hy
phpar}
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}}
{\s3 \afs28
{\b
{\ql
SOFTWARE EN CRISIS\par\pard\plain\hyphpar}\par\pard\plain\hyphpar}\par\pard\plai
n\hyphpar} {
Aunque haya quien piense que la \u250?nica crisis que merece tal nombre es la ec
on\u243?mica que padecemos estos a\u241?os, la verdad es que hay m\u225?s. En lo
s a\u241?os sesenta, encima de tener que aguantar a los hippies, los inform\u225

?ticos y sobre todo sus clientes sufrieron la crisis del software.\par\pard\plai

n\hyphpar} {
Los ordenadores se multiplicaron en n\u250?mero y capacidad entre finales de los
cincuenta y principios de los sesenta. El ordenador de gama m\u225?s baja de la
l\u237?nea System/360 de IBM, lanzado en 1964, era 43 veces m\u225?s r\u225?pid
o y ten\u237?a 66 veces la memoria del modelo estrella del gigante azul en 1953,
el IBM 650. Y si en 1960 hab\u237?a 4400 ordenadores en todos los Estados Unido
s, el principal mercado de estos cacharrejos por aquel entonces, en 1965 eran ya
21 600.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
En esa \u233?poca, la pr\u225?ctica totalidad de los programas los hac\u237?an l
os propios compradores, o una empresa contratada a tal efecto. Eran programas es
critos para ajustarse exactamente a las necesidades de los clientes. As\u237? qu
e, con tama\u241?o incremento en el n\u250?mero de ordenadores, hicieron falta m
uchos, muchos m\u225?s programadores, y no hab\u237?a tantos. Adem\u225?s, al se
r las nuevas computadoras mucho m\u225?s capaces, los requisitos se iban amplian
do, con lo que los programas crec\u237?an en tama\u241?o y complejidad.\par\pard
\plain\hyphpar} {
Con tanta demanda insatisfecha de c\u243?digo escrito por programadores, los pre
cios aumentaron. Adem\u225?s, aunque los ordenadores no bajasen de precio, s\u23
7? eran cada vez mejores, de modo que el software era una parte cada vez m\u225?
s importante del coste total de tener una computadora funcionando a pleno rendim
iento.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Como si todo esto no fuera suficiente, a medida que aumentaba el tama\u241?o del
software \u8212?y su complejidad\u8212?, m\u225?s f\u225?cil era que apareciera
n errores. El caso m\u225?s famoso de fiasco fue el desastre de la sonda {\i
Mariner}, pero estuvo lejos de ser el \u250?nico.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Aquella situaci\u243?n se vio reflejada en todo su dramatismo en el proyecto del
sistema operativo OS/360, proyectado para los ordenadores System/360. Deb\u237?
a ser capaz de funcionar en todas las computadoras compatibles, fuera cual fuera
su potencia y memoria, y poder ejecutar m\u225?s de un proceso a la vez para qu
e el procesador no perdiera tiempo esperando a que el disco hiciera lo que se le
mandaba. El responsable era la misma compa\u241?\u237?a que estaba desarrolland
o con \u233?xito el sistema de reservas Sabre, y pese a que su presupuesto era e
l mayor que ning\u250?n programa hab\u237?a tenido hasta entonces, todo lo que p
udo ir mal fue mal.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Comenzaron a trabajar en \u233?l unas setenta y cinco personas, en la primavera
de 1964, con la intenci\u243?n de sacarlo dos a\u241?os despu\u233?s. Costar\u23
7?a entre 30 y 40 millones de d\u243?lares. Pero poco a poco los plazos se fuero
n alargando, y el coste se dispar\u243?. A finales de 1965 se descubrieron fallo
s graves en el dise\u241?o que llevaron a pensar a parte del equipo que ni siqui
era podr\u237?a ver la luz, pero acab\u243? vi\u233?ndola a mediados de 1967, un
a\u241?o despu\u233?s de lo previsto, no sin antes ser reescrito casi por compl
eto. El presupuesto se fue a los 500 millones de d\u243?lares, y cuando se termi
n\u243? hab\u237?a mil inform\u225?ticos trabajando en \u233?l. Pero aun as\u237
? sali\u243? de f\u225?brica bien surtidito de fallos que tardaron a\u241?os en
erradicarse, porque m\u225?s que arreglarlos parec\u237?a que se cambiaban unos
por otros: cada soluci\u243?n hac\u237?a surgir un nuevo problema.\par\pard\plai
n\hyphpar} {
El director del proyecto, Fred Brooks, terminar\u237?a publicando en 1970 un lib
ro sobre aquella debacle llamado {\i
El mito del mes-hombre}. En \u233?l explicaba los problemas derivados de abordar
un proyecto de esa magnitud, siendo el principal que la vieja contabilidad que
estimaba cu\u225?nto trabajo llevar\u237?a un programa era una trola de colosale
s proporciones. Por ejemplo, cuando se dec\u237?a que un proyecto iba a costar d
iez meses-hombre, lo que se quer\u237?a indicar es que un solo programador podr\
u237?a hacerlo en diez meses, dos en cinco y diez en uno. Esa manera de medir el
trabajo era razonable en proyectos peque\u241?os, con equipos peque\u241?os, pe
ro no en algo de la magnitud del OS/360.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
\u171?Por muchas mujeres que se sumen a la tarea, gestar un ni\u241?o sigue llev
ando nueve meses\u187?, dir\u237?a entonces. Y es que buena parte de los problem

as del sistema operativo se debieron a que, seg\u250?n se iban alargando los pla
zos, se dedicaron a echar gasolina al fuego, es decir, a contratar m\u225?s prog
ramadores. Programadores a los que hab\u237?a que explicar qu\u233? se hab\u237?
a hecho hasta el momento y c\u243?mo; cu\u225?les eran los objetivos que se busc
aban y qu\u233? se esperaba de ellos; y cuyo c\u243?digo deb\u237?a acoplarse a
lo ya hecho por otros anteriormente. Adem\u225?s, la programaci\u243?n es un pro
ceso creativo, como bien saben los hackers, y a\u241?adir m\u250?sculo no soluci
ona los problemas.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
En 1967 tuvo lugar un congreso en Alemania de ingenier\u237?a del software organ
izado por la OTAN, lo que revela la preocupaci\u243?n que ten\u237?an los milita
res por este problema. La idea era que la inform\u225?tica fuera tan predecible
como otras ingenier\u237?as: si se sab\u237?a cu\u225?nto iba a costar y cu\u225
?nto se iba a tardar en construir un puente, \u191?por qu\u233? no se pod\u237?a
hacer un c\u225?lculo as\u237? con los programas? Sin embargo, pocas soluciones
salieron de aquel congreso.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Aun as\u237?, poco a poco se fueron expandiendo ciertas t\u233?cnicas que alivia
ron el problema, pero no lo hicieron desaparecer por completo.\par\pard\plain\hy
phpar} {
Los inform\u225?ticos empezaron a emplear mejores herramientas, desde lenguajes
de programaci\u243?n m\u225?s potentes que reduc\u237?an la complejidad y los er
rores a cambio de producir programas algo m\u225?s lentos \u8212?lo que fue prog
resivamente menos importante, al disponer de ordenadores mejores y m\u225?s bara
tos\u8212?, hasta depuradores que facilitaban el hallazgo de los {\i
bugs}. Se hizo especial hincapi\u233? en la programaci\u243?n estructurada, que
facilitaba la divisi\u243?n del software en unidades m\u225?s peque\u241?as y ma
nejables y que terminar\u237?a llevando al concepto algo m\u225?s avanzado de pr
ogramaci\u243?n orientada a objetos. Y en lugar de pensar que un producto de sof
tware se proyecta, se programa y santas pascuas, se pas\u243? a considerar que e
n su ciclo de vida el lanzamiento es s\u243?lo un paso m\u225?s, porque hay que
ir mejor\u225?ndolo, solucionando los errores y atendiendo los problemas que le
surjan al cliente.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Pero como escribir\u237?a el propio Brooks \u8212?ya en los a\u241?os ochenta\u8
212?, no exist\u237?a ninguna \u171?bala de plata\u187? que pudiera acabar por s
\u237? sola con ese \u171?hombre lobo\u187? que eran los proyectos de software c
on problemas. Y los problemas podr\u237?an ser mortales: entre 1985 y 1987, un {
\i
bug} en una m\u225?quina canadiense de radioterapia llamada Therac-25 provoc\u24
3? que seis pacientes recibieran una dosis muy superior a la recomendable: tres
de ellos acabaron perdiendo la vida. Y aunque fueran franceses, oiga, igual tamp
oco se lo merec\u237?an.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
El problema que provoc\u243? la crisis ha sido contenido hasta cierto punto grac
ias al desarrollo de numerosas t\u233?cnicas, pero sigue ah\u237?\u8230? y no pa
rece que vaya a desaparecer as\u237? como as\u237?. De hecho, y hasta cierto pun
to, tanto el largo proceso de desarrollo de Windows Vista como los numerosos pro
blemas que presentaba, y que obligaron a lanzar Windows 7 con cierta celeridad,
son una demostraci\u243?n de que, en el fondo, casi todo sigue igual.\par\pard\p
lain\hyphpar} {
S\u243?lo los proyectos de c\u243?digo abierto, o software libre, parecen haber
encontrado algo parecido a esa \u171?bala de plata\u187?. Pero la idea de que la
del software pod\u237?a ser una ingenier\u237?a como las dem\u225?s, con sus pl
azos bien establecidos y sus certezas de funcionamiento perfecto, hace ya tiempo
que ha sido abandonada por todos los que abandonaron la universidad y trabajan
en el mundo real.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar}
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{\s3 \afs28
{\b
{\ql
LOS PAP\u193?S DEL OFFICE\par\pard\plain\hyphpar}\par\pard\plain\hyphpar}\par\pa
rd\plain\hyphpar} {
A estas alturas, parece como si no existiera otro procesador de textos que Word,
ni m\u225?s hoja de c\u225?lculo que Excel. Pero lo cierto es que ambos product
os tardaron much\u237?simo en imponerse.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Los primeros procesadores de texto fueron los vendidos por la americana Wang, em
presa pionera en el sector de las calculadoras electr\u243?nicas pero que se dio
cuenta a tiempo de que no pod\u237?a ganar la guerra de precios a las compa\u24
1?\u237?as japonesas de electr\u243?nica. Wang ofrec\u237?a un producto completo
, que consist\u237?a en una suerte de computadora algo recorta\u237?ca pero que
permit\u237?a editar el texto antes de imprimirlo. Su primer aparato, el Wang 12
00, fue el fruto del experimento de conectar una calculadora con una m\u225?quin
a de escribir el\u233?ctrica de IBM. Permit\u237?a almacenar hasta 20 p\u225?gin
as de texto y editarlas, l\u237?nea a l\u237?nea, si se hab\u237?a cometido alg\
u250?n error.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Lanzado en 1974, el cacharro y sus sucesores tuvieron cierto \u233?xito compitie
ndo con las m\u225?quinas de escribir de la \u233?poca. Tanto Wang como otras mu
chas empresas, entre las que estaba IBM, ofrec\u237?an productos similares. Pero
una vez empezaron a abaratarse los ordenadores personales, los procesadores de
texto como software se convirtieron en superventas\u8230? y las ventas de sistem
as completos cayeron; Wang se dedic\u243? a vender ordenadores para sobrevivir d
e mala manera y entr\u243? en suspensi\u243?n de pagos a comienzos de los a\u241
?os noventa.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Al principio, cada fabricante de ordenadores ten\u237?a su propio procesador de
texto. Eran muy limitados porque las pantallas s\u243?lo permit\u237?an mostrar
40 caracteres en cada l\u237?nea, en lugar de los 80 que pod\u237?an imprimirse
en papel. Pero a finales de los setenta comenzaron a popularizarse pantallas mej
ores y, tambi\u233?n, un sistema operativo m\u225?s o menos com\u250?n a muchos
fabricantes, el CP/M. As\u237? que se dieron las condiciones para que un program
a se hiciera con el mercado. La china le toc\u243? a WordStar. Creado por Seymou
r Rubinstein, que ven\u237?a de trabajar en un fabricante de clones del primer o
rdenador personal \u8212?el Altair 8080\u8212?, prolong\u243? su reinado de los
ordenadores que funcionaban con CP/M al PC, pero meti\u243? la pata hasta el fon
do con el lanzamiento, en 1984, de WordStar 2000. El programa era mejor, pero m\
u225?s lento que su predecesor, y encima cambiaba por completo el interfaz de us
uario. Obligados a aprender un nuevo programa, muchos de sus usuarios optaron po
r un competidor llamado WordPerfect, que dominar\u237?a el mercado durante el re
sto de la d\u233?cada y que fue durante a\u241?os el producto para ordenadores p
ersonales m\u225?s vendido.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Algo parecido sucedi\u243? con las hojas de c\u225?lculo. La idea fue concebida
por un estudiante mientras ve\u237?a a su profesor escribir en la pizarra un mod

elo financiero: cada vez que comet\u237?a un error o quer\u237?a cambiar un par\
u225?metro, ten\u237?a que ir borrando y sustituyendo los valores uno a uno. Dan
Bricklin, el chavalote observador, pens\u243? que un ordenador podr\u237?a hace
r la misma operaci\u243?n pero de manera autom\u225?tica. As\u237? que en 1979 l
anz\u243? VisiCalc para el Apple H. Fue un \u233?xito absoluto que, de hecho, ay
ud\u243? al ordenador de la manzana a convertirse en el m\u225?s vendido de su g
eneraci\u243?n y a instalarse en la mesa de numerosos ejecutivos.\par\pard\plain
\hyphpar} {
VisiCalc se llev\u243? al PC con cierto \u233?xito \u8212?fue una de las aplicac
iones que IBM procur\u243? estuvieran disponibles desde el minuto uno\u8212?. En
vista de su dominio, la compa\u241?\u237?a decidi\u243? diversificarse e invert
ir en un entorno gr\u225?fico propio, VisiOn, que, como todos los lanzados a med
iados de los ochenta, fracas\u243?. En 1983 VisiCalc ten\u237?a unos ingresos de
unos 40 millones de d\u243?lares y en 1985 hab\u237?a dejado de existir. El res
ponsable de semejante descalabro fue Mitch Kapor, que les hab\u237?a vendido un
par de productos para mejorar el programa y que emple\u243? el dinero para crear
\u8212?y anunciar\u8212? una alternativa mejor. Su programa se llam\u243? Lotus
1-2-3. Eso s\u237?, fue lo suficientemente majo como para comprar los restos de
la empresa rival, que al fin y al cabo hab\u237?a financiado la soga que la aho
rc\u243?.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
El mismo Bill Gates pensaba que el dinero no estaba tanto en los sistemas operat
ivos como en las aplicaciones, as\u237? que decidi\u243? invertir buena parte de
la plata que recib\u237?a por las ventas de MS-DOS en desarrollar programas de
ofim\u225?tica. El primero fue MultiPlan, una hoja de c\u225?lculo lanzada en 19
82 que recibi\u243? excelentes cr\u237?ticas pero que resultaba demasiado lenta:
y es que fue concebida para funcionar en muchos ordenadores distintos con difer
entes sistemas operativos. Microsoft no estaba tan seguro de que el PC fuera a t
riunfar como triunf\u243? y se estaba guardando las espaldas. No se vendi\u243?
bien, como tampoco lo hizo Word 1.0, lanzado el a\u241?o siguiente y que, \u161?
oh milagro!, mostraba las cursivas y las negritas en la pantalla: \u161?no hab\u
237?a que esperar a imprimirlas para verlas!\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Pero si algo ha caracterizado a Microsoft es que los fracasos no la echan atr\u2
25?s, as\u237? que sigui\u243? intent\u225?ndolo, y cosech\u243? cierto \u233?xi
to con Excel \u8212?el sucesor de MultiPlan\u8212? y Word, pero s\u243?lo en Mac
intosh. De hecho, si no hubiera sido por esas aplicaciones, quiz\u225? el Mac no
hubiera sobrevivido como alternativa \u250?nica al PC.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar}
{
Todo continu\u243? como estaba, con Lotus y Word Perfect triunfando en el PC y E
xcel y Word en el Mac, hasta que Microsoft lanz\u243? el Windows 3.0. De nuevo f
ruto de su persistencia, le hab\u237?a llevado a\u241?os perfeccionarlo \u8212?e
Intel hubo de sacar procesadores suficientemente r\u225?pidos\u8212?, hasta que
consigui\u243? que su entorno gr\u225?fico tuviera \u233?xito. Aquello pill\u24
3? con el pie cambiado a sus rivales, que aunque lograron lanzar versiones para
Windows lo hicieron demasiado tarde. Los usuarios de Windows empezaron a utiliza
r tambi\u233?n las aplicaciones de Microsoft, y lo har\u237?an mucho m\u225?s co
n el lanzamiento, en 1990, de Office, que un\u237?a ambas aplicaciones y una ter
cera, PowerPoint, dedicada a la creaci\u243?n de presentaciones.\par\pard\plain\
hyphpar} {
Veinte a\u241?os despu\u233?s, el 80 por ciento de las empresas usaba alg\u250?n
producto de Office. En el entretanto, WordPerfect fue a parar a manos, primero,
de Novell y, despu\u233?s, de Corel, una compa\u241?\u237?a canadiense especial
izada en software gr\u225?fico. Lotus, por su parte, pas\u243? a formar parte de
IBM: ambas intentaron lanzar su alternativa a Office para Windows; pero las mis
mas ventajas que les permitieron reinar durante a\u241?os, se volvieron entonces
en su contra. La gente se hab\u237?a acostumbrado a los programas de Microsoft
y no quiso cambiar.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Existen muchas alternativas en el mercado, pero Office sigue siendo el rey, como
dir\u237?a la ranchera. Siempre se ha acusado a Microsoft de prevalecer gracias
al empleo de m\u233?todos siniestros. Alguno utiliza, s\u237?; pero s\u243?lo c
on eso no se logra sobrevivir a un cambio de interfaz como el de la versi\u243?n

2007. Algo tendr\u225? el agua cuando la bendicen.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar}

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{\s3 \afs28
{\b
{\ql
SOFTWARE LIBRE: LA VENGANZA DE LOS HACKERS\par\pard\plain\hyphpar}\par\pard\plai
n\hyphpar}\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Los hackers originales hab\u237?an abandonado la universidad para dedicarse a lo
s m\u225?s variados quehaceres relacionados con la inform\u225?tica. Ya no eran
hippies, sino emprendedores o trabajadores de las mejores empresas. Las nuevas g
eneraciones se interesaban m\u225?s por perge\u241?ar videojuegos que por crear,
compartir y usar software de otro tipo. S\u243?lo un cabezota resist\u237?a. Se
llamaba Richard Stallman.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Stallman era un fan\u225?tico seguidor de la \u233?tica hacker que lleg\u243? al
laboratorio de Inteligencia Artificial del MIT en 1971. Su principal logro all\
u237? fue Emacs, un editor de texto para programadores que hoy en d\u237?a es la
elecci\u243?n de cualquier hacker que se precie. Pero pronto se hizo famoso por
sus campa\u241?as para que la gente empleara contrase\u241?as vac\u237?as o por
sabotear los sistemas de seguridad para que se viesen las contrase\u241?as en p
antalla, lo que las hac\u237?a bastante in\u250?tiles, claro. Todo por aquello d
e que la informaci\u243?n deb\u237?a ser libre. Cualquier otra alternativa le pa
rec\u237?a fascista.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Dos cosas le llevar\u237?an a dejar el laboratorio. La primera fue una impresora
l\u225?ser, la primera que se comercializ\u243?, la Xerox 9700. La empresa no p
ermit\u237?a que se modificara el c\u243?digo del controlador del dispositivo, c
omo hab\u237?a hecho siempre Stallman, de modo que no pod\u237?a cambiarlo para
que avisara al usuario mediante un mensaje electr\u243?nico de que su impresi\u2
43?n estaba lista, algo bastante \u250?til cuando el aparatejo est\u225? en una
planta distinta al lugar donde trabaja el susodicho y sufrido usuario.\par\pard\
plain\hyphpar} {
Lo m\u225?s grave, no obstante, fue la lucha que se estableci\u243? entre LMI y
Symbolics, dos empresas fundadas por miembros del laboratorio y dedicadas a cons
truir ordenadores pensados espec\u237?ficamente para la inteligencia artificial.
Las dos crearon software no modificable, algo que para Stallman era anatema; pe
ro la segunda adem\u225?s contrat\u243? pr\u225?cticamente a todos los buenos ha
ckers del laboratorio. Stallman se qued\u243? solo y decidi\u243? vengarse hacie
ndo para LMI ingenier\u237?a inversa del software de las m\u225?quinas de Symbol
ics que el laboratorio hab\u237?a comprado y programando una alternativa para qu

e LMI pudiera competir.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {

Aquello forz\u243? a la direcci\u243?n del laboratorio a prohibir hacer cosas co
mo las que hac\u237?a Stallman, as\u237? que el tipo se larg\u243?. Desde 1984 s
e dedic\u243? a tiempo completo a trabajar en el proyecto GNU. La idea era recre
ar todo el sistema operativo compatible con Unix bajo una licencia que permitier
a a cualquiera modificarlo; una licencia que en s\u237? misma encarnara la \u233
?tica hacker, que hab\u237?a visto destruirse en el mismo lugar donde hab\u237?a
nacido. Cre\u243? as\u237? el concepto de {\i
software libre}, que permite a cualquiera usarlo, copiarlo, distribuirlo y modif
icarlo, siempre y cuando se distribuya bajo el mismo esquema. Algo que impedir\u
237?a que alguien m\u225?s sufriera las restricciones que \u233?l padeci\u243? c
on la dichosa Xerox.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Durante los siguientes a\u241?os, Stallman y su Free Software Foundation reprodu
jeron todas las herramientas necesarias para programar: editor (Emacs, claro), c
ompilador, depurador, etc. Sin embargo, faltaba lo m\u225?s importante, el n\u25
0?cleo del sistema. Pese a que hab\u237?a un proyecto llamado Hurd, la cosa no a
vanzaba. Llegado 1991, un joven finland\u233?s llamado Linus Torvalds hizo una v
ersi\u243?n muy rudimentaria de Unix que funcionaba en los PC de la \u233?poca.
Entre los colegas la llamaba Linux, una mezcla de su nombre con Unix, pero aquel
lo le parec\u237?a demasiado egoc\u233?ntrico para presentarlo en sociedad, as\u
237? que decidi\u243? que oficialmente se denominara Freax, una mezcla entre {\i
freak} (friki), {\i
free} (libre) y {\i
x} (por Unix). Pero al subir los ficheros al servidor FTP de la universidad de H
elsinki para facilitar su distribuci\u243?n, el encargado de los servidores debi
\u243? de pensar que se hab\u237?a equivocado y le volvi\u243? a poner el nombre
bueno. Y as\u237? se ha quedado.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
La verdad es que Linux era bastante cutre. Pero comenz\u243? a mejorar muy r\u22
5?pido gracias a su sistema de desarrollo: cientos de voluntarios trabajaban de
forma relativamente aut\u243?noma a trav\u233?s de Internet, y se lanzaban nueva
s versiones semanalmente. Eran los usuarios los que con sus quejas y peticiones
terminaban dictaminando qu\u233? mejoras se quedaban y qu\u233? deb\u237?a corre
girse: aquello era Darwin (o Hayek) en estado casi puro. De modo que pronto estu
vo al nivel requerido, y junto a las herramientas que hab\u237?a creado Stallman
los hackers ya ten\u237?an un sistema operativo completo para PC.\par\pard\plai
n\hyphpar} {
El \u233?xito de Linux demostr\u243? que pod\u237?an abordarse grandes proyectos
con programadores voluntarios que se coordinasen a trav\u233?s de Internet. Pro
nto un gran n\u250?mero de programas creados para el nuevo sistema operativo lo
convirtieron en algo \u250?til fuera del gueto de los hackers. Pero, pese a todo
, el crecimiento del software libre segu\u237?a siendo modesto. Pero a comienzos
de 1998 algo empez\u243? a cambiar. Netscape, que estaba perdiendo su lucha con
tra Microsoft en el mercado de los navegadores, anunci\u243? que abrir\u237?a el
c\u243?digo de su programa estrella para poder competir. De aquella decisi\u243
?n nacer\u237?a, a\u241?os despu\u233?s, Firefox. Pero el principal fruto no fue
un programa sino un nuevo aire de respetabilidad para el software libre. Ya no
era anatema. Hab\u237?a quien pensaba, incluso, que las empresas pod\u237?an gan
ar dinero con programas de los que no pod\u237?an vender copias sin m\u225?s por
que copiarlo era perfectamente legal.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
As\u237? que el software libre pas\u243? a formar parte del paisaje de la inform
\u225?tica. Si bien Linux sigue siendo utilizado principalmente en servidores y
no en los ordenadores de los usuarios, raro es el que no tiene alg\u250?n progra
ma libre en su disco duro. Los hackers han logrado ganar en muchos mercados a la
s empresas que venden sus programas. La \u233?tica hacker ha ganado. \u191?O no?
\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Richard Stallman, desde luego, piensa que no. No le hacen ninguna gracia los der
roteros que ha terminado siguiendo su invento. Cree que gente m\u225?s pragm\u22
5?tica como Torvalds, que emplea el software libre principalmente como una maner
a mejor de hacer las cosas, act\u250?a en contra de los valores del mismo. Para
\u233?l, un usuario que libremente compra Windows u Office no es realmente libre

.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Linus, por su parte, cree que Stallman es como esos testigos de Jehov\u225? que
llaman a tu puerta para decirte c\u243?mo vivir tu vida e intentar salvar tu alm
a. El software libre es una forma mejor de hacer las cosas, y punto. Pero bueno,
nadie dijo que tuvieran que ser amigos.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {\par\pard\hyph
par }{\page } {\s2 \afs28
{\b
{\ql
5
{\line }
{\line }
LOS ORDENADORES PERSONALES\par\pard\plain\hyphpar}\par\pard\plain\hyphpar}\par\
pard\plain\hyphpar}
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{
{\b
E}l mayor punto de inflexi\u243?n en la historia de la inform\u225?tica tuvo lug
ar a mediados de los setenta, cuando grupos de fan\u225?ticos de la electr\u243?
nica empezaron a producir peque\u241?os ordenadores que pod\u237?an comprarse co

n un sueldo de clase media apa\u241?ao y tener en casa para\u8230? en general, p

ara nada. Aquella gente se aprovech\u243? de la reciente innovaci\u243?n del mic
roprocesador \u8212?el \u171?ordenador en un chip\u187?, seg\u250?n anunciaba en
tonces Intel\u8212? y de la experiencia adquirida con el desarrollo de calculado
ras de bolsillo para construir sus aparatos. Fueron en aquella d\u233?cada lo qu
e los radioaficionados a principios del siglo XX o los creadores de sitios web d
espu\u233?s: aficionados a una tecnolog\u237?a que en algunos casos terminaron c
onvirtiendo su hobby en profesi\u243?n o negocio.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
La industria establecida al principio ignor\u243? estos cacharros y a los chalad
os que los crearon, lo que permiti\u243? que peque\u241?as empresas salidas de l
a nada empezaran a producirlos comercialmente al margen de IBM y los dem\u225?s
grandes. Pese a que finalmente el gigante azul entr\u243? en el mercado como ele
fante en cacharrer\u237?a, fueron empresas min\u250?sculas nacidas entonces, App
le y Microsoft, las que terminaron llev\u225?ndose el gato al agua. La difusi\u2
43?n de la tecnolog\u237?a a precios rid\u237?culos permiti\u243? la explosi\u24
3?n de productividad de finales de siglo y puso las bases que permitieron la exp
ansi\u243?n de Internet. Y, para qu\u233? negarlo, de los videojuegos. \u191?O a
caso se cree que ese ordenador que compr\u243? a sus hijos para hacer los trabaj
os de clase se us\u243? para hacer los trabajos de clase? Deje que me r\u237?a.\
par\pard\plain\hyphpar}
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{\s3 \afs28
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{\ql
LA GUERRA DE LAS CALCULADORAS\par\pard\plain\hyphpar}\par\pard\plain\hyphpar}\pa
r\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
S\u237?, en los a\u241?os cincuenta y sesenta se fueron extendiendo los grandes
ordenadores, generalmente fabricados por IBM, tanto con fines cient\u237?ficos c
omo administrativos. Pero en buena medida contables, ingenieros y otras gentes d
e mal vivir segu\u237?an haciendo los c\u225?lculos a mano o con la ayuda de art
ilugios como la regla de c\u225?lculo.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Desde la invenci\u243?n de las t\u233?cnicas necesarias para hacer las cuatro re
glas de forma mec\u225?nica por parte de Jay Randolph Monroe en 1910 y Christel
Hamann en 1911, algunos fabricantes como Friden, Marchant, Facit u Olivetti se h
ab\u237?an especializado en fabricar calculadoras m\u225?s o menos {\i
portables}. El m\u225?s ingenioso de estos artilugios fue el Curta, un ingenio m
ec\u225?nico en forma de cilindro que cab\u237?a en una mano y que permiti\u243?
a su creador sobrevivir en el campo de concentraci\u243?n de Buchenwald.\par\pa

rd\plain\hyphpar} {
El austriaco Curt Herzstark \u8212?ahora entendemos por qu\u233? el Curta se lla
ma como se llama\u8212? era de madre cat\u243?lica y padre jud\u237?o. En 1938 e
staba desarrollando su idea de un ingenio mec\u225?nico para hacer c\u225?lculos
, heredero de la m\u225?quina inventada por Leibniz en el siglo XVII cuando se v
io {\i
felizmente} envuelto en el Anschluss (la anexi\u243?n de Austria por Alemania).
La empresa en la que trabajaba, que era la de su padre, se vio forzada a trabaja
r para los nazis, y \u233?l tuvo que olvidarse de su invento. En 1943 fue enviad
o a los campos, pero le dieron la oportunidad de salvarse si su calculadora les
convenc\u237?a: el plan era regal\u225?rsela a Hitler cuando ganara la guerra. P
ero, claro, ese momento no lleg\u243?. No obstante, con esa excusa Herzstark com
plet\u243? su dise\u241?o, que comenzar\u237?a a fabricar tras la guerra.\par\pa
rd\plain\hyphpar} {
Con los enormes tubos de vac\u237?o que caracterizaron a los primeros ordenadore
s, la tecnolog\u237?a electr\u243?nica no supuso una gran amenaza para el Curta
o el compt\u243?metro, otro de los populares aparatos mec\u225?nicos de la \u233
?poca. Pero lleg\u243? el transistor y la cosa cambi\u243?. Pese a que el circui
to integrado fue inventado a finales de la d\u233?cada de los cincuenta, las pri
meras calculadoras electr\u243?nicas que aparecieron a mediados de los sesenta a
\u250?n empleaban los transistores tradicionales debido al coste de los chips, d
e modo que no eran aparatos de bolsillo sino de escritorio. Fue Friden la empres
a que, temerosa de que se le adelantaran otros competidores y le dejaran sin neg
ocio, puso en el mercado en 1963 la primera calculadora construida completamente
a base de transistores: la EC-130, que costaba 2200 d\u243?lares, lo cual era t
res veces m\u225?s que los modelos electromec\u225?nicos de la \u233?poca.\par\p
ard\plain\hyphpar} {
En 1965, la empresa de An Wang \u8212?inmigrante chino que trabaj\u243? con Howa
rd Aiken en Harvard\u8212? puso en el mercado la car\u237?sima Wang LOCI-2, la p
rimera calculadora programable, a un precio de 6500 d\u243?lares, ni m\u225?s ni
menos. Fue el comienzo de una carrera muy exitosa para la empresa. La calculado
ra incorporaba 1200 transistores, que fundamentalmente se empleaban para calcula
r logaritmos y antilogaritmos de manera muy precisa; de este modo, multiplicacio
nes y divisiones se convert\u237?an en meras operaciones de sumas y restas de lo
s logaritmos de los n\u250?meros con los que se operaba. Era una versi\u243?n el
ectr\u243?nica de la regla de c\u225?lculo, por as\u237? decir.\par\pard\plain\h
yphpar} {
Pero fueron los siguientes modelos de Wang, la serie 300, los que rompieron el m
ercado, al menos entre el p\u250?blico profesional, gracias a un precio de 1800
d\u243?lares, fruto de mejoras en el dise\u241?o que lograron reducir el n\u250?
mero de transistores hasta unos trescientos. Aunque aparecieron competidores com
o la HP-9100A o la Olivetti Programma 101, Wang permaneci\u243? como l\u237?der
del mercado hasta la aparici\u243?n de las primeras calculadoras equipadas con c
ircuitos integrados en 1970, momento en el que decidi\u243? enfocarse en otros n
egocios al prever la guerra de precios que se iba a desatar. Un tipo listo, sin
duda.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Empresas japonesas como Sanyo, Sharp, Canon o Busicom se aliaron con fabricantes
norteamericanos de semiconductores para crear calculadoras que funcionaran grac
ias a circuitos integrados, produciendo ingenios casi de bolsillo como la Sanyo
ICC-0081, la Canon Pocketronic y la Sharp QT-8B, que costaban menos de 400 d\u24
3?lares. Pero fue Busicom quien crear\u237?a la primera calculadora de bolsillo
de verdad, la LE-120A, con todas las caracter\u237?sticas que marcar\u237?an una
\u233?poca. Incorporaba todas las funciones de c\u225?lculo en un solo chip, el
Mostek MK6010, una pantalla que representaba los d\u237?gitos en formato de sie
te segmentos mediante LEDs y alimentaci\u243?n a pilas. No obstante, la primera
calculadora de \u233?xito en Estados Unidos fue la Bowmar Brain, que se vendi\u2
43? como churros en las navidades de 1971 a un precio de 250 pavos.\par\pard\pla
in\hyphpar} {
La producci\u243?n en masa de los chips necesarios para fabricar una calculadora
produjo un progresivo derrumbe en los precios, coloc\u225?ndose por debajo de 1

50 d\u243?lares en 1972, de 100 en 1973 y de 50 en 1974; poco tiempo despu\u233?

s se sustituyeron las pantallas por otras LCD y los chips se fabricaron con tecn
olog\u237?a CMOS, lo que abarat\u243? y redujo el consumo de las calculadoras a\
u250?n m\u225?s. Los modelos de las distintas empresas terminaron siendo casi in
distinguibles entre s\u237?, por lo que la tecnolog\u237?a dej\u243? de ser la p
rincipal raz\u243?n del \u233?xito o, llegado cierto punto, la mera supervivenci
a. El talento a la hora de vender fue clave para determinar el futuro de las emp
resas que se hab\u237?an metido en el fregado.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
S\u243?lo unos pocos lograron diferenciarse de los dem\u225?s y no convertirse e
n una {\i
commodity}. Hewlett-Packard lo consigui\u243? produciendo en 1971 la primera cal
culadora cient\u237?fica y, sobre todo, en 1974 con su HP-65, la primera calcula
dora programable de bolsillo, que fue llevada al espacio al a\u241?o siguiente e
n la \u250?ltima misi\u243?n espacial del programa Apolo por si la computadora d
e a bordo fallaba. Ten\u237?a de hecho mayor capacidad de proceso que esta, dise
\u241?ada y fabricada durante los a\u241?os sesenta. Hewlett-Packard la anunci\u
243? como \u171?ordenador personal\u187?, el primer uso del t\u233?rmino que se
conoce.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Aquella guerra de precios produjo un sinf\u237?n de bajas. Los que tuvieron m\u2
25?s suerte o fueron m\u225?s listos, como Wang, Sinclair o MITS, lograron recon
vertirse a tiempo y fabricar otras cosas. Otros como Busicom o Bowmar simplement
e se arruinaron. Al final quedaron las empresas japonesas Sharp y Casio como rei
nas de las calculadoras baratas y las norteamericanas Hewlett-Packard y Texas In
struments como due\u241?as del segmento de calculadoras cient\u237?ficas y progr
amables. En los pocos a\u241?os que dur\u243?, la guerra de las calculadoras hab
\u237?a permitido demostrar la efectividad de los circuitos integrados, hab\u237
?a hecho nacer al microprocesador y, sobre todo, hab\u237?a llevado la electr\u2
43?nica por primera vez a las masas. Las bases de la inform\u225?tica personal h
ab\u237?an quedado establecidas, y los primeros ordenadores personales no tardar
\u237?an mucho en llegar.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar}
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{\s3 \afs28
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EL MICROPROCESADOR: \u161?PUES CLARO QUE ERA NEGOCIO!\par\pard\plain\hyphpar}\pa
r\pard\plain\hyphpar}\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Robert Noyce, uno de los inventores del chip, y Gordon Moore, autor de la ley qu
e lleva su nombre y que predice un progreso constante en la capacidad y precio d

e esas piezas de silicio que pueblan nuestros ordenadores, decidieron creerse la

s predicciones de este \u250?ltimo e irse de Fairchild para fundar una nueva emp
resa: Intel.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Era el a\u241?o 1968, y su prop\u243?sito declarado consist\u237?a en fabricar c
hips de memoria en lugar de emplear los n\u250?cleos de ferrita en ese tiempo ha
bituales. La idea resultaba absurda: los circuitos integrados no eran por entonc
es mejores, en t\u233?rminos de fiabilidad y capacidad, que sus predecesores. Pe
ro ah\u237? entraba la ley de Moore. Estaban seguros de que en muy poco tiempo t
endr\u237?an raz\u243?n. Total, que en 1969 lanzaron el circuito de memoria Inte
l 1103, de un m\u237?sero kilobyte de capacidad\u8230? pero que tuvo su \u233?xi
to y todo. No hab\u237?an tardado demasiado, la verdad.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar}
{
Siendo como eran una empresa peque\u241?a, no pod\u237?an permitirse el lujo de
rechazar encargos potencialmente lucrativos, aunque se alejaran del objetivo que
se hab\u237?an marcado. As\u237? que recibieron a los japoneses del fabricante
de calculadoras Busicom, que les pidieron que dise\u241?aran los chips necesario
s para hacer funcionar una docena de nuevos modelos de calculadora que quer\u237
?an sacar al mercado. Estudiando el tema, llegaron a la conclusi\u243?n de que n
unca recuperar\u237?an el coste de dise\u241?ar unos procesadores tan espec\u237
?ficos. Pero \u191?rechazar a un cliente? \u161?Jam\u225?s!\par\pard\plain\hyphp
ar} {
Ted Hoff, el ingeniero encargado del proyecto, pens\u243? que ser\u237?a mejor o
ptar por un dise\u241?o mucho m\u225?s general. En lugar de hacer la docena de c
hips que les hab\u237?an encargado, pod\u237?an hacer uno de prop\u243?sito gene
ral y guardar las especificaciones de cada una de las calculadoras en un program
a aparte. De este modo, cada aparato tendr\u237?a s\u243?lo tres chips: el proce
sador, la memoria para almacenar los datos y los resultados de los c\u225?lculos
y el que albergaba el programa. Todos ser\u237?an circuitos que podr\u237?an re
utilizarse.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Hoff fue el encargado de dise\u241?ar la arquitectura general del chip, con la a
yuda de Stan Mazor, pero pronto empez\u243? a dedicarse a otros proyectos, as\u2
37? que el principal responsable de la dif\u237?cil tarea de trasladar al silici
o las ideas de sus compa\u241?eros fue Federico Faggin, con algo de ayuda de Mas
atoshi Shuma, de una Busicom con la mosca detr\u225?s de la oreja. Juntos crearo
n el Intel 4004, el primer microprocesador o, como lo llamar\u237?a Intel m\u225
?s tarde en sus folletos publicitarios, el primer \u171?ordenador en un chip\u18
7?.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Ese eslogan, aunque algo exagerado, no estaba demasiado lejos de la realidad. El
Intel 4004 ten\u237?a unos 2300 transistores \u8212?un poco por debajo de las 3
000 v\u225?lvulas del primer Univac\u8212? y s\u243?lo 4 bits, porque estaba pen
sado para calculadoras y le bastaba eso para trabajar con n\u250?meros decimales
. Los de ahora andan por los 64 bits y unos pocos 1200 millones de transistores.
\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
El problema es que nuestros hombres concluyeron el encargo en la primavera del a
\u241?o 1971, y para entonces ya estaba desatada la guerra de las calculadoras.
Busicom ten\u237?a problemas para sobrevivir, y de hecho acabar\u237?a echando e
l cierre; en aquel momento lo que hizo fue pedir a Intel una rebaja en el precio
. La empresa de Noyce y Moore accedi\u243?, a cambio de poder vender su micropro
cesador a otras compa\u241?\u237?as. Ahora sabemos que aquel acuerdo dio comienz
o a un negocio multimillonario, pero entonces no estaba muy clara la cosa. De he
cho, Noyce cre\u237?a que el negocio segu\u237?a estando en las memorias, porque
por cada ordenador se pod\u237?a vender un solo microprocesador, pero muchos ch
ips de memoria.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Como d\u225?ndole la raz\u243?n, el 4004 no tuvo demasiado \u233?xito, entre otr
as cosas porque su arquitectura de 4 bits lo limitaba a productos como calculado
ras o cajas registradoras. Pero puso a Intel a trabajar. En 1972 lanzaron el 800
8, que era como su antecesor pero con 8 bits. Fue fruto de un encargo de Compute
r Terminal Corporation para uno de sus terminales Datapoint, fabricados para con
ectarlos a los enormes ordenadores de entonces. Tambi\u233?n dise\u241?ado por F
aggin, el conjunto de instrucciones que aceptaba fue creado por los muchachos de

CTC. Ese conjunto de instrucciones fue llevado por Intel, con algunos cambios,
de microprocesador en microprocesador, hasta el 8088, que fue incluido en el pri
mer PC, y de ah\u237? al 80286, al 80386, al 80486, al Pentium, al Pentium Pro,
al Pentium III, al Pentium IV, al Core, al Core 2 y a los Core i3, i5 e i7, que
son los que empleamos hoy en d\u237?a.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Al igual que sucediera con Busicom, CTC renunci\u243? a la exclusividad a cambio
de ahorrarse unos d\u243?lares, y el 8008 fue empleado como controlador en much
os aparatos y en sistemas de procesamiento de texto. Pero fue el 8080 el primero
que tuvo la calidad suficiente como para ser empleado como coraz\u243?n de un o
rdenador. Y vaya si lo fue: el primer ordenador personal, el Altair 8800, us\u24
3? precisamente ese chip.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
El trabajo de Intel fue seguido de cerca por muchos otros, porque la idea del mi
croprocesador estaba en el ambiente y hab\u237?an jugado con ella empresas como
Texas Instruments o Motorola. Pese a los augurios de Noyce, result\u243? ser un
mercado mucho m\u225?s lucrativo que las memorias, porque estas eran mucho m\u22
5?s f\u225?cilmente intercambiables entre fabricantes, mientras que los micropro
cesadores permit\u237?an atar a los usuarios a tu compa\u241?\u237?a, ya que un
programa creado para un tipo de microprocesador no puede funcionar directamente
para otro. De ah\u237? que un juego de instrucciones creado para un modelo de te
rminal por CTC, ahora llamado Datapoint, siga funcionando en nuestros ordenadore
s personales. La compatibilidad, ese arma tan poderosa\u8230?\par\pard\plain\hyp
hpar} {
Una vez el mundo se dio cuenta de la importancia de lo que hab\u237?an hecho en
Intel, tanto a Hoff como, en menor medida, a Razor se les honr\u243? como es deb
ido. Pero al pobre Faggin lo ocultaron debajo de la alfombra, pese a ser el prin
cipal responsable de la creaci\u243?n del microprocesador. Eso le pasa por irse
de Intel y encima fundar un competidor. Su empresa se llam\u243? Zilog y su prod
ucto estrella, el Z80, fue el coraz\u243?n de muchos ordenadores personales de l
os ochenta, como el ZX Spectrum. Y qu\u233? decir del pobre Shima, que tambi\u23
3?n cometi\u243? la felon\u237?a de irse a Zilog y encima era japon\u233?s\u8230
?\par\pard\plain\hyphpar}
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CON EL ALTAIR 8080 LLEG\u211? EL ESC\u193?NDALO: BILL GATES\par\pard\plain\hyphp
ar}\par\pard\plain\hyphpar}\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
A lo largo de los a\u241?os setenta, los componentes electr\u243?nicos de los or

denadores bajaron de precio lo suficiente como para que surgiera toda una hornad
a de individuos cuyo hobby consist\u237?a en montar calculadoras o incluso orden
adores con ellos. Eran personas que si hubieran nacido unas d\u233?cadas antes s
e hubieran dedicado a montar y usar equipos de radioaficionado.\par\pard\plain\h
yphpar} {
Lo que permiti\u243? el cultivo de esta afici\u243?n fue la aparici\u243?n de lo
s primeros microprocesadores. Con ellos cualquier empresa hubiera podido constru
ir un ordenador personal por alrededor de 2000 d\u243?lares de la \u233?poca; pe
ro a nadie se le ocurri\u243? que ah\u237? podr\u237?a haber un mercado suculent
o. De modo que fueron los frikis de entonces, la gente que disfrutaba entre cabl
es y circuitos impresos, los que se pusieron a ello: construyeron en sus casas s
us propias computadoras. En general, no hac\u237?an nada \u250?til, pues sus org
ullosos propietarios eran m\u225?s aficionados al cacharreo que a la programaci\
u243?n, pero fueron la base sobre la que crecer\u237?a luego la industria del or
denador personal.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
De hecho, fue a ese peque\u241?o grupo de entusiastas de la tecnolog\u237?a al q
ue estaba dirigido el Altair 8080, el primer ordenador personal. Fue portada de
la revista {\i
Popular Electronics} en enero de 1975, y se vend\u237?a en forma de kit por 397
d\u243?lares (498 si se quer\u237?a ya ensamblado). Era raro que una vez montado
aquello tirara; y cuando, tras varios intentos, funcionaba, no hac\u237?a nada
que pudiera considerarse \u250?til. Tampoco era el objetivo: lo que quer\u237?a
el cliente era tener una computadora, no que hiciera algo\u8230?\par\pard\plain\
hyphpar} {
Por dentro, el Altair consist\u237?a en un {\i
bus} donde se conectaban las tarjetas con los componentes. Las tarjetas eran cin
co, incluyendo una para el procesador y otra para la memoria, que alcanzaba la e
xtraordinaria cifra de\u8230? 256 bytes. La entrada de datos se hac\u237?a por m
edio de interruptores. Con ellos se programaba el c\u243?digo m\u225?quina del I
ntel 8080, coraz\u243?n de la computadora y antecesor del 8086 que llevar\u237?a
el primer PC de IBM. La respuesta la daban una serie de luces rojas.\par\pard\p
lain\hyphpar} {
Sus creadores pertenec\u237?an a una muy peque\u241?a empresa llamada MITS (Micr
o Instrumentation and Telemetry Systems), fundada a comienzos de la d\u233?cada
con el objeto de comercializar peque\u241?os productos de telemetr\u237?a para c
ohetes caseros. Poco despu\u233?s centr\u243? el negocio en las calculadoras, un
mercado que estaba en alza en aquella \u233?poca; pero fue v\u237?ctima de la c
ompetencia, que hizo bajar los precios muy por debajo del coste que supon\u237?a
para MITS la fabricaci\u243?n de sus aparatejos. As\u237? que Ed Roberts, uno d
e los dos fundadores de la compa\u241?\u237?a, pens\u243? que, como las calculad
oras comenzaron vendi\u233?ndose como kits que el cliente montaba en su casa, ig
ual podr\u237?a hacerse lo mismo de forma barata con un ordenador.\par\pard\plai
n\hyphpar} {
En sus planes entraba vender unas ochocientas unidades durante el primer a\u241?
o. Pues bien: en agosto ya hab\u237?a enviado cinco mil ordenadores a sus client
es. Y los veinte empleados de la casa hab\u237?an pasado a ser noventa a finales
de a\u241?o. Adem\u225?s del ordenador, MITS ofrec\u237?a todo tipo de producto
s para expandirlo, de forma que pudiera ser utilizado de alg\u250?n modo pr\u225
?ctico: desde tarjetas de memoria de 1 o 4 Kbytes hasta un interfaz para enchufa
rle un teletipo con el que poder programarlo\u8230? y abandonar los inc\u243?mod
os interruptores. No obstante, la lentitud de la compa\u241?\u237?a a la hora de
proveer esos perif\u233?ricos permiti\u243? a un mont\u243?n de aficionados y p
eque\u241?as empresas ofrecer alternativas compatibles, como sucedi\u243? con Pr
ocessor Technology, que lleg\u243? incluso a crear una {\i
tarjeta gr\u225?fica} que permit\u237?a al Altair mostrar caracteres en una pant
alla.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Sin duda, el Altair 8080 dej\u243? un legado duradero por s\u237? mismo: en los
dos a\u241?os que siguieron a su lanzamiento una mir\u237?ada de empresas nuevas
, de las que a estas alturas s\u243?lo Apple sigue en el machito, atacaron el me
rcado de los ordenadores personales, inund\u225?ndolo de ofertas m\u225?s atract

ivas incluso para el usuario corriente. Pero tambi\u233?n se le recuerda por hab
er comercializado el primer producto de una compa\u241?\u237?a reci\u233?n funda
da. Quiz\u225? les suene de algo. Se llamaba Micro-Soft.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar}
{
Sus fundadores fueron Bill Gates y Paul Allen, veintea\u241?eros y amigos desde
el instituto, donde descubrieron su pasi\u243?n com\u250?n por la programaci\u24
3?n. Ambos afirman que cuando leyeron el ya famoso n\u250?mero de enero de 1975
de {\i
Popular Electronics} concluyeron que el precio de los ordenadores seguir\u237?a
cayendo y cayendo, y que el verdadero negocio estaba en vender software para los
susodichos. As\u237? que se pusieron manos a la obra con la t\u225?ctica de ase
gurar que ya dispon\u237?an de un producto para generar inter\u233?s mientras se
dedicaban a programarlo.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Su primer movimiento fue enviar una carta a Ed Roberts en la que afirmaban tener
un int\u233?rprete para su ordenador del popular lenguaje Basic. Calcularon que
ten\u237?an unos 30 d\u237?as para ponerlo en marcha si quer\u237?an que nadie
les pisara la idea. Al creador del Altair le entusiasm\u243? la propuesta, espec
ialmente porque le daba la oportunidad de vender m\u225?s ampliaciones de memori
a con un jugoso margen de beneficio, de modo que llam\u243? al n\u250?mero de te
l\u233?fono que aparec\u237?a en la carta, que result\u243? ser de una casa en C
alifornia\u8230? en la que no ten\u237?an ni idea de qu\u233? era eso de un orde
nador, no digamos ya el Basic. En realidad, Gates y Allen estaban en Boston, y t
uvieron que llamar ellos para recibir una respuesta, claro. Quedaron en que en u
n par de semanas le har\u237?an una demostraci\u243?n.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
En realidad, les llev\u243? seis semanas de trabajo intenso. No ten\u237?an ning
\u250?n Altair, pero Allen hab\u237?a desarrollado un emulador de un procesador
de Intel previo al 8080 que funcionaba en un modelo de ordenador que pod\u237?an
utilizar en Harvard, donde Gates estudiaba; de modo que lo modific\u243? para q
ue emulara correctamente el procesador que usaba el ordenador personal y as\u237
? poder probar el int\u233?rprete de Basic. Mientras, Gates se esforz\u243? en u
sar todos los trucos de que dispon\u237?a para programar uno que entrara en unos
escasos 4K de memoria. En cuanto lo tuvieron terminado lo grabaron en una cinta
perforada, y Allen vol\u243? a Albuquerque para hacer la demostraci\u243?n. En
el avi\u243?n se dio cuenta de que no hab\u237?an escrito ninguna rutina de arra
nque que cargara el int\u233?rprete en la memoria del Altair, as\u237? que se pu
so a ello en pleno vuelo.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Bueno, la cosa arranc\u243?. Fue casi un milagro. Adem\u225?s, la nueva empresa
tuvo el acierto de pedir una cantidad en royalties por cada copia vendida en lug
ar de recibir una \u250?nica suma. Esto, y las subsiguientes versiones del Micro
soft Basic para otros ordenadores personales, permiti\u243? a la entonces peque\
u241?a empresa sobrevivir\u8230? hasta que lleg\u243? IBM con el MS-DOS. Pero, c
omo dir\u237?a el gran Michael Ende, eso es otra historia, y deber\u225? ser con
tada en otra ocasi\u243?n. En concreto unas p\u225?ginas m\u225?s adelante.\par\
pard\plain\hyphpar} {
En cuanto a Ed Roberts, cansado de gestionar el negocio, termin\u243? vendiendo
la empresa en 1976 por 6 millones de d\u243?lares, de los cuales recibi\u243? do
s, y se retir\u243? al campo. M\u225?s tarde estudi\u243? medicina y, cual docto
r Fleischman en Alaska, acab\u243? en un pueblo de Georgia de unos 5000 habitant
es ejerciendo de galeno. Curioso destino para quien cre\u243? la ahora gigantesc
a industria de los ordenadores personales, \u191?no?\par\pard\plain\hyphpar}
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{\s3 \afs28
{\b
{\ql
XEROX, EL FRACASO QUE COPIARON APPLE Y MICROSOFT\par\pard\plain\hyphpar}\par\par
d\plain\hyphpar}\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Los fan\u225?ticos de Apple suelen acusar a Microsoft de que su mayor \u233?xito
de ventas, Windows, no es m\u225?s que una vulgar copia del interfaz de su ador
ado Mac. Pero, siendo cierto, eso no significa que Steve Jobs fuera el rey de lo
s innovadores. Simplemente fue el primero en copiar el trabajo de otra empresa,
en este caso Xerox.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
\u191?Xerox, la de las fotocopiadoras? Pues s\u237?, esa misma. Como tem\u237?a
que los japoneses se hicieran con su negocio en cuanto expiraran sus patentes, e
n 1970 decidi\u243? poner en marcha un laboratorio de investigaci\u243?n, el Pal
o Alto Research Center (PARC), al que procur\u243? dar toda la libertad posible,
con el objetivo de que inventara cosas que pudieran comercializarse en el futur
o y as\u237? conseguir diversificar su producci\u243?n. Dados los ingresos que o
bten\u237?a de las fotocopiadoras, el dinero que se gast\u243? en el PARC era ca
si casi el chocolate del loro, aunque lo cierto es que, en t\u233?rminos absolut
os, fue una pasta. Pero al final s\u243?lo logr\u243? beneficiarse de uno de los
productos del ingenio de quienes all\u237? trabajaron: la impresora l\u225?ser.
Andando el tiempo, muchos de sus empleados acabar\u237?an fundando empresas, co
mo Adobe o 3com, para comercializar algunos de sus descubrimientos ya que la pro
pia Xerox no se animaba; y otras compa\u241?\u237?as, como Apple o Microsoft, le
copiar\u237?an vilmente.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Aquel laboratorio hizo varias aportaciones realmente importantes en aquella d\u2
33?cada de los setenta, como el est\u225?ndar de red Ethernet, el lenguaje de de
scripci\u243?n de p\u225?ginas Inter Press o el primer lenguaje orientado a obje
tos: Smalltalk. No obstante, al final pasar\u237?a a la historia por la creaci\u
243?n de un interfaz de usuario intuitivo para los ordenadores, que permiti\u243
? a la gente normal y corriente usar los susodichos sin tener que aprenderse un
manual y teclear comandos complicados. Ese interfaz se llamar\u237?a posteriorme
nte WIMP, por las iniciales en ingl\u233?s de sus principales componentes: venta
nas, iconos, rat\u243?n y men\u250?s desplegables.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Pero para llegar hasta ese interfaz que empleamos actualmente \u8212?no s\u243?l
o en ordenadores, tambi\u233?n en m\u243?viles y otros muchos dispositivos\u8212
?, la inform\u225?tica tuvo que recorrer un largo camino, desde aquellas primera
s m\u225?quinas alimentadas por tarjetas perforadas. Fue en el marco de un proye
cto iniciado en la Segunda Guerra Mundial cuando se hizo el primer avance clave:
la capacidad de los ordenadores para responder de forma inmediata a las \u243?r
denes de los usuarios. Se llam\u243? Whirlwind, ech\u243? a andar en 1943 y esta
ba dirigido por Jay W. Forrester. La idea era construir un simulador de vuelo co
n una cabina id\u233?ntica a las de los aviones y que respondiera de inmediato a
lo que hiciera el aprendiz de piloto: de ese modo se podr\u237?an ahorrar mucha
s horas de vuelo de entrenamiento y tener m\u225?s pilotos listos para el combat
e.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
El proyecto no s\u243?lo no se termin\u243? a tiempo, sino que jam\u225?s se pro
dujo simulador alguno, aunque el ordenador que se cre\u243? para la ocasi\u243?n

se emple\u243? posteriormente en un gigantesco sistema de defensa llamado SAGE.

No obstante, se acab\u243? resolviendo el problema de la inmediatez {\i
atacando} el elemento m\u225?s lento de los dise\u241?os de entonces, la memoria
. Fue gracias al n\u250?cleo de ferrita, elemento que almacenaba la informaci\u2
43?n merced a un campo magn\u233?tico, ten\u237?a un tiempo de acceso de 9 micro
segundos y ser\u237?a la base de la memoria de muchos ordenadores en los a\u241?
os cincuenta y sesenta\u8230? y el escudo de mi Facultad de Inform\u225?tica, la
de la Universidad Polit\u233?cnica de Madrid.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Pero el principal avance se lo debemos a un ingeniero el\u233?ctrico llamado Dou
glas Engelbart, quien llevaba desde los a\u241?os cincuenta imaginando un ordena
dor que facilitase la comunicaci\u243?n y permitiese acelerar investigaciones y
descubrimientos. En los sesenta consigui\u243? financiaci\u243?n del ARPA \u8212
?agencia creada por el Gobierno estadounidense despu\u233?s del lanzamiento del
Sputnik ante el temor generalizado de que Estados Unidos perdiera irremisiblemen
te la carrera espacial\u8212? y cre\u243? un grupo de trabajo en Stanford que ac
abar\u237?a alumbrando el NLS, un prototipo de {\i
oficina electr\u243?nica} que inclu\u237?a, aunque a un precio prohibitivo, adel
antos como el rat\u243?n y las ventanas que formar\u237?an la base del sistema m
\u225?s completo que crear\u237?an en Xerox. La demostraci\u243?n que Engelbart
hizo en 1968 del invento incluy\u243? la primera videoconferencia, y se consider
a la madre de todas las presentaciones, incluyendo, s\u237?, las de Steve Jobs y
Al Gore.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Los recortes presupuestarios obligaron a algunos de los investigadores de Engelb
art a buscarse las casta\u241?as en otra parte, y el hecho de que estuviese, com
o quien dice, en la puerta de enfrente permiti\u243? a Xerox PARC reclutar a var
ios de ellos. Ya en 1972 comenzaron a trabajar en el Xerox Alto, considerado por
algunos el primer ordenador personal, aunque hay varios que le disputan el t\u2
37?tulo: parece m\u225?s razonable colgarle la etiqueta al Altair 8080, el prime
r ordenador dise\u241?ado y terminado como tal. Entre otros defectos, el Alto te
n\u237?a el de no haber sido comercializado (ni lo ser\u237?a jam\u225?s).\par\p
ard\plain\hyphpar} {
El modelo fue evolucionando con los a\u241?os. Inclu\u237?a una conexi\u243?n de
red, la misma que seguimos utilizando ahora, que tambi\u233?n hab\u237?an inven
tado en PARC: Ethernet. Tambi\u233?n un rat\u243?n algo m\u225?s evolucionado qu
e el de Engelbart, el de bola, que a\u250?n sobrevive en muchos lugares, aunque
va siendo reemplazado progresivamente por los \u243?pticos. Los documentos no se
ve\u237?an como una serie de caracteres en alg\u250?n tipo de letra de paso com
o hasta entonces, sino tal y como luego se ver\u237?an impresos, incorporando al
guno de los primeros editores Wysiwyg (lo que ves es lo que obtienes). Y, por su
puesto, gracias al equipo liderado por Alan Kay, ten\u237?a toda la parafernalia
de carpetas, iconos, ventanas y men\u250?s que forma parte de todos los ordenad
ores actuales. Steve Jobs tuvo la oportunidad de verlo en 1979\u8230? y Apple se
lanz\u243? a imitarlo inmediatamente.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Xerox se decidi\u243? finalmente a producir un ordenador que incorporase todos e
sos conceptos y que pudiera vender: el 8010, m\u225?s conocido como Xerox Star.
Fue lanzado en 1981, el mismo a\u241?o que el PC de IBM, y se convirti\u243? en
la estrella tecnol\u243?gica del momento. Desgraciadamente, como le suceder\u237
?a al Apple Lisa dos a\u241?os despu\u233?s, su precio de 16 000 d\u243?lares er
a demasiado alto como para que el mercado al que estaba destinado, el de oficina
s, lo comprara. Adem\u225?s, era un pel\u237?n lento, sobre todo por el sistema
de ficheros elegido, que pod\u237?a tardar varios minutos en guardar un archivo
grande. Aunque en 1985 Xerox logr\u243? mejorarlo y reducir el precio a 6000 pav
os, el Star estaba condenado, sobre todo con los PC y los Mac ya rondando por ah
\u237?\u8230?\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Al final tuvo que ser una copia de una copia, el Windows de Microsoft, el que fi
nalmente llevara a las masas ese interfaz de usuario que hab\u237?a so\u241?ado
Engelbart. Y gracias a Internet, la realidad ha acabado siendo muy parecida a su
sue\u241?o de que las personas tuvieran a su disposici\u243?n un ordenador prop
io que les permitiese navegar por un espacio de informaci\u243?n y colaborar ent
re s\u237? para resolver problemas de una forma completamente nueva y m\u225?s e

ficaz.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar}
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{\s3 \afs28
{\b
{\ql
STEVE JOBS: CR\u205?A CUERVOS, QUE TE SACAR\u193?N DE APPLE\par\pard\plain\hyphp
ar}\par\pard\plain\hyphpar}\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
El Altair 8080 abri\u243? las puertas a que muchas peque\u241?as empresas lanzar
an sus propios ordenadores personales. De las compa\u241?\u237?as que se metiero
n en los a\u241?os setenta en el negocio (Commodore, Tandy, Atari, Texas Instrum
ents\u8230?) s\u243?lo sobrevivi\u243? una: Apple; gracias, fundamentalmente, a
uno de sus fundadores, Steve Jobs, que acab\u243? siendo recompensado con una pa
tada en salva sea la parte.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Steve Jobs y Steve Wozniak eran dos amigos que se hab\u237?an conocido en Hewlet
t-Packard. Fundaron Apple en 1976, junto al hoy desconocido Ronald Wayne, que le
s abandon\u243? poco despu\u233?s por considerar un riesgo muy alto participar e
n una empresa en la que el \u250?nico que ten\u237?a bienes dignos de ser embarg
ados era \u233?l; de su participaci\u243?n, lo \u250?nico que queda es el primer
dise\u241?o del logotipo de la manzana. El objetivo de Apple era comercializar
un ordenador personal que hab\u237?a dise\u241?ado {\i
Woz}, que es como se conoce a Wozniak por el pecado de tener semejante apellido.
Aunque al principio el t\u233?cnico no estaba muy seguro de que aquello fuera a
tener \u233?xito, Jobs le convenci\u243? dici\u233?ndole que, si fracasaban, al
menos podr\u237?an contarles a sus nietos que tuvieron su propia empresa.\par\p
ard\plain\hyphpar} {
Aquel primer producto, el Apple 1, no ten\u237?a teclado, ni transformador ni pa
ntalla; ni siquiera caja\u8230? No era m\u225?s que un circuito integrado que, e
so s\u237?, usaba una televisi\u243?n para mostrar caracteres a la lastimosa vel
ocidad de 60 por segundo y pod\u237?a leer y grabar programas con una cassette,
como har\u237?an tantos otros ordenadores hasta finales de los a\u241?os ochenta
. No deja de ser un inicio curioso para una compa\u241?\u237?a que luego ser\u23
7?a conocida por el atractivo dise\u241?o exterior de sus aparatos. Le pusieron
el precio de 666,66 d\u243?lares \u8212?Woz era un graciosillo\u8212?. Llegaron
a montar doscientos equipos en casa de los padres de Jobs \u8212?primero en el d
ormitorio de este y m\u225?s tarde en el garaje\u8212?, que vendieron principalm
ente a trav\u233?s de una tienda de inform\u225?tica local, Byte Shop.\par\pard\
plain\hyphpar} {
S\u237?, el Apple 1 era tan cutre porque no ten\u237?an dinero para comprar mejo

res componentes. De hecho, tuvieron que vender la furgoneta Volkswagen de Jobs y

la calculadora cient\u237?fica HP de Woz, entre otras cosas, para reunir el cap
ital suficiente para comprar las piezas y poder venderlas ya ensambladas y proba
das. Pero con el dinero de las ventas empezaron a planear c\u243?mo ser\u237?a e
l sucesor de ese primer aparatejo. Jobs ten\u237?a claro que, si quer\u237?an ir
m\u225?s all\u225? del reducido mercado de los fan\u225?ticos de la tecnolog\u2
37?a, tendr\u237?an que ofrecer un producto simple, que s\u243?lo hubiera que co
nectar para que el usuario pudiera, efectivamente, usarlo. Tambi\u233?n necesita
r\u237?a algo de software para funcionar nada m\u225?s arrancarlo; al principio
ser\u237?a un int\u233?rprete del lenguaje Basic, como el que hab\u237?a desarro
llado Microsoft para el Altair 8080. Woz, que pese a no tener estudios era un in
geniero de un talento descomunal, se puso manos a la obra, y en 1977 el Apple II
estuvo listo.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
El Apple II fue el m\u225?s exitoso de la denominada Trinidad de 1977; principal
mente porque sobrevivi\u243?, en varias versiones, hasta nada m\u225?s y nada me
nos que 1993, si bien en aquellos a\u241?os de finales de los setenta se vend\u2
37?a menos que los otros dos integrantes de la tr\u237?ada: el Commodore PET y e
l Tandy TRS-80. Pese al \u233?xito del 64 y el Amiga, Commodore fue a la bancarr
ota en 1994, y Tandy dej\u243? de fabricar ordenadores en los noventa: en 2000 c
ambi\u243? su nombre por el de RadioShack, su cadena de tiendas de computadores
y electr\u243?nica.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Apple, en cambio, sobrevivi\u243?. De milagro. La principal raz\u243?n no fue el
talento ingenieril de Wozniak, sino la capacidad de Jobs para vender burras. Se
cuenta, por ejemplo, que cuando ten\u237?a trece a\u241?os llam\u243? por tel\u
233?fono a uno de los fundadores de HP, el multimillonario William Hewett, para
pedirle unos componentes electr\u243?nicos que necesitaba para un proyecto escol
ar. El asombrado empresario no s\u243?lo se los envi\u243?, sino que le meti\u24
3? en los programas de verano de la compa\u241?\u237?a, que es donde conocer\u23
7?a a Wozniak. Ya en 1977, Jobs ten\u237?a claro que si quer\u237?an sobrevivir
deb\u237?an crecer, y para ello necesitaban que la empresa fuese gestionada por
alguien que supiese c\u243?mo se hac\u237?an esas cosas, financiaci\u243?n sufic
iente, acceso a los canales de distribuci\u243?n y unas buenas relaciones p\u250
?blicas. Consigui\u243? dinero de un inversor de capital riesgo, Mike Makkula, q
ue le present\u243? su antiguo jefe en Atari. Este le consigui\u243? un directiv
o profesional para llevar la empresa, Mike Scott. Y finalmente logr\u243? que Re
gis McKenna lo aceptara como cliente de su agencia de publicidad.\par\pard\plain
\hyphpar} {
Tecnol\u243?gicamente, Apple II incorporaba algunas novedades interesantes, como
su capacidad para desplegar gr\u225?ficos en color, raz\u243?n por la cual el l
ogotipo de Apple cambi\u243? \u8212?para mostrar una suerte de arco iris\u8212?,
y su unidad de disco externa, Apple Disk II, fue la primera en resultar asequib
le gracias a las innovaciones que Wozniak introdujo en su dise\u241?o y que perm
itieron abaratarla lo suficiente.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Se ofreci\u243? como un ordenador personal para el hogar. El anuncio mostraba a
una mujer en la cocina mientras el marido, en segundo plano, trabajaba con el Ap
ple II. El texto ven\u237?a a decir que el cacharro en cuesti\u243?n permitir\u2
37?a llevar la contabilidad de la casa, almacenar recetas, calcular los impuesto
s y realizar todo tipo de tareas\u8230? que en realidad no pod\u237?a hacer, por
que casi no ten\u237?a aplicaciones. Sin embargo, todo cambi\u243? gracias al la
nzamiento, en 1979, de la primera hoja de c\u225?lculo de \u233?xito, VisiCalc,
que convirti\u243? el ordenador en un objeto de deseo para muchos ejecutivos.\pa
r\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
El rumbo de Apple quedar\u237?a marcado por la visita que hicieron Jobs y alguno
s ingenieros de la empresa a los laboratorios de Xerox en Palo Alto. Ah\u237? de
scubrir\u237?an el interfaz de usuario que estaban desarrollando, y decidieron h
acer algo similar. As\u237?, en 1983 aparecer\u237?a Lisa. Era un ordenador extr
aordinario, con rat\u243?n y con los conceptos de las interfaces modernas, como
las ventanas, el arrastrar y soltar, las carpetas, los iconos\u8230? en fin, tod
o. Pero costaba 10 000 d\u243?lares y, claro, no lo compr\u243? ni el tato.\par\
pard\plain\hyphpar} {

Sin embargo, nadie pod\u237?a culpar del fracaso a Wozniak o a Jobs. El primero
hab\u237?a sufrido un accidente de aviaci\u243?n en 1981 que le produjo problema
s con la memoria a corto plazo; luego, cuando se cur\u243?, decidi\u243? cambiar
de vida, abandonar Apple, casarse y volver a la universidad; quiz\u225? su part
icipaci\u243?n hubiera permitido construir un producto mucho m\u225?s barato. En
cuanto a Jobs, la junta directiva de la compa\u241?\u237?a decidi\u243? que no
era capaz de dirigir un proyecto tan complejo como Lisa. As\u237? que tuvo que c
onformarse con otro que la empresa consideraba menor, con una plantilla inicial
de ocho ingenieros. Se llamaba Macintosh.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
La idea era llevar a la realidad esa imagen que aparec\u237?a en el anuncio del
Apple II: un ordenador suficientemente f\u225?cil de usar y a la vez suficientem
ente barato como para poder convertirse en un electrodom\u233?stico m\u225?s, al
menos en las casas m\u225?s pudientes. Steve Jobs se equivocaba. No exist\u237?
a a\u250?n un mercado para eso. Pero ese enfoque oblig\u243? a reducir al m\u225
?ximo los costes, clave para su \u233?xito posterior en nichos de mercado como l
a edici\u243?n y el dise\u241?o gr\u225?fico. B\u225?sicamente, su trabajo consi
st\u237?a en rehacer Lisa con componentes m\u225?s gen\u233?ricos y mucho m\u225
?s baratos. El sistema operativo y su interfaz de usuario fueron reprogramados e
n lenguaje ensamblador, lo que permiti\u243? hacerlo m\u225?s r\u225?pido y pequ
e\u241?o, aun a costa de complicar el desarrollo.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
El fracaso de Lisa puso a Apple en una situaci\u243?n delicada. Su \u250?nico \u
233?xito de ventas era el Apple II, y estaba condenado a morir antes o despu\u23
3?s en el altar del reci\u233?n llegado IBM PC. Su sucesor, el Apple III, fracas
\u243? estrepitosamente. El intento de situar la compa\u241?\u237?a como proveed
ora de ordenadores para las empresas hab\u237?a fracasado. As\u237? que su \u250
?nica posibilidad de sobrevivir era, de nuevo, Steve Jobs y su Mac. El desarroll
o se aceler\u243?. De ocupar una peque\u241?a oficina \u8212?que adornaron con u
na bandera pirata para remarcar su condici\u243?n de outsiders dentro de la empr
esa\u8212?, el proyecto creci\u243? hasta ocupar a cuarenta y siete ingenieros:
Jobs se empe\u241?\u243? en que todos ellos firmaran en el molde que se usar\u23
7?a luego para fabricar las cajas de pl\u225?stico que formaban el exterior del
ordenador. Su precio iba a rondar los 2000 d\u243?lares, aunque finalmente se ve
nder\u237?a por 2500 para sufragar los gastos de publicidad en que iba a incurri
r la empresa.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Fue en ese periodo cuando Jobs decidi\u243? buscar un nuevo jefe capaz de llevar
la empresa a buen puerto. Se decidi\u243? por John Sculley, que hab\u237?a logr
ado resucitar Pepsi y convertirla de nuevo en un rival digno de Coca-Cola. Lo co
nvenci\u243? con su inagotable talento de vendedor: \u171?\u191?Qu\u233? prefier
es, seguir vendiendo bebidas azucaradas a los ni\u241?os el resto de tu vida o t
ener una oportunidad de cambiar el mundo?\u187?. Sculley decidi\u243? que el cam
ino de Apple era diferenciar su producto del PC, que se hab\u237?a convertido r\
u225?pidamente en un est\u225?ndar. Su principal arma fue un anuncio de televisi
\u243?n dirigido por Ridley Scott y que fue emitido una sola vez, en la Superbow
l de 1984. En \u233?l, una hero\u237?na sin nombre destru\u237?a al Gran Hermano
mientras la voz invitaba a descubrir el Mac y as\u237? averiguar \u171?por qu\u
233? 1984 no ser\u225? como {\i
1984}\u187?. Repetido incesantemente durante las siguientes semanas en los infor
mativos, logr\u243? crear un aprecio por la marca que a\u250?n perdura.\par\pard
\plain\hyphpar} {
Sin embargo, Jobs no pudo disfrutar del \u233?xito. Al principio las ventas del
Mac fueron flojas y \u233?l se empe\u241?\u243? en culpar a Sculley, al que quis
o descabalgar. Se produjo una lucha por el poder entre los dos que termin\u243?
con la decisi\u243?n de la junta directiva de prescindir de Steve: en 1985, al p
oco de cumplir los treinta a\u241?os, fue despedido de la empresa que hab\u237?a
fundado.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
En lugar de hundirse, o retirarse a vivir de las rentas, Jobs vendi\u243? todas
sus acciones (menos una); con el dinero fund\u243? otra empresa inform\u225?tica
, NeXT, y compr\u243? a George Lucas un peque\u241?o grupo de animaci\u243?n por
ordenador, The Graphics Group, al que despu\u233?s llamar\u237?a Pixar. En 1995
estren\u243? {\i

Toy Story}, la primera de una incre\u237?blemente exitosa serie de pel\u237?cula

s animadas por ordenador, que salvaron a Disney de la bancarrota y permitieron a
Jobs hacer una provechosa venta y, as\u237?, convertirse en el mayor accionista
individual de la compa\u241?\u237?a del t\u237?o Walt.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar}
{
En 1996 Apple compr\u243? NeXT\u8230? y Jobs volvi\u243? a dirigir su compa\u241
?\u237?a un a\u241?o despu\u233?s. Los Mac estaban entonces en franca decadencia
, pero el sistema operativo creado en NeXT sirvi\u243? de base para el Mac OS X,
lo que permiti\u243? que, tecnol\u243?gicamente, Apple volviera a estar en la v
anguardia y, poco a poco, alcanzara cifras de venta que nunca antes hab\u237?a t
enido. En 2001 lanz\u243? el reproductor musical port\u225?til iPod, del que se
han vendido m\u225?s de 200 millones de unidades; en 2007 le lleg\u243? el turno
al iPhone, que ha superado los treinta millones de ventas\u8230?\par\pard\plain
\hyphpar} {
Ah, y los Mac son los \u250?nicos ordenadores personales que han sobrevivido a l
a estandarizaci\u243?n que supuso la aparici\u243?n del PC, en 1981.\par\pard\pl
ain\hyphpar}
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{\s3 \afs28
{\b
{\ql
EL T\u205?O CLIVE Y LA GENERACI\u211?N SPECTRUM\par\pard\plain\hyphpar}\par\pard
\plain\hyphpar}\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Si en Estados Unidos la revoluci\u243?n del ordenador personal estuvo liderada p
or el Apple II, en toda Europa, y especialmente en Espa\u241?a, la llegada de es
tos cacharros a los hogares la protagoniz\u243? un peque\u241?o aparato negro co
n teclas de goma: el Sinclair ZX Spectrum.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Su creador, Clive Sinclair, hab\u237?a comenzado muy pronto en esto de la electr
\u243?nica. Hijo de ingenieros, en lugar de estudiar quiso trabajar pronto a fin
de lograr el capital necesario para fundar su propia empresa. Tras unos a\u241?
os en el sector editorial, dirigiendo revistas y escribiendo libros de electr\u2
43?nica, pudo fundar en 1961 su primera compa\u241?\u237?a, Sinclair Radionics,
mediante la cual comenz\u243? a vender sus kits de electr\u243?nica para equipos
de radio y alta fidelidad. Durante la segunda mitad de los sesenta, su nombre e
mpezar\u237?a a hacerse conocido por fabricar los aparatos de radio m\u225?s peq
ue\u241?os del mundo: Micro-6 y Micromatic, gracias a los cuales gan\u243? a los
japoneses en su especialidad.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Sin embargo, ser\u237?a en los setenta cuando alcanzar\u237?a sus mayores \u233?

xitos, al involucrarse en la cruenta guerra de las calculadoras. En el verano de

1972 lanzar\u237?a la Sinclar Executive, la primera calculadora de bolsillo rea
lmente delgada (9 mil\u237?metros frente a los 22 o 35 de sus competidoras), cuy
o tama\u241?o era m\u225?s o menos parecido al de un iPhone. Sus ingenieros logr
aron reducir el consumo de estos aparatos de 350 a 30 milivatios, cortando la co
rriente doscientas mil veces por segundo. Al ser tan r\u225?pido, ni a la pantal
la ni a los chips les daba tiempo a apagarse del todo, de modo que recordaban qu
\u233? estaban haciendo y pod\u237?an cumplir su cometido. Gracias a ello pudier
on emplear pilas de bot\u243?n en lugar de las que se empleaban entonces, mucho
m\u225?s grandes y que engordaban la m\u225?quina.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Ahora bien, la ruina de Sinclair Radionics era inminente. Y no por las calculado
ras, como le suceder\u237?a a tantas y tantas empresas de electr\u243?nica de la
\u233?poca, sino por el lanzamiento en 1975 de un reloj digital, el Black Watch
, un cacharro tremendamente sensible a la electricidad est\u225?tica, tanto que
en muchas ocasiones ya sal\u237?a de f\u225?brica estropeado, o se fastidiaba cu
ando lo rozaba una prenda de nylon. Para colmo de males, las bater\u237?as durab
an s\u243?lo diez d\u237?as, y se atrasaba o adelantaba dependiendo de la temper
atura ambiente. Un desastre que arruin\u243? la empresa a base de devoluciones.\
par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
El gobierno laborista de entonces la salv\u243?; los intentos de reflotarla medi
ante un televisor port\u225?til y un ordenador llamado New Brain fracasaron, y e
n 1979 el gobierno acab\u243? por echar a Clive Sinclair de la que hab\u237?a si
do su empresa para proceder a dividirla y vender los pedazos, como hac\u237?a el
malvado capitalista Richard Gere antes de ser salvado por Julia Roberts en Pret
ty Woman.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
El ingeniero sin t\u237?tulo ten\u237?a un Plan B. A\u241?os atr\u225?s hab\u237
?a comprado otra compa\u241?\u237?a sin actividad con la intenci\u243?n de volca
r en ella sus esfuerzos si las cosas iban mal en Radionics. Llamada Sinclair Ins
truments, logr\u243? lanzar con \u233?xito una calculadora de pulsera y un micro
ordenador personal en forma de kit, el MK-14, que costaba s\u243?lo 40 libras fr
ente a los precios m\u225?s comunes entonces, de entre 400 y 750 libras; claro,
que los dem\u225?s ordenadores pod\u237?an hacer cosas \u250?tiles y este, como
en su d\u237?a el Altair 8080, era un juguete para aficionados a la electr\u243?
nica. Pero tuvo \u233?xito y permiti\u243? a su fundador encontrar un refugio tr
as su despido.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Clive Sinclair tendr\u237?a su epifan\u237?a al leer un art\u237?culo del {\i
Financial Times} en el que se auguraba que en el plazo de cuatro o cinco a\u241?
os habr\u237?a ordenadores por menos de cien libras. Adem\u225?s de cambiar el n
ombre de su empresa compulsivamente (pas\u243? a ser Science of Cambridge, luego
Sinclair Computers y finalmente Sinclair Research), se esforz\u243? por arruina
r aquella predicci\u243?n anunciando ocho meses despu\u233?s, en enero de 1980,
el lanzamiento del ZX80.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Con un precio de 80 libras en forma de kit y 100 ya montado, el ZX80 redujo los
costes empleando una poco duradera membrana t\u225?ctil como teclado, un televis
or como monitor y un casete como sistema de almacenamiento, estos dos \u250?ltim
os no incluidos, claro. Ten\u237?a 1 kilobyte de memoria RAM, los n\u250?meros s
\u243?lo alcanzaban los cinco d\u237?gitos y los decimales\u8230? como que no se
le daban muy bien. Sinclair, pensando en el mercado educativo, incluy\u243? el
lenguaje Basic, lo que terminar\u237?a provocando que un buen n\u250?mero de pro
gramadores aprendi\u233?ramos el oficio con ese lenguaje. Fue un gran \u233?xito
para la \u233?poca, vendi\u233?ndose unas 50 000 unidades.\par\pard\plain\hyphp
ar} {
Al a\u241?o siguiente, Sinclair present\u243? el ZX81. Pr\u225?cticamente id\u23
3?ntico a su antecesor, pero empleando menos chips, ten\u237?a un precio menor:
50 o 70 libras, dependiendo de si hab\u237?a que montarlo o ven\u237?a ya comple
to de f\u225?brica. Pese a errores graves de dise\u241?o \u8212?por ejemplo, dab
a 1,3591409 como resultado de la ra\u237?z cuadrada de 0,25, en lugar de 0,5\u82
12?, el ordenador traspas\u243? las fronteras de Gran Breta\u241?a y vendi\u243?
mill\u243?n y medio de unidades antes de ser reemplazado por la obra que valdr\
u237?a a Sinclair un huequecito en la historia de la inform\u225?tica: el ZX Spe

ctrum.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Ven\u237?a en dos versiones, de 16 y 48 Kb, y pod\u237?a mostrar colores en pant
alla y emitir sonidos. El teclado hab\u237?a mejorado, levemente, con la introdu
cci\u243?n de teclas de goma en lugar de la membrana t\u225?ctil. Entre el model
o original y sus sucesores se vender\u237?an unos cinco millones. Era m\u225?s c
aro y ya no se vend\u237?a como kit, pero por 125 libras, o 175 si se quer\u237?
a con m\u225?s memoria, se dispon\u237?a de un ordenador bastante completo que p
ara muchos, incluyendo a quien escribe esto, supuso su primer contacto con la in
form\u225?tica: existe toda una generaci\u243?n Spectrum entre la profesi\u243?n
.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Pese a su intenci\u243?n educativa, lo cierto es que el Spectrum termin\u243? co
nvirti\u233?ndose en una m\u225?quina dedicada principalmente a los videojuegos;
de ello se encargar\u237?an principalmente los mismos j\u243?venes que gracias
a \u233?l pusieron sus zarpas encima de un ordenador por primera vez. Se han pro
gramado para el Spectrum alrededor de 20 000 t\u237?tulos, que a pesar de inclui
r software profesional como bases de datos o procesadores de texto fueron princi
palmente juegos; a\u250?n hoy siguen existiendo m\u225?quinas cl\u243?nicas en e
l este de Europa, como el Pentagon 1024SL, con cuatro megas de RAM y disco duro,
y hay pirados que contin\u250?an haciendo videojuegos para \u233?l.\par\pard\pl
ain\hyphpar} {
Desgraciadamente, los d\u237?as de vino y rosas duraron poco. Sinclair empez\u24
3? a ser una figura popular en Gran Breta\u241?a, donde se le conoc\u237?a como
\u171?t\u237?o Clive\u187?. El Gobierno de Thatcher, al que apoy\u243? incansabl
emente, le otorg\u243? el t\u237?tulo de caballero. Pero como sucediera en Radio
nics, pronto llegar\u237?an los fracasos. El primero fue el ordenador destinado
a suceder al Spectrum, al que llam\u243? QL. Lanzado poco antes que el Mac, en 1
984, era caro (cerca de 400 libras) y estaba destinado a un mercado m\u225?s pro
fesional. Pese a disponer de multitarea antes que nadie e incluir un paquete ofi
m\u225?tico, se lanz\u243? prematuramente y estaba repleto de errores de dise\u2
41?o. Adem\u225?s, el mercado profesional se comenzaba a volcar hacia el PC, y s
iendo el QL incompatible con el Spectrum, los propietarios de este no ten\u237?a
n razones para cambiarse.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Pero lo peor, no obstante, fue el desarrollo y lanzamiento del C5, un viejo empe
\u241?o que arrastraba sir Clive desde los a\u241?os setenta. Era un veh\u237?cu
lo el\u233?ctrico que alcanzaba s\u243?lo los 25 kil\u243?metros por hora y era
incapaz de subir cuestas si no se le ayudaba pedaleando. Encima se present\u243?
en el duro invierno brit\u225?nico, y el cacharro no ten\u237?a techo: se vendi
eron 12 000 unidades. En la ruina, Sinclair se vio obligado a vender su empresa
a Amstrad, su principal competidor, que producir\u237?a nuevas versiones del Spe
ctrum hasta 1990.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
La generaci\u243?n que creci\u243? con los ordenadores Sinclair ya se ha convert
ido en gente importante. Por poner un ejemplo, Linus Torvalds, el creador de Lin
ux, aprendi\u243? a programar con un QL, y su segundo de a bordo, Alan Cox, come
nz\u243? haciendo juegos para el Spectrum.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
El t\u237?o Clive sigue en activo, a sus setenta a\u241?os. Su \u250?ltimo produ
cto es una bicicleta plegable hecha con materiales ultraligeros. Y planea lanzar
la X1, una bici asistida por un motor el\u233?ctrico que recuerda al C5. Eso s\
u237?, esta vez con techo.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar}
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{\s3 \afs28
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EL FRUTO DEL MATRIMONIO DE IBM Y MICROSOFT: EL PC\par\pard\plain\hyphpar}\par\pa
rd\plain\hyphpar}\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
William Henry Gates III era un programador muy bueno y un empresario con olfato
y pocos escr\u250?pulos. Pero s\u243?lo con esas cualidades, imprescindibles por
otra parte para su \u233?xito, no se hubiera convertido en el hombre m\u225?s r
ico sobre la faz de la tierra. Hizo falta otra: la suerte.\par\pard\plain\hyphpa
r} {
Microsoft, la empresa que hab\u237?a fundado junto a Paul Allen, hab\u237?a pros
perado bastante desde que le vendieran su int\u233?rprete de Basic a Ed Roberts,
el creador del primer ordenador personal. Durante la segunda mitad de los a\u24
1?os setenta un mont\u243?n de compa\u241?\u237?as se dedicaron a lanzar sus pro
pios ordenadores personales basados en el procesador Intel 8080 y casi todos ten
\u237?an instalados dos productos de software: el Basic de Microsoft y un sistem
a operativo creado por Digital Research y llamado CP/M, cuya ubicuidad provoc\u2
43? que fuera conocido como el \u171?Unix de los microordenadores\u187?.\par\par
d\plain\hyphpar} {
As\u237?, en 1981 las dos empresas ten\u237?an una situaci\u243?n similar. Ambas
contaban con unos 100 empleados y facturaban 15 millones de d\u243?lares. Sin e
mbargo, unos meses antes Digital Research le hab\u237?a dejado a Microsoft en ba
ndeja la llave de un casi inagotable ba\u250?l de dinero. Eso s\u237?, ni uno ni
otro lo sab\u237?an.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
IBM hab\u237?a dejado pasar la revoluci\u243?n del ordenador personal, m\u225?s
que nada porque como hemos visto comenz\u243? como un fen\u243?meno de frikis qu
e ten\u237?an el ordenador como hobby. Pero estos peque\u241?os aparatos empezar
on a colarse dentro de las empresas, y el gigante azul reaccion\u243? con una ve
locidad sorprendente y un enfoque revolucionario para una compa\u241?\u237?a aco
stumbrada a hacerlo todo en casa. En julio de 1980, el directivo William Lowe pr
opuso al consejo de IBM crear un ordenador personal a base de juntar piezas prod
ucidas por otras compa\u241?\u237?as, de modo que pudieran tenerlo listo lo ante
s posible, ya que la velocidad parec\u237?a fundamental en este nuevo mercado. L
a propuesta fue aceptada dos semanas despu\u233?s, con la obligaci\u243?n de ten
erlo listo en un solo a\u241?o.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
El equipo de IBM encargado del \u171?Proyecto Ajedrez\u187?, nombre en clave del
futuro PC, no s\u243?lo ten\u237?a que construir una m\u225?quina sino tambi\u2
33?n equiparla con software. As\u237? que se puso en contacto con Microsoft para
incluir su Basic e interesarse por alguno de los otros lenguajes de la compa\u2
41?\u237?a, Fortran y Cobol. Como no estaban muy puestos en el mercado, pregunta
ron qui\u233?n pod\u237?a proporcionarles un sistema operativo. La respuesta era
obvia, pero a Gates no le hac\u237?a mucha gracia decirla, porque sus relacione
s con Digital Research se hab\u237?an enfriado bastante desde que se llegaran a
plantear una fusi\u243?n a\u241?o y medio antes. Ten\u237?an entonces un pacto t
\u225?cito de no agresi\u243?n seg\u250?n el cual Microsoft no hac\u237?a sistem
as operativos y Digital Research se absten\u237?a de vender lenguajes de program
aci\u243?n. Pero en 1979 la empresa dirigida por Gary Kindall lo viol\u243? vend
iendo un Basic propio.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Sin embargo, Gates hizo de tripas coraz\u243?n y llam\u243? a Kindall para decir

le que le pasaba unos clientes, que volar\u237?an desde Seattle a California al

d\u237?a siguiente por la ma\u241?ana y que por favor los tratara bien. No lo hi
zo. Lo que pas\u243? aquel d\u237?a nunca qued\u243? demasiado claro. S\u237? sa
bemos que Kindall estuvo volando con su avi\u243?n privado, seg\u250?n \u233?l e
n viaje de negocios. Aun as\u237?, asegura que lleg\u243? a tiempo para la reuni
\u243?n, ya por la tarde. La gente de IBM, en cambio, afirma que nunca le vieron
la cara. En cualquier caso, pese al fiasco de aquel primer acercamiento, siguie
ron intentando llegar a un acuerdo, pero Kindall no estaba seguro de poder cumpl
ir con los estrictos plazos del gigante azul: deb\u237?a adaptar su CP/M para lo
s nuevos procesadores de 16 bits de Intel y tener una primera versi\u243?n preli
minar para enero y no quiso comprometerse a ello, de modo que finalmente IBM vol
vi\u243? a llamar a la puerta de Bill Gates pregunt\u225?ndole si pod\u237?a ofr
ecerles algo.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Bill Gates respondi\u243? que s\u237?, que por supuesto, que cu\u225?ndo firmaba
n. Su regla era siempre vender primero, aunque luego se incumplieran los plazos
pactados y tuvieran que hacer una rebaja. La apuesta era muy arriesgada, porque
el \u250?nico contacto de Microsoft con los sistemas operativos era una adaptaci
\u243?n de Unix para microordenadores llamada Xenix que vend\u237?an pero no hab
\u237?an desarrollado ellos: una operaci\u243?n producto de la rabieta que les e
ntr\u243? cuando supieron que Digital Research vend\u237?a un Basic. Gates estim
\u243? que el sistema que necesitaba IBM no era tan complicado y lo podr\u237?an
tener a tiempo. Se equivocaba. Pero le vino Dios a ver en la forma del QDOS.\pa
r\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Seattle Computer Products era una de las decenas de empresas que intentaban vend
er ordenadores personales en aquella \u233?poca. Pero dos caracter\u237?sticas l
a hicieron destacar sobre las dem\u225?s: que estaba a veinte minutos en coche d
esde la sede de Microsoft y que, hartos de esperar a que Digital Research sacara
una versi\u243?n de CP/M para los nuevos y m\u225?s r\u225?pidos procesadores d
e Intel de 16 bits, los 8086, decidieron crear un clon ellos mismos, el \u171?r\
u225?pido y sucio sistema operativo\u187? o QDOS por sus siglas en ingl\u233?s.
En cuanto se enter\u243?, Gates compr\u243? primero una licencia y luego el sist
ema completo y fich\u243? a su programador Tim Patterson, que lo adapt\u243? a l
as necesidades de IBM. Ah, tambi\u233?n le cambiaron el nombre. Se llamar\u237?a
MS-DOS.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
El IBM PC sali\u243? a la venta en agosto de 1981 y s\u243?lo con la fuerza de l
a marca logr\u243? convertir al ordenador personal en algo respetable que las em
presas pod\u237?an y hasta deb\u237?an comprar. Pronto se agotaron y tuvo que cu
adruplicar su producci\u243?n para atender a la demanda. Tanto la m\u225?quina c
omo el sistema operativo se convirtieron en el est\u225?ndar, y sus herederos a\
u250?n contin\u250?an con nosotros, en nuestras casas y nuestras oficinas. Ning\
u250?n fabricante salvo Apple logr\u243? sobrevivir a la estandarizaci\u243?n.\p
ar\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
IBM y Microsoft vivieron este proceso de formas bien distintas. La \u250?nica pi
eza del PC realmente propia de IBM era la BIOS, un peque\u241?o chip que reconoc
e las distintas partes del ordenador, cada una de su padre y su madre, y las pon
e en marcha y coordina antes de cargar el sistema operativo. Pronto fue copiado
y, como las distintas piezas se pod\u237?an comprar a sus respectivos fabricante
s, pronto aparecieron los llamados cl\u243?nicos, ordenadores capaces de ejecuta
r MS-DOS y que hac\u237?an las mismas funciones que los de IBM. Pero mucho m\u22
5?s barato.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Microsoft, por su parte, se puso a vender su sistema operativo a todos estos fab
ricantes y creci\u243? como la espuma gracias a las ganancias. IBM nunca mostr\u
243? ninguna intenci\u243?n de comprar ni el sistema operativo ni el Basic que l
a empresa de Seattle hab\u237?a desarrollado para el gigante azul por temor a la
s demandas: hab\u237?a perdido varios juicios por encargar programas a terceros,
venderlos con su nombre y encontrarse despu\u233?s que el contratista hab\u237?
a copiado parte del c\u243?digo de otros. As\u237? que Bill Gates y Paul Allen s
e forraron vendiendo el MS-DOS tanto a IBM como a sus competidores: era la \u250
?nica pieza imprescindible para poder llamar PC a un PC.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar}
{

Pero segu\u237?an teniendo dos problemas: que el sistema operativo era realmente
cutre y que carec\u237?an de un entorno gr\u225?fico tan atractivo y f\u225?cil
de usar como el del Macintosh de Apple. Todos nuestros amigos desarrollaron uno
: Digital Research hizo el GEM, Microsoft lanz\u243? Windows e IBM uno que llam\
u243? TopView. Fracasaron estrepitosamente, porque el PC era a\u250?n demasiado
poco potente para poder ejecutarlos. Pero s\u243?lo Microsoft persever\u243?, pe
se a una infructuosa demanda de Apple por copiarles tan descaradamente como los
de Steve Jobs le hab\u237?an hecho a Xerox, hasta que la versi\u243?n 3.0 alcanz
\u243? el \u233?xito.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Sin embargo, Windows 3.0 segu\u237?a funcionando bajo el mismo y cutre MS-DOS de
siempre. A partir de 1985, IBM y Microsoft empezaron a desarrollar conjuntament
e un sucesor, al que llamar\u237?an OS/2. Pese a ser muy superior, fracas\u243?
por la misma raz\u243?n por la que Microsoft estaba nadando en una monta\u241?a
de dinero: porque por m\u225?s cutre que fuera, MS-DOS era el est\u225?ndar, y O
S/2 era incompatible con \u233?l, es decir, no pod\u237?a ejecutar los miles de
aplicaciones y juegos que se hab\u237?an desarrollado durante estos a\u241?os pa
ra el PC.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
El \u233?xito de Windows 3.0 y el fracaso de OS/2 llevaron a Microsoft a divorci
arse de IBM a comienzos de los a\u241?os noventa. El gigante azul empez\u243? a
tener p\u233?rdidas poco despu\u233?s y tuvo que reinventarse a s\u237? mismo co
mo empresa de servicios para lograr sobrevivir; con el tiempo dej\u243? incluso
de fabricar los PC que hab\u237?a inventado. Microsoft, en cambio, gracias a las
distintas versiones de Windows, convertido ya en sistema operativo en detriment
o del MS-DOS con el que guard\u243? la compatibilidad mucho tiempo, y a sus apli
caciones de ofim\u225?tica, pas\u243? a ser la primera empresa de inform\u225?ti
ca del mundo.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
El tercero en discordia, Digital Research, fue vendido a Novell en 1991, despu\u
233?s de que lanzara varias versiones de DR-DOS, un sistema compatible con MS-DO
S y, la verdad sea dicha, bastante mejor; tanto que Microsoft pens\u243? en intr
oducir falsos errores en Windows para que no funcionara con \u233?l. Kindall se
pas\u243? a\u241?os teniendo que escuchar a todo el mundo que, de no haberse ido
en avi\u243?n aquella ma\u241?ana, bien podr\u237?a haber sido el hombre m\u225
?s rico el mundo. Muri\u243? en 1994 en una pelea en un bar de motoristas.\par\p
ard\plain\hyphpar} {
Allen se retir\u243? a comienzos de los ochenta tras morir su padre y enfrentars
e a un c\u225?ncer linf\u225?tico. Pero sigui\u243? siendo amigo de Gates y perm
aneci\u243? en la junta directiva de Microsoft. Bill, el soltero m\u225?s codici
ado de su tiempo, se cas\u243? con una empleada en 1994 y se retir\u243? en 2006
para dirigir junto a ella una fundaci\u243?n. Aun sin \u233?l, Microsoft sigue
siendo la principal empresa de inform\u225?tica del mundo. Y eso s\u237? que no
es cuesti\u243?n de suerte.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {\par\pard\hyphpar }{\page }
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{
{\b
N}adie pens\u243? en jugar con los primeros ordenadores. Como mucho, a los inves
tigadores en inteligencia artificial les dio por intentar que las computadoras \
u171?pensaran\u187? y jugaran al ajedrez. Pero hombre, la verdad es que videojue
go, lo que se dice videojuego, eso no es. Hubo que esperar a los a\u241?os sesen
ta y la reducci\u243?n en el precio de la electr\u243?nica para que empezara a p
ensarse en emplearla con fines l\u250?dicos.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Los videojuegos comenzaron en los salones recreativos, complementando y finalmen
te sustituyendo a los tradicionales pinballs, futbolines y otros juegos similare
s. Muchos de los primeros ordenadores personales que llegaron a nuestros hogares
se emplearon principalmente para jugar, aunque el te\u243?rico objetivo de su c
ompra fuera otro m\u225?s serio y trascendente. Pero al final han sido computado
ras dise\u241?adas espec\u237?ficamente con esa finalidad, las consolas, las que
m\u225?s se emplean para pasar el rato.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Posiblemente las historias detr\u225?s de los videojuegos sean las m\u225?s desc
onocidas. Se ha documentado hasta la saciedad sobre otras formas de entretenimie
nto, como el cine o la televisi\u243?n, pero a las principales figuras de este m
undillo no las conoce ni el tato, incluyendo a quienes m\u225?s disfrutan de sus
obras. Y eso a pesar de que en algunos pa\u237?ses como el Reino Unido la factu
raci\u243?n del sector supera ya a las de sus rivales audiovisuales. Sin duda me
recer\u237?a un libro aparte, pero eso lo tendr\u225? que escribir otro. O yo, s
i me pagan una pasta gansa. Mientras tanto, espero que les sirvan las siguientes
p\u225?ginas como una peque\u241?a introducci\u243?n.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar}
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}}
{\s3 \afs28
{\b
{\ql
EL \u201?XITO TIENE MUCHOS PADRES, Y LOS VIDEOJUEGOS TIENEN MUCHO \u201?XITO\par
\pard\plain\hyphpar}\par\pard\plain\hyphpar}\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Posiblemente haya pocos inventos con m\u225?s padres que el videojuego. Hay medi
a docena de candidatos disponibles, pero la verdad es que hay cierto acuerdo en

se\u241?alar como responsable a Ralph Baer, aunque s\u243?lo sea por la lata que
ha dado el buen se\u241?or.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
El primer cacharro electr\u243?nico pensado para que la gente jugara con \u233?l
fue patentado por Thomas T. Goldsmith Jr. y Estle Ray Mann a comienzos de 1947
con el nombre \u8212?toda una joya del marketing\u8212? de {\i
Dispositivo de entretenimiento para tubo de rayos cat\u243?dicos}. Empleaba ocho
tubos de vac\u237?o para simular el lanzamiento de un misil a una serie de obje
tivos y dispon\u237?a de un par de mandos para ajustar la velocidad y la curva d
e la trayectoria. Los objetivos estaban directamente pintados sobre el tubo, que
s\u243?lo mostraba un punto: el misil. El cacharro no dej\u243? de ser\u8230? p
ues eso\u8230? un cacharro patentado. Entre eso, y que tampoco es que pudiera co
nsiderarse propiamente un juego, casi nadie considera a sus inventores m\u225?s
que como meros pioneros.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
En 1951 se desarroll\u243? el primer juego para un ordenador. Inspirado por el j
ugador de ajedrez mec\u225?nico del espa\u241?ol Torres Quevedo, el doctor Dietr
ich Prinz quiso programar un juego de ajedrez para el primer ordenador comercial
, el brit\u225?nico Ferranti Mark 1. Desgraciadamente, el inventuelo no daba par
a tanto: s\u243?lo era capaz de solucionar problemas de ajedrez que terminaban e
n mate en dos jugadas, labor que le llevaba unos quince minutos de c\u225?lculos
.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Aquel prol\u237?fico a\u241?o vio de igual modo nacer el primer ordenador dedica
do exclusivamente a jugar; concretamente, al Nim, tambi\u233?n conocido como \u1
71?el juego de las cerillas\u187?. Se ponen en la mesa varios grupos de cerillas
. Cada jugador puede retirar, en riguroso turno, los f\u243?sforos que quiera de
uno de los montones. Gana (o pierde, dependiendo de las reglas) quien se lleve
la \u250?ltima cerilla. En la m\u225?quina Nimrod, presentada en el Festival de
Gran Breta\u241?a, hab\u237?a cuatro grupos, de siete elementos cada uno, que el
p\u250?blico pod\u237?a ver en un panel lleno de bombillas, y el jugador retira
r accionando un interruptor. Tampoco suele ser considerado el primer videojuego,
m\u225?s que nada porque le falta la parte del v\u237?deo y porque fue creado c
omo demostraci\u243?n tecnol\u243?gica, no para que nadie se divirtiera con \u23
3?l. De hecho, Ludwig Erhard, ministro alem\u225?n de Econom\u237?a, no debi\u24
3? pasarlo muy bien, porque perdi\u243? tres partidas seguidas con \u233?l ante
la mirada at\u243?nita de su jefe Konrad Adenauer.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Al a\u241?o siguiente, Christopher Strachey emple\u243? el Ferranti Mark 1 para
programar un juego de damas. No obstante, siendo sin duda un juego, resulta dif\
u237?cil considerar un videojuego un sistema tan poco interactivo, en el que los
movimientos se met\u237?an mediante tarjetas perforadas\u8230? Eran m\u225?s bi
en los primeros pasos de lo que se dio en llamar, pomposamente, {\i
inteligencia artificial}.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Tambi\u233?n en 1952, un joven de veintinueve a\u241?os llamado Ralph Baer entr\
u243? a trabajar en Loral, una empresa de electr\u243?nica, y su jefe le encarg\
u243? que dise\u241?ara la mejor televisi\u243?n del mercado. Las pruebas a que
somet\u237?an a los aparatos, oblig\u225?ndoles a mostrar l\u237?neas horizontal
es y verticales, as\u237? como puntos en diversas partes de la pantalla, le llev
aron a pensar que quiz\u225? podr\u237?a incluirse en el propio televisor parte
del equipo que empleaba para hacer las pruebas para poder jugar. Se lo coment\u2
43? al jefe y este le contest\u243? que ni de co\u241?a; entre otras cosas porqu
e ya estaban fuera de los plazos previstos. Y Baer fue obediente y se olvid\u243
? del tema\u8230? durante unos quince a\u241?os.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
En 1953, y como parte de su tesis sobre la interacci\u243?n hombre-m\u225?quina,
Alexander S. Douglas program\u243? 0X0, una versi\u243?n de las tres en raya pa
ra el ordenador brit\u225?nico Edsac que empleaba una pantalla con una resoluci\
u243?n, m\u225?s bien limitadilla, de 35x16 p\u237?xeles; usaba un disco de marc
aci\u243?n telef\u243?nico para indicar qu\u233? posici\u243?n de las nueve disp
onible quer\u237?as ocupar. No tuvo mucha popularidad. El hecho de que s\u243?lo
existiera un Edsac en todo el mundo no ayudaba demasiado. Pero quiz\u225? sea e
ste el primer videojuego del mundo, aunque, ciertamente, tampoco se program\u243
? para el deleite del ser humano.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Hasta 1958 no encontramos una novedad significativa en este campo. Fue el juego

{\i
Tenis para dos}. William A. Higinbotham era un f\u237?sico que hab\u237?a trabaj
ado en el Proyecto Manhattan y que ten\u237?a afici\u243?n al {\i
pinball}. Le parec\u237?a que las cl\u225?sicas jornadas de puertas abiertas que
hac\u237?a el laboratorio de Brookhaven, donde trabajaba, eran m\u225?s bien ab
urridas, as\u237? que cogi\u243? un peque\u241?o computador anal\u243?gico emple
ado para el c\u225?lculo de trayectoria de misiles, un osciloscopio como pantall
a y fabric\u243? unos mandos simples con una rueda para cambiar el \u225?ngulo c
on que se pega a la bola y un interruptor para dar a la susodicha. La \u250?nica
forma de perder era calcular mal la trayectoria, de modo que la pelota acabara
en la red. Los visitantes hicieron cola durante horas para jugar. Pero despu\u23
3?s de dos a\u241?os lo desmantelaron, porque sus componentes eran piezas bastan
te caras. Hace ya unos a\u241?os que a este divertimento s\u237? que se le consi
dera el primer videojuego de la historia, aunque no fueron muchos quienes supier
on de \u233?l, y nadie lo tom\u243? como modelo.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
En 1961 llegar\u237?a el que quiz\u225? sea el primer videojuego de ordenador co
ncebido desde el principio como tal. Como tantas otras cosas, fue obra de uno de
los {\i
hackers} del Club de Modelismo Ferroviario del Instituto Tecnol\u243?gico de Mas
sachusetts, o MIT. Steve {\i
Slug} Russell cre\u243? el juego {\i
Spacewar} para un DEC PDP-1, el primer miniordenador, dando forma a dos naves qu
e luchaban entre s\u237? dispar\u225?ndose en un espacio lleno de estrellas. Dad
a la naturaleza abierta de todo lo que se creaba en el club, otros programadores
fueron a\u241?adiendo caracter\u237?sticas, como la presencia de un sol que atr
a\u237?a con su campo gravitatorio a las naves o el bot\u243?n del hiperespacio,
que hac\u237?a que la nave desapareciera y apareciera de nuevo en una posici\u2
43?n aleatoria de la pantalla (si era el sol, pues mala suerte, chico). Al contr
ario que el juego del tenis, este s\u237? fue visto y jugado por muchas personas
, y hasta empleado por DEC como {\i
software} con el que comprobar que las nuevas unidades de su PDP-1 funcionaban c
orrectamente.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
En 1966, Ralph Baer volver\u237?a a darle vueltas en su cabeza al asuntillo de l
os juegos para la tele, pero ya m\u225?s en serio. Los adelantos en la tecnolog\
u237?a tambi\u233?n ayudaban, claro. En dos a\u241?os tuvo un prototipo funciona
ndo, conocido como \u171?la caja marr\u243?n\u187?, que patent\u243? en 1969. No
obstante, le llevar\u237?a m\u225?s tiempo conseguir que una empresa le comprar
a la idea: hasta 1972 no lleg\u243? a las tiendas el {\i
Magnavox Odyssey}, que permit\u237?a disfrutar de 12 juegos, incluyendo un pingpong y, con la compra de un {\i
rifle}, juegos de punter\u237?a.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Para entonces, Baer estaba deprimido por lo mal que le iba a la empresa en que t
rabajaba, Sanders: hab\u237?an despedido a buena parte de sus amigos, y cre\u237
?a que hab\u237?a perdido el tiempo y el dinero de la compa\u241?\u237?a con su
invento. El primer cheque de Magnavox en concepto de {\i
royalties}, por valor de 100 000 d\u243?lares, hizo que se le pasaran todos los
males. Plenamente recuperado, pocos a\u241?os despu\u233?s invent\u243? otro jue
go de \u233?xito: {\i
Simon}.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
No obstante, durante un tiempo no se le consider\u243? el padre de los videojueg
os. El m\u233?rito se lo llev\u243? Nolan Bushnell, fundador de Atari, el hombre
que populariz\u243? las m\u225?quinas recreativas y cuyas primeras creaciones f
ueron principalmente copias tanto del {\i
Computer Space} como del ping-pong incluido en el {\i
Odyssey}. Pero tuvo tanto \u233?xito que su nombre eclips\u243? por completo a s
us predecesores durante a\u241?os. En cualquier caso, hay un m\u233?rito que s\u
237? le pertenece: fue el creador de la industria del videojuego.\par\pard\plain
\hyphpar}
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{\s3 \afs28
{\b
{\ql
ATARI Y LA EDAD DE ORO DE LOS VIDEOJUEGOS\par\pard\plain\hyphpar}\par\pard\plain
\hyphpar}\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
A finales de los a\u241?os sesenta, un estudiante llamado Nolan Bushnell pasaba
sus d\u237?as entre los ordenadores de la facultad y los fines de semana trabaja
ndo en un local de m\u225?quinas recreativas, lo que los americanos llaman \u171
?arcades\u187?. En la Universidad de Utah empez\u243? a aficionarse a los videoj
uegos, especialmente al {\i
Spacewar} que hab\u237?a creado Steve Russell en el MIT. Program\u243? otros jue
gos para ordenador, desde un tres en raya tridimensional hasta uno que llam\u243
? \u171?el zorro y los gansos\u187? en el que eras el malo y deb\u237?as comerte
las aves una a una porque si te rodeaban acababan contigo. Pero en aquel moment
o no pas\u243? de ser una afici\u243?n.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
No obstante, trabajando ya en los setenta como ingeniero electr\u243?nico, comen
z\u243? a desarrollar una versi\u243?n barata del {\i
Spacewar} a la que llam\u243? {\i
Computer Space}. No era un juego para ordenador, era una m\u225?quina que s\u243
?lo serv\u237?a para jugar a ese juego y que se activaba ech\u225?ndole monedas;
el muchacho ten\u237?a experiencia en el negocio, aunque fuera s\u243?lo atendi
endo un local. La vendi\u243? a Nutting Associates, que fabric\u243? una tirada
de 1500 que no logr\u243? vender completamente. El problema es que era un juego
muy complicado para echarse una partidita sin conocerlo mucho; hasta ven\u237?a
con un libro de instrucciones. La gente que le da a las m\u225?quinas de marcian
itos no suele tener muchas ganas de leer para poder jugar.\par\pard\plain\hyphpa
r} {
Sin embargo no se desanim\u243? y fund\u243? con un amigo, Ted Dabney, una empre
sa originalmente llamada Syzygy, que al parecer es el nombre que recibe la perfe
cta alineaci\u243?n de tres cuerpos celestes, como la que sucede en un eclipse t
otal. Naturalmente, un nombre tan com\u250?n y f\u225?cil de recordar y deletrea
r ya estaba cogido por otra empresa, una especie de comuna hippie que vend\u237?
a velas. As\u237? que opt\u243? por el movimiento del juego chino Go que m\u225?
s parecido pens\u243? que ten\u237?a con el jaque del ajedrez: Atari.\par\pard\p
lain\hyphpar} {
Su segundo empleado (la primera fue la secretaria) era un ingeniero llamado Al A
lcorn, al que encarg\u243? un juego muy simple que hab\u237?a visto en la consol
a Odyssey y que consist\u237?a en dos palitos que deb\u237?an devolverse una bol
a que se mov\u237?a por la pantalla y rebotaba en los bordes. Bushnell no hab\u2

37?a aprendido de su fracaso inicial y su plan era crear juegos m\u225?s complej
os, de modo que aquel encargo era m\u225?s bien para que el chaval practicara. P
ero Alcorn no se limit\u243? a copiar el original, sino que a\u241?adi\u243? var
ias mejoras que lo hac\u237?an m\u225?s divertido, as\u237? que el jefe decidi\u
243? colocar el prototipo en el Andy Capp\u8217?s Tavern, un bar bastante cutre
cuyo due\u241?o era bastante abierto a este tipo de experimentos.\par\pard\plain
\hyphpar} {
Dos semanas despu\u233?s, Alcorn recibi\u243? una llamada del tipo del bar, que
no se llamaba Andy Capp sino Bill Gattis, quej\u225?ndose de que la nueva m\u225
?quina, llamada {\i
Pong}, hab\u237?a dejado de funcionar. Mientras el bueno de Al empezaba a desmon
tarla, le fue contando que hab\u237?a causado sensaci\u243?n y que, de hecho, se
hab\u237?a encontrado gente esperando a que abriera, no para meterse un carajil
lo ma\u241?anero sino para jugar. Cuando Alcorn abri\u243? el mecanismo de las m
onedas para poder probar la m\u225?quina sin tener que meter pasta, esta empez\u
243? a escupir dinero a base de bien. \u161?Se hab\u237?a atascado de tantas mon
edas que le hab\u237?an metido! Alcorn le dej\u243? una tarjeta a Gattis con su
n\u250?mero personal y coment\u243? que estar\u237?a encantado de arreglarle ese
problema todas las veces que fueran necesarias.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Pong era un \u233?xito, as\u237? que hab\u237?a que fabricar m\u225?quinas a man
salva. El problema es que Atari era una empresa min\u250?scula en la que trabaja
ban cuatro gatos. As\u237? que Bushnell se puso a contratar para su cadena de mo
ntaje a todo el que estuviera apuntado a la oficina de empleo local pagando el s
alario m\u237?nimo; pronto empez\u243? aquello a oler a marihuana de tal manera
que se dec\u237?a que bastaba con pasar a dos manzanas de la f\u225?brica para c
olocarse. Hasta tuvo que poner seguridad, porque sus nuevos empleados hab\u237?a
n empezado a vender chips y pantallas robados a la empresa a tiendas de electr\u
243?nica de la zona.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Pronto comenzaron a salir imitadores, algunos tremendamente perfeccionistas; cua
ndo la empresa se mud\u243?, las m\u225?quinas de Atari ten\u237?an a\u250?n esc
rita la antigua direcci\u243?n, mientras que sus copiones italianos la cambiaron
. Irritado por el mismo robo que \u233?l hab\u237?a perpetrado, pues {\i
Pong} y {\i
Computer Space} no dejaban de ser versiones distintas de videojuegos de otros, B
ushnell decidi\u243? que la \u250?nica v\u237?a para ganar a la competencia era
estar innovando y sacando juegos nuevos continuamente.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Para expandirse a\u250?n m\u225?s, Atari sigui\u243? una curiosa estrategia: com
o los due\u241?os de locales con m\u225?quinas recreativas sol\u237?an firmar co
ntratos de exclusividad con los fabricantes en una zona concreta, la empresa no
pod\u237?a vender a todo el mundo. As\u237? que pronto naci\u243? Kee Games, que
se hizo con los locales a los que no pod\u237?a llegar Atari. Fundada por antig
uos empleados, algunos de ellos llegaron a despistar a los seguratas y robar mat
erial de su vieja empresa. Pero no era m\u225?s que una charada: aquella compa\u
241?\u237?a era propiedad de Atari y el propio Bushnell se sentaba en el consejo
de administraci\u243?n.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Un par de a\u241?os despu\u233?s tuvieron que volver a unir ambas empresas porqu
e la original hab\u237?a cometido el error contable de vender una m\u225?quina,
la de m\u225?s \u233?xito en 1974, por debajo de coste, y se enfrentaba a la ban
carrota. La p\u233?rdida del doble negocio la solventaron con una versi\u243?n d
e {\i
Pong} para enchufar a la tele de casa, que se vendi\u243? como rosquillas en los
almacenes Sears. Aquello permiti\u243? a Atari lograr el aire de respetabilidad
del que carec\u237?a, con lo que pudo obtener financiaci\u243?n y convertirse e
n una gran empresa para poder afrontar los pedidos. No lleg\u243? ni un segundo
demasiado tarde, porque la competencia hab\u237?a empezado a ponerse las pilas.
Y eran otra vez los japoneses, que ya se hab\u237?an quedado con el mercado de l
as calculadoras y los relojes digitales, los jod\u237?os.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar
} {
Mientras segu\u237?a sacando m\u225?quinas recreativas, Atari empez\u243? a dise
\u241?ar una consola de videojuegos con cartuchos intercambiables. Pero Bushnell

pens\u243? que la \u250?nica manera de hacerlo bien era por la puerta grande, i
nundando el mercado para evitar que los competidores lo imitasen. Y para eso no
hac\u237?a falta dinero, sino mucho dinero. De modo que vendi\u243? la empresa a
los estudios Warner en 1976 y al a\u241?o siguiente lanzaron la Atari VCS, vend
ida casi a precio de coste para tener beneficios con los juegos.\par\pard\plain\
hyphpar} {
La consola no consegu\u237?a despegar, y pronto Bushnell quiso hacer otra, algo
a lo que se opusieron los directivos de Warner. Aquello deriv\u243? en agrias di
scusiones entre unos y otros y el fundador de Atari fue despedido a finales de 1
978, lo que supon\u237?a un grave problema para \u233?l, porque una cl\u225?usul
a en la venta de la empresa le prohib\u237?a hacerle la competencia en siete a\u
241?os. Pocos d\u237?as despu\u233?s del despido, las ventas navide\u241?as deja
ron claro que, por una vez, los directivos venidos de fuera hab\u237?an tenido r
az\u243?n. La VCS, tambi\u233?n conocida como 2600, fue el mayor \u233?xito de A
tari, que se convirti\u243? en la empresa de mayor crecimiento de la historia de
Estados Unidos hasta ese momento.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Comenz\u243? entonces lo que se dio en llamar la Edad de Oro de los videojuegos.
Las ventas eran brutales, la competencia hac\u237?a mejorar constantemente tant
o los cartuchos para casa como las recreativas y todos ganaban dinero. Fueron lo
s a\u241?os de los juegos de marcianitos, del comecocos, de Donkey Kong, Centipe
de y los primeros juegos de coches y tanques, uno de los cuales (Battlezone) lle
g\u243? a ser empleado por el Ej\u233?rcito para entrenar a sus soldados, pese a
que visto ahora no nos parezca un prodigio de realismo, precisamente.\par\pard\
plain\hyphpar} {
Entonces, de repente, todo explot\u243?. Primero fueron las recreativas. A media
dos de 1982 dejaron de crecer las ventas, y algunos locales empezaron a cerrar.
Luego vinieron las consolas. Atari fabric\u243? millones y millones de cartuchos
para su consola de dos juegos que cre\u237?an que iban a arrasar: el comecocos
y uno basado en la peli de ET. Eran tan malos que daba pena verlos. Atari tuvo q
ue destruir y enterrar en un desierto millones de ejemplares y en 1983 present\u
243? p\u233?rdidas de m\u225?s de 500 millones de d\u243?lares. Y nadie m\u225?s
parec\u237?a ser capaz de hacer dinero en el negocio. S\u243?lo los juegos para
ordenadores personales se salvaban de la quema.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
La cl\u225?usula que imped\u237?a a Bushnell trabajar en el sector expir\u243? j
usto ese a\u241?o, as\u237? que cre\u243? una empresa de videojuegos llamada Sen
te, que significa algo as\u237? como \u171?llevar la iniciativa\u187? en el jueg
o del Go. La tuvo que vender al a\u241?o siguiente, m\u225?s o menos a la vez qu
e Warner coloc\u243? Atari al antiguo due\u241?o de Commodore, que la transform\
u243? en fabricante de ordenadores personales. Pese a sus \u233?xitos iniciales,
termin\u243? hundi\u233?ndose en los noventa como todas las dem\u225?s ante el
empuje del PC. Finalmente, y tras varios dimes y diretes, sus restos fueron comp
rados por una empresa francesa de videojuegos, Infogrames, que en 2009 decidi\u2
43? cambiarse el nombre y llamarse Atari para aprovecharse de la \u250?nica pose
si\u243?n interesante que le quedaba a la empresa: su marca.\par\pard\plain\hyph
par} {
Es curioso: al igual que otro famoso personaje de Silicon Valley, Bushnell fue d
espedido de la empresa que hab\u237?a fundado por aquellos a quienes hab\u237?a
abierto las puertas. Y para m\u225?s inri, el primer empleo serio que tuvo Steve
Jobs, a quien echaron de Apple pero regres\u243? como su gran salvador, fue pre
cisamente en Atari. Para completar el c\u237?rculo, hace bien poco, en abril de
2010, la nueva Atari anunci\u243? el ingreso de dos nuevos integrantes en su con
sejo de administraci\u243?n. Uno de ellos se llama Nolan Bushnell.\par\pard\plai
n\hyphpar}
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{\s3 \afs28
{\b
{\ql
COMECOCOS, EL PRIMER JUEGO PENSADO PARA CHICAS\par\pard\plain\hyphpar}\par\pard\
plain\hyphpar}\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Hay juegos m\u225?s importantes, juegos a los que hemos jugado m\u225?s, pero ni
nguno que en la mente de tantos sea sin\u243?nimo de videojuego. Hablo del popul
ar {\i
Comecocos}, o {\i
Pac-Man}, creado por Toru Iwatani para la compa\u241?\u237?a japonesa Namco.\par
\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Namco naci\u243? en 1955 como una empresa especializada en esas m\u225?quinas qu
e vemos en los centros comerciales con forma de caballo o de veh\u237?culo de ca
si cualquier clase en las que los ni\u241?os se montan para jugar a ser pilotos
(o vaqueros, o\u8230?). No es que se dedicara a dise\u241?arlas o a fabricarlas:
su fundador, Masaya Nakamura, compr\u243? dos de estos caballitos con su capita
l inicial, unos 3000 d\u243?lares, y los puso\u8230? en el tejado de un centro c
omercial, porque los competidores ya ten\u237?an los mejores lugares. Los limpia
ba y sacaba brillo todos los d\u237?as, y los operaba \u233?l mismo. En fin, dig
amos que Namco es la versi\u243?n japo de la empresa nacida en un garaje.\par\pa
rd\plain\hyphpar} {
Nuestra empresa creci\u243?, se extendi\u243? por otras zonas de Jap\u243?n y em
pez\u243? a fabricar ella misma sus m\u225?quinas. Tras crear un simulador de co
ches mec\u225?nico en 1970, se meti\u243? de hoz y coz en los videojuegos al com
prar (1974) la subsidiaria local de Atari, la compa\u241?\u237?a que estaba arra
sando el mercado norteamericano. Nakamura logr\u243? su primer \u233?xito con {\
i
Breakout}, ese en el que, con una paleta y una bolita, deb\u237?amos derribar un
muro.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Atari le enviaba las m\u225?quinas muy despacio, y encima el acuerdo que ten\u23
7?a con ella le imped\u237?a fabricarlas \u233?l mismo m\u225?s r\u225?pido. Sea
como fuere, el ansia de los jugadores nipones fue pronto saciada con {\i
Borokukuishi}, una versi\u243?n no autorizada de {\i
Breakout}.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Un d\u237?a, Nakamura envi\u243? a unos empleados a vigilar la f\u225?brica que
estaba produciendo las copias. Al poco estos vieron c\u243?mo se les colocaba un
coche por detr\u225?s y otro por delante, impidi\u233?ndoles moverse. De los su
sodichos autos surgieron unos mafiosos, de la famosa Yakuza, que procedieron a a
menazarlos.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
La mafia, s\u237?, estaba detr\u225?s de las falsificaciones. Pues bien: Nakamur
a fue a ver a su cabecilla para pedirle que dejara de hacerle la pu\u241?eta. El
se\u241?or mafioso se neg\u243?, claro, pero le ofreci\u243? {\i
suprimir} a sus competidores y convertir Namco en la mayor compa\u241?\u237?a de
videojuegos del Jap\u243?n. Nakamura no quiso, pues tem\u237?a que se har\u237?

an primero con su empresa y luego con toda la industria, as\u237? que decidi\u24
3? ganarles inundando el mercado con juegos originales.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar}
{
El problema era que desde Estados Unidos segu\u237?an envi\u225?ndole muy pocos,
as\u237? que se vio forzado a incumplir el acuerdo y fabricarlos por su cuenta.
Pronto hubo tantos, que los de la mafia se quedaron sin sitio en el mercado. En
Atari siguen asegurando que enviaban pocos porque eran los que les ped\u237?an,
y que, de hecho, estaban extra\u241?ados de que un juego tan popular funcionara
tan mal en Jap\u243?n\u8230? El caso es que el asunto termin\u243? en los juzga
dos, que dieron la raz\u243?n a la empresa americana.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Namco sobrevivi\u243? al envite y continu\u243? siendo una empresa pr\u243?spera
, pese a no ser precisamente la m\u225?s grande de Jap\u243?n. En 1977 fich\u243
? a nuestro amigo Toru Iwatani, un reci\u233?n graduado cuya mayor ilusi\u243?n
era crear m\u225?quinas de {\i
pinball}, que le ten\u237?an enganchado sin remisi\u243?n. Pero como Namco no se
dedicaba a eso, tuvo que conformarse con dise\u241?ar videojuegos\u8230? de {\i
pinball}. Hasta que, dos a\u241?os despu\u233?s, decidi\u243? crear algo distint
o.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
En aquel momento, los juegos de marcianitos eran el \u250?ltimo berrido, y lo qu
e Iwatani quer\u237?a era crear un videojuego que no fuera violento para atraer
a otro tipo de gente, especialmente a las mujeres. Para ello empez\u243? a jugar
con el concepto de {\i
comer}. Por qu\u233? relacion\u243? a las mujeres con la comida es algo que tend
r\u237?an que preguntarle directamente a \u233?l\u8230?\par\pard\plain\hyphpar}
{
Lo primero que cre\u243? fue el personaje, un simple c\u237?rculo al que le falt
aba un cacho. Como si fuera una pizza ya mutilada por un zampabollos. Precisamen
te eso estaba haciendo Iwatani cuando se le ocurri\u243? la cosa. Luego pens\u24
3? en los enemigos. Como, repito, quer\u237?a atraer al p\u250?blico femenino, d
ecidi\u243? que fueran bonitos, seg\u250?n su peculiar concepto de belleza. As\u
237? nacieron los fantasmas de colores. Despu\u233?s vendr\u237?a el laberinto,
los puntos (o {\i
cocos}) y los puntos m\u225?s grandes que permit\u237?an\u8230? \u171?cazar al c
azador, \u161?qu\u233? iron\u237?a!\u187?, que dijo el se\u241?or Burns en un me
morable cap\u237?tulo de {\i
Los Simpson}.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
El nombre ven\u237?a de la palabra {\i
paku}, que viene a ser una onomatopeya japo del ruido que se hace con la boca al
masticar. Del {\i
paku} se pas\u243? a {\i
Puck-Man}.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
El juego estaba terminado para mayo de 1980, pero no provocaba grandes entusiasm
os en Namco. Aunque les parec\u237?a prometedor, les gustaba m\u225?s otro que e
staba desarroll\u225?ndose por esas mismas fechas, llamado {\i
Rally-X}, en el que el coche del jugador deb\u237?a encontrar diez banderas amar
illas en un laberinto, bastante m\u225?s grande que el del comecocos, antes de q
ue se le acabara la gasolina. \u191?No les suena, verdad? Eso es porque se lo pe
nsaron mejor\u8230?\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
En Estados Unidos, la distribuidora vendi\u243? m\u225?s de 100 000 m\u225?quina
s del juego, al que previsoramente le cambiaron el nombre por el de {\i
Pac-Man}, que se pronuncia igual pero se lo pon\u237?a m\u225?s dif\u237?cil al
graciosillo que quisiera hacer bromas con la palabra que empieza por efe. Tanto
\u233?xito tuvo que crearon sin autorizaci\u243?n una secuela, {\i
Ms. Pac-Man}, que estaba protagonizada por un comecocos con los labios pintados,
era m\u225?s r\u225?pida y ten\u237?a cuatro laberintos distintos: vendieron 11
5 000 m\u225?quinas. Ni antes ni despu\u233?s hubo otro que superara las 100 000
. La popularidad del {\i
Comecocos} no tuvo igual en la historia de los videojuegos, al menos en las recr
eativas; posiblemente Tetris sea el \u250?nico t\u237?tulo a su nivel.\par\pard\
plain\hyphpar} {

Iwatani no recibi\u243? reconocimiento oficial alguno por su criatura, no recibi

\u243? una paga extra ni nada por el estilo. Eso s\u237?, despu\u233?s de crear
alg\u250?n juego m\u225?s, que pas\u243? sin pena ni gloria por el mercado, fue
ascendido a puestos directivos. Es la forma japonesa de decir gracias: as\u237?
son de efusivos, los muchachos.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar}
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{\s3 \afs28
{\b
{\ql
NINTENDO Y EL EMPLEADO NOVATO QUE INVENT\u211? A MARIO\par\pard\plain\hyphpar}\p
ar\pard\plain\hyphpar}\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Aunque ahora resulte dif\u237?cil creerlo, Nintendo fue fundada all\u225? por 18
89 y se dedicaba a fabricar {\i
hanafuda}, unas barajas de naipes japoneses. Hiroshi Yamauchi, bisnieto del fund
ador, se dio cuenta, en 1963, de que, si no entraba en otros mercados, Nintendo
ser\u237?a siempre una compa\u241?\u237?a de chichinabo. As\u237? las cosas, Yam
auchi abri\u243? una filial de taxis, fabric\u243? juguetes, mont\u243? una tele
visi\u243?n y hasta fund\u243? una cadena de {\i
hoteles del amor} para que las parejas japonesas pudieran hacer sus cosas con ci
erta intimidad, sin abuelitas ni ni\u241?os de por medio.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar
} {
S\u243?lo tuvo cierto \u233?xito, relativo, con los juguetes. Uno de los emplead
os de mantenimiento, Gunpei Yokoi, cre\u243? en sus ratos libres un brazo mec\u2
25?nico que permit\u237?a a quien tuviera suficiente habilidad coger objetos a d
istancia: un {\i
gadgetobrazo}, vamos, al que se llam\u243? Ultra Hand\u8230? y del que se acabar
on vendiendo 1,2 millones de unidades en Jap\u243?n.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Yamauchi pronto comprendi\u243? la importancia que tendr\u237?an los videojuegos
, y se asegur\u243? de ser el distribuidor en su pa\u237?s de Magna vox Oddyssey
, la primera consola dom\u233?stica. El mismo Yokoi cre\u243? el primer gran \u2
33?xito de Nintendo en ese campo: las consolas port\u225?tiles Game & Watch, que
ten\u237?an un solo juego cada una y causaron verdaderos estragos en los colegi
os espa\u241?oles de los a\u241?os ochenta.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Yamauchi conduc\u237?a su empresa de forma completamente autocr\u225?tica: lo qu
e le gustaba se hac\u237?a y lo que no\u8230? pues no. Por suerte para Nintendo,
demostr\u243? tener un instinto muy acertado, al menos en lo que se refiere al
mercado japo. El estadounidense, en cambio, se resist\u237?a a sus encantos. Con
venci\u243? a su yerno para que dirigiera su filial all\u237?, pero pronto comen

zaron los problemas. Minoru Arakawa, que as\u237? se llamaba el enchufado, pidi\
u243? 3000 m\u225?quinas recreativas de {\i
Radar Scope}, un juego de marcianitos s\u243?lo superado en popularidad por el {
\i
Comecocos} en el pa\u237?s del Sol Naciente. Vendi\u243? 1000. A punto de la rui
na, pidi\u243? a la casa madre que dise\u241?aran un nuevo juego que pudiera con
jurar el espectro de la bancarrota.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Corr\u237?a el a\u241?o 1981. Como en Nintendo no es que estuvieran sobrados de
dise\u241?adores profesionales de videojuegos, Yamauchi decidi\u243? darle la op
ortunidad a un empleado contratado hac\u237?a poco como una suerte de artista. E
l novato, Shigeru Miyamoto, hab\u237?a sido un ni\u241?o imaginativo al que gust
aba recorrer los bosques pr\u243?ximos a su pueblo e imaginarse caminos y trampi
llas que llevaban a mundos imaginarios\u8230? Cuando recibi\u243? el encargo, su
principal tarea hab\u237?a sido decorar las m\u225?quinas recreativas de Ninten
do, Radar Scope incluido. Por si acaso, Yamauchi puso a Yonkoi a supervisarle\u8
230? y un equipo a sus \u243?rdenes, porque programar no era lo suyo.\par\pard\p
lain\hyphpar} {
El pobre Miyamoto, a quien lo que le gustaba en su tiempo libre era tocar la gui
tarra y el banjo, no ten\u237?a ni idea de c\u243?mo cumplir con la misi\u243?n
que le hab\u237?an encomendado, as\u237? que se fue a los salones recreativos, j
ug\u243?, observ\u243? a los dem\u225?s jugadores y al final decidi\u243? que lo
s videojuegos eran hasta cierto punto como las pel\u237?culas, y que deb\u237?an
tener su argumento. As\u237? que cre\u243? uno para su primer juego, al que lla
mar\u237?a {\i
Donkey Kong}. La historia era muy sencilla: un gorila escapaba de la jaula donde
lo ten\u237?a su due\u241?o, un carpintero, y de paso secuestraba a la novia de
l susodicho. El pobre susodicho le persegu\u237?a esquivando barriles, hasta que
lo alcanzaba y el gorila ca\u237?a por un agujero. Para evitarse problemas con
los gr\u225?ficos tan cutres de la \u233?poca, decidi\u243? poner un sombrero al
susodicho, porque no consegu\u237?an pintarle un pelo que se moviera correctame
nte cuando saltaba y ca\u237?a. Como no pod\u237?a ser menos, el propio Miyamoto
compuso la m\u250?sica: s\u243?lo faltar\u237?a\u8230?\par\pard\plain\hyphpar}
{
Cuando en Estados Unidos recibieron el juego, pensaron que en Nintendo se hab\u2
37?an vuelto locos. Principalmente por el nombre. Miyamoto no sab\u237?a tampoco
demasiado ingl\u233?s y pensaba que quer\u237?a decir \u171?gorila est\u250?pid
o\u187?. Pero ya era tarde para cambiar nada, y Arakawa y los pocos trabajadores
que ten\u237?a a su cargo decidieron probarlo en un par de bares de la zona, a
ver si ten\u237?a \u233?xito, como hizo Atari casi una d\u233?cada antes con su
{\i
Pong}. La m\u225?quina estuvo funcionando sin parar mientras los locales estuvie
ron abiertos. As\u237? que los escas\u237?simos empleados de Nintendo of America
se pusieron a convertir las m\u225?quinas que ten\u237?an sin vender de Radar S
cope en flamantes Donkey Kongs. Y se forraron. Tanto que, tiempo despu\u233?s, q
uisieron demandarles, sin \u233?xito, por haber {\i
copiado} a King Kong.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Sin embargo, poco despu\u233?s los videojuegos pasaron de moda en Estados Unidos
. Los locales cerraron, y ni las consolas ni los juegos para ellas lograban tene
r \u233?xito. Atari, la empresa que hab\u237?a hecho arrancar la industria, empe
z\u243? a tener p\u233?rdidas: acab\u243? cambiando de manos y enfoc\u225?ndose
a los ordenadores personales. En medio de esa decadencia, Nintendo decidi\u243?
crear una consola nueva, que en Jap\u243?n se llamar\u237?a Famicom y en el rest
o del mundo Nintendo Entertainment System (NES).\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Sali\u243? al mercado en 1983\u8230? y fue un \u233?xito fulgurante en su pa\u23
7?s de origen, lo que le dar\u237?a a la entonces peque\u241?a empresa la pr\u22
5?ctica totalidad del mercado local de videoconsolas. En Estados Unidos, en camb
io, la cosa estaba m\u225?s chunga. Ninguna tienda quer\u237?a vender videojuego
s. As\u237? que le a\u241?adieron una pistola y un robotito \u8212?que b\u225?si
camente no hac\u237?a nada pero permit\u237?a que la consola pareciese m\u225?s
un juguete\u8212?, e hicieron varias pruebas hasta lograr un \u233?xito moderado

en Nueva York y Los \u193?ngeles. Finalmente, en 1986 hicieron un lanzamiento a

nivel nacional vendiendo la NES con un videojuego: {\i
Super Mario Bros}.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Miyamoto hab\u237?a seguido haciendo juegos, y el carpintero original se hab\u23
7?a convertido en fontanero: su nombre era Mario y le hab\u237?a salido un herma
no: Luigi. Su nuevo juego hab\u237?a sido un gran \u233?xito en las recreativas,
aunque con el mercado tan bajo de moral eso significaba unas ventas mucho menor
es que anta\u241?o, al menos fuera de Jap\u243?n.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
{\i
Super Mario Bros} supuso una revoluci\u243?n: fue el primer juego de plataformas
propiamente dicho, con un mundo inmenso por explorar a izquierda y derecha\u823
0? del protagonista, y unos enemigos de lo m\u225?s original: champi\u241?ones.\
par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Miyamoto, para aquel entonces, ya estaba involucrado en crear otro juego, {\i
The Legend of Zelda} (1987), donde volcar\u237?a sus fantas\u237?as de infancia
y que crear\u237?a otra saga de gran \u233?xito. Era m\u225?s complicado que otr
os t\u237?tulos, y Arakawa, preocupado, mont\u243? un centro de atenci\u243?n te
lef\u243?nica para resolver dudas de los compradores. Enseguida, los cuatro enca
rgados de atender a los clientes pasaron a ser\u8230? \u161?doscientos!\par\pard
\plain\hyphpar} {
Yonkoi, mientras tanto, estaba dise\u241?ando una consola port\u225?til con jueg
os intercambiables. Lanzada en 1989, ten\u237?a la pantalla en blanco y negro y
era, para qu\u233? enga\u241?arnos, un pel\u237?n cutre, pero cumpl\u237?a con u
n objetivo de dise\u241?o que se comprob\u243? extremadamente acertado: gastaba
muy poca electricidad y pod\u237?a funcionar a pilas, pilas que duraban bastante
. La Game Boy se vendi\u243? acompa\u241?ada de {\i
Tetris}, quiz\u225? el juego m\u225?s adictivo de la historia, y sumando sus dis
tintas versiones se convirti\u243? en la consola m\u225?s vendida de todos los t
iempos, superando los 200 millones de unidades.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Pocos a\u241?os despu\u233?s, sin embargo, el creador de tantos \u233?xitos de N
intendo caer\u237?a en desgracia por el fracaso de su Virtual Boy, una consola q
ue consist\u237?a en unas gafas enormes de realidad virtual\u8230? que te pon\u2
37?an la cabeza como un bombo a los dos minutos de pon\u233?rtelas. Dimiti\u243?
, y en 1997 muri\u243? atropellado, intentando ayudar a las dem\u225?s v\u237?ct
imas de un accidente de tr\u225?fico en el que se vio involucrado.\par\pard\plai
n\hyphpar} {
Miyamoto tendr\u237?a mejor suerte. Sigui\u243? creando juegos de gran \u233?xit
o, como {\i
Super Mario 64}, el primero en ser capaz de trasladar a las tres dimensiones la
facilidad de juego de los juegos de plataformas. Ser\u237?a el genio detr\u225?s
de la consola port\u225?til DS y de la Wii, que devolver\u237?an a su compa\u24
1?\u237?a la primac\u237?a perdida a manos de Sony. No est\u225? mal para alguie
n al que no le gustaba demasiado jugar\u8230?\par\pard\plain\hyphpar}
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{\s3 \afs28
{\b
{\ql
LA ERA DE LOS 8 BITS: COSA DE HERMANOS\par\pard\plain\hyphpar}\par\pard\plain\hy
phpar}\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Cuando el mercado de las recreativas y las consolas se hundi\u243? en Estados Un
idos all\u225? por 1983, el foco se movi\u243? y empez\u243? a apuntar a otros l
ugares. En Jap\u243?n siguieron apostando por las consolas, evitando los errores
que juzgaban hab\u237?an cometido los yanquis. En Europa, en cambio, los j\u243
?venes adolescentes empezaron a jugar con los peque\u241?os ordenadores de 8 bit
s, y algunos de ellos dieron el salto a la programaci\u243?n de sus propios vide
ojuegos.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Muchos padres se negaban a que sus perdieran el tiempo con las consolas en lugar
de estar estudiando, como estaba mandado. Pero los ordenadores personales eran
diferentes. Con ellos se pod\u237?an hacer m\u225?s cosas y muchos los compraron
para sus pensando en que les ayudar\u237?an en el colegio. Pero claro, los ni\u
241?os ten\u237?an otras ideas, los jod\u237?os.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Los brit\u225?nicos gemelos Oliver, por ejemplo, empezaron a interesarse por eso
s locos cacharros en 1980, cuando ten\u237?an doce a\u241?icos y un amiguete del
colegio les ense\u241?\u243? su flamante Apple II. Pronto se pondr\u237?an a ex
perimentar con el ZX81 que compr\u243? un hermano mayor y se pusieron a hacer ju
egos. Poco despu\u233?s comenzaron a publicar sus videojuegos en revistas hasta
que ganaron un concurso televisivo para ni\u241?os en 1984 en el que se les ped\
u237?a que dise\u241?aran un juego. El caso es que eso fue lo que hicieron todos
menos ellos, que tambi\u233?n lo programaron y enviaron la cinta de casete al p
rograma.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Cuando terminaron el instituto hicieron un pacto con sus padres: durante el a\u2
41?o siguiente intentar\u237?an ganar dinero de verdad con sus videojuegos y, si
no lo consegu\u237?an, aceptar\u237?an ir a la universidad. Por suerte, conocie
ron a los hermanos Darling, que como ellos hab\u237?an empezado a programar cuan
do ten\u237?an once y doce a\u241?os. Sin embargo, hartos de que la empresa a la
que vend\u237?an sus juegos, Mastertronic, les pagara tan poco, fundaron su pro
pia compa\u241?\u237?a. Lo t\u237?pico: la sede social era el cuarto donde dorm\
u237?an en casa de sus padres, vend\u237?an por correo y duplicaban sus videojue
gos en una casete. La reci\u233?n fundada Code Masters qued\u243? impresionada c
on los Oliver y les propuso desarrollar un juego llamado {\i
Super Rob\u237?n Hood}. Vendi\u243? 100 000 copias y les supuso 10 000 libras, g
racias a lo cual los gemelos pudieron convencer por fin a sus padres de que se p
od\u237?an ganar la vida con el asunto.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Algunos de los principales \u233?xitos de Code Masters fueron creados por los Ol
iver, especialmente la saga de videojuegos de Dizzy, un personaje creado por ell
os y que b\u225?sicamente consist\u237?a en un huevo con patas. La raz\u243?n po
r la que le dieron esa forma es que era m\u225?s sencillo rotarla y animarla, pe
ro vendi\u243? como churros en parte por esa simplicidad.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar
} {
Otros dos hermanos, Tim y Chris Stamper, fundaron Ultimate Play The Game, probab
lemente la empresa m\u225?s exitosa del gremio. Tras vender 300 000 copias de su
{\i
Jetpac} en 1983, alcanzaron el reconocimiento de cr\u237?tica y p\u250?blico por
ser los primeros en conseguir meter las tres dimensiones en los videojuegos par
a Spectrum de forma m\u237?nimamente presentable con los juegos {\i
Knight Lore}, {\i
Al\u237?en 8}, {\i
Gunfright}, {\i

Nightsade} y {\i
Pentagram}.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
En Espa\u241?a, las historias de \u233?xito eran similares. Los hermanos V\u237?
ctor, Pablo y Nacho Ruiz fundaron Dinamic en 1984 y con juegos como la saga form
ada por {\i
Saimazoom}, {\i
Babaliba} y {\i
Abu Simbel Profanation} lograron alcanzar el \u233?xito no s\u243?lo en nuestro
pa\u237?s sino tambi\u233?n en Gran Breta\u241?a, entonces el principal mercado
para videojuegos de ordenadores personales. Fue principalmente el m\u225?s peque
\u241?o de los tres el genio programador que empez\u243? a crear juegos casi inm
ediatamente, tras recibir como regalo un ZX81. Viendo que la versi\u243?n del cl
\u225?sico de marcianitos que ven\u237?a con el ordenador no le gustaba, pues fu
e el tipo y se hizo otra.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Durante la edad de oro de los 8 bits, Dinamic fue la principal de una serie de c
ompa\u241?\u237?as con gran \u233?xito tanto en nuestro pa\u237?s como, en mucho
s casos, fuera. Topo, Opera o Zigurat fueron otras de las empresas dedicadas al
arte de los videojuegos. Pese a crear joyas como {\i
La Abad\u237?a del Crimen}, basado en la novela de Umberto Eco, que muchos calif
icaron como el mejor videojuego creado para un ordenador de 8 bits, la mayor par
te de esas empresas, Dinamic incluida, desaparecieron con el cambio de d\u233?ca
da.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
La raz\u243?n estuvo en el avance tecnol\u243?gico y la escasa infraestructura c
omo empresas que ten\u237?an las pobres. El regreso de las consolas exig\u237?a
a los desarrolladores pagar una licencia para poder hacer juegos para una de ell
as y no hab\u237?a dinero para tanto. Adem\u225?s, los ya vetustos ordenadores d
e la \u233?poca \u8212?Spectrum, Amstrad CPC, Commodore 64, MSX\u8230?\u8212? qu
edaron obsoletos en cuanto los nuevos ordenadores de 16 bits empezaron a ser ase
quibles. Nuestros creadores no fueron capaces de alcanzar el mismo \u233?xito co
n los PC, Amiga y Atari ST que hab\u237?an tenido con sus predecesores, en parte
porque las mejoras de estos exig\u237?an equipos de desarrollo y art\u237?stico
s m\u225?s grandes, y acabaron hincando la rodilla.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Dinamic entr\u243? en bancarrota, pero los hermanos Ruiz fundaron otra empresa l
lamada Dinamic Multimedia donde les fue bien vendiendo sobre todo el {\i
PC F\u250?tbol}, videojuego cuya compra se convirti\u243? en un ritual anual par
a muchos espa\u241?oles. Para cuando esta tambi\u233?n entr\u243? en crisis en 2
002, los Ruiz hab\u237?an dado el salto ya y fundado FX Interactive, donde sigue
n todav\u237?a y esperan lanzar una nueva versi\u243?n de su cl\u225?sico {\i
Navy Moves} que empezaron a desarrollar\u8230? en 1999, nada m\u225?s y nada men
os.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Los hermanos Stamper vendieron todos los derechos de {\i
Ultimate} a U.S. Gold, que termin\u243? hundiendo la empresa, mientras ellos fun
daban Rare, que tuvo mucho \u233?xito vendiendo videojuegos para consolas y term
in\u243? siendo comprada por Microsoft por 375 millones de d\u243?lares, nada m\
u225?s y nada menos. Codemasters sigue activa a d\u237?a de hoy, aunque han camb
iado su nombre para quitar el espacio que separaba las dos palabras. Ya no lo di
rigen los hermanos Darling, que vendieron por una pasta su participaci\u243?n en
2007 para poder jubilarse j\u243?venes. Su relaci\u243?n con los Oliver termin\
u243? a comienzos de los noventa y estos formaron Blitz, especializ\u225?ndose e
n adaptar pel\u237?culas, series e incluso juguetes al mundo de los videojuegos.
\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Los gemelos fundaron en 2008 Blitz 1 UP, un proyecto con el que pretenden ayudar
a desarrolladores independientes, como lo fueron ellos en su d\u237?a, a llevar
al mercado sus propios videojuegos. Y es que con los m\u243?viles como Iphone o
los Android, vuelve a ser posible que un grupo peque\u241?o de personas, a vece
s s\u243?lo una, se forre con un videojuego de \u233?xito.\par\pard\plain\hyphpa
r} {
S\u237?, tambi\u233?n hubo empresas que no fueron fundadas por hermanos. Pero so
n menos interesantes.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar}

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{\s3 \afs28
{\b
{\ql
TETRIS: DE NEGOCIOS CON LA KGB\par\pard\plain\hyphpar}\par\pard\plain\hyphpar}\p
ar\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
En 1984, un inform\u225?tico ruso llamado Aleks\u233?i P\u225?zhitnov compr\u243
? un juego de pentamin\u243?s. Era un rompecabezas tradicional ruso cuyas piezas
estaban formadas por cinco cuadrados del mismo tama\u241?o, combinados de diver
sas maneras para hacer el puzle interesante. Le sirvi\u243? de inspiraci\u243?n
para un juego de ordenador. Seg\u250?n el propio P\u225?zhitnov, el girar 90 gra
dos las piezas del pentamin\u243?s le hizo pensar en una llave encajando en su c
erradura. Y\u8230? pues eso, lo dicho, que se le ocurri\u243? una idea para un j
uego de ordenador.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
No era el primero que hac\u237?a. Junto con su colega Dmitry Pavlovsky \u8212?lo
s dos eran miembros de la Academia de Ciencias de Rusia\u8212?, hab\u237?a cread
o ya un buen n\u250?mero con la intenci\u243?n \u250?ltima de venderlos, activid
ad capitalista harto dif\u237?cil de ejercer en la Uni\u243?n Sovi\u233?tica. Lo
s programaban en un clon ruso del miniordenador DEC llamado Elektronica 60. Hab\
u237?an incluso enrolado en su equipo a un chico de diecis\u233?is a\u241?os, Va
dim Guerasimov, para que portara los juegos al PC usando Turbo Pascal, un compil
ador muy popular en los a\u241?os ochenta debido a su rapidez y a que el lenguaj
e Pascal era muy apreciado en entornos acad\u233?micos. Su sucesor, Delphi, a\u2
50?n se usa mucho para programar aplicaciones en Windows.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar
} {
P\u225?zhitnov decidi\u243? usar piezas de cuatro cuadrados, que eran menos y m\
u225?s f\u225?ciles de encajar. Mezcl\u243? su nombre, tetramin\u243?s, y el del
tenis para {\i
bautizar} a su juego Tetris. Una vez tuvo lo m\u225?s dif\u237?cil, la mec\u225?
nica \u8212?las filas que desaparecen, las piezas que van cayendo, el aumento de
la velocidad de ca\u237?da seg\u250?n se sube de nivel\u8212?, hizo el programa
en una sola tarde de trabajo conjunto con Pavlovsky. Un par de d\u237?as despu\
u233?s, Guerasimov tuvo lista una versi\u243?n para PC ya con gr\u225?ficos, pue
s el Elektronica 60 s\u243?lo mostraba texto.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Como no encontraron la manera de vender ninguno de los juegos, empezaron a distr
ibuir copias gratuitamente, primero por la Academia y luego por otros pa\u237?se
s de la Europa oriental. Sin duda, tuvo que ser un acto subversivo: aquello reba
j\u243? a\u250?n m\u225?s la baj\u237?sima productividad del sistema comunista.
La dictadura cre\u243? incluso un virus inform\u225?tico que eliminaba todas las

copias de Tetris de los ordenadores que contagiaba\u8230?\par\pard\plain\hyphpa

r} {
En 1986, en un viaje a Hungr\u237?a, el presidente de una compa\u241?\u237?a de
software inglesa llamada Andromeda, Robert Stein, tuvo la oportunidad de ver Tet
ris\u8230? y le encant\u243?. Se puso en contacto con P\u225?zhitnov, pensando i
ngenuamente que en la URSS hab\u237?a propiedad individual, y este le dej\u243?
hacer, con la esperanza de poder sacarle algo. Con el benepl\u225?cito del ruso,
Stein decidi\u243? vender los derechos del juego, derechos que en realidad pert
enec\u237?an al Estado sovi\u233?tico, a Mirrorsoft \u8212?en Europa\u8212? y a
Spectrum Holobyte \u8212?en Estados Unidos\u8212?, ambas propiedad del magnate d
e los medios Robert Maxwell. Para cuando negoci\u243? con quien deb\u237?a negoc
iar, ya se estaba preparando una versi\u243?n comercial del juego. Firm\u243? fi
nalmente el acuerdo un mes despu\u233?s de que apareciera en las tiendas, en 198
8.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Stein compr\u243? los derechos para vender s\u243?lo juegos de ordenador, pero l
os coloc\u243? como si tuviera permiso para cualquier tipo de videojuego. As\u23
7? que Mirrorsoft vendi\u243? a Atari los derechos para portarlo a consolas y re
creativas y Spectrum Holobyte hizo lo propio con un empresario llamado Henk Roge
rs, un tipo multinacional que hab\u237?a nacido en Holanda, vivido su adolescenc
ia en Estados Unidos y emigrado a Jap\u243?n, donde se har\u237?a dise\u241?ador
y posteriormente importador de videojuegos. Atari, a su vez, revendi\u243? los
derechos para el pa\u237?s del sol naciente. Sega se llev\u243? los de las recre
ativas y Rogers los de consolas y ordenadores.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Tras lanzar su versi\u243?n del Tetris para Nintendo, Rogers propuso a la compa\
u241?\u237?a japonesa que fuera el juego que acompa\u241?ara a la consola port\u
225?til Game Boy. Analizando los numerosos contratos que hab\u237?a sobre el jue
go, se dio cuenta de que nadie pose\u237?a los derechos para las consolas port\u
225?tiles, as\u237? que cogi\u243? el primer avi\u243?n y se fue a Rusia. Por su
parte, Stein, consciente del jaleo en el que estaba metido, vol\u243? a Mosc\u2
50? exactamente el mismo d\u237?a con el prop\u243?sito de asegurarse las licenc
ias que le faltaban pero que ya hab\u237?a vendido. Ambos se alojaron en el mism
o hotel. Pero nunca supieron que estaban a pocos metros el uno del otro.\par\par
d\plain\hyphpar} {
Acompa\u241?ado de una traductora del KGB, Rogers fue a negociar con el Electron
orgtechnica (Elorg), el organismo sovi\u233?tico encargado de este tipo de asunt
os. Se present\u243? sin ser invitado, lo que para los rusos era una suerte de h
erej\u237?a, pero lo cierto es que no sab\u237?a c\u243?mo lograr una invitaci\u
243?n. Para presentarse al primer funcionario con el que logr\u243? hablar, le d
ijo que ten\u237?a los derechos para Jap\u243?n y le ense\u241?\u243? el videoju
ego para la consola de Nintendo. El ruso le contest\u243? que no le hab\u237?an
dado a nadie los derechos para venderlo. As\u237? que Rogers se dio cuenta de qu
e, para el Estado sovi\u233?tico, \u233?l era una especie de pirata. No era un p
ensamiento reconfortante cuando uno est\u225? en una dictadura totalitaria, ni l
a mejor manera de empezar a negociar con ella. As\u237? que le dijo al funcionar
io que quer\u237?a hacer las cosas bien y que, por favor, organizara al d\u237?a
siguiente una reuni\u243?n para poder comprar esos derechos.\par\pard\plain\hyp
hpar} {
As\u237? se hizo. Entre las personas que acudieron a negociar estaba P\u225?zhit
nov; y se hicieron amigos r\u225?pidamente, gracias a que ten\u237?an m\u225?s o
menos la misma edad y, sobre todo, al hecho de que, al fin y al cabo, Rogers er
a tambi\u233?n dise\u241?ador de videojuegos: empez\u243? su carrera como creado
r de uno de los primeros juegos de rol que se vendieron en Jap\u243?n, {\i
The Black Onyx}.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
La paranoia, no obstante, campaba por sus respetos, y no se puede decir que no e
stuviera justificada. El funcionario con el que habl\u243? Rogers y que organiz\
u243? la reuni\u243?n fue interrogado posteriormente por la KGB, que no vio con
buenos ojos que se molestara tanto por negociar con un sucio capitalista. Como b
uen ruso, P\u225?zhitnov era consciente de que cualquier cosa que pod\u237?a est
ar siendo escuchada, as\u237? que frecuentemente acababa paseando por el parque
con Rogers cuando ten\u237?a algo que decir que no quer\u237?a que el Estado sup

iera. Rogers, por su parte, estaba convencido de que entre los aproximadamente d
iez negociadores que le interrogaban diariamente hab\u237?a varios miembros de l
a KGB. Lo que no sab\u237?a era que, en otro despacho del mismo edificio, otro g
rupo de negociadores hablaba con Stein. Para complicarlo todo a\u250?n m\u225?s,
el hijo de Robert Maxwell y presidente de Mirrorsoft, Kevin Maxwell, tambi\u233
?n se encontraba en Mosc\u250? para hacer exactamente lo mismo: asegur\u243? a l
os rusos que si no le ced\u237?an las licencias, su padre hablar\u237?a con Gorb
achov y los funcionarios se ver\u237?an en un aprieto.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Al final, tras cuatro d\u237?as de discusiones, y debido a que Nintendo estaba d
ispuesta a pagar mucho m\u225?s que los dem\u225?s negociadores, dado que planea
ba incluir el juego en su futura consola port\u225?til, Rogers se llev\u243? el
gato al agua. Aquel acuerdo, y el \u233?xito brutal del juego, le hicieron multi
millonario. P\u225?zhitnov se hizo famoso, pero no recibi\u243? un duro. Emigr\u
243?, eso s\u237?, a Estados Unidos, y cuando caducaron las licencias que hab\u2
37?a negociado el Estado sovi\u233?tico fund\u243? una empresa con Rogers para g
estionarlas personalmente; as\u237? que tambi\u233?n se forr\u243?, aunque fuera
en 1996, doce a\u241?os despu\u233?s de haber inventado el juego.\par\pard\plai
n\hyphpar} {
La versi\u243?n para Nintendo Game Boy fue, con m\u225?s de 40 millones de copia
s vendidas, la m\u225?s exitosa de las innumerables adaptaciones que ha tenido T
etris. La melod\u237?a que inclu\u237?a era la canci\u243?n tradicional rusa {\i
Korob\u233?iniki}, que fuera del pa\u237?s ya todo el mundo asociar\u237?a al ju
ego. Gracias a Tetris, Nintendo pudo colocarle la consola no s\u243?lo a los ni\
u241?os, lo que explica buena parte del \u233?xito que alcanz\u243?.\par\pard\pl
ain\hyphpar} {
Uno de los m\u225?s enganchados fue Steve Wozniak, cofundador de Apple. Envi\u24
3? tantos r\u233?cords a la revista de Nintendo en Estados Unidos, que decidiero
n dejar de publicar sus puntuaciones, por abus\u243?n. As\u237? que las envi\u24
3? con un nombre falso, Evets Kianzow, dando la vuelta a su nombre real. \u171?V
i mi nombre falso en la revista de Nintendo un d\u237?a, pens\u233? que era otro
jugador y me dije: \u8220?\u161?Dios, este t\u237?o ha sacado m\u225?s puntos q
ue yo!\u8221?. Estuve as\u237? un rato hasta que vi que el tal Evets viv\u237?a
en Saratoga, y record\u233? entonces que hab\u237?a enviado mis propias puntuaci
ones con ese nombre\u187?.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Tetris se ha seguido vendiendo como rosquillas. No s\u243?lo ha llegado a los te
l\u233?fonos m\u243?viles, sino a dispositivos como las calculadoras, que nadie
imaginar\u237?a como plataformas de videojuegos. En una entrevista de septiembre
de 2009, Henk Rogers calculaba que en total se habr\u237?an vendido unas 140 mi
llones de copias en todas las versiones, lo que coloca al Tetris s\u243?lo debaj
o de las sagas completas de Mario y Pok\u233?mon, y por encima de cualquier otro
videojuego.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
No est\u225? mal para una tarde de trabajo. Yo, hay d\u237?as que no gano eso.\p
ar\pard\plain\hyphpar}
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{\s3 \afs28
{\b
{\ql
MMMMM\u8230? MATAR\par\pard\plain\hyphpar}\par\pard\plain\hyphpar}\par\pard\plai
n\hyphpar} {
Tras el hundimiento del mercado de las recreativas y las consolas en 1983, los v
ideojuegos resurgieron principalmente gracias a los ordenadores personales. El C
ommodore 64, el Apple II y el ZX Spectrum fueron durante buena parte de los oche
nta los aparatos con los que ni\u241?os como yo jugaban.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar}
{
A finales de la d\u233?cada aquellos ordenadores empezaron a ser desplazados por
hermanos mayores como el Commodore Amiga y el Atari ST. El PC ya empezaba a des
tacar como el ordenador personal para el trabajo, pero su falta de potencia, los
sistemas gr\u225?ficos cutres (el primer CGA era capaz de representar s\u243?lo
cuatro colores en la fabulosa resoluci\u243?n de 320 x 200) y un sonido a\u250?
n m\u225?s cutre (durante mucho tiempo s\u243?lo se pod\u237?a usar el altavoz d
el ordenador) lo apartaban de ser una m\u225?quina con la que poder jugar. No ob
stante, su progresivo abaratamiento y la estandarizaci\u243?n de las m\u225?s po
tentes tarjetas VGA y Sound Blaster para reproducci\u243?n gr\u225?fica y de son
ido permitieron que poco a poco se fuera convirtiendo en la principal plataforma
de videojuegos. G\u233?neros como las aventuras gr\u225?ficas, con Lucas Arts y
su {\i
The Secret of Monkey Island} como mejor exponente, o los juegos de estrategia, y
a fuera por turnos o en tiempo real, fueron populariz\u225?ndose a comienzos de
los noventa. Sin embargo, har\u237?a falta la creaci\u243?n de un g\u233?nero de
acci\u243?n completamente nuevo para que los videojuegos se convirtieran en el
fen\u243?meno de masas que son hoy d\u237?a. Fue el First Person Shooter (FPS),
que nos introduc\u237?a en un escenario en tres dimensiones que explorar y en el
que acabar, generalmente a tiros, con nuestros enemigos virtuales.\par\pard\pla
in\hyphpar} {
Pese a que ya se hab\u237?an hecho antes juegos que podr\u237?an considerarse FP
S, fue Id Software la encargada de convertirlos en el vicio preferido de millone
s de adolescentes. Los integrantes de la peque\u241?a empresa se hab\u237?an con
ocido en Softdisk, una compa\u241?\u237?a radicada en Luisiana que se dedicaba a
editar revistas que llevaban como complemento disquetes con software original.
Bueno, casi ser\u237?a mejor decir que eran los disquetes los que iban acompa\u2
41?ados de las revistas\u8230? Por aquel entonces era una forma como otra cualqu
iera de vender programas.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
La cosa iba tan bien que trabajaban en Softdisk m\u225?s de cien personas cuando
John Romero, uno de ellos, convenci\u243? al jefazo para sacar una revista de v
ideojuegos para el PC, que casi no ten\u237?a t\u237?tulos atractivos pero que c
re\u237?a estaba llamada a desbancar al Apple II entre los jugones como ya lo ha
b\u237?a hecho en las oficinas. Gamer\u8217?\u8217?s Edge deb\u237?a salir cada
dos meses y tener uno o dos juegos. Para seguir el ritmo, adem\u225?s de contar
con algunos colegas de otros departamentos, necesitaba contratar a un programado
r realmente bueno. Un programador como John Carmack.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Los dos John hab\u237?an sido secuestrados a\u241?os atr\u225?s de un futuro pro
metedor para caer en el abismo insondable de los videojuegos, o al menos eso pen
saban sus padres. Romero era un dibujante extraordinario desde muy ni\u241?o, un
buen estudiante cuyas notas comenzaron a derrumbarse cuando le cogi\u243? el vi
cio a los juegos \u8212?en los que era un aut\u233?ntico especialista\u8212? y d
espu\u233?s a la programaci\u243?n de los mismos. Carmack, por su parte, era uno
de esos genios que, como Albert Einstein, empiezan a hablar tarde. A los quince
meses, en lugar de musitar un \u171?Ma\u187? le dio por soltar, como primeras p

alabras: \u171?Toma tu esponja, pap\u225?\u187?. M\u225?s que jugar, Carmack sie

mpre encontr\u243? inter\u233?s en programar videojuegos. Despu\u233?s de estar
en un programa para superdotados, acab\u243? en comisar\u237?a por haber intenta
do robar un ordenador en su escuela \u8212?en plan sofisticado, naturalmente: em
pleando compuestos qu\u237?micos para fundir el cristal de las ventanas y fue co
ndenado a pasar un a\u241?o en un reformatorio. Aunque se matricul\u243? en la u
niversidad para que sus padres siguieran manteni\u233?ndole, en realidad aprovec
h\u243? ese tiempo, no para estudiar, sino para crear sus primeros juegos. La de
j\u243? en cuanto recibi\u243? la llamada de Romero y se vio capaz de valerse po
r s\u237? mismo.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Los dos John formaron un equipo casi invencible. Carmack era el genio capaz de c
rear el mejor c\u243?digo, y Romero ten\u237?a la habilidad de darle vida y conv
ertirlo en algo atractivo. Pronto Carmack pens\u243? en hacer algo m\u225?s crea
tivo, que no se hubiera intentado nunca en un PC. Por aquel entonces, 1990, {\i
Super Mario Brothers 3} era lo m\u225?s. Era un juego de plataformas en el que e
l usuario mataba a sus enemigos saltando sobre ellos y deb\u237?a explorar un mu
ndo inmenso, que se extend\u237?a a su izquierda y a su derecha. El personaje si
empre estaba en el centro de la pantalla, y era el escenario el que se desplazab
a cuando Mario se mov\u237?a. Nadie hab\u237?a conseguido reproducir en un PC es
ta t\u233?cnica, conocida como {\i
scroll}, con la suavidad y la velocidad suficientes como para poder hacer un jue
go similar. Hasta que lleg\u243? Carmack.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
A Romero aquello le entusiasm\u243? tanto que no dud\u243? en concluir que era a
lgo demasiado bueno para Softdisk. Siempre hab\u237?a so\u241?ado con ser un tip
o rico, as\u237? que no dud\u243? en convencer a los dem\u225?s para irse de la
empresa y montar una compa\u241?\u237?a de videojuegos por su cuenta. Como no te
n\u237?an dinero, decidieron seguir donde estaban y tomar prestados los ordenado
res de la oficina para trabajar en sus casas durante interminables fines de sema
na, sin dormir, hasta que lograron terminarlo. El juego se llam\u243? {\i
Commander Keen} y una empresa llamada Apogee lo vendi\u243? como {\i
shareware}, un mecanismo que te permite disfrutar gratis de un programa, si bien
con las funciones recortadas, que puedes desbloquear pagando. En un videojuego,
eso significaba regalar varios niveles o escenarios y cobrar por el resto.\par\
pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Les fue bien, claro. Lo suficiente para que pudieran dejar Softdisk y dedicar to
do su tiempo a la nueva empresa. Mientras Romero y compa\u241?\u237?a se encarga
ban de crear m\u225?s episodios de Keen, Carmack se dedic\u243? a investigar; ha
sta que finalmente tuvo una nueva epifan\u237?a: las tres dimensiones. Fue capaz
de crear un laberinto que el protagonista pudiera recorrer. Visto ahora, era ba
stante limitado: tanto el suelo como el techo eran fijos y lo \u250?nico que se
mov\u237?a eran las paredes; adem\u225?s, para que fuera veloz, los personajes n
o pod\u237?an ser tridimensionales, de modo que eran meros dibujos, como en cual
quier otro juego. Pero fue m\u225?s que suficiente para que Romero se volviera l
oco de nuevo con la tecnolog\u237?a que Carmack hab\u237?a puesto a su disposici
\u243?n. Poco despu\u233?s estaban dando forma a un juego en el que el protagoni
sta no aparec\u237?a en pantalla, pues lo que se mostraba era lo que se ve\u237?
a a trav\u233?s de sus ojos. Su misi\u243?n, huir a tiros de los nazis. En 1992
se lanz\u243? Wolfenstein 3D, y con \u233?l no s\u243?lo naci\u243? un g\u233?ne
ro: las ganancias permitieron a los John comprarse un Ferrari por barba.\par\par
d\plain\hyphpar} {
Ya hab\u237?an creado dos juegos de \u233?xito, y la mec\u225?nica estaba clara
en Id Software. El genio, Carmack, se dedicaba en solitario a crear un nuevo efe
cto o motor gr\u225?fico, mientras los dem\u225?s sacaban t\u237?tulos aprovecha
ndo el anterior. Cuando estaba listo, Romero lo empleaba para imaginar juegos nu
evos y dirigir el dise\u241?o: argumento, im\u225?genes, sonido, etc. As\u237? o
currir\u237?a tambi\u233?n con el que ser\u237?a el \u233?xito definitivo que lo
s convertir\u237?a en algo parecido a estrellas del rock, si tal cosa puede exis
tir en el mundillo. {\i
Doom}.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Para este juego, Carmack ampli\u243? las posibilidades de su motor de tres dimen

siones. Ya pod\u237?a haber escaleras, suelos y techos a distintas alturas: incl

uso aire libre. La luz no era la misma en todos los sitios, sino que ten\u237?a
un origen y se desvanec\u237?a con la distancia. Para aprovecharlo, crearon un m
undo misterioso repleto de monstruos aterradores que pod\u237?an salir a por ti
en la oscuridad. Adem\u225?s, se incluy\u243? un m\u243?dulo para permitir el ju
ego en red, de modo que varias personas pudieran dedicar su tiempo a matarse con
fruici\u243?n.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Si el \u233?xito de Wolfenstein hab\u237?a parecido insuperable, Doom se convirt
i\u243? en lo que Romero hab\u237?a predicho poco antes del lanzamiento: la caus
a n\u250?mero uno del descenso de productividad en las oficinas de medio mundo.
Empresas como Intel o Lotus tuvieron que establecer pol\u237?ticas para impedir
que se jugara en horario normal, porque las redes se colapsaban. Se organizaron
campeonatos por todo el pa\u237?s para ver qui\u233?n era el mejor. Entre ellos
destacaba el propio Romero.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Y es que, desgraciadamente, el \u233?xito se le hab\u237?a subido a la cabeza. P
as\u243? a convertirse m\u225?s en un relaciones p\u250?blicas y experto jugador
que en el gran dise\u241?ador que hab\u237?a sido. No sucedi\u243? lo mismo con
Carmack, para quien la felicidad se resum\u237?a en una coca-cola light, una pi
zza y un ordenador que programar. Pero para cuando produjo el siguiente motor de
tres dimensiones \u8212?ya capaz de representar mundos virtuales sin limitacion
es\u8212? y vio que Romero no era capaz de centrarse en \u233?l, decidi\u243? qu
e deber\u237?a irse de la empresa una vez terminado el juego. Dio lo mismo que h
ubiera sido el dise\u241?ador de los grandes \u233?xitos de Id y, sobre todo, su
amigo. Carmack, en ocasiones, parece m\u225?s un robot que una persona, no s\u2
43?lo por su costumbre de emitir un \u171?Mmmm\u187? bastante poco humano al ter
minar sus frases, sino sobre todo en su trato con los dem\u225?s. Si ya no sirve
n, pues eso, ya no sirven. As\u237? que cuando acabaron Quake, en 1996, Romero s
e fue de la empresa.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Con el tiempo, Carmack ha adquirido tal maestr\u237?a en la comprensi\u243?n de
c\u243?mo se representa un mundo tridimensional que una vez asegur\u243? que no
le hac\u237?a falta ir al Gran Ca\u241?\u243?n para apreciar el mundo; le basta
con darse una ducha, porque en lugar de ver un par de haces de luz \u233?l conte
mpla un reflejo especular difuso proveniente de las luces del techo y reflejado
por la grifer\u237?a. Y, naturalmente, se sabe de memoria los algoritmos para pr
esentar el efecto en un mundo virtual. Desde aquel 1996 lo \u250?nico que ha hec
ho Id Software han sido nuevas versiones de sus sagas {\i
Doom} y {\i
Quake}, cada vez m\u225?s perfeccionadas t\u233?cnicamente, s\u237?, pero sin qu
e nadie sea capaz de aprovechar los productos del genio de Carmack para hacer vi
deojuegos fascinantes como hac\u237?a Romero. As\u237? que, siendo una empresa d
e \u233?xito, otras como Epic la han desalojado del trono de los mata-mata en pr
imera persona.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Romero, por su parte, intent\u243? montar una empresa, llamada Ion Storm, en que
la programaci\u243?n fuera secundaria y el dise\u241?o de los videojuegos\u8230
? el rey y la reina al mismo tiempo. No se comi\u243? un col\u237?n, el pobre. D
espu\u233?s de quemar varios millones de d\u243?lares, que puso la editora brit\
u225?nica Eidos encima de la mesa para producir tres juegos, termin\u243? tambi\
u233?n fuera de su propia compa\u241?\u237?a. As\u237? que acept\u243? un trabaj
o de dise\u241?ador en Midway, la empresa de videojuegos m\u225?s antigua de Est
ados Unidos. Quebr\u243? en 2009.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
El chico, suerte, lo que se dice suerte, no es que tenga.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar
}
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{\s3 \afs28
{\b
{\ql
\u161?VENGANZA! \u161?VENGANZA!\par\pard\plain\hyphpar}\par\pard\plain\hyphpar}\
par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Nintendo no tuvo rival durante la segunda mitad de los a\u241?os ochenta. Hab\u2
37?a resucitado el mercado de las videoconsolas cuando ya nadie cre\u237?a en \u
233?l y, al hacerlo, se hab\u237?a convertido en un monopolio de hecho. Atari in
tent\u243? recuperar su trono sin \u233?xito. Hubo que esperar a otros japoneses
, Sega, para que los creadores de Mario se preocuparan, aunque fuera s\u243?lo u
n poquito.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
A finales de los ochenta, Sega lanz\u243? la {\i
Megadrive}, consola que se llamar\u237?a Genesis en Estados Unidos y que estaba
basada en la misma tecnolog\u237?a que empleaba para las m\u225?quinas recreativ
as, donde acumulaba \u233?xito tras \u233?xito. Pero le result\u243? dif\u237?ci
l reclutar a los mejores desarrolladores de juegos, que estaban ganando dinero c
on la Nintendo Entertainment System ({\i
NES}) y no quer\u237?an arriesgarse a que les prohibieran trabajar para el princ
ipal sistema del momento por coquetear con Sega. Porque Nintendo era muy japones
a en eso: si estabas dentro de la familia, te trataban estupendamente; ahora, si
estabas fuera, iban a por ti a machete.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
La consola funcionaba bien, pero no como para amenazar el dominio de Nintendo. H
asta que en verano de 1991 lleg\u243? {\i
Sonic}, un juego de plataformas creado a partir de la frustraci\u243?n de Naka,
su dise\u241?ador, con los juegos de Mario. Por muy bueno que fueras con ellos,
siempre tardabas lo mismo en pasar de los niveles f\u225?ciles. Naka quer\u237?a
que seg\u250?n fueses m\u225?s h\u225?bil pudieras recorrerlos m\u225?s deprisa
, de modo que invent\u243? un personaje que corriera como si le hubieran puesto
un petardo por la zona trasera y que pudiera acabar con sus enemigos a la carrer
a, sin pararse a pensarlo. De ah\u237? que Sonic no fuera un conejo, como se pen
s\u243? en un principio, sino un erizo con p\u250?as en la cabeza.\par\pard\plai
n\hyphpar} {
{\i
Sonic} arras\u243? y le dio ventaja a Sega pocos meses antes del lanzamiento de
la nueva consola de Nintendo, {\i
Super NES}. El \u233?xito llev\u243? a los desarrolladores a lanzar juegos tambi
\u233?n para la {\i
Megadrive}, o la {\i
Genesis}, o como se llamara en cada pa\u237?s: ahora ya les merec\u237?a la pena
el riesgo de ser expulsado por Nintendo a las tinieblas exteriores, y como fuer
on muchos quienes decidieron crear juegos para ambas consolas, Nintendo no pudo
hacer nada contra los pr\u243?fugos, que eran legi\u243?n. Los siguientes a\u241
?os fueron una dura pugna entre ambas empresas, que luchaban mediante videojuego
s en exclusiva: si una sacaba {\i
Street Fighter II}, la otra contraatacaba con {\i

Mortal Kombat}.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Pero pocos meses antes de que Sonic relanzara la consola de Sega se hab\u237?an
sembrado ya las semillas que llevar\u237?an a la destrucci\u243?n de este duopol
io. En mayo de 1991, Sony anunci\u243? que se encargar\u237?a de desarrollar un
accesorio para la entonces futura Super NES que le permitir\u237?a leer juegos e
n CD-ROM, por entonces el \u250?ltimo berrido en sistemas de almacenamiento. Per
o desde que hab\u237?an llegado a ese acuerdo, Nintendo se hab\u237?a puesto cre
cientemente nervioso ante las intenciones de su futuro socio. Pensaba que el pro
yecto era para Sony una suerte de cabeza de playa que le llevar\u237?a eventualm
ente a crear su propia consola. Ten\u237?a raz\u243?n, pero a medias. Esa era ju
sto la idea de Ken Kutaragi, el ingeniero que llevaba el proyecto, pero a\u250?n
no lo era de la direcci\u243?n de la empresa. Nintendo pronto les har\u237?a ca
mbiar de opini\u243?n.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Dos d\u237?as despu\u233?s del anuncio que hab\u237?a hecho Sony del accesorio N
intendo PlayStation, su supuesto socio anunci\u243? que hab\u237?a decidido deja
rlos tirados y aliarse con Phillips, a quien no ve\u237?an meti\u233?ndose de ho
z y coz en el sector. Si esperaba as\u237? librarse de un futuro rival, hab\u237
?a metido la pata hasta el corvej\u243?n. Semejante humillaci\u243?n llev\u243?
al presidente de Sony, Nario Ohga, a crear una divisi\u243?n de videojuegos lide
rada por Kutaragi, cuyo objetivo fuera sacar a esos cabrones de Nintendo del mer
cado.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
El resultado fue el lanzamiento a finales de 1994 de Sony Playstation, que lleva
r\u237?a a los hogares a un precio razonable dos tecnolog\u237?as m\u225?s o men
os ausentes en las consolas en boga en aquel entonces: el CD y los gr\u225?ficos
en 3D. Lo primero hab\u237?a llegado a los PC, mostrando las mejoras que pod\u2
37?a llevar a los videojuegos disponer de suficiente espacio de almacenamiento.
Y las 3D hab\u237?an alcanzado el \u233?xito y despertado el inter\u233?s de los
desarrolladores merced al {\i
Virtua Fighter} de Sega y m\u225?s tarde {\i
Doom}.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Gracias a su potencia gr\u225?fica y la relativa facilidad con la que se pod\u23
7?an desarrollar videojuegos para \u233?l, la Playstation se llev\u243? el merca
do de calle. La complicada Sega Saturn no pudo competir y la compa\u241?\u237?a
japonesa termin\u243? abandonando sus esfuerzos en las consolas para dedicarse s
\u243?lo a desarrollar videojuegos. Nintendo 64 se vio eclipsada pese al \u233?x
ito de {\i
Super Mario 64}, que defini\u243? c\u243?mo deb\u237?an llevarse las tres dimens
iones a los juegos de plataformas. Y es que Nintendo sigui\u243? empe\u241?ada e
n confiar en los cartuchos frente al CD ante el temor a la copia de videojuegos,
que ya causaba estragos en la consola de Sony.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Durante los diez a\u241?os siguientes, Playstation y sus sucesoras fueron los l\
u237?deres indiscutibles, pese a los esfuerzos de Microsoft por hacerse un hueco
con sus Xbox. Pero Nintendo no hab\u237?a dicho su \u250?ltima palabra. Miyamot
o tom\u243? las riendas del desarrollo de las consolas, optando, no por hacerlas
cada vez m\u225?s potentes, sino por acercarlas a un p\u250?blico menos exigent
e que se hab\u237?a alejado de los videojuegos espantado por su creciente comple
jidad. As\u237? que Nintendo acab\u243? triunfando gracias a Wii y a la port\u22
5?til DS, t\u233?cnicamente inferiores a sus rivales, pero que permit\u237?an de
sarrollar videojuegos mucho m\u225?s divertidos. Al fin y al cabo, de eso es de
lo que se supone que trata este negocio.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar}
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{\s3 \afs28
{\b
{\ql
DI S\u205?, MULA\par\pard\plain\hyphpar}\par\pard\plain\hyphpar}\par\pard\plain\
hyphpar} {
Will Wright lleg\u243? a los videojuegos por un camino poco com\u250?n: los robo
ts. Cuando era adolescente se dedicaba a construir extra\u241?os ingenios mec\u2
25?nicos y se compr\u243? un Apple II para controlarlos desde el ordenador. Qued
\u243? entonces fascinado por la inteligencia artificial, los modelos inform\u22
5?ticos y la simulaci\u243?n.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
La principal v\u237?a por la que lleg\u243? a esa pasi\u243?n fue {\i
Life}, una creaci\u243?n de 1970 del matem\u225?tico John Conway, que buscaba de
mostrar c\u243?mo la complejidad puede surgir de un conjunto de reglas sencillas
. Consiste en una rejilla donde cada celda es una c\u233?lula. El usuario decide
cu\u225?les de ellas est\u225?n vivas al comienzo de la simulaci\u243?n. La sup
ervivencia de las c\u233?lulas en cada iteraci\u243?n del juego est\u225? marcad
a por tres reglas: primero, las c\u233?lulas vivas con dos o tres vecinas vivas
sobreviven; segundo, las que tengan menos de dos o m\u225?s de cuatro vecinas vi
vas mueren; tercero, las c\u233?lulas muertas con exactamente tres vecinas vivas
resucitan.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Pese a ese esquema, en principio sencillo, muchos quedaron fascinados por c\u243
?mo se comportaba la simulaci\u243?n, que generalmente acababa en un estado esta
ble despu\u233?s de un tiempo. Wright fue uno de ellos. Pese a todo, su primer v
ideojuego, {\i
Raid on Bungeling Bay}, de 1985, fue de acci\u243?n y permit\u237?a a los usuari
os del Commodore 64 y m\u225?s tarde de la NES volar con un helic\u243?ptero enc
ima de un archipi\u233?lago para bombardear f\u225?bricas.\par\pard\plain\hyphpa
r} {
Aquella primera creaci\u243?n le permiti\u243? ganar lo suficiente como para viv
ir del aire unos a\u241?os y explorar en lo que m\u225?s le gustaba: las simulac
iones. Wright tuvo que crear muchas herramientas suplementarias para dise\u241?a
r su primer juego: una de ellas le permit\u237?a moverse por el mapa del archipi
\u233?lago para construir edificios y carreteras. Como le gustaba m\u225?s usar
esa aplicaci\u243?n que jugar a su propio videojuego, le fue a\u241?adiendo cosa
s en su tiempo libre, que por aquel entonces era todo su tiempo. Hasta que lleg\
u243? el momento en que empez\u243? a pensar en a\u241?adirle un poco de movimie
nto y se puso a estudiar los trabajos en sistemas din\u225?micos de Jay Forreste
r, el mismo tipo que hab\u237?a dirigido el proyecto Whirlwind en los cuarenta p
ara crear un simulador de vuelo.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Forrester, ingeniero el\u233?ctrico, llev\u243? las herramientas de su profesi\u
243?n al estudio de la gesti\u243?n de empresas, creando herramientas matem\u225
?ticas para modelar sistemas sociales y poder estudiar c\u243?mo se comportan. A
s\u237?, por ejemplo, cre\u243? un sistema din\u225?mico que simulaba los n\u250
?meros m\u225?s importantes de las ciudades, como la poblaci\u243?n o el n\u250?
mero de empleos disponibles, que variaban seg\u250?n distintos factores. Wright
lo combin\u243? con su herramienta de creaci\u243?n de ciudades y las ideas sobr
e normas sencillas para montar sistemas complejos que encontr\u243? en {\i

Life} para crear {\i

Micropolis}.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Desgraciadamente, ni Broderbund \u8212?que hab\u237?a distribuido con \u233?xito
su primera creaci\u243?n\u8212? ni las dem\u225?s compa\u241?\u237?as con las q
ue contact\u243? tuvieron inter\u233?s en su juego. El problema es que no era re
almente un juego, sino un juguete: t\u250? te dedicabas a construir tu ciudad y
ver qu\u233? pasaba con ella. Pero no hab\u237?a gu\u237?a que te dijera qu\u233
? deb\u237?as hacer, ni objetivo que cumplir ni enemigo al que vencer. Como segu
\u237?a viviendo de las rentas, Wright continu\u243? perfeccion\u225?ndolo. En 1
987 fund\u243? Maxis junto al inversor Jeff Braun, a quien le encant\u243? el ju
ego, y dos a\u241?os despu\u233?s lograron al fin coloc\u225?rselo a Broderbund,
cuyo nuevo jefe ten\u237?a ideas algo m\u225?s abiertas sobre qu\u233? pod\u237
?a venderse en el mercado. Para aquel entonces Micropolis hab\u237?a cambiado de
nombre y se llamaba {\i
SimCity}. Hab\u237?a tardado cuatro a\u241?os en ver la luz desde que estuvo lis
ta su primera versi\u243?n. Este juguete y sus sucesores han vendido 18 millones
de copias, que no es moco de pavo.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Una de sus m\u225?s importantes herencias es que dio aire de respetabilidad a lo
s videojuegos que no eran propiamente juegos sino juguetes. Aquello abri\u243? l
a puerta a un mercado hasta entonces completamente ignorado por el sector: las m
ujeres. Aunque siempre ha habido de todo, lo cierto es que los videojuegos han t
endido a ser dise\u241?ados por hombres para hombres o ni\u241?os. Las chicas qu
e no ten\u237?an inter\u233?s en h\u233?roes dedicados a matar todo lo matable,
que eran la mayor\u237?a, como que no se sent\u237?an muy atra\u237?das por los
videojuegos. Pero si se eliminaba la testosterona y el factor competitivo, \u191
?se acercar\u237?an a los ordenadores y consolas?\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Mattel quiso averiguarlo lanzando en 1996 {\i
Barbie Fashion Designer}, un programa que permit\u237?a dise\u241?ar ropa nueva
para la mu\u241?eca, imprimir los patrones en un papel especial, colorearla, rec
ortarla y pon\u233?rsela a la Barbie de turno. Vendi\u243? millones de copias, a
cercando a las ni\u241?as a unos ordenadores de los que se manten\u237?an alejad
as. Muchos empezaron a centrarse en otro tipo de videojuegos que atrajeran al p\
u250?blico femenino. Incluso el gran Miyamoto alcanz\u243? en 2005 otro \u233?xi
to m\u225?s en su carrera con {\i
Nintendogs}, un simulador de mascota, que vendi\u243? 22 millones de copias.\par
\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Mientras otros segu\u237?an sus pasos, Wright se entreten\u237?a llevando su ide
a de los sistemas din\u225?micos a la Tierra ({\i
SimEarth}), las granjas ({\i
SimFarm}), los ecosistemas ({\i
SimLife}) o los hormigueros ({\i
SimAnt}). Pero su siguiente proyecto, {\i
Doll\u8217?s House} (Casa de mu\u241?ecas) fue recibido con gran escepticismo po
r parte de los directivos de Maxis, la empresa que hab\u237?a fundado. Fruto de
la lectura de un libro de arquitectura de Christopher Alexander llamado {\i
Un lenguaje de patrones}, la idea era simular la construcci\u243?n de edificios
viendo las consecuencias para la gente que all\u237? viv\u237?a. As\u237?, los p
eque\u241?os personajes que viv\u237?an en la pantalla ve\u237?an la tele, iban
al ba\u241?o, cocinaban y dorm\u237?an por la noche. En Maxis les pareci\u243? m
uy poco apasionante y no pusieron pasta encima de la mesa para acabarlo.\par\par
d\plain\hyphpar} {
Pero Wright es muy suyo, as\u237? que como ya hiciera una d\u233?cada antes con
SimCity, sigui\u243? desarrollando su idea. Como necesitaba que las personas vir
tuales, a los que llam\u243? sims, en honor a los habitantes de su juego m\u225?
s c\u233?lebre, se comportaran de forma inteligente, bas\u243? su comportamiento
en lo que hab\u237?a aprendido de las hormigas con {\i
SimAnt}. Aquello funcionaba incluso demasiado bien, y a Wright le resultaba fasc
inante ver qu\u233? hac\u237?an sus sims en pantalla. El juego fue olvid\u225?nd
ose un poco de la arquitectura y centr\u225?ndose en las vidas virtuales de aque
llos seres, a los que tuvo que hacer un poco m\u225?s tontos de lo que eran para

justificar la intervenci\u243?n del jugador.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {

No era el primero en intentar llevar a la pantalla nuestras insulsas vidas en fo
rma de videojuego. En los ochenta, las pobres ventas de juegos de este estilo co
mo {\i
Alter Ego} o {\i
Little Computer People} hab\u237?an disuadido de volver a intentarlo. Pero Wrigh
t era un poco cabez\u243?n, as\u237? que sigui\u243? erre que erre hasta que el
gigante Electronic Arts compr\u243? Maxis en 1997 y qued\u243? encantado con el
proyecto, d\u225?ndole un cheque en blanco para que lo acabara. De nuevo con un
cambio de nombre, {\i
The Sims} fue lanzado en el a\u241?o 2000. En todas sus versiones ha vendido 125
millones de copias, convirti\u233?ndose en la cuarta saga m\u225?s vendida del
sector, despu\u233?s de Mario, Pokemon y Tetris. Un 60 por ciento de los jugador
es son mujeres.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar}
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{\s3 \afs28
{\b
{\ql
EL S\u205?NDROME DE LA VENTANA VIRTUAL ROTA\par\pard\plain\hyphpar}\par\pard\pla
in\hyphpar}\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Uno de los hackers que miraban pasar los trenes, Will Crowther, se encontr\u243?
en 1976 en medio de un divorcio y echando de menos a sus dos hijas. Bicho raro
como era, para entretenerlas cuando lo visitaran cre\u243? un juego para el orde
nador con el que trabajaba. Bas\u225?ndose en las excursiones de espeleolog\u237
?a que hac\u237?a con su ahora ex mujer tiempo atr\u225?s, cre\u243? un mundo su
bterr\u225?neo de fantas\u237?a con el que se pod\u237?a interactuar a base de c
omandos de texto tipo \u171?ir norte\u187? y \u171?matar monstruo\u187?. Se llam
\u243? {\i
Colossal Cave Adventure}, aunque ser\u237?a conocido simplemente como {\i
Adventure}.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
A sus hijas les gust\u243? y jugaron hasta resolver todos los enigmas y dificult
ades que planteaba y as\u237? terminarlo. Crowther perdi\u243? inter\u233?s, per
o otros que lo hab\u237?an visto le pidieron el c\u243?digo, lo mejoraron y dist
ribuyeron. Pronto se crearon muchas otras aventuras conversacionales o de texto,
empezando por {\i
Zork}, un juego que iba a llamarse {\i
Dungeon} pero que cambi\u243? de nombre despu\u233?s de que los propietarios de
los juegos de rol {\i

Dungeons & Dragons} amenazaran con una demanda. A\u241?os despu\u233?s comenzaro
n a a\u241?adirles im\u225?genes y finalmente el g\u233?nero llegar\u237?a a pro
ducir aventuras gr\u225?ficas de la calidad de las sagas {\i
The Secret of Monkey Island} o {\i
Leisure Suit Larry}.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Pero otros desarrolladores empezaron a recorrer otro camino. Aquellos mundos de
fantas\u237?a estaban muy bien pero \u191?por qu\u233? explorarlos en solitario?
En 1979 dos estudiantes brit\u225?nicos, Roy Trubhsaw y Richard Bartle, program
aron para el PDP-10 de su universidad un videojuego en el que podr\u237?an parti
cipar muchos jugadores a la vez, charlando y colaborando entre s\u237? para avan
zar. En homenaje al nombre inicial de {\i
Zork} Lo llamaron MUD ({\i
Multi-User Dungeon}, o mazmorra multiusuario). Como su Universidad de Essex esta
ba conectada a una red inform\u225?tica brit\u225?nica lo pusieron all\u237? dis
ponible para que estudiantes de todo el pa\u237?s pudieran jugar. Y vaya si lo h
icieron.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Su juego tuvo mucho \u233?xito y, con \u233?l, imitadores. Sus autores publicaro
n el c\u243?digo, y muchos lo utilizaron para hacer sus propios juegos a los que
se les fue llamando \u171?muds\u187?. Pero al igual que sucedi\u243? con las av
enturas gr\u225?ficas fue Lucasarts quien les puso im\u225?genes con cierto \u23
3?xito. Cre\u243? {\i
Habitat}, un mundo virtual para Commodore 64 encargado por una compa\u241?\u237?
a llamada entonces Quantum Link que se dedicaba a ofrecer conexi\u243?n a su red
a los usuarios de ordenadores personales y luego tenerlos entretenidos con serv
icios que iban del correo a un casino virtual para que estuvieran enchufados y,
por tanto, pagando el mayor tiempo posible. El problema fue que {\i
Habitat} tuvo demasiado \u233?xito. Empez\u243? a ser ofrecido a un n\u250?mero
reducido de usuarios en fase de pruebas en 1986 y dos a\u241?os despu\u233?s cer
r\u243? porque con s\u243?lo 500 usuarios ocupaba un 1 por ciento de la capacida
d de la red de la compa\u241?\u237?a. Si ten\u237?a el \u233?xito esperado en su
lanzamiento a los dem\u225?s clientes de Quantum Link \u8212?que poco despu\u23
3?s cambiar\u237?a su nombre a America Online, o AOL\u8212?, su red se colapsar\
u237?a.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Hubo m\u225?s experimentos durante los a\u241?os noventa, pero generalmente el e
levado precio que ten\u237?a por aquel entonces conectarse a una red se convirti
\u243? en una fuerza maligna que inhibi\u243? que se alcanzaran \u233?xitos sign
ificativos. Pero lleg\u243? internet, que a partir de 1995 empez\u243? a entrar
en los hogares m\u225?s corrientitos, y los precios fueron bajando. Fue entonces
cuando una compa\u241?\u237?a de videojuegos norteamericana llamada Origin se d
ecidi\u243? a dar el paso. Hab\u237?a nacido con los videojuegos de rol creados
por Richard Garriott, a quien desde ni\u241?o apodaban Lord British porque habla
ba con un acento que sus amigos cre\u237?an brit\u225?nico. Se hizo famoso en el
mundo de los videojuegos gracias a su serie de videojuegos {\i
Ultima}, hasta que un desarrollador llamado Starr Long le propuso que el mundo q
ue hab\u237?a inventado y hecho crecer en su famosa saga viera la luz en interne
t. El proyecto, llamado {\i
Ultima Online}, marcar\u237?a el comienzo de lo que Garriott decidi\u243? llamar
MMORPG, siglas pel\u237?n impronunciables que significan \u171?videojuego de ro
l multijugador masivo en l\u237?nea\u187?.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Origin hab\u237?a sido comprado por Electronic Arts, que no ten\u237?a mucha fe
en la idea, as\u237? que les dio un presupuesto de un cuarto de mill\u243?n de d
\u243?lares; una miseria para un proyecto as\u237?. Pese a todo, lograron tener
un prototipo listo para 1996 y pidieron a los m\u250?ltiples fans de la saga que
quisieran ser probadores del juego que pagaran dos d\u243?lares por recibir una
copia, para as\u237? estar seguros de que realmente ten\u237?an inter\u233?s. N
o esperaban que se apuntaran demasiados, pero en tres d\u237?as ya ten\u237?an 5
0 000 tipos apuntados para pagar. Aquello convenci\u243? a Electronic Arts de qu
e el experimento pod\u237?a ser un \u233?xito y le abri\u243? su cofre del tesor
o a Lord British.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Como hicieron los desarrolladores de {\i

Habitat}, los creadores de {\i

Ultima Online} adoptaron en principio un enfoque algo anarquista. Permitieron a
los jugadores que hicieran lo que quisieran, sin m\u225?s. Entonces comprobaron
que el llamado s\u237?ndrome de la ventana rota funcionaba tambi\u233?n en su mu
ndo. La teor\u237?a dec\u237?a que cuando se permit\u237?an infracciones menores
a la ley \u8212?\u171?chiquilladas\u187? tipo romper una ventana o hacer un gra
fiti\u8212? se iba perdiendo gradualmente el respeto a la ley y fomentando que s
e pasara a mayores. El alcalde de Nueva York Rudy Guiliani se hizo famoso cuando
redujo espectacularmente la delincuencia de su ciudad aplicando esa teor\u237?a
y castigando las peque\u241?as faltas. Los desarrolladores de {\i
Ultima Online} descubrieron que ten\u237?an servidores donde la gente se comport
aba m\u225?s o menos decentemente y otros en los que, a partir de que unos pocos
empezaran a hacer el bandarra, aquello se hab\u237?a convertido en un territori
o donde campaban a sus anchas los m\u225?s fuertes, dedicados a localizar a los
d\u233?biles para matarlos y robarles lo que pudieran poseer.\par\pard\plain\hyp
hpar} {
Aquello qued\u243? m\u225?s claro que nunca al final del periodo de pruebas. Los
personajes de Garriott y Long fueron viajando de servidor en servidor para desp
edir a los usuarios, darles las gracias y decirles que esperaban verlos de vuelt
a cuando el juego estuviera a la venta. En muchos de los servidores hicieron cos
as especiales de despedida, como darse todos la vuelta y mostrar sus traseros a
los jefazos al estilo {\i
Braveheart}. Pero en uno de ellos, un personaje llamado Rainz decidi\u243? usar
sus poderes para crear una cortina de fuego alrededor de Garriott y Long que hic
iera m\u225?s espectacular la despedida. Lord British se rio y \u171?\u191?Qu\u2
33? te crees que vas a hacerme? Si soy inmortal\u187?. S\u243?lo que se hab\u237
?a olvidado de activar su inmortalidad y muri\u243?. \u191?Qu\u233? mayor prueba
del caos que hab\u237?a llegado a reinar en aquellos mundos virtuales que el as
esinato de su creador?\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Lanzado en septiembre de 1997, el juego fue cambiando en su primer a\u241?o de v
ida seg\u250?n sus creadores fueron poniendo reglas que lo hicieran un poco meno
s\u8230? criminal. Las ciudades se convirtieron en zonas seguras donde los jugad
ores no pod\u237?an atacarse entre s\u237?, se introdujo un sistema de reputaci\
u243?n que permitiera saber si aquel al que ten\u237?amos delante era o no un as
esino psic\u243?pata virtual y se crearon c\u225?rceles. {\i
Ultima Online} atrajo a 100 000 jugadores en sus primeros seis meses de vida, al
canzando en su momento de mayor auge los 250 000.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Las dem\u225?s compa\u241?\u237?as observaron tanto el \u233?xito del juego como
los numerosos problemas que su carencia de reglas hab\u237?an tra\u237?do a la
convivencia entre jugadores y, en definitiva, a su atractivo. As\u237?, cuando B
lizzard decidi\u243? continuar su exitosa saga de videojuegos de estrategia en t
iempo real {\i
Warcraft} con un MMORPG al que llamar\u237?a {\i
World of Warcraft}, puso una serie de reglas que, entre otras cosas, permitieran
a los jugadores noveles elegir si quer\u237?an dedicarse a luchar contra otros
o a resolver misiones impidiendo que fueran atacados por otros m\u225?s fuertes.
Lanzado en 2004, actualmente tiene m\u225?s de 12 millones de usuarios, que pag
an religiosamente su suscripci\u243?n de 15 d\u243?lares todos los meses. Es el
videojuego m\u225?s lucrativo de la historia y ha sido protagonista de un episod
io de {\i
South Park}. \u191?Qu\u233? m\u225?s se puede pedir?\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {\p
ar\pard\hyphpar }{\page } {\s2 \afs28
{\b
{\ql
7
{\line }
{\line }
INTERNET\par\pard\plain\hyphpar}\par\pard\plain\hyphpar}\par\pard\plain\hyphpar
}

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{
{\b
E}xisten muchos mitos relacionados con Internet, empezando por la falsa idea de
que fue creado para prevenir un fallo total de las comunicaciones ante un posibl
e ataque nuclear. Su nacimiento fue financiado por el Departamento de Defensa, s
\u237?, aunque ni quienes decidieron su puesta en marcha ni quienes se mancharon
las manos llev\u225?ndola a cabo eran militares. Tampoco la mayor\u237?a de sus
primeros usuarios.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
La red Arpanet, que empez\u243? a funcionar en 1969, evolucion\u243? hasta termi
nar convirti\u233?ndose en Internet. Pero a pesar de todos los avances t\u233?cn
icos de que disfrut\u243?, y de que ya estaban todos en su sitio a comienzos de
los noventa, el punto clave en su historia fue el 30 de abril de 1995. A partir
de ese d\u237?a, las empresas pudieron conectarse a Internet sin tener que pedir
permiso. Se empez\u243? a dejar de emplear para ello la llamada {\i
backbone} o \u171?columna vertebral\u187? de la NSF, una agencia cient\u237?fica
del Gobierno de Estados Unidos, descentraliz\u225?ndose de verdad y permitiendo
a las distintas redes conectarse a trav\u233?s de los llamados puntos neutros.\
par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
En esa fecha Internet dej\u243? de ser una red aburrid\u237?sima a la que s\u243
?lo se pod\u237?a conectar uno desde la universidad, porque entonces tuvimos ver
dadera libertad para conectarnos a ella. Y la aprovechamos. A finales de aquel a
\u241?o hab\u237?a 16 millones de internautas. Catorce a\u241?os despu\u233?s se
estima que existen 1669 millones, casi un cuarto de la poblaci\u243?n mundial.
Internet es el primer medio de comunicaci\u243?n global, en el que potencialment
e cualquier emisor puede llevar su mensaje a todo el mundo, si este tiene inter\
u233?s en escucharlo, claro. Si los ordenadores dieron paso a la era de la infor
maci\u243?n, Internet ha hecho nacer la de la comunicaci\u243?n. Es, sin duda, e
l m\u225?s importante de las computadoras.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar}
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{\s3 \afs28
{\b
{\ql
ARPANET Y LOS PAQUETES QUE LA HICIERON POSIBLE\par\pard\plain\hyphpar}\par\pard\
plain\hyphpar}\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
En 1957, la Uni\u243?n Sovi\u233?tica lanz\u243? el Sputnik, y Estados Unidos qu
ed\u243? horrorizado. La perspectiva de quedarse estancados tecnol\u243?gicament
e por detr\u225?s de los rusos era estremecedora para su honor y para las libert
ades que sus fuerzas armadas defend\u237?an en medio mundo. Hab\u237?a que reacc
ionar, y r\u225?pido.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
La primera reacci\u243?n fue crear una nueva agencia que financiara un gran salt
o en la investigaci\u243?n, especialmente en lo que se refer\u237?a a cohetes y
viajes espaciales. Con ese objetivo se cre\u243? ARPA (Agencia de Investigaci\u2
43?n en Proyectos Avanzados), dependiente del Pent\u225?gono, truco burocr\u225?
tico que permiti\u243? que empezara a funcionar en dos patadas. Sin embargo, el
objetivo real era que sirviese de cabeza de playa hasta que estuviera lista la N
ASA, que se qued\u243? con casi todo el dinero que recib\u237?a y su principal m
isi\u243?n: llegar al espacio.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
As\u237? las cosas, el ARPA se reinvent\u243? pocos meses despu\u233?s de su cre
aci\u243?n como agencia dedicada a financiar investigaciones por todo el pa\u237
?s que pudieran tener alg\u250?n inter\u233?s militar, por m\u225?s remoto que f
uera. Pronto tuvo un departamento dedicado a las tecnolog\u237?as de la informac
i\u243?n (IPTO) dirigido por el psic\u243?logo devenido inform\u225?tico J. C. R
. Licklider, quien en 1963 escribi\u243? su {\i
Memor\u225?ndum para miembros y afiliados de la Red de Ordenadores Intergal\u225
?ctica}, en el que puso negro sobre blanco su visi\u243?n de una red de ordenado
res que abarcara el mundo entero y, ya que est\u225?bamos en ello, el espacio.\p
ar\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Ese sue\u241?o, no obstante, qued\u243? unos a\u241?os convertido en eso, en sue
\u241?o, hasta que su sucesor, Bob Taylor, descubri\u243? c\u243?mo llevarla a l
a pr\u225?ctica, aunque fuese a una escala algo menor. Corre por ah\u237? la esp
ecie de que Internet fue creada para permitir que las comunicaciones del ej\u233
?rcito norteamericano sobrevivieran a un ataque nuclear. La realidad fue algo m\
u225?s pedestre. Taylor ten\u237?a en su despacho tres terminales para conectars
e a tres ordenadores distintos, dos en California y uno en el MIT. Le parec\u237
?a un desperdicio enorme: \u191?por qu\u233? no disponer de un terminal que pudi
era conectarse a cualquier ordenador de cualquier centro de investigaci\u243?n f
inanciado por ARPA? As\u237?, adem\u225?s, se podr\u237?an ahorrar recursos porq
ue no har\u237?a falta que cada uno tuviera sus propios ordenadores, entonces tr
astos enormes y car\u237?simos, porque podr\u237?an compartirlos. Ni corto ni pe
rezoso, se present\u243? en el despacho del jefe a pedirle dinero para el proyec
to. Se dec\u237?a entonces que si ten\u237?as una buena idea bastaba media hora
con Charles Herzfeld para que aflojara. A Taylor le llev\u243? veinte minutos co
nseguir un mill\u243?n de d\u243?lares. De los de entonces.\par\pard\plain\hyphp

ar} {
Era 1965, y hab\u237?an pasado cinco a\u241?os desde que Paul Baran hab\u237?a t
enido una idea imprescindible para que la red imaginada por Licklider y que Tayl
or se dispon\u237?a a construir funcionara. Baran s\u237? que estaba obsesionado
con el peligro de un ataque nuclear. Trabajaba entonces para la Corporaci\u243?
n RAND, un {\i
think-tank} financiado por el gobierno para realizar investigaciones y an\u225?l
isis para el Ej\u233?rcito. Enseguida se dio cuenta de que la red telef\u243?nic
a estadounidense era tremendamente fr\u225?gil y se romper\u237?a sin remedio en
el caso de un ataque, de modo que el presidente ni siquiera podr\u237?a dar \u2
43?rdenes. As\u237? que se puso a investigar c\u243?mo podr\u237?a evitarse.\par
\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Pronto lleg\u243? a un esquema, que a\u241?os m\u225?s tarde ser\u237?a conocido
como \u171?conmutaci\u243?n de paquetes\u187? y que \u233?l bautiz\u243? como d
e \u171?patata caliente\u187?. Hasta el momento, el \u250?nico sistema para tran
smitir algo por la red telef\u243?nica consist\u237?a en la creaci\u243?n de un
circuito cerrado entre los dos extremos. Al principio se hac\u237?a a mano: llam
abas a la operadora, esta pinchaba su propio tel\u233?fono a tu circuito y le de
c\u237?as d\u243?nde quer\u237?as llamar; ella llamaba al destino y luego conect
aba un cable de tu circuito al del destino para que se pudiera hablar. Luego aqu
ello se fue automatizando poco a poco, pero el principio era el mismo: para comu
nicarse entre dos puntos hab\u237?a que establecer un circuito, que dejaba de fu
ncionar si cualquier punto intermedio ten\u237?a alg\u250?n problema.\par\pard\p
lain\hyphpar} {
El esquema de Baran era m\u225?s complejo, y requer\u237?a del uso de se\u241?al
es digitales, en las que ten\u237?a experiencia por su trabajo anterior en Univa
c. Cada comunicaci\u243?n deb\u237?a convertirse en un bloque de unos y ceros. E
stos se divid\u237?an en mensajes (luego llamados paquetes) del mismo tama\u241?
o, que se numeraban y se enviaban a la red. Cada nodo de la red decid\u237?a cu\
u225?l era el mejor camino para que el mensaje llegara el destino y lo enviaba;
es decir, le llegaba la patata caliente y se la pasaba a otro inmediatamente. As
\u237?, si alg\u250?n nodo fallaba, se podr\u237?a reenviar el mensaje a trav\u2
33?s de otro. El receptor un\u237?a los mensajes, los ordenaba y ve\u237?a si fa
ltaba alguno, en cuyo caso ped\u237?a su reenv\u237?o. C\u225?lculos matem\u225?
ticos le llevaron a la conclusi\u243?n de que cada nodo de la red deb\u237?a est
ar conectado a otros tres o cuatro para hacerla resistente a los estragos de un
ataque nuclear.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Baran se pas\u243? a\u241?os promocionando su esquema ante Washington y el monop
olio telef\u243?nico AT&T, depur\u225?ndolo ante las objeciones, sin mucho \u233
?xito. Tanto es as\u237? que el brit\u225?nico Donald Davies lleg\u243? independ
ientemente a las mismas ideas, las present\u243? en sociedad y con el apoyo de s
u gobierno empez\u243? a ponerlas en marcha antes de saber del trabajo de Baran.
Al parecer, se sinti\u243? bastante avergonzado de haber publicado como propio
lo mismo que el norteamericano, pero al menos s\u237? invent\u243? algo, como di
jo al propio Baran: \u171?Puede que hayas llegado el primero, pero el nombre se
lo he puesto yo\u187?. Porque la idea de llamar \u171?paquetes\u187? a los mensa
jes es completamente suya. Tambi\u233?n en el MIT Leonard Kleinrock hab\u237?a l
legado a las mismas conclusiones por su cuenta. Qui\u233?n sabe si esa era la id
ea que estaba flotando en el viento y a la que cantaba Bob Dylan por aquel enton
ces.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
El proceso de construir la red de ARPA (que en un alarde de originalidad se llam
ar\u237?a Arpanet) comenz\u243? muy lentamente. Bob Taylor sab\u237?a que al fre
nte deb\u237?a estar Larry Roberts, el hombre que hab\u237?a logrado conectar co
n \u233?xito dos ordenadores situados en costas distintas de Estados Unidos, es
decir, a tomar viento uno del otro. Pero este no quer\u237?a abandonar el Labora
torio Lincoln, donde trabajaba muy a gusto, pese a que el proyecto le pon\u237?a
. Finalmente, tras muchos intentos de convencerle personalmente, Taylor llam\u24
3? al jefe del Lincoln para recordarle que la mayor parte de su financiaci\u243?
n la recib\u237?a de ARPA y que, en fin, ser\u237?a mejor para todos que Roberts
cambiara de empleo, t\u250? ya me entiendes.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {

Roberts se traslad\u243? a Washington y aprovech\u243? una reuni\u243?n de los r

esponsables de los principales centros de investigaci\u243?n del ARPA en 1967 pa
ra exponerles la idea. Los interfectos se mostraron, por decirlo suavemente, lig
eramente reacios a conectar sus valiosos ordenadores a una red y que adem\u225?s
de todo lo que ya hac\u237?an tuvieran que lidiar con una l\u237?nea telef\u243
?nica. Wesley Clark, un ingeniero sin ninguna relaci\u243?n con el general salvo
la de tener el mismo nombre, sugiri\u243? que esa tarea la realizaran unos comp
utadores m\u225?s peque\u241?os e iguales, lo que tendr\u237?a la ventaja adicio
nal de no tener que lidiar con incompatibilidades entre las m\u225?quinas. Pregu
ntado sobre qui\u233?n podr\u237?a construir esas m\u225?quinas, contest\u243?:
Paul French.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Trabajando sobre esa base, Roberts termin\u243? con las especificaciones de la r
ed a mediados de 1968 y las envi\u243? a m\u225?s de un centenar de empresas par
a que participaran en el concurso. Gan\u243? una peque\u241?a compa\u241?\u237?a
llamada Bolt, Beranek and Newman, nacida como consultora en asuntos de ac\u250?
stica y que hab\u237?a establecido un peque\u241?o departamento de inform\u225?t
ica. Lo dirig\u237?a, sin duda por una completa casualidad, un tal Paul French.\
par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
De lo que no cabe duda es de que BBN cumpli\u243?: entreg\u243? en las fechas pr
evistas las m\u225?quinas, unas minicomputadoras Honeywell que modificaron a man
o, funcionando correctamente. Eso s\u237?, la primera se fue a California sin qu
e hubieran tenido tiempo de probarla, a finales de agosto de 1969. El mes siguie
nte se entreg\u243? la segunda y se hizo la primera prueba. Empezaron a escribir
la palabra \u171?login\u187?, el comando para entrar en la computadora, y el si
stema se colg\u243? tras enviar la ge. Pero al poco tiempo, ese mismo d\u237?a,
solucionaron el problema y pusieron en marcha el sistema.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar
} {
Pero estos cacharros, llamados IMP (Interface Message Processors), s\u243?lo ges
tionaban el tr\u225?fico de la red y no examinaban su contenido. Y las distintas
universidades que trabajaban en el proyecto a\u250?n no ten\u237?an un protocol
o com\u250?n, un lenguaje en el que se pudieran hablar entre s\u237? las computa
doras, para hacer algo \u250?til en la red. Pero poco a poco fueron produciendo
resultados. Primero fue Telnet a finales de 1969, que permit\u237?a entrar desde
un terminal conectado a la red a cualquier ordenador de la misma, cumpliendo as
\u237? con los deseos de Bob Taylor, quiz\u225? un poco tarde porque ya hab\u237
?a dejado la agencia. En el verano de 1970 lleg\u243? NCP, el programa que ofrec
\u237?a un sistema est\u225?ndar para establecer conexiones estables en la red,
y finalmente en 1972 el FTP, que permit\u237?a transferir ficheros y hac\u237?a
ya uso del NCP.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
No obstante, la cosa no ten\u237?a mucho \u233?xito a\u250?n. A finales de 1971
el n\u250?mero de ordenadores conectados hab\u237?a llegado a 23, pero s\u243?lo
se empleaba un 2 por ciento de la capacidad total de la red, y eso que buena pa
rte del tr\u225?fico correspond\u237?a a diversas pruebas de funcionamiento. Se
hab\u237?a gastado el dinero de los contribuyentes en construir una red que, con
el tiempo, ser\u237?a la base de lo que llamamos Internet, pero no sab\u237?an
a\u250?n qu\u233? hacer con ella. Sin embargo, aquello pronto iba a cambiar: est
aba a punto de llegar una aplicaci\u243?n que convertir\u237?a Arpanet en un \u2
33?xito sin precedentes.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar}
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{\s3 \afs28
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{\ql
EL TONTO INVENTO DEL CORREO ELECTR\u211?NICO\par\pard\plain\hyphpar}\par\pard\pl
ain\hyphpar}\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
El correo electr\u243?nico naci\u243? en los a\u241?os sesenta, en los primeros
ordenadores que contaban con un sistema operativo que permit\u237?a el uso compa
rtido. En estas computadoras, te conectabas con un terminal y parec\u237?as tene
r a tu disposici\u243?n un ordenador completo, pero en realidad era una simulaci
\u243?n; hab\u237?a un buen n\u250?mero de personas haciendo lo mismo que t\u250
? al mismo tiempo. Aquellos programas eran m\u225?s bien limitadillos, porque s\
u243?lo pod\u237?as enviar mensajes a otros usuarios de la misma computadora. Te
n\u237?an su utilidad en cualquier caso, de modo que todos los sistemas contaban
con uno. Pero a nadie se le hab\u237?a ocurrido ampliarlos para enviar mensajes
a otros ordenadores. La raz\u243?n era evidente: no hab\u237?a redes que los co
nectaran unos a otros.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Pero entonces lleg\u243? Arpanet, de modo que no hubo que esperar mucho para que
a alguien se le ocurriera la feliz idea. Fue un ingeniero de BBN, la peque\u241
?a consultora que se encarg\u243? de construir la red, llamado Ray Tomlinson a q
uien se le encendi\u243? la bombilla. Estaba trabajando a finales de 1971 con un
programa para transferir ficheros entre ordenadores de la red llamado Cpynet ad
em\u225?s de mejorar el programa que dejaba mensajes electr\u243?nicos a usuario
s del mismo ordenador, cuando se le ocurri\u243? juntarlos. Al fin y al cabo, un
mensaje no deja de ser un fichero.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
T\u233?cnicamente aquello era una chorrada. El programa de mensajer\u237?a detec
taba que el usuario no era de la misma m\u225?quina y usaba Cpynet para enviarlo
a otro ordenador. Este otro ordenador lo recib\u237?a y lo trataba como si fuer
a un mensaje interno, dej\u225?ndolo en el buz\u243?n del interesado. Pero mucho
s grandes inventos no son grandes avances t\u233?cnicos. Tomlinson ni siquiera s
e acuerda de cu\u225?l fue el primer mensaje que surc\u243? la red porque eran e
nv\u237?os de prueba, hechos entre dos ordenadores PDP-10 situados f\u237?sicame
nte uno junto a otro pero conectados s\u243?lo a trav\u233?s de Arpanet. Piensa
que seguramente ser\u237?a algo as\u237? como \u171?QWERTVUIOP\u187?. Pero que n
i idea, oigan.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Quiz\u225? la decisi\u243?n m\u225?s duradera de Tomlinson fue la de usar la arr
oba para separar el nombre del usuario del nombre de la m\u225?quina a la que de
b\u237?a enviarse. Y no es que se lo pensara mucho: simplemente revis\u243? el t
eclado, vio la @ ah\u237? y pens\u243?: \u171?Bueno, esto no se usa para nada m\
u225?s, as\u237? que ya est\u225?\u187?. Lo cual no era del todo cierto, pues un
sistema operativo relativamente popular entonces, Multics, lo empleaba para bor
rar la l\u237?nea que se estaba escribiendo, as\u237? que los usuarios del mismo
intentaban escribir pepito@maquinita y al llegar a la arroba desaparec\u237?a t
odo lo que hab\u237?an escrito antes, dej\u225?ndolo s\u243?lo en \u171?maquinit
a\u187?. Pero claro, Tomlinson no usaba Multics.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
El invento, no obstante, no se extendi\u243? mucho hasta el verano siguiente. Mi
entras se escrib\u237?a la definici\u243?n final del protocolo de transferencia
de ficheros, el FTP, alguien que conoc\u237?a el trabajo de Tomlinson sugiri\u24
3? incluirlo en la especificaci\u243?n. Y as\u237? se hizo, de modo que los prog
ramas para enviar mensajes comenzaron a popularizarse hasta el punto de que en 1

973 un estudio indic\u243? que el 75 por ciento de todo el tr\u225?fico de Arpan

et eran correos electr\u243?nicos. Por fin le hab\u237?an encontrado un uso a la
red.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Uno de los mayores usuarios de la red era el jefazo de ARPA por aquel entonces,
Stephen Lukasik, quien incluso se llevaba un ordenador portable \u8212?me niego
a llamar port\u225?til a ese mastodonte\u8212? fabricado por Texas Instruments,
con el que pod\u237?a conectarse y descargar su correo. Aquel amor por la red le
vino muy bien a Arpanet, proyecto que vio casi duplicado su presupuesto. Un d\u
237?a se quej\u243? a Larry Roberts, el principal responsable de la creaci\u243?
n de la red, de lo inc\u243?modo que resultaba el manejo del e-mail y este regre
s\u243? al d\u237?a siguiente con un programa que hab\u237?a hecho en un d\u237?
a y que permit\u237?a seleccionar grupos de mensajes, archivarlos, borrarlos, et
c. Hab\u237?a nacido el primer gestor de correo. Se llamaba RD. Pronto fue mejor
ado y finalmente uno llamado MSG se convirti\u243? en algo que podr\u237?a llama
rse est\u225?ndar de facto. \u191?Por qu\u233?? Porque su creador, John Vittal,
hab\u237?a tenido una idea feliz: un comando para contestar a un mensaje, sin ne
cesidad de volver a teclear su direcci\u243?n y cometer el riesgo de equivocarte
.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Con el uso cada vez m\u225?s extendido del correo electr\u243?nico y la infinida
d de programas que aparecieron para gestionarlo, algunos de ellos incompatibles
entre s\u237?, hab\u237?a que poner orden. El 7 de junio de 1975 se cre\u243? la
primera lista de correo para tratar estos temas: Message Services Group, que co
n esa tendencia a acortar nombres tan propia del gremio ser\u237?a m\u225?s cono
cido como MsgGroup. No fue la \u250?nica lista ni la m\u225?s popular, honor res
ervado a la dedicada a los aficionados a la ciencia ficci\u243?n, pero s\u237? l
a que m\u225?s importancia tuvo y donde tuvieron lugar las primeras {\i
flame wars}, o peleas a cara de perro v\u237?a mensajer\u237?a electr\u243?nica.
\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
La primera discusi\u243?n importante, que hizo correr r\u237?os de bits, fue, lo
crean o no, sobre las cabeceras de los mensajes. Cuando se env\u237?a un correo
electr\u243?nico, adem\u225?s del mensaje, se mandan una serie de l\u237?neas d
e texto llamadas cabeceras. Las m\u225?s conocidas y \u250?tiles son el asunto d
el mensaje, el emisor y el o los receptores. Pero hay much\u237?simas m\u225?s,
como se puede comprobar si se lee el c\u243?digo fuente del mensaje. Al principi
o los lectores mostraban todas, y algunos programas de env\u237?o mandaban cosas
tan esot\u233?ricas como la fase de la luna en el momento de escribir el mensaj
e y cosas as\u237?, por lo que muchos quer\u237?an imponer unos l\u237?mites, mi
entras otros lo consideraban poco menos que un asalto contra la libertad de expr
esi\u243?n.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Tanto era as\u237? que como MsgGroup era una lista moderada, y los mensajes m\u2
25?s agresivos no pasaban el filtro, se mont\u243? otra sin censura llamada Head
er People cuyos miembros, seg\u250?n uno en su momento, se pon\u237?an calzoncil
los de amianto para poder participar en ella. As\u237? somos a veces los inform\
u225?ticos, puristas hasta la n\u225?usea con las mayores tonter\u237?as. El pro
blema finalmente se resolvi\u243? se\u241?alando unas pocas cabeceras obligatori
as e indicando que las dem\u225?s pod\u237?an ser ocultadas al leer los mensajes
; vamos, como estamos ahora.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Con el tiempo, a finales de los a\u241?os setenta, se propondr\u237?a el uso de
emoticonos, esas caras sonrientes y gui\u241?os hechos con par\u233?ntesis y gui
ones, para evitar malentendidos y que algunas cosas que decimos en los mensajes
se tomen demasiado en serio. Incluso se hizo una gu\u237?a de \u171?netiqueta\u1
87?, en la que ya se advert\u237?a que escribir en may\u250?sculas era equivalen
te a gritar y que conven\u237?a evitarlo. El correo electr\u243?nico fue lo que
convirti\u243? Arpanet en un \u233?xito, y llevar\u237?a a la creaci\u243?n de o
tras redes y, finalmente, de Internet. A la web todav\u237?a le faltaban unos cu
antos a\u241?os para dar sus primeros pasitos.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar}
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{\s3 \afs28
{\b
{\ql
ETHERNET, LA REINA DE LAS REDES TONTAS\par\pard\plain\hyphpar}\par\pard\plain\hy
phpar}\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Pese a que se usa constantemente, poca gente sabe qu\u233? es Ethernet. Se habla
de la red de la oficina, as\u237? en general, o del cable de red. Es lo que tie
ne el triunfo absoluto, que te convierte en un gen\u233?rico. Pero cuando Bob Me
tcalfe invent\u243? Ethernet, en los a\u241?os setenta, la idea parec\u237?a des
cabellada: \u191?c\u243?mo podr\u237?a funcionar una red que no ofrec\u237?a gar
ant\u237?a alguna de que un mensaje llegara a su destino?\par\pard\plain\hyphpar
} {
Robert Metcalfe era, en 1972, un estudiante cabreado. Estaba enfadado con AT&T,
el mastodonte telef\u243?nico norteamericano, y con Harvard, su universidad. El
origen de tanto mal rollo fue su pasi\u243?n por Arpanet. Tras intentar sin \u23
3?xito ser el responsable de conectar Harvard a la red, hizo lo propio con las m
inicomputadoras del MIT. Era un entusiasta, un absoluto enamorado de lo que term
inar\u237?a siendo la red de redes.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
El caso es que ese a\u241?o se celebraron unas jornadas sobre Arpanet, para las
cuales escribi\u243? un panfleto de veinte p\u225?ginas donde describ\u237?a c\u
243?mo funcionaba aqu\u233?lla y para qu\u233? se pod\u237?a usar: algo as\u237?
como el primer {\i
Internet para torpes}. Gust\u243? mucho, y acabaron pidi\u233?ndole que hiciera
una demostraci\u243?n a una decena de directivos de AT&T. La empresa ya estaba l
uchando contra Arpanet, temerosa de que pudiera evolucionar y terminar echando a
bajo su monopolio, construido sobre la red telef\u243?nica. Y el caso es que a a
quel barbudo estudiante se le colg\u243? la red justo en ese momento, el \u250?n
ico en tres d\u237?as en que le dio por fallar, como si de una versi\u243?n cual
quiera de Windows se tratara. Y a los de AT&T les encant\u243?. \u171?Aquello er
a el trabajo de mi vida, mi cruzada. Y esos t\u237?os estaban sonriendo\u187?, r
ecordar\u237?a Metcalfe a\u241?os m\u225?s tarde. No se lo perdon\u243?.\par\par
d\plain\hyphpar} {
Pero peor fue lo de Harvard. Su tesis sobre Arpanet estaba terminada, ten\u237?a
incluso d\u237?a para leerla y sus padres ya hab\u237?an reservado los billetes
para volar desde Nueva York. Ten\u237?a ya un contrato para trabajar en el pres
tigioso laboratorio PARC de Xerox. Pues bien: se la echaron abajo con el argumen
to de que no era suficientemente te\u243?rica. Metcalfe pod\u237?a admitir que n
o era una tesis demasiado buena, pero algo de raz\u243?n ten\u237?a cuando repli
caba que si aquellos profesores hubieran sido buenos en lo suyo le habr\u237?an
encaminado mejor.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Con el cabreo con el mundo que ten\u237?a encima, lleg\u243? a Palo Alto a traba

jar\u8230? y sigui\u243? con su obsesi\u243?n con Arpanet. Un d\u237?a lleg\u243

? a sus manos un art\u237?culo sobre la primera red inal\u225?mbrica: la hab\u23
7?a montado dos a\u241?os antes Norman Abramson en la Universidad de Hawai. Dado
que esta instituci\u243?n ten\u237?a instalaciones en varias islas, el cableado
no era una opci\u243?n viable, as\u237? que el m\u233?todo de transmisi\u243?n
fue la radio. Si sabe usted tanto hawaiano como yo, seguro que apuesta a que su
nombre era AlohaNet. Pues\u8230? \u161?s\u237?, lo era!\par\pard\plain\hyphpar}
{
Esta red funcionaba de un modo curioso: todos los ordenadores conectados a ella
estaban continuamente {\i
escuchando} la radio, a ver si hab\u237?a algo para ellos. Cuando lo hab\u237?a,
cog\u237?an el mensaje y mandaban otro avisando de su recepci\u243?n. Cuando te
n\u237?an que enviar, primero comprobaban que nadie estaba ocupando la radio con
sus tonter\u237?as. No obstante, pese a las cautelas, pod\u237?a pasar que dos
o m\u225?s terminales enviaran a la vez sus mensajes, con lo que la radio s\u243
?lo emit\u237?a un ruido imposible de interpretar. Cuando no se recib\u237?a la
confirmaci\u243?n del receptor, se esperaba un lapso de tiempo aleatorio y se vo
lv\u237?a a intentar la comunicaci\u243?n.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
AlohaNet era lo que se llama una {\i
red tonta}. Tradicionalmente \u8212?y en telecomunicaciones lo tradicional es el
tel\u233?fono\u8212? los terminales eran los cacharros menos complejos del sist
ema, y era dentro de la red donde se hac\u237?a todo el trabajo duro. En cambio,
en una red tonta los encargados de que todo vaya bien son principalmente el emi
sor y el receptor. Si quiere entender la diferencia como Dios manda, imagine que
es un n\u225?ufrago y quiere enviar el obligado mensaje en esa botella que tien
e a mano. En la red telef\u243?nica habr\u237?a un se\u241?or que acudir\u237?a
de inmediato, coger\u237?a la botella y la entregar\u237?a en destino. A simple
vista, el sistema de AlohaNet equival\u237?a a matar moscas a ca\u241?onazos: la
botella se echar\u237?a en el agua y todos los posibles receptores estar\u237?a
n continuamente filtrando el mar a ver si les ca\u237?a la breva.\par\pard\plain
\hyphpar} {
Explicado as\u237?, lo cierto es que las redes tontas parecen un atraso, y as\u2
37? lo vieron en AT&T. Pero ten\u237?an una gran ventaja. Los se\u241?ores de la
s compa\u241?\u237?as telef\u243?nicas s\u243?lo sab\u237?an hacer una cosa: rep
artir botellas, o sea, llamadas de tel\u233?fono. En cambio, las redes tontas pu
eden hacer de todo. Internet es como ellas. Por eso sirve para la web, el correo
electr\u243?nico, la mensajer\u237?a instant\u225?nea y, s\u237?, para hablar c
omo si fuera un tel\u233?fono. Cuando algunos hablan de la neutralidad de la red
, en realidad defienden que las redes sigan siendo tontas. No lo dicen as\u237?
porque, claro, no queda igual de bien.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Dec\u237?amos que nuestro h\u233?roe qued\u243? fascinado por AlohaNet, pero tam
bi\u233?n se dio cuenta de su gran problema: en cuanto aumentaba demasiado el n\
u250?mero de terminales conectados a la red, o estos se enviaban demasiados mens
ajes, la red se pasaba m\u225?s tiempo lidiando con las interferencias que envia
ndo mensajes \u250?tiles, de modo que s\u243?lo se aprovechaba el 17 por ciento
de su capacidad m\u225?xima. Metcalfe se dio cuenta de que, trabaj\u225?ndose un
poquito las matem\u225?ticas, pod\u237?a mejorar mucho el sistema. Y vaya si lo
hizo.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
El truco consisti\u243?, principalmente, en que ese tiempo aleatorio que hab\u23
7?a que esperar para volver a enviar el mensaje fuese aumentando seg\u250?n se i
ban sucediendo los errores. Es decir, si hab\u237?a m\u225?s tr\u225?fico, se es
peraba m\u225?s para volver a intentarlo. De esta forma tan simple pas\u243? a a
provechar el 90 por ciento del ancho de banda.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Metcalfe puso en pr\u225?ctica sus ideas en una red nueva que en lugar de radio
usaba cables, que era lo normal. Se utiliz\u243? en principio para conectar entr
e s\u237? los novedosos ordenadores personales en los que estaban trabajando en
Xerox. La cosa le sirvi\u243?, adem\u225?s, para que los tocanarices de Harvard
le aprobaran de una vez su tesis. Pero, como \u233?l mismo dir\u237?a a\u241?os
despu\u233?s, no se forr\u243? por inventar Ethernet, sino por venderlo durante
m\u225?s de una d\u233?cada; d\u233?cada que comenz\u243? en 1979, cuando fund\u

243? una empresa que llam\u243? 3com: por las tres {\i
com}: comunicaciones, computadores y compatibilidad.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Ya en la d\u233?cada de los noventa, y con el bolsillo bien cubierto, Metcalfe c
ambi\u243? de oficio y pas\u243? de inventor y empresario de \u233?xito a gur\u2
50? de las nuevas tecnolog\u237?as. Se hizo famoso por varias predicciones\u8230
? fallidas, como esa que auguraba que lo de las redes inal\u225?mbricas no iba a
funcionar jam\u225?s y que la gente har\u237?a bien en cablear sus casas y ofic
inas, o esa otra, de 1995, que dec\u237?a que Internet iba a colapsar en 1996\u8
230?\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Asegur\u243? que se comer\u237?a sus palabras si erraba. Y con la ayuda de una b
atidora y algo de agua, cumpli\u243? su promesa.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar}
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{\s3 \afs28
{\b
{\ql
UNA RED PARA ATRAERLOS A TODOS Y ATARLOS AL ORDENADOR\par\pard\plain\hyphpar}\pa
r\pard\plain\hyphpar}\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Arpanet hab\u237?a sido todo un \u233?xito gracias al correo electr\u243?nico, y
pronto aparecer\u237?an m\u225?s redes para competir con ella. IBM crear\u237?a
su Bitnet en 1984. Los estudiantes de las universidades norteamericanas crearon
una red propia, llamada Usenet. Incluso Microsoft intent\u243? implantar la suy
a, a mediados de los noventa. Todas desaparecieron.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
En 1972 se hicieron varios experimentos con redes inal\u225?mbricas y por sat\u2
33?lite. Uno de los principales responsables del desarrollo de Arpanet, Bob Kahn
, recab\u243? la ayuda de su colega Vinton Cerf para intentar encontrar un modo
de conectar esas redes con la suya. Todas usaban paquetes, pero eran de distinto
formato y tama\u241?o, y no ten\u237?an la misma fiabilidad. Dado que les parec
\u237?a imposible proponer un sistema com\u250?n a todas ellas, decidieron que d
eber\u237?an mantenerse cada una como era y comunicarse con las dem\u225?s a tra
v\u233?s de unas pasarelas, que funcionaran como un nodo normal de red, pongamos
, inal\u225?mbrica y tambi\u233?n de Arpanet, y pasaran los mensajes de una a ot
ra. Si al funcionamiento normal de una red se le llamaba {\i
networking}, a esto se le denomin\u243? {\i
internetworking}. \u191?Les da una pista de c\u243?mo acabar\u237?a todo?\par\pa
rd\plain\hyphpar} {
Era algo m\u225?s que un esfuerzo te\u243?rico. Pese a que aquellas redes eran e
xperimentales, hab\u237?a otras que estaban funcionando a pleno rendimiento, sim
ilares a Arpanet pero en Reino Unido y Francia. Sin duda habr\u237?a m\u225?s po

r venir. Cerf y Kahn trabajaron juntos durante meses para dar a luz un nuevo pro
tocolo, llamado TCP, que permitir\u237?a el milagro. Al contrario que el NCP de
Arpanet, este esquema de comunicaci\u243?n no confiar\u237?a en la fiabilidad de
las conexiones. Establec\u237?a que todo circulase por las distintas redes en d
atagramas, o mensajes TCP, del mismo modo que los bienes viajan por el mundo en
barco, tren o camiones en contenedores est\u225?ndar, todos del mismo tama\u241?
o. Y del mismo modo que los contenedores permitieron la globalizaci\u243?n econ\
u243?mica, los datagramas trajeron la globalizaci\u243?n de la informaci\u243?n.
\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Una primera versi\u243?n del esquema fue presentada en la primavera de 1974, y c
uatro a\u241?os despu\u233?s Cerf, junto a otros dos pioneros llamados Jon Poste
l y Danny Cohen, decidieron romper el protocolo en dos. TCP (Transfer Control Pr
otocol) ser\u237?a responsable de dividir los mensajes en datagramas, enviarlos,
volver a ensamblarlos en el destino y reenviar los que no hubieran llegado corr
ectamente. IP (Internet Protocol) ser\u237?a el responsable de coger cada datagr
ama individualmente y llevarlo de nodo en nodo hasta su destino final. De este m
odo, las pasarelas que interconectaban las redes s\u243?lo necesitar\u237?an ent
ender el protocolo IP, as\u237? que ser\u237?an m\u225?s baratas. Una red TCP/IP
ser\u237?a una red tonta, en la que los extremos, los ordenadores, ser\u237?an
realmente los encargados de que todo funcionara correctamente. Igualico que Ethe
rnet.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Debido a la facilidad con que se pod\u237?an interconectar gracias a TCP/IP, a m
ediados de los ochenta se hab\u237?an establecido un buen n\u250?mero de redes d
istintas a Arpanet. Todas se comunicaban entre s\u237? en lo que empez\u243? a l
lamarse Internet. Ya en 1983, la red original hab\u237?a abandonado su protocolo
original a favor de TCP/IP. La NSF, una agencia federal dedicada a impulsar la
ciencia, puso en marcha la gran columna vertebral de la red, una suerte de oleod
ucto de informaci\u243?n, llamada NSFNET, a la que se conectaron las redes regio
nales. Todo parec\u237?a claro: la idea de Kahn y Cerf hab\u237?a triunfado.\par
\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Pero hab\u237?a nubarrones en el horizonte. En 1978 se hab\u237?a establecido un
comit\u233? ISO para crear un protocolo est\u225?ndar de comunicaci\u243?n entr
e redes. Es decir, repetir lo que ya estaba inventado pero de forma oficial y po
mposa. Lo tuvieron listo diez a\u241?os despu\u233?s, nada m\u225?s y nada menos
, y los gobiernos de medio mundo apostaron por \u233?l. OSI, que as\u237? se lla
m\u243? el invento, era mucho m\u225?s refinado, m\u225?s l\u243?gico, m\u225?s
depurado\u8230? y fracas\u243? miserablemente. Las organizaciones ya ten\u237?an
sus propias redes Ethernet comunicadas con el exterior mediante TCP/IP y no ten
\u237?an intenci\u243?n alguna de cambiar una tecnolog\u237?a que funcionaba por
otra que parec\u237?a muy bonita sobre el papel, pero nada m\u225?s.\par\pard\p
lain\hyphpar} {
As\u237? que OSI fracas\u243?. El est\u225?ndar {\i
de facto} venci\u243? al est\u225?ndar {\i
de iure}. Arpanet desapareci\u243? finalmente a finales de 1989. Se hab\u237?a c
onvertido en una de tantas redes conectadas a Internet mediante NSFNET. As\u237?
que un ingeniero llamado Mark Pullen recibi\u243? el encargo de ir desconectand
o los nodos de la red uno a uno y enchuf\u225?ndolos directamente a la red de re
des.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
En cualquier caso, fuera de las instituciones acad\u233?micas, la mayor parte de
l universo segu\u237?a sin acceder a Internet. Su papel lo tomaron las BBS, o Bu
lletin-Board Systems, m\u225?quinas a los que los usuarios se conectaban v\u237?
a m\u243?dem desde su ordenador personal marcando el n\u250?mero correspondiente
para enviar sus mensajes y recibir los nuevos. Incluso se form\u243? una suerte
de Internet alternativa, llamada Fidonet, que englobaba a un buen porcentaje de
las BBS. Sin embargo, en 1995 se produjo el gran cambio. Ese a\u241?o la NSF de
cidi\u243? abandonar su papel en la red, permitiendo que todos los nodos se cone
ctaran entre s\u237? como prefirieran, sin pedirle permiso para conectarse a su
red central. Esto es, la privatiz\u243?. Sin ese paso, Internet hubiera seguido
siendo confinada al gueto universitario, y s\u243?lo una peque\u241?a parte del
mundo hubiera tenido acceso.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {

A finales de aquel 1995 hab\u237?a 14 millones de internautas. En 2009 eran ya 1

669 millones, casi un cuarto de la poblaci\u243?n mundial. Todas las dem\u225?s
redes desaparecieron o quedaron reducidas a algo testimonial. La cesi\u243?n de
Internet a la sociedad civil y la creciente popularidad de los ordenadores perso
nales permitieron la creaci\u243?n del primer medio de comunicaci\u243?n de masa
s que, al mismo tiempo, pon\u237?a a sus miembros en un estatus de igualdad: cad
a internauta puede poner lo que quiera en la red, y ese algo puede ser le\u237?d
o, visto u o\u237?do por todos los dem\u225?s. Pero para convertir ese enorme po
tencial en algo f\u225?cil de entender y utilizar por esos centenares de millone
s de personas hac\u237?a falta a\u250?n algo m\u225?s.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar}
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{\s3 \afs28
{\b
{\ql
LA WEB: EL SUE\u209?O Y LA PESADILLA DE H. G. WELLS\par\pard\plain\hyphpar}\par\
pard\plain\hyphpar}\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Durante siglos, la humanidad ha so\u241?ado con poner todo el saber a disposici\
u243?n de todo el mundo. Fue la idea que impuls\u243? a Diderot a elaborar la En
ciclopedia. Y la que llev\u243? al escritor brit\u225?nico H. G. Wells a propone
r la creaci\u243?n del Cerebro Mundial, que no ser\u237?a un mero almac\u233?n e
st\u225?tico de informaci\u243?n, sino que se modificar\u237?a seg\u250?n fuera
cambiando el conocimiento acumulado.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Wells ten\u237?a algunas sugerencias sugestivas, como la de que el conocimiento
podr\u237?a no estar en un \u250?nico lugar sino en una red; pero desafortunadam
ente no ten\u237?a la m\u225?s remota idea de c\u243?mo pod\u237?a {\i
demostrarlo}: su \u250?nica propuesta pr\u225?ctica consist\u237?a en almacenar
la informaci\u243?n en microfilms. As\u237? las cosas, poco pudo hacer, adem\u22
5?s de publicitar sin mucho \u233?xito su idea durante los a\u241?os treinta.\pa
r\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
El testigo lo cogi\u243? Vannevar Bush, que en 1945 describi\u243?, en uno de es
os art\u237?culos que los sabiondos y los cochinos llaman \u171?seminales\u187?,
un aparato al que llam\u243? {\i
memex}: un escritorio con una pantalla, un teclado y varias palancas que permit\
u237?an, por medio de unos c\u243?digos, acceder a la informaci\u243?n almacenad
a en microfilms. Bush reconoci\u243? que la mente no funciona por medio de \u237
?ndices y clasificaciones sino mediante asociaciones, saltando de una idea a otr
a, y pretend\u237?a que el memex reflejara ese modo de gestionar la informaci\u2
43?n y ofreciera documentos relacionados con lo que el usuario estuviera leyendo

. Pero no dio ning\u250?n paso para verlo construido, pese a su indudable capaci
dad t\u233?cnica, que demostr\u243? \u8212?por ejemplo\u8212? al inventar el ana
lizador diferencial, y su elevada posici\u243?n pol\u237?tica, pues fue responsa
ble del desarrollo t\u233?cnico y cient\u237?fico norteamericano durante la Segu
nda Guerra Mundial, Proyecto Manhattan incluido.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Bush ejerci\u243? su influjo en otros investigadores norteamericanos, no crean.
A mediados de los a\u241?os sesenta Ted Nelson acu\u241?\u243? el t\u233?rmino {
\i
hipertexto} para describir su pionero sistema de organizaci\u243?n de datos: cad
a documento tendr\u237?a no s\u243?lo texto, tambi\u233?n unas etiquetas, llamad
as {\i
hiperenlaces}, que al ser pulsadas con un l\u225?piz \u243?ptico permitir\u237?a
n consultar otro documento con \u233?l relacionado. Poco despu\u233?s, el sistem
a inform\u225?tico creado por Douglas Engelbart incorpor\u243? un esquema simila
r, pero con rat\u243?n de por medio. Ahora bien, aunque el mecanismo de funciona
miento estaba creado, a nadie se le ocurri\u243? emplearlo dentro de la red Arpa
net, que por aquel entonces daba sus primeros pasos.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
En los a\u241?os ochenta, el problema de la gesti\u243?n, organizaci\u243?n y b\
u250?squeda de informaci\u243?n en red fue cobrando m\u225?s importancia, a medi
da que Internet crec\u237?a. Pero no fue hasta los inicios de la d\u233?cada sig
uiente cuando se propusieron dos soluciones bien interesantes\u8230? y completam
ente distintas. La primera fue una cosa llamada Gopher, desarrollada en la Unive
rsidad de Minnesota y lanzada al mundo en 1991. Cada servidor Gopher albergaba u
n conjunto de documentos accesibles mediante men\u250?s y submen\u250?s. Tuvo su
s dos o tres a\u241?os de gloria, porque era la primera aplicaci\u243?n de Inter
net que no requer\u237?a que el usuario aprendiera un conjunto de abstrusos coma
ndos para hacerla funcionar. Cuando lleg\u243? al poder, Clinton, que prometi\u2
43? en campa\u241?a impulsar las \u171?autopistas de la informaci\u243?n\u187?,
cre\u243? un servidor de la Casa Blanca para Gopher. Fue uno de los cerca de 700
0 que llegaron a existir en su momento de mayor esplendor, 1994.\par\pard\plain\
hyphpar} {
Sin embargo, aquel sistema no respond\u237?a a la visi\u243?n de Vannevar Bush,
pues su estructura era r\u237?gida. Fue un ingl\u233?s, Tim Berners-Lee, quien s
e ocup\u243? de mezclar adecuadamente el hipertexto de Ted Nelson con Internet.
Era un inform\u225?tico que trabajaba en el CERN, el laboratorio europeo de f\u2
37?sica de part\u237?culas situado en Suiza y conocido por albergar el mayor ace
lerador de part\u237?culas del mundo. Berners-Lee quiso ocuparse de un problema
que ten\u237?an los investigadores a la hora de compartir documentos dentro del
laboratorio, dado que empleaban un gran n\u250?mero de ordenadores en muchos cas
os incompatibles entre s\u237?.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Armado con su ordenador NeXT, de la empresa que fund\u243? Jobs cuando le echaro
n de Apple, cre\u243? el protocolo HTTP y el lenguaje HTML. El primero defin\u23
7?a la forma en que se acced\u237?a a los documentos, dando a cada uno de ellos
una direcci\u243?n \u250?nica, que se llamar\u237?a URL, como por ejemplo {\i
http://historia.libertaddigital.com/ceros-y-unos.html}. HTML era un lenguaje que
permit\u237?a a\u241?adir formato al texto y, sobre todo, ponerle hiperenlaces.
De este modo, aunque t\u233?cnicamente fuera m\u225?s complicado crear lo que a
hora llamamos un sitio web que un servidor Gopher, aquel era mucho m\u225?s vers
\u225?til. La manera en que cada p\u225?gina se conectaba con otras a trav\u233?
s de los enlaces llev\u243? a su creador a compararlo con una telara\u241?a, cuy
os hilos, gracias a Internet, abarcar\u237?an pronto toda la Tierra, de modo que
lo llam\u243? World Wide Web, o telara\u241?a mundial. El primer sitio web, una
p\u225?gina alojada en el CERN que explicaba qu\u233? era esto del HTML y c\u24
3?mo hacerte una t\u250? mismo, vio la luz el 6 de agosto de 1991.\par\pard\plai
n\hyphpar} {
La batalla entre ambos servicios tuvo como fecha clave 1993. Ese a\u241?o, la Un
iversidad de Minnesota decidi\u243? cobrar a las empresas por usar un servidor G
opher, mientras Berners-Lee y el CERN pusieron su trabajo bajo dominio p\u250?bl
ico. Mientras tanto, en un laboratorio inform\u225?tico de la Universidad de Ill
inois, Marc Andressen y Eric Bina crearon Mosaic, el primer navegador web gr\u22

5?fico cuyo uso se populariz\u243?, facilitando el uso de im\u225?genes en los d

ocumentos de la web. Temerosos de que terminaran queri\u233?ndoles cobrar, y vie
ndo que la WWW empezaba a presentar notables mejoras, los que quer\u237?an poner
informaci\u243?n en la red se olvidaron de Gopher y se centraron en la web.\par
\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Tim Berners-Lee se ha dedicado desde entonces a dirigir el consorcio W3, que se
dedica a proponer los patrones de uso com\u250?n en la web, y a sacar lustre a s
u distinci\u243?n como Caballero del Imperio Brit\u225?nico. Andressen y Bina fu
ndaron Netscape, una de tantas empresas que intentaron mojar la oreja a Microsof
t y terminaron fracasando: su demanda contra el gigante de Redmond hizo temer qu
e la justicia terminara ordenando la atomizaci\u243?n de este en varias empresas
, pero finalmente todo qued\u243? en agua de borrajas.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Wells escribi\u243? en 1937 que estaba cerca el momento en que \u171?cualquier e
studiante, en cualquier parte del mundo\u187?, pudiera sentarse con su proyector
en su propio estudio para \u171?examinar a voluntad cualquier libro, cualquier
documento, en una reproducci\u243?n exacta\u187?. A finales del a\u241?o 2010 ex
ist\u237?an ya 125 millones de sitios web, que acercaban ese sue\u241?o a la rea
lidad. Pero, pese a ser escritor de ciencia ficci\u243?n, Wells se qued\u243? co
rto. Pens\u243? en trasladar el conocimiento ya existente a su Cerebro Mundial.
Sin embargo, no pudo anticipar que buena parte de la informaci\u243?n creada por
la humanidad naciera directamente no en un papel del que hubiera que hacer una
r\u233?plica, sino en la web, dando lugar a una explosi\u243?n sin precedentes e
n el n\u250?mero de personas capaces de comunicarse con sus semejantes, de expre
sar sus opiniones, de aportar algo a lo que fuera.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Claro, que el Cerebro Mundial era parte de la visi\u243?n totalitaria de la soci
edad que ten\u237?a el cantama\u241?anas de Wells, quien cre\u237?a que tal arti
lugio deb\u237?a servir como \u171?un sistema de control mental\u187?, una herra
mienta al servicio de un totalitar\u237?simo Gobierno Mundial. Como para anticip
ar que ese invento aumentar\u237?a nuestras libertades y se convertir\u237?a en
el azote de los tiranos de todo el mundo\u8230?\par\pard\plain\hyphpar}
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{\s3 \afs28
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{\ql
AMAZON Y EL \u171?MARCO DE MINIMIZACI\u211?N DEL ARREPENTIMIENTO\u187?\par\pard\
plain\hyphpar}\par\pard\plain\hyphpar}\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Cuando Internet estaba en manos del Estado, una de sus principales normas era qu
e no deb\u237?a usarse con \u225?nimo de lucro. El dinero no deb\u237?a manchar

con sus sucias manos la pureza pr\u237?stina de la red. Las m\u225?s agrias disc
usiones se produc\u237?an cuando alguien ofrec\u237?a un coche de segunda mano o
algo por el estilo. El comercio electr\u243?nico no es que estuviera en pa\u241
?ales: es que estaba prohibido.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Pero cuando finalmente el Gobierno estadounidense decidi\u243? privatizar Intern
et, uno de los primeros que decidi\u243? que ah\u237? pod\u237?a haber pasta fue
un tal Jeff Bezos, que trabajaba de analista financiero en D. E. Shaw, una empr
esa de Wall Street conocida por su capacidad para aplicar la tecnolog\u237?a a l
as finanzas.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Jeffrey Peston naci\u243? en Albuquerque, y como el matrimonio de su madre con s
u padre biol\u243?gico termin\u243? antes de que cumpliera un a\u241?o, para Jef
f su \u250?nico y verdadero padre fue su padrastro Miguel Bezos, un cubano que h
uy\u243? del castrismo cuando ten\u237?a quince a\u241?os y lleg\u243? a Estados
Unidos con una mano delante y otra detr\u225?s: acabar\u237?a trabajando como i
ngeniero para la p\u233?rfida Exxon, y la familia mud\u225?ndose a Houston. Con
semejantes antecedentes familiares, no cab\u237?a duda de que nuestro h\u233?roe
se dedicar\u237?a al mal absoluto, es decir, a intentar ofrecer lo mejor a los
mejores precios. Al comercio.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Mientras trabaja en su despacho de Wall Street, Bezos consult\u243? un sitio web
que aseguraba que Internet estaba creciendo un 2300 por ciento anual. Fue su ep
ifan\u237?a. Desde ese mismo instante se dedic\u243? a investigar qu\u233? pod\u
237?a venderse a trav\u233?s de la red. Investig\u243? las empresas de venta por
cat\u225?logo e intent\u243? averiguar qu\u233? pod\u237?a hacerse mejor por In
ternet, porque ten\u237?a claro que si su idea no ofrec\u237?a algo de valor a l
os consumidores, ya fueran precios m\u225?s bajos, una selecci\u243?n m\u225?s a
mplia o una compra m\u225?s c\u243?moda, los consumidores seguir\u237?an fieles
a sus costumbres.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Fue as\u237? como lleg\u243? a los libros. No ten\u237?a ninguna experiencia pr\
u225?ctica en el negocio editorial, pero se dio cuenta de que no se vend\u237?an
bien por cat\u225?logo porque para colocar uno m\u237?nimamente decente hab\u23
7?a que contar con miles, si no millones, de t\u237?tulos. De la forma tradicion
al, eso supon\u237?a un cat\u225?logo inmanejable del tama\u241?o de una gu\u237
?a telef\u243?nica. As\u237? que era un sector perfecto para Internet.\par\pard\
plain\hyphpar} {
Las casualidades de la vida, eso que algunos llaman Destino, hizo que la convenc
i\u243?n anual de los libreros tuviera lugar en Los \u193?ngeles al d\u237?a sig
uiente de que llegara a esa conclusi\u243?n; as\u237? que vol\u243? hasta all\u2
37? e intent\u243? aprender c\u243?mo funcionaba el negocio en un solo fin de se
mana.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Qued\u243? convencido de que su idea pod\u237?a materializarse, y a su vuelta, t
ras consultar a su mujer y a su jefe, se dio dos d\u237?as para tomar la decisi\
u243?n de seguir en su trabajo, que era estimulante y estaba bien pagado, o tira
rse a la piscina. A la hora de decidirse emple\u243? lo que luego llamar\u237?a
\u171?marco de minimizaci\u243?n del arrepentimiento\u187?: se imagin\u243? con
ochenta a\u241?os dando un repaso a su vida, y se dio cuenta de que nunca se arr
epentir\u237?a de haber renunciado a un buen salario o de haber fracasado; al co
ntrario, como buen emprendedor, se sentir\u237?a orgulloso de haberlo intentado.
As\u237? que se puso a llamar a familiares y amigos, tanto para comunicarles su
decisi\u243?n como para ofrecerles invertir en la idea.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar}
{
Su padre, Miguel, o Mike, le contest\u243? que qu\u233? era eso de Internet. Per
o aun as\u237? \u233?l y su mujer le dieron 300 000 d\u243?lares, que guardaban
para la jubilaci\u243?n; no porque entendieran su idea, sino porque cre\u237?an
en Jeff m\u225?s que el propio Jeff, que cifraba en un 30 por ciento sus posibil
idades de triunfo.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
El puente del 4 de julio de 1994 viaj\u243? a Seattle, donde mont\u243? la empre
sa al estilo tradicional, o sea, en un garaje. Durante al viaje llam\u243? a un
abogado para que le preparara los papeles y bautiz\u243? a la criatura con el no
mbre de Cadabra, que gracias a Dios cambiar\u237?a m\u225?s adelante. Durante un
a\u241?o estuvo trabajando junto a sus primeros empleados en poner en marcha la

web, que abrir\u237?a sus puertas el 16 de julio de 1995. En su primer mes en f

uncionamiento, y para sorpresa del propio Bezos, hab\u237?a vendido libros por t
odos los rincones de Estados Unidos\u8230? y en otros cuarenta y cinco pa\u237?s
es.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Bezos hab\u237?a corrido mucho para ser el primero, y no iba a dejar que nadie l
o adelantara. Su premisa fue crecer r\u225?pido, a toda costa, aunque eso le imp
idiera repartir beneficios y le obligara a sacar capital de donde fuera. Por pon
er un ejemplo: sus ingresos en 1996 fueron de 15,7 millones, y al a\u241?o sigui
ente se dispararon hasta los 147,8. As\u237? las cosas, a lo largo de los a\u241
?os noventa y durante su salida a bolsa, en plena burbuja de las puntocom, todo
el mundo se preguntaba si aquella empresa que crec\u237?a tan desordenadamente d
ar\u237?a dinero alguna vez.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Uno de sus mejores hallazgos fue encontrar un sustituto para la placentera exper
iencia que supone comprar un libro en una librer\u237?a de las de ladrillo, esta
nter\u237?as y olor a papel, donde podemos coger los libros, hojearlos y, en alg
unos casos, sentarnos a tomar un caf\u233?. Algo que sustituyera al librero expe
rto que nos aconseja. Y lo encontr\u243? creando la mayor comunidad de usuarios
del mundo, que dan sus opiniones sobre todos los productos que ofrece la empresa
, brindan consejos, elaboran listas con sus 15 preferidos de esto o aquello\u823
0?\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Otro gran acierto fue expandirse m\u225?s all\u225? del inventario casi infinito
de libros y empezar a ofrecer discos, pel\u237?culas, videojuegos, electr\u243?
nica, ropa, instrumentos musicales, accesorios de cocina, juguetes, joyer\u237?a
, relojes, suministros industriales y cient\u237?ficos, herramientas y\u8230? b\
u225?sicamente todo lo que se pueda imaginar, bien directamente, bien comprando
otras compa\u241?\u237?as de comercio electr\u243?nico o llegando a acuerdos con
comercios tradicionales.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Pero Bezos hubo de pagar un precio por todo ello, especialmente por su empe\u241
?o de vender m\u225?s barato que nadie \u8212?a menudo, regalando los gastos de
env\u237?o\u8212?: sus p\u233?rdidas llevaron a algunos a pensarse, con el cambi
o de milenio, que quiz\u225? no fuera la persona m\u225?s adecuada para dirigir
la empresa que hab\u237?a fundado. Pero persever\u243? y logr\u243? lo impensabl
e: que en 2003, despu\u233?s de que la burbuja reventara \u8212?como terminan ha
ciendo todas\u8212?, Amazon tuviera beneficios por primera vez. Desde entonces,
su nombre es sin\u243?nimo de comercio electr\u243?nico: tiene aproximadamente 5
0 millones de clientes s\u243?lo en los Estados Unidos, y nadie espera que otra
empresa pueda desplazarla del trono.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Su \u250?ltima aventura ha sido la de liderar el cambio del libro al libro elect
r\u243?nico con el Kindle, que se lanz\u243? a tiempo para que el personal pudie
ra regalarlo en las navidades de 2007. Su objetivo: que no suceda con la industr
ia editorial lo mismo que con la discogr\u225?fica. Ser\u225? complicado, toda v
ez que los libros electr\u243?nicos pueden copiarse incluso con m\u225?s facilid
ad que la m\u250?sica. Pero parece claro que si hay alguien capaz de conseguirlo
, ese alguien es Bezos, con su Amazon.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar}
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{\s3 \afs28
{\b
{\ql
GOOGLE, EL BUSCADOR QUE NACI\u211? EN WILLIAM GATES\par\pard\plain\hyphpar}\par\
pard\plain\hyphpar}\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
En enero de 1996 todo el departamento de inform\u225?tica de la Universidad de S
tanford se mud\u243? a un nuevo edificio, en cuya entrada se grab\u243? el nombr
e del benefactor que hizo posible su construcci\u243?n: William Gates. En la cer
emonia de inauguraci\u243?n, el decano hizo el siguiente vaticinio: \u171?En a\u
241?o y medio, algo importante va a ocurrir aqu\u237?, y habr\u225? un sitio, un
despacho, un rinc\u243?n que la gente se\u241?alar\u225? diciendo: \u8220?S\u23
7?, ah\u237? trabajaban en 1996 y 1997\u8221?\u187?. Una profec\u237?a que se re
velar\u237?a tremendamente exacta, para desgracia del propio Gates.\par\pard\pla
in\hyphpar} {
Entre los alumnos que hicieron ese d\u237?a la mudanza hab\u237?a dos estudiante
s de doctorado que siempre andaban juntos, hasta el extremo de que hab\u237?a qu
ien los llamaba {\i
Larryandsergey}. Ambos eran hijos de profesores y doctores de matem\u225?ticas e
inform\u225?tica. Larry Page estaba trabajando en algo llamado Proyecto de Bibl
iotecas Digitales, mientras que Sergey Brin estaba a las \u243?rdenes del profes
or Rajeev Motwani en el programa Midas; s\u237?, como el rey griego que convert\
u237?a en oro todo lo que tocaba. Bajo ese nombre tan sugerente y a su vez pel\u
237?n prof\u233?tico buscaban nuevas formas de sacar informaci\u243?n \u250?til
de las bases de datos. Es el llamado {\i
data mining}, que a veces se describe como la t\u233?cnica de torturar los datos
hasta hacerlos confesar sus pecados. Con suficiente informaci\u243?n puede aver
iguarse todo tipo de relaciones, como por ejemplo las cosas que suelen comprarse
juntas, para atraer al personal con una oferta jugosa\u8230? y recuperar el din
ero en otros productos. Esta es la raz\u243?n de la proliferaci\u243?n de las ta
rjetas de cliente con descuento en todo tipo de comercios: nos dan dinero a camb
io de que les digamos qu\u233? compramos, y c\u243?mo, para proceder en consecue
ncia.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Pero me estoy desviando. Tanto Brin como Page tuvieron que buscar informaci\u243
?n en la web para avanzar en sus respectivas investigaciones, y pese a emplear l
a mejor herramienta disponible en aquel momento, Altavista, quedaron bastante fr
ustrados. Por entonces los buscadores s\u243?lo extra\u237?an informaci\u243?n r
elevante del texto de las propias p\u225?ginas; es decir, que una web porno pod\
u237?a colarse en los resultados de quienes buscaban agencias de viajes con s\u2
43?lo repetir la expresi\u243?n \u171?agencias de viajes\u187? un porr\u243?n de
veces. Tan poco preciso era el sistema que en bastantes ocasiones era m\u225?s
pr\u225?ctico navegar por los sitios web listados en directorios como Yahoo y mi
rar una a una las p\u225?ginas, a ver si sonaba la flauta\u8230?\par\pard\plain\
hyphpar} {
Fue Page quien tuvo la idea de emplear un sistema distinto. El futuro multimillo
nario hab\u237?a nacido entre libros, y no libros cualquiera, sino acad\u233?mic
os. Sab\u237?a de la importancia de las citas: un trabajo al que hac\u237?an ref
erencia a menudo otros investigadores era seguramente un estudio importante. Pen
s\u243? que los enlaces eran como las citas, y que pod\u237?an usarse para averi
guar qu\u233? p\u225?ginas eran m\u225?s importantes y deb\u237?an mostrarse pri
mero. Es m\u225?s, tampoco era precisamente lo mismo que te enlazara Yahoo o que
lo hiciera la p\u225?gina personal del vecino de enfrente. As\u237?, dio a luz
a un algoritmo que tuviera en cuenta todos estos factores para ordenar los sitio
s web por grado de importancia; lo llam\u243? PageRank, nombre que incluye su ap

ellido, que, por alguna raz\u243?n, qui\u233?n sabe si tambi\u233?n algo prof\u2
33?tica, significa \u171?p\u225?gina\u187? en ingl\u233?s.\par\pard\plain\hyphpa
r} {
Tanto \u233?l como Brin abandonaron pronto lo que estaban haciendo para poder pa
sar de la teor\u237?a a la pr\u225?ctica. Su objetivo era descargarse Internet;
si no entera, al menos un cacho bien gordo. No ten\u237?an presupuesto, por lo q
ue funcionaron a base de pasearse por los laboratorios del edificio William Gate
s y recoger ordenadores que nadie quer\u237?a. As\u237? montaron, a comienzos de
1997, BackRub, que fue como denominaron a su buscador, que en poco tiempo se co
nvirti\u243? en la opci\u243?n preferida dentro de Stanford. En oto\u241?o lo ca
mbiaron por otro nombre m\u225?s de acuerdo con sus intenciones de convertirlo e
n el mejor del mundo: lo llamaron {\i
g\u250?gol}, que es el nombre que recibe el n\u250?mero formado por un uno segui
do de cien ceros. El problema es que el compa\u241?ero de despacho que se lo sug
iri\u243? no sab\u237?a escribirlo bien (s\u237?, por eso hacen concursos de del
etreo en Estados Unidos, porque tienen un idioma tan raro que hasta los doctoran
dos de una universidad cometen ese tipo de errores). As\u237?, en lugar de {\i
googol} que es como se escribe el num\u233?rico en ingl\u233?s, acabaron llam\u2
25?ndole Google.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
La verdad es que Page y Brin no parec\u237?an tener mucho inter\u233?s en fundar
una empresa. Su objetivo era sacarse el doctorado, vender la tecnolog\u237?a (d
ebidamente patentada) a alguno de los grandes de Internet y\u8230? a otra cosa,
mariposa. Eran estudiantes y asiduos a un festival conocido como Burning Man, na
cido en 1986 y que hubiera sido el sue\u241?o de todo hippie de los sesenta: gen
te en pelota picada, {\i
arte}, prohibici\u243?n total del comercio y obligaci\u243?n de dejar todo como
estaba por {\i
conciencia ecol\u243?gica}. Lo suyo, desde luego, no parec\u237?a ser la gesti\u
243?n empresarial, por m\u225?s que Brin dijera a\u241?os m\u225?s tarde que sie
mpre le hab\u237?a atra\u237?do la idea de ser un tipo de \u233?xito en los nego
cios.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Pensaran lo que pensaran, el caso es que se vieron cada vez m\u225?s obligados a
tirar para delante. Las empresas de entonces, Altavista incluida, consideraban
las b\u250?squedas una parte m\u225?s de sus portales omnicomprensivos, que pret
end\u237?an dar toda la informaci\u243?n que pod\u237?a interesar a sus usuarios
: correo electr\u243?nico, noticias, cotizaciones burs\u225?tiles, mensajer\u237
?a instant\u225?nea, el tiempo\u8230? De hecho, las b\u250?squedas eran casi la
hermana menor, porque se llevaban a los usuarios fuera de los portales, las mald
itas. As\u237? que no lograron convencer a nadie y tuvieron que plantearse salir
de Stanford y formar su propia empresa.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
En agosto de 1998 se reunieron con un tal Andy Bechtolsheim y le mostraron su bu
scador. Aunque a\u250?n ten\u237?an la idea de vender su motor de b\u250?squeda
a otras empresas como v\u237?a de financiaci\u243?n, el inversor ve\u237?a muy c
laro que aquello terminar\u237?a sacando dinero de la publicidad. Brin y Page ab
ominaban de ella porque en aquel entonces era frecuente pagar por aparecer en lo
s primeros puestos de las b\u250?squedas y porque los anuncios sol\u237?an ser d
emasiado llamativos e invasivos. No quer\u237?an que nada alterase la pureza ni
de sus resultados ni de su dise\u241?o minimalista, y mucho menos el dinero. Per
o Bechtolsheim estaba seguro de que se lo replantear\u237?an, as\u237? que exten
di\u243? un cheque a nombre de Google Inc. por valor de 100 000 d\u243?lares par
a que empezasen a comprar las placas base, los discos duros y los procesadores q
ue necesitaban para montar su infraestructura t\u233?cnica. Sin hablar de accion
es ni de nada.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Aquello les convenci\u243?. Hicieron una ronda entre amigos y conocidos diversos
y sacaron en total un mill\u243?n de d\u243?lares; fundaron la empresa en septi
embre, requisito b\u225?sico para poder cobrar el cheque, que estaba a nombre de
la misma, y se mudaron a un garaje de Menlo Park. Como dec\u237?a su primer emp
leado, su compa\u241?ero de universidad Craig Silverstein, lo del garaje es una
obligaci\u243?n para toda empresa de Silicon Valley que se precie.\par\pard\plai
n\hyphpar} {

En 1999, Brin y Page lograron 25 millones m\u225?s de dos empresas de capital ri

esgo. La condici\u243?n que les impusieron fue que buscaran a un profesional que
ejerciera de consejero delegado y les gestionara la empresa como Dios manda, al
go a lo que no estaban muy dispuestos. Estaban muy contentos con c\u243?mo iba t
odo. Hab\u237?an pasado del garaje a un piso de Palo Alto, y de ah\u237? a un ed
ificio de Mountain View. Entre sus logros estaba el haber trasplantado el ambien
te universitario a la compa\u241?\u237?a; lo que ahorraban en infraestructura te
cnol\u243?gica gracias a que empleaban much\u237?simos ordenadores muy baratos e
n lugar de unos pocos muy caros se lo gastaban en pelotas de colorines, l\u225?m
paras de lava y juguetes diversos, un chef que trabaj\u243? en su d\u237?a para
los Grateful Dead, servicios de lavado de coches, guarder\u237?a, lavander\u237?
a, m\u233?dico, dentista\u8230? y el famoso 20 por ciento: el tiempo que los ing
enieros pod\u237?an pasar trabajando en proyectos propios, pr\u225?ctica importa
da directamente de la Universidad de Stanford. De ah\u237? han salido muchos de
los \u233?xitos y de los fracasos de la compa\u241?\u237?a, como Product Search,
Gmail, Google News, Orkut o Google Talk. No fue la primera empresa en aplicar a
lgo as\u237? (el trabajador de 3M que invent\u243? los post-it lo hizo en ese ti
empo extra), pero s\u237? la que m\u225?s ha hecho por promocionarlo.\par\pard\p
lain\hyphpar} {
Como lo de colocar el buscador a otras empresas no estaba resultando, al final p
asaron por el aro de la publicidad. Eso s\u237?, a su estilo. Las empresas contr
ataban s\u243?lo anuncios de texto que aparec\u237?an junto a los resultados de
las b\u250?squedas, sin mezclarse, claramente diferenciados. Cualquiera pod\u237
?a anunciarse, desde la compa\u241?\u237?a de seguros elefanti\u225?sica hasta e
l m\u225?s peque\u241?o taller mec\u225?nico de Wisconsin, gracias a las herrami
entas web que facilitaban. Y pagaban por clic, no simplemente por aparecer un de
terminado n\u250?mero de veces. Larry asegura que el esfuerzo por hacer rentable
la empresa se debi\u243? a que Sergey quer\u237?a aumentar su atractivo ante la
s mujeres, y ser presidente de una empresa de nuevas tecnolog\u237?as con p\u233
?rdidas no era un buen arma.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Al final, no obstante, les encontraron el tipo ideal para dirigir Google. Eric S
chmidt ven\u237?a de ultimar los detalles de la fusi\u243?n de Novell, la empres
a que dirig\u237?a en 2001, con otra compa\u241?\u237?a, cuyo consejero delegado
le sustituir\u237?a, por lo que en breve se quedar\u237?a sin trabajo. Por otro
lado, en los noventa se hab\u237?a atrevido a pegarse con Microsoft desde la di
recci\u243?n de Sun Microsystems. Pero lo que m\u225?s convenci\u243? a Brin y P
age es que hab\u237?a investigado en el famoso laboratorio Xerox PARC\u8230? y a
cudido en alguna ocasi\u243?n al dichoso Burning Man. Hasta cierto punto, era un
o de los suyos. As\u237? que se incorpor\u243? a Google y les hizo ganar a\u250?
n m\u225?s dinero, aunque tuviera que pagar algunos peajes; como este: siendo el
mandam\u225?s, tuvo que compartir su despacho durante unos meses con uno de los
mejores ingenieros de la empresa. Schmidt dio a Google el aire de respetabilida
d que necesitaba para que su salida a bolsa (2004) fuera un \u233?xito.\par\pard
\plain\hyphpar} {
Google se ha convertido para muchos en sin\u243?nimo de Internet. Lo que no fue
capaz de desarrollar en casa lo compr\u243?: Blogger, YouTube, AdSense, Google M
aps, Android, Docs, Analytics\u8230? Tiene un vasto programa dedicado a digitali
zar las mayores bibliotecas del mundo y hacerlas accesibles desde Google Books.
Ha creado un navegador propio, Chrome, y planea convertirlo en un sistema operat
ivo. Su tama\u241?o y ambiciones, cada vez mayores, han conseguido que muchos in
ternautas la teman, pero no es tan odiada como lo fueron IBM o Microsoft en su m
omento, al menos por ahora. En parte porque ha intentado ser fiel a su lema, alg
o as\u237? como \u171?no hagas el mal\u187?, por m\u225?s que esto se traduzca e
n la pr\u225?ctica como \u171?no hagas lo que Sergey considera malo\u187?, seg\u
250?n explic\u243? en su momento Schmidt. Y porque, al contrario de lo que pasa
con los productos de otras grandes empresas, la verdad es que sus b\u250?squedas
siguen funcionando estupendamente.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar}
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{\s3 \afs28
{\b
{\ql
WIKIPEDIA: DEL PORNO AL CONOCIMIENTO\par\pard\plain\hyphpar}\par\pard\plain\hyph
par}\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
En la universidad, a mediados de los a\u241?os ochenta, un estudiante empezaba a
sentirse identificado con el Howard Roark de {\i
El manantial}, seg\u250?n le\u237?a la novela. Tambi\u233?n por entonces ley\u24
3? el cl\u225?sico ensayo de Hayek {\i
El uso del conocimiento en la sociedad}. No sab\u237?a que le inspirar\u237?a pa
ra realizar la obra de su vida, su propio rascacielos virtual.\par\pard\plain\hy
phpar} {
Jimmy {\i
Jimbo} Wales naci\u243? en Alabama y se educ\u243?\u8230? no en casa pero casi,
pues la peque\u241?a escuela en la que pas\u243? su infancia era privada, estaba
regentada por su madre y su abuela y ten\u237?a un n\u250?mero de alumnos basta
nte rid\u237?culo; varios cursos compart\u237?an de hecho la misma aula, la \u25
0?nica que hab\u237?a. No obstante, era un colegio exitoso, que cog\u237?a ni\u2
41?os con problemas para aprobar y en poco tiempo los pon\u237?a a un nivel uno
o dos cursos por encima de lo que les correspond\u237?a. Wales, de hecho, pas\u2
43? algunos de esos a\u241?os no con libros de texto, sino leyendo y estudiando
una enciclopedia por su cuenta.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Aquello no sali\u243? del todo mal, ya que empez\u243? muy joven la universidad\
u8230? y no se doctor\u243? no porque no tuviera tema para su tesis, pues de hec
ho public\u243? un art\u237?culo sobre ello, sino porque el proceso le aburr\u23
7?a soberanamente. Aunque no s\u233? qu\u233? entiende por diversi\u243?n exacta
mente alguien que pas\u243? la ni\u241?ez entretenido con una enciclopedia.\par\
pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Tras salir de la universidad, Wales se dedic\u243? a ganar dinero negociando con
futuros y opciones, y tuvo cierto \u233?xito. Lo suficiente, seg\u250?n sus pal
abras, para poder vivir con cierta comodidad, aunque sin dispendios, el resto de
su vida. Tambi\u233?n fund\u243?, en 1996, un sitio web, llamado Bomis, con otr
os dos socios.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Dado que esta p\u225?gina tiene una gran importancia en el nacimiento de Wikiped
ia, su naturaleza no ha estado exenta de pol\u233?mica. Aquellos que lleven un t
iempo en la red recordar\u225?n los \u171?anillos de p\u225?ginas web\u187? o we
brings. En la segunda mitad de los noventa era normal que p\u225?ginas con una t
em\u225?tica similar se agruparan en anillos, lo que significa que todas ten\u23
7?an un bloque de enlaces al final que permit\u237?a ir a la anterior o a la sig
uiente, visitar una cualquiera de forma aleatoria o ir a la web del anillo para

ver todas las que estaban en \u233?l. Pues bien, {\i

Bomis} era un anillo de \u171?p\u225?ginas orientadas al p\u250?blico adulto\u18
7?, ustedes ya me entienden, y adem\u225?s s\u243?lo para hombres. Tambi\u233?n
ofrec\u237?a un servicio de pornograf\u237?a de pago y un blog centrados en noti
cia sobre modelos, famosas y actrices del ramo.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
El caso es que Bomis dio suficiente dinero durante un tiempo como para que Wales
empleara parte en otros proyectos m\u225?s personales, que aloj\u243? en los se
rvidores del sitio web pornogr\u225?fico, lo cual les daba cierto lustre, por as
\u237? decir. Entre ellos hab\u237?a una p\u225?gina, {\i
Freedom\u8217?s Nest}, que consist\u237?a en una base de datos de libros y citas
liberales, y {\i
We the Living}, un foro objetivista.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Y es que Wales es seguidor de Rand y liberal. \u201?l mismo recuerda d\u243?nde
naci\u243? su desconfianza hacia el Gobierno: de las continuas interferencias en
la escuela de su madre. A pesar de su \u233?xito en elevar el nivel de sus alum
nos, o quiz\u225? precisamente por \u233?l, \u171?sufr\u237?an una interferencia
y una burocracia constantes y ten\u237?an que aguantar a los inspectores del Es
tado que les dec\u237?an esto o aquello, que nuestros libros no eran suficientem
ente nuevos y cosas as\u237?. Y viendo esto a una edad muy temprana pens\u233? q
ue no es tan simple pensar que el Gobierno se har\u225? cargo de algo\u187?.\par
\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
En cualquier caso, tambi\u233?n ten\u237?a otro proyecto en mente, derivado de s
us pasiones de la infancia: una enciclopedia gratuita, que todos pudieran consul
tar. As\u237? que fund\u243? Nupedia, en marzo de 2000, tras haber contratado un
os meses antes al fil\u243?sofo Larry Sanger para que se hiciera cargo de ella.
Sanger elabor\u243? una serie de protocolos para asegurar la calidad de sus cont
enidos y comenz\u243? a solicitar a expertos de varios campos que colaboraran co
n art\u237?culos gratuitos. No tuvo mucho \u233?xito: cuando finalmente cerr\u24
3? sus puertas, en 2003, ten\u237?a 24 art\u237?culos publicados y otros 74 en p
roceso de revisi\u243?n.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Aquella lentitud resultaba exasperante, de modo que decidieron lanzar un proyect
o paralelo cuya intenci\u243?n inicial era proveer de textos a Nupedia. Un viejo
amigo de Sanger, Ben Kovitz, le habl\u243? del concepto de {\i
wiki}, inventado en 1995 por el inform\u225?tico Ward Cunnigham: un sitio web en
el que todo el mundo pudiera escribir y modificar lo que otros hab\u237?an hech
o previamente. Wales lo acept\u243? con ciertas reticencias, pero tras poner en
marcha Wikipedia el 15 de enero de 2001 vieron que funcionaba, y muy bien. En fe
brero ya hab\u237?an sobrepasado los 1000 art\u237?culos y en septiembre alcanza
ron los 10 000.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Cuando el \u233?xito de Wikipedia ya era evidente, Wales empez\u243? a verlo tod
o muy claro. Suele ofrecer dos explicaciones de este fen\u243?meno. La corta, en
traducci\u243?n m\u225?s o menos libre, es esta: \u171?Wikipedia hace que Inter
net no sea una mierda\u187?. La m\u225?s erudita le lleva a sus lecturas de Haye
k y concluir que, como el mercado, la llamada {\i
enciclopedia libre} es un orden espont\u225?neo que permite agregar informaci\u2
43?n dispersa de una forma precisa.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Los dos creadores de Wikipedia finalmente se separar\u237?an. Primero, en buenos
t\u233?rminos, cuando en 2002, tras la explosi\u243?n de la burbuja puntocom, {
\i
Bomis} dej\u243? de dar dinero y Wales tuvo que despedir a Sanger. M\u225?s tard
e, seg\u250?n el \u233?xito de Wikipedia se hac\u237?a mayor, la relaci\u243?n s
e deterior\u243?. El fil\u243?sofo empez\u243? a poner a caldo el proyecto y el
objetivista comenz\u243? a definirse como el \u250?nico y aut\u233?ntico fundado
r, degradando a Sanger al papel de mero empleado suyo. Cosas de la fama.\par\par
d\plain\hyphpar} {
Actualmente, Wikipedia es el sexto sitio web m\u225?s consultado del mundo, seg\
u250?n Alexa. Lo superan Google, Facebook, Yahoo, YouTube y Windows Live. Hacen
falta 350 servidores, repartidos por tres continentes, para que pueda funcionar
como est\u225? mandado. Wales, despu\u233?s de alguna mala experiencia al intent
ar cambiar su biograf\u237?a, ha optado por no interferir en el trabajo de los e

nciclopedistas y dedicarse a representar Wikipedia por el mundo y obtener fondos

para mantenerla sin tener que recurrir a la publicidad.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar}
{
La versi\u243?n en idioma ingl\u233?s, la m\u225?s exitosa, ha superado los tres
millones de art\u237?culos. Curiosamente, el n\u250?mero 2 000 000 fue el dedic
ado al programa de televisi\u243?n {\i
El hormiguero}. En total hay versiones para 260 idiomas, con m\u225?s de 14 mill
ones de art\u237?culos en total. Todas ellas pertenecen a la Fundaci\u243?n Wiki
media, fundada en 2003 para sustituir a aquella p\u225?gina porno, {\i
Bomis}, como propietario de la enciclopedia libre.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Por cierto, la madre de Wales tir\u243? a la basura aquella vieja enciclopedia c
on la que aprendi\u243? de ni\u241?o. Una desgracia para el fundador de Wikipedi
a, que ten\u237?a esperanzas de sacarle un dinerito en eBay.\par\pard\plain\hyph
par}
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{\s3 \afs28
{\b
{\ql
LA RED SOCIAL: FACEBOOK\par\pard\plain\hyphpar}\par\pard\plain\hyphpar}\par\pard
\plain\hyphpar} {
En mayo de 2008 la palabra m\u225?s buscada en Google no fue {\i
sex} sino {\i
facebook}. Mark Zuckerberg hab\u237?a creado la c\u233?lebre red social s\u243?l
o cuatro a\u241?os antes. En agosto de ese mismo 2008 superaba la barrera de los
100 millones de usuarios; actualmente tiene m\u225?s de 600.\par\pard\plain\hyp
hpar} {
Zuckerberg era un hacker de familia con ciertos posibles que disfrutaba programa
ndo por encima de todas las cosas. En el instituto \u8212?uno privado muy bueno,
naturalmente\u8212? cre\u243? con su amigo Adam D\u8217?\u8217?Angelo una aplic
aci\u243?n llamada Synapse que atend\u237?a a lo que el usuario escuchaba y le c
reaba listas de canciones a su medida. En la primera semana de su segundo a\u241
?o en Harvard, nuestro hombre perge\u241?\u243? Course Match, un servicio que pe
rmit\u237?a saber qui\u233?n se hab\u237?a apuntado a qu\u233? clases, lo que pe
rmiti\u243? a cientos de estudiantes sentarse ese semestre junto a la chica o el
chico de sus sue\u241?os.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Poco despu\u233?s tuvo una cita con una muchacha que le sali\u243? mal; despecha
do y algo achispado, dedic\u243? el resto de la noche a crear Facemash, un sitio
web que permit\u237?a comparar las fotos de dos estudiantes escogidos al azar y

votar qui\u233?n estaba mejor: era una versi\u243?n local del entonces famoso s
itio web Hot or Not. Para conseguir las fotograf\u237?as, Zuckerberg se infiltr\
u243? en los ordenadores de nueve de los doce colegios mayores de Harvard; en co
ncreto, en sus directorios fotogr\u225?ficos, llamados, \u161?tach\u225?n!, face
books. Zuckerberg puso a funcionar la cosa en su port\u225?til al d\u237?a sigui
ente, y por la noche, antes de que la universidad decidiera cortarle el acceso a
Internet, las fotos hab\u237?an sido votadas 22 000 veces por 450 estudiantes.\
par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Zuckerberg pas\u243? por un tribunal disciplinario, pero no recibi\u243? m\u225?
s que una peque\u241?a reprimenda. Durante los siguientes meses, adem\u225?s de
atender a otros proyectos menores, colaborar\u237?a con otros tres estudiantes e
n HarvardConnection, una web de citas que incluir\u237?a descuentos para ir de f
iesta a los locales de moda. Sin embargo, acab\u243? dej\u225?ndoles tirados por
que estaba creando una similar luego de que en un editorial del peri\u243?dico d
e la universidad se dijera que Facemash no habr\u237?a causado tanta controversi
a si la gente hubiera subido voluntariamente sus fotos. Llam\u243? al servicio T
heFacebook y lo lanz\u243? el 4 de febrero de 2004; antes de final de mes ten\u2
37?a 6000 usuarios registrados, unos tres cuartos del alumnado de Harvard.\par\p
ard\plain\hyphpar} {
En esta ocasi\u243?n, su port\u225?til pudo suspirar de alivio: Zuckerberg subi\
u243? su nueva creaci\u243?n a un servidor externo, incluso pens\u243? en montar
una empresa. Empez\u243? a colaborar con \u233?l su compa\u241?ero de habitaci\
u243?n Dustin Moskowitz; otro alumno de Harvard que hab\u237?a conocido a trav\u
233?s de una hermandad, Eduardo Saverin, se encargar\u237?a de ganar pasta con e
l invento. La web era sencilla: la gente deb\u237?a apuntarse con su nombre real
y la direcci\u243?n de su correo oficial de la universidad, subir una foto y va
rios datos personales y\u8230? darle a la tecla e interrelacionarse, que dir\u23
7?a un gafotas, con sus amigos. La interacci\u243?n era m\u225?s bien limita\u23
7?ca: s\u243?lo se pod\u237?a \u171?dar un toque\u187? a alguien, acci\u243?n qu
e no ten\u237?an el menor significado {\i
oficial}, aunque, trat\u225?ndose de universitarios residentes en colegios mayor
es, para muchos la cosa s\u243?lo pod\u237?a tener un contenido sexual.\par\pard
\plain\hyphpar} {
Moskowitz fue el encargado de sumar al cotarro a otras universidades. Cuando lle
g\u243? el verano ten\u237?an ya 200 000 usuarios, y unos cuantos se fueron a Ca
lifornia a seguir trabajando en el invento. La idea era volver cuando comenzaran
de nuevo las clases. Nunca lo har\u237?an. La mayor\u237?a de quienes no se mud
aron al soleado estado del oeste terminar\u237?an fuera del proyecto, empezando
por Saverin, lo que llevar\u237?a a no pocas lamentaciones y a alguna que otra d
emanda.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Pero poco de eso preocupaba a Zuckerberg, cuya principal obsesi\u243?n en aquel
momento era Wirehog, una aplicaci\u243?n que usaba la base de datos de TheFacebo
ok para posibilitar al usuario que compartiera ficheros con sus amistades. Logr\
u243? enrolar a un joven veterano de Internet, Sean Parker, quien hab\u237?a ten
ido su bautismo de fuego con la fundaci\u243?n, junto a Shawn Fanning, de Napste
r. Parker dirigir\u237?a la empresa durante a\u241?o y medio. Fue quien le quit\
u243? el {\i
The} al nombre de la empresa, y consigui\u243? convencer a Zuckerberg de que se
olvidara del pu\u241?etero Wirehog \u8212?recordaba demasiado bien las querellas
de las discogr\u225?ficas\u8212? y se concentrara en convertir Facebook en una
red social mejor. Una labor imprescindible, dada la competencia.\par\pard\plain\
hyphpar} {
Los responsables de HarvardConnection, luego renombrada ConnectU, demandaron a Z
uckerberg por robarles la idea. Pero el caso es que no era nueva. La primera red
social de Internet fue lanzada en 1997, se llam\u243? SixDegrees.com y lleg\u24
3? a tener un mill\u243?n de miembros, pero era la \u233?poca de los m\u243?dems
y las car\u237?simas conexiones a la red, y una web que exig\u237?a pasar mucho
tiempo online no pod\u237?a triunfar demasiado. Es m\u225?s, cuando Facebook fu
e lanzada ya exist\u237?an Friendster y MySpace. La primera fue un bombazo, pero
se hundi\u243? porque daba un servicio p\u233?simo: no funcionaba cada dos por

tres. MySpace fue la reina de las redes sociales, pero termin\u243? cayendo por
un exceso de publicidad basura y de p\u225?ginas de usuarios recargadas e inc\u2
43?modas de ver, en el mejor de los casos. Hasta Google hab\u237?a tenido su pro
pia red social, Orkut, que tras ser recibida con cierto inter\u233?s se convirti
\u243? en un feudo particular de los brasile\u241?os.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Pero si no era nuevo, \u191?por qu\u233? Facebook triunf\u243? donde los dem\u22
5?s hab\u237?an fracasado o, al menos, no triunfaron tanto? Seg\u250?n Parker, s
implemente porque no la cag\u243?. Siempre ha sido capaz de soportar el tr\u225?
fico que generaba, y su dise\u241?o ha sido sencillo y manejable. Los elementos
poco exitosos se abandonan y se a\u241?aden mejoras poco a poco. Cada usuario pa
s\u243? a tener un muro, una suerte de foro particular donde tanto \u233?l como
sus amigos pod\u237?an escribir; pod\u237?an subirse fotos, en las que cab\u237?
a la posibilidad de etiquetar a los amigos, de modo que tambi\u233?n ellos las v
ieran.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Un a\u241?o despu\u233?s de su nacimiento, Facebook se abri\u243? para los alumn
os de instituto, y en septiembre de 2006 para todo el mundo. Su ritmo de crecimi
ento dio un salto brutal en la primavera de 2007, cuando se anunci\u243? que cua
lquier desarrollador podr\u237?a crear aplicaciones para la red social y aprovec
harse as\u237? del boca a boca virtual de sus miembros.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar}
{
Fue un movimiento muy pensado. Zuckerberg lleg\u243? a pedir consejo a Bill Gate
s a finales de 2005: consideraba que convertirse en plataforma para desarrollado
res era una garant\u237?a de \u233?xito. Muchas personas entrar\u237?an en Faceb
ook para usar las aplicaciones, y muchas aplicaciones se har\u237?an para Facebo
ok para conectar con el p\u250?blico. Como sucede con Windows, vamos. La red soc
ial ten\u237?a 20 millones de usuarios cuando lanz\u243? su plataforma, y dos a\
u241?os despu\u233?s hab\u237?a multiplicado por diez esa cifra.\par\pard\plain\
hyphpar} {
Cada vez m\u225?s internautas pasan cada vez m\u225?s tiempo en Facebook, y empi
eza a existir un cierto acuerdo en que har\u225? obsoleta a Google como Google h
izo obsoleta a Microsoft, y Microsoft a IBM. Ha cambiado el uso que se da a la r
ed, facilitando tanto el intercambio m\u225?s personal como el activismo pol\u23
7?tico. Y su \u233?xito ha inspirado una de las mejores pel\u237?culas de 2010.
No est\u225? mal para un proyecto puesto en marcha por unos coleguis en el dormi
torio de un colegio mayor.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {\par\pard\hyphpar }{\page }
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DE AQU\u205? EN ADELANTE\par\pard\plain\hyphpar}\par\pard\plain\hyphpar}\par\pa
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}}
{
{\b
P}ertenezco a la primera generaci\u243?n de lo que se ha dado en llamar nativos
digitales: personas que han crecido con un ordenador en su casa. Despu\u233?s de
unos meses de jugar con un ZX81 que nos prestaron, mi padre nos regal\u243? en
1984 un ZX Spectrum de 48Kb, de esos de teclas de goma, que compr\u243? en Suiza
en uno de sus viajes al CERN. Como todos, lo utilizamos principalmente para jug

ar, claro, aunque tanto mi hermano Pablo como yo hicimos nuestros pinitos intent
ando programar videojuegos. Su mejor producto fue Tesoro 2, en el que dos jugado
res api\u241?ando sus dedos en aquel min\u250?sculo teclado deb\u237?an alcanzar
los tesoros que aparec\u237?an en pantalla antes que su adversario. El m\u237?o
fue Plaga, una aventura conversacional, es decir, en modo texto: tus acciones d
eb\u237?an describirse escribiendo cosas como \u171?matar monstruo\u187? y los r
esultados de las mismas aparec\u237?an tambi\u233?n en descripciones escritas.\p
ar\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Pero el tiempo pas\u243? y el Spectrum, que sufri\u243? media docena de retiros
espirituales en el taller para cambiarle la membrana del teclado, se fue quedand
o antiguo. As\u237? que mi padre hizo un esfuerzo y a finales de los ochenta com
pr\u243? un PC por 400 000 pesetas del ala. Ten\u237?a la para entonces escandal
osa cifra de dos megas de memoria RAM, necesarias para ejecutar una copia del ge
stor de base de datos Oracle que me permitiera foguearme en el duro mundo de las
aburridas aplicaciones empresariales. Naturalmente, lo usamos principalmente pa
ra jugar.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Mi hermano acab\u243? dedic\u225?ndose a otras cosas, pero yo recal\u233? en la
Facultad de Inform\u225?tica de la Universidad Polit\u233?cnica de Madrid, hered
era de aquel Instituto de Inform\u225?tica del que mi padre fue uno de los prime
ros graduados. En mi primer a\u241?o all\u237? (1993) conoc\u237? Internet, aunq
ue fuera en terminales de texto. Adem\u225?s de ir aprobando las asignaturas, re
cib\u237? una educaci\u243?n fuera de programa mucho m\u225?s rica: aprend\u237?
a crear p\u225?ginas web y elabor\u233? unos cursos sobre el tema que al ser de
los primeros en espa\u241?ol que se publicaban gratis en la red alcanzaron much
a popularidad. Adem\u225?s, form\u233? parte de la revista que hac\u237?an los a
lumnos, que acab\u233? dirigiendo y donde comenc\u233? a escribir de forma m\u22
5?s o menos regular.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Sal\u237? de la universidad en 2001 con un proyecto, un sitio web que ofreciera
cursos y art\u237?culos con los que ense\u241?ar a programar y un trabajo en una
academia que daba cursos a distancia a trav\u233?s de Internet, donde dise\u241
?\u233? el software que se empleaba para vender los cursos, hice la p\u225?gina
web, escrib\u237? algunos cursos y fui profesor. Mis inquietudes pol\u237?ticas
me llevaron a crear un sitio en Internet sobre el liberalismo y a empezar a escr
ibir para el diario online Libertad Dig\u237?tal, donde recalan mis huesos hoy d
\u237?a.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Como ven, la inform\u225?tica ha estado conmigo desde muy pronto casi todos los
d\u237?as de mi vida. Como todos, la doy por sentada. S\u243?lo muy de vez en cu
ando me paro un momento y me dejo llevar por el asombro ante la maravilla que te
ngo bajo mis dedos. Cuando pulso una tecla en mi ordenador, el impulso mec\u225?
nico es convertido en una instrucci\u243?n digital, compuesta de unos y ceros, q
ue es transmitida por un cable de cobre hasta una conexi\u243?n del ordenador, d
onde es recibida por un circuito integrado capaz de recibir m\u225?s de 480 000
bits cada segundo. Tendr\u237?a que escribir realmente r\u225?pido para provocar
le problemas. Una vez all\u237?, la informaci\u243?n que escribo pasa a guardars
e en la memoria, unos circuitos realimentados constantemente para que no pierdan
el valor que guardan.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
En un momento dado, decidir\u233? guardar lo que estoy escribiendo. El procesado
r de textos que utilizo est\u225? funcionando en un microprocesador con varios n
\u250?cleos, capaz de ejecutar varios programas a la vez, y compuesto por 582 mi
llones de transistores, una cifra baja comparada con lo que se est\u225? vendien
do, pero es que no hace falta ya estar a la \u250?ltima para escribir en el orde
nador. El procesador de la tarjeta gr\u225?fica, conocido como GPU, est\u225? re
cibiendo las coordenadas del rat\u243?n seg\u250?n me acerco al icono que repres
enta un viejo disquete de 3,5 pulgadas, que hace a\u241?os que no usa ni el tato
. Seg\u250?n lo hago, va mostrando el puntero del rat\u243?n en el lugar preciso
y redibujando la parte de la pantalla donde estaba antes ese puntero.\par\pard\
plain\hyphpar} {
Cuando pulso, el microprocesador recibe \u243?rdenes que va ejecutando y ordena
la transferencia de datos de la memoria al disco duro. Este es un ingenio mec\u2
25?nico sorprendente: un disco compuesto por varios platos independientes, hecho

seguramente de una aleaci\u243?n de aluminio cubierto de una capa de material m

agn\u233?tico de un grosor unas 10 000 veces m\u225?s fino que una hoja de papel
, donde se almacena la informaci\u243?n. El disco gira a una velocidad de 7200 r
evoluciones por minuto y unos cabezales situados a pocos nan\u243?metros de la s
uperficie se encargan de percibir el estado magn\u233?tico del material que tien
e debajo y cambiarlo: es decir, de leer y escribir informaci\u243?n. Y eso es pr
ecisamente lo que hace al darle al bot\u243?n de guardar.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar
} {
M\u225?s tarde decidir\u233? enviar esto a mi editor, que me ha puesto unos plaz
os y es un se\u241?or muy serio al que es mejor no decepcionar. As\u237? que abr
ir\u233? mi navegador. Esto le costar\u225? m\u225?s a mi ordenador, cuyo microp
rocesador ordenar\u225? al disco duro transferir muchos datos a la memoria, de m
odo que ser\u233? capaz de percibir el retraso entre mi orden y el resultado, al
go que cada vez sucede menos a menudo. Abrir\u233? la direcci\u243?n de mi corre
o electr\u243?nico, que ahora est\u225? guardado en servidores propiedad de una
empresa norteamericana, como cada vez nos pasa a m\u225?s gente, sin que tenga n
i idea de d\u243?nde se encuentran f\u237?sicamente. Esto obligar\u225? a funcio
nar a la red. Primero, el microprocesador dar\u225? la orden adecuada al circuit
o que se encarga de Ethernet, porque soy un antiguo que no usa port\u225?til y t
iene su ordenador de sobremesa conectado a la red mediante un cable. El chip en
cuesti\u243?n dividir\u225? la informaci\u243?n en paquetes m\u225?s peque\u241?
os, les pondr\u225? una cabecera donde se indica el destino y los enviar\u225? p
or un cable. Al otro lado, un dispositivo llamado router los recibir\u225? y los
reenviar\u225? fuera de mi casa mediante impulsos el\u233?ctricos transmitidos
a trav\u233?s de un cable de cobre hacia una centralita telef\u243?nica. El sist
ema es tan complejo que si muchos vecinos lo hacemos a la vez, la velocidad se r
esiente porque los cables producen unas emisiones que interfieren con los env\u2
37?os de datos de los dem\u225?s.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Los bits que transmiten esos impulsos el\u233?ctricos llegar\u225?n a la central
ita e ir\u225?n movi\u233?ndose por el mundo de ordenador en ordenador, a trav\u
233?s de distintas tecnolog\u237?as. Posiblemente no ser\u225?n transmitidos a n
ing\u250?n sat\u233?lite, pero seguro que en alg\u250?n punto ser\u225?n transfo
rmados en luz y emitidos a trav\u233?s de unas fibras m\u225?s finas que el cabe
llo humano. En alg\u250?n punto geogr\u225?fico desconocido, mis pobres y maltre
chos bits, cansados de tanto viaje, llegaran a su destino, un centro de datos do
nde otro router los coger\u225? y los enviar\u225? a alg\u250?n ordenador de los
muchos que hay conectados all\u237?. Este recibir\u225? mi petici\u243?n de env
iar un fichero a una direcci\u243?n y enviar\u225? una serie de datos con direcc
i\u243?n a otro servidor, otro ordenador situado en otro punto del mundo. En con
creto, el que gestiona el correo electr\u243?nico de mi editor. Y los bits viaja
r\u225?n de nuevo, y lo har\u225?n otra vez cuando decida descargar el fichero q
ue alberga este libro. Los distintos componentes de su ordenador se pondr\u225?n
en marcha, siguiendo las instrucciones dise\u241?adas por programadores de medi
o mundo, con el objeto de leer estas l\u237?neas. O eso espero.\par\pard\plain\h
yphpar} {
Ha sido un largo camino desde el \u225?baco, sin duda. 0, si nos ponemos estrict
os, desde que unos cuantos ingenieros se dedicaron a poner un mont\u243?n de v\u
225?lvulas de vac\u237?o que hasta entonces se empleaban en radios y otros cacha
rros semejantes y las conectaron de tal modo que pod\u237?an usarse para hacer c
\u225?lculos. Pero \u191?qu\u233? retos nos quedan a partir de ahora? \u191?Habr
\u225? algo que nos asombre como nos asombra la tecnolog\u237?a actual cuando no
s ponemos a pensar en ella a fondo, cuando recordamos el milagro que la hace fun
cionar en concierto, en plena armon\u237?a, la mayor parte del tiempo?\par\pard\
plain\hyphpar} {
Los gur\u250?s tienen una gran ventaja cuando se dedican a predecir el futuro: s
i fallan nadie se acuerda de lo que en su momento y si aciertan tampoco, al meno
s hasta que el propio gur\u250? se encarga de resaltar su enorme talento y persp
icacia. As\u237? que para terminar este libro sobre el pasado perm\u237?tanme ju
gar un poco al futurista.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Los dispositivos que llamamos ordenadores son s\u243?lo una de las formas que es

tos adoptan. Casi todo son ordenadores ahora, seg\u250?n el sentido original de
la palabra. Nuestros m\u243?viles lo son, incluso los m\u225?s sencillos. Y ese
proceso provocar\u225? que tengamos varios aparatos para gestionar nuestra infor
maci\u243?n y conectarnos a la red y queramos que nuestros datos sean iguales en
todos ellos y que podamos acceder a las mismas aplicaciones. De modo que el pro
ceso que se inici\u243? a mediados de los setenta se est\u225? revirtiendo. Pasa
mos entonces de ejecutar programas en grandes ordenadores a los que nos conect\u
225?bamos por medio de terminales m\u225?s o menos tontos a ejecutar esos mismos
programas en un ordenador propio y guardando los datos nosotros. Pero cada vez
hacemos m\u225?s cosas en aplicaciones web, que se ejecutan en servidores alojad
os por ah\u237?, en eso que llamamos la nube y que guardan nuestros datos por no
sotros. Perdemos el control, pero ganamos en ubicuidad. Dentro de unas d\u233?ca
das este proceso, sus consecuencias y sus protagonistas, servir\u237?a para un n
uevo cap\u237?tulo de este libro. Ese ser\u225? el cambio m\u225?s importante, y
en parte m\u225?s invisible, del que menos nos daremos cuenta.\par\pard\plain\h
yphpar} {
Lo peor de este proceso, y lo que temen algunos hackers que, como Richard Stallm
an, ya han puesto el grito en el cielo, es que la descentralizaci\u243?n radical
que han tra\u237?do los ordenadores personales e Internet se diluir\u225? en gr
an medida. Aunque cada gran empresa sea mucho menos vulnerable que su ordenador
o el m\u237?o, ser\u225?n objetivos demasiado apetitosos tanto para gobiernos co
mo para ladrones y delincuentes privados. Y poco o nada podremos hacer por evita
rlo.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
Se ir\u225?n eliminando algunas formas de interacci\u243?n con el ordenador, eli
minando intermediarios como el rat\u243?n o quiz\u225? el teclado. Los m\u243?vi
les se convertir\u225?n en el \u250?nico cacharro que necesitemos para la mayor
parte de nuestras tareas, absorbiendo las funcionalidades de todos los dem\u225?
s aparatos que no necesiten de un tama\u241?o mayor. La nanotecnolog\u237?a se i
r\u225? haciendo cada vez m\u225?s presente, existiendo aparatos de tama\u241?o
microsc\u243?pico que funcionen mediante un ordenador de a bordo reparando nuest
ro cuerpo o atac\u225?ndolo, que de todo habr\u225?. La mayor parte de los objet
os que usemos terminar\u225?n siendo fabricados mediante nanotecnolog\u237?a, re
duciendo los costes a su m\u237?nima expresi\u243?n.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
En general, de todas las predicciones de los futur\u243?logos profesionales, las
que m\u225?s tardar\u225?n en llegar son las que implican el uso en mayor o men
or medida de inteligencia artificial, un campo donde la investigaci\u243?n no ha
dado los frutos esperados y siempre ha ido mucho m\u225?s lenta de lo que pudi\
u233?ramos desear. Cosas como las traducciones simult\u225?neas autom\u225?ticas
tardar\u225?n en llegar a un nivel de calidad aceptable, aunque quiz\u225? s\u2
37? empiecen a emplearse de forma corriente robots que limpien la casa, conduzca
n o realicen otras tareas m\u225?s o menos repetitivas en nuestra vida cotidiana
.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
En concreto, el suceso que Ray Kurzweil y otros han calificado como singularidad
posiblemente tarde en llegar mucho m\u225?s de lo que esperan. En ese punto, la
s computadoras ser\u225?n m\u225?s inteligentes que los humanos, de modo que emp
ezar\u225?n a ser capaces de redise\u241?arse a s\u237? mismas para hacerse mejo
res y el ordenador que resulte de ese proceso lo volver\u225? a hacer\u8230? dej
ando a los seres humanos sin ninguna modificaci\u243?n que permita mejorar sus c
apacidades, sin posibilidad de seguir el incremento exponencial del conocimiento
que ser\u225?n capaces de producir estas m\u225?quinas.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar}
{
Pero aun as\u237?, lo que est\u225? por venir nos producir\u225? el mismo asombr
o con el que recibir\u237?an nuestros abuelos nuestro mundo de hoy, cambiado de
arriba abajo gracias a las tecnolog\u237?as cuya historia hemos perfilado en est
as p\u225?ginas.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {\par\pard\hyphpar }{\page } {\s2 \afs2
8
{\b
{\ql
BIBLIOGRAF\u205?A\par\pard\plain\hyphpar}\par\pard\plain\hyphpar}\par\pard\plain
\hyphpar}

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}}
{
ALLAN, Roy A., {\i
A History of the Personal Computer: The People and the Technology}, Allan Publis
hing, 2001.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {

BARCEL\u211?, Miquel, {\i

Una historia de la inform\u225?tica}, Editorial UOC, Barcelona, 2008.\par\pard\p
lain\hyphpar} {
CAMPBELL-KELLY, Martin, {\i
From Airline Reservations to Sonic the Hedgedog A History of the Software Indust
ry}, MIT Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts, 2004.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
\u8212? y ASPRAY, William, Computer. {\i
A History of the Information Machine}, Basic Books, Nueva York, 1996.\par\pard\p
lain\hyphpar} {
CERUZZ 1, Paul E., {\i
A History of Modern Computing}, Second edition, MIT Press, Cambridge, Massachuse
tts, 2003.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
DONOVAN, Tristan, {\i
Replay: The History of Video Games}, Lewes, East Sussex: Yellow Ant., 2010.\par\
pard\plain\hyphpar} {
GILDER, George, Telecosm. {\i
The World after Bandwidth Abundance}. Touchstone, 2000.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar}
{
G\u211?MEZ S\u193?NCHEZ, R., \u171?El legado de un visionario autodidacta\u187?,
Entelequia. Revista Interdisciplinar, 3, primavera, 2007, pp. 297-322.\par\pard
\plain\hyphpar} {
HAFNER, Katie, y MATTHEW, Lyon, {\i
Where Wizards Stay up Late. The Origins of the Internet}, Simon & Schuster, Nuev
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}}
\par\pard\plain\hyphpar}\par\pard\plain\hyphpar} {
DANIEL RODR\u205?GUEZ HERRERA. (Madrid, 1975) es subdirector del diario Libertad
Digital, donde han aparecido los art\u237?culos que han dado lugar a este libro.
Su afici\u243?n por los ordenadores comenz\u243? en 1984, cuando sus padres le
compraron un Spectrum 48Kb, de esos negros con teclas de goma. Desde entonces se
vio felizmente rodeado de unos y ceros. Se desenvuelve con soltura en distintos
idiomas, como HTML, Javascript, DHTML, ASP y PHP, adem\u225?s de XHTML y CSS, p
or lo que se puede decir que se ha convertido en un pol\u237?glota digital. Adem
\u225?s de todo ello, es Vicepresidente del Instituto Juan de Mariana, creador d
e Liberalismo.org y Red Liberal, autor de numerosos art\u237?culos y uno de los
responsables de proyecto Programaci\u243?n en castellano.\par\pard\plain\hyphpar
} {\par\pard\hyphpar }{\page } }