FEMINISM IN INDONESIAN GOVERNMENTS

Civics
Lecturer: Mr. Laba
Group 5 :
A!ri "ristato Mu#iaa $%&'(%%)%%5&*
Luvita +ei#ou, $%&'(%%)%%)-*
.u#a!ari Rost/ati $%&'(%%)%%)&*
Isa Oscario $%&'(%%)%%0'*
Facu#t/ o1 Me!icie
2iversit/ o1 +e#ita 3arapa
"ara,aci
5 Dece4ber (%''
TABLE OF CONTENTS
'. INTROD2CTION
'.'5ac67rou!
'.(+rob#e4 o1 Researc8
'.9Ob:ective a! Goa#s
'.;A!vata7es
'.5T8i6i7 Fra4e .or6
'.-+re4ises < Scieti1ic State4ets
'.&3/pot8esis
(. 3=+OT3ESIS >2STIFICATION
(.'T8e 4eai7 o1 eac8 variab#e
(.(T8e !i4esio o1 eac8 variab#e
(.9T8e c8aracteristic < i!icators o1 eac8 variab#e
(.;T8eories use! to so#ve t8e prob#e4 o1 researc8
(.5Co1roti7 t8e t8eories to t8at 1act
(.-3/pot8esis :usti1ie!
9. CRITICAL NOTE
9.'3/pot8esis >usti1icatio
9.(T8e #i4itatio o1 t8e 1ie#! researc8
;. CONCL2SION
;.'E! otes
;.(Su77estio 1or e?t researc8es i t8e sa4e 1ie#!
5. 5I5LIOGRA+3=
1. INTRODUCTION
'.' 5ac67rou!
Ge!er is a socia# costructio o1 !i11ereces i t8e ro#es a!
opportuities bet,ee 4e a! ,o4e. Di11ereces i t8e ro#es a!
opportuities occurs bot8 ,it8i t8e 1a4i#/ a! co44uit/ #i1e@ ,8ic8 is
!ue to t8e i4a7i7 o1 ,o4e a! 4e. .o4e o1te 6o, as a 7et#e
creature@ beauti1u#@ e4otioa#@ passive a! 4ot8er8oo!@ ,8i#e 4e are
cosi!ere! as bei7 a stro7@ a77ressive@ a! po,er1u#. So4eti4es t8e
i4a7i7 4a/ #ea! to !iscri4iatio a7aist ,o4e. Discri4iatio
a7aist ,o4e 8as occurre! sice ceturies. It ca be see i aciet
ti4es@ arou! t8e ')t8 cetur/ ,8e ,o4e ,ere ot ab#e to 7et 8i78er
e!ucatio a! t8e o#/ 4a ,8o ca 7et 8i78er e!ucatio. T8e t8ou78t
o1 ,o4e cotiues to 7ro, as ,e## as t8e !eve#op4et o1 7e!er issues
t8at are ,e## 6o, 1or ra4pat 7e!er eAua#it/ i t8e ,or#!. Issues or
i!eas ,ere brou78t b/ 1e4iists i t8eir u!ersta!i7 o1 1e4iis4 to
!e4a! eAua#it/ o1 ri78ts o1 ,o4e to 4e.
I 4o!er ti4es t8ere are 4a/ parties t8at treat or p#aci7 ,o4e
si4p#/ as appe!a7es@ or ca be re1erre! to as seco!Bc#ass societ/.
I!ee! t8e iitia# state4et above is a portrait t8at represets t8e
rea#it/ o1 8o, ,o4e 8ave oppresse!@ t8eir ri78ts restricte! i a/
sp8ere. For Ceturies@ ,o4e #ivi7 i t8e Cat4osp8ereC as a servat i
a## aspects. As a e?a4p#es@ 1u#1i##i7 ob#i7atios as a 8ouseB,i1e@ cari7
1or c8i#!re@ a! servi7 8er 8usba! ,8i#e t8e 4atters t8at are outsi!e
t8e 8ouse8o#! is taboo territor/. Sees socia# ieAua#it/ a!
!iscri4iatio a7aist ,o4e@ suc8 as t8e e?a4p#e 4etioe! above@
,as bor o1 a ,o4eDs 4ove4et ca##e! 1e4iis4. T8e ,or! 1e4iis4
co4es 1ro4 t8e Lati 'Femina' ,8ic8 4eas D.o4aD. Fe4iis4 is a
socia# p8i#osop8/ t8at care about t8e ri78ts a! ,o4eDs issues.
Fe4iis4 is a#so a socia# t8eor/ or po#itica# 4ove4et 1or4e! a!
4otivate! 1ro4 t8e e?perieces bei7 e?periece! b/ ,o4e as ,e## as
1or4e! upo t8e cosciousess o1 t8e ,o4e t8at t8e/ are oppresse!
a! e?p#oite!. T8is 4ove4et is criticiEe 7e!er ieAua#it/ a!
!e4a!i7 ,o4eDs ri78ts@ especia##/ a7aist patriarc8a# oppressio a!
se?is4. I s8ort@ 1e4iis4 is a 4ove4et o1 e4acipatio o1 ,o4e
a! t8is 4ove4et is ot so4et8i7 e, i t8e ,or#!. Motio presete!
b/ Mar/ .a##stoecra11@ a ,o4a ,8o 8as 4aa7e! to brea6 t8e ,or#!
t8rou78 8is boo6 FT8e Ri78ts o1 .o4aG i '0&( ,it8 a #ou! voice about
t8e repair status o1 ,o4e a! re:ecte! t8e !e7ree o1 !i11erece
bet,ee 4e a! ,o4e.
I t8is coutr/@ I!oesia@ .o4eDs e4acipatio 4ove4et 8as bee
u!er,a/ sice t8e era o1 "artii. "artii ,as a ,o4a ,8o stru77#es to
e#i4iate t8e socia# structures t8at p#ace ,o4e i t8e !o, positio@
a! stru77#e! to 7et t8eir ri78ts. No, i t8is era o1 7#oba#iEatio@
7#oba#iEatio is opei7 ,i!e access 1or ,o4e i various 1ie#!s.
'.( +rob#e4 o1 Researc8 $i!eti1icatio a! 1or4u#atio*
5ase! o t8e Ge!er Deve#op4et I!e? $GDI* i (%%0@ I!oesia
sta!s at u4ber 0%@ 4eas t8at t8e ,o4e o1 I!oesia are sti## ot
e:o/i7 t8e sa4e ri78ts a! sta!ar!s as 4e. .o4eDs Ri78ts@ t8e
ri78ts o,e! b/ a ,o4a@ bot8 because 8e ,as a 8u4a bei7 a! as a
,o4a@ i a repertoire o1 8u4a ri78ts #a, ca be 1ou! setti7 it i a
variet/ o1 #e7a# s/ste4s coceri7 8u4a ri78ts. 5ut i t8is paper@ our
7roups o#/ !iscuss about ,o4eGs participatio i po#itics a!
7over4et i I!oesia.
No,a!a/s@ I I!oesia@ t8e 1e4iist 4ove4et 8as peetrate! ito
t8e po#itica# rea#4. T8e issue o1 7e!er eAua#it/ be7a to sprea! i
I!oesia i t8e /ears arou! t8e '00%s. Gra!ua##/@ t8e 1e4iist
4ove4et !e4a!e! eAua#it/ 1or ,o4e i I!oesia to 7et t8e ri78ts
i t8e socia# a! cu#tura# ri78ts. 5ut evetua##/@ a#o7 ,it8 t8e passi7
o1 t8e re1or4 $'00)*@ t8e 1e4iist 4ove4et be7a veturi7 ito
po#itica# po,er. T8ere1ore@ base! o recor!s o1 I!oesia 8istor/@
,o4eDs ro#e ,as 4ii4a# i t8e po#itica# area. I 1act@ t8e u4ber o1
,o4e !o4iati7 4e i I!oesia. .o4e i I!oesia are #a77i7
be8i! i pub#ic #i1e B t8e persistet 7e!er 7ap i socia# sector
i!icators is a atioa# c8a##e7e. A4o7st t8e ,o4e ,or6i7 i t8e
7over4et@ #ess t8a ' percet is ,or6i7 i t8e upper ec8e#os a!
t8eir represetatio i t8e atioa# #e7is#ature sta!s at o#/ ')
percet. I!oesia is co44itte! to t8e pricip#e o1 7e!er eAua#it/
t8rou78 u4erous atioa# a! iteratioa# co44it4ets. T8e
Costitutio o1 I!oesia $'0;5* 7uaratees eAua#it/ bet,ee 4e a!
,o4e a! 7e!er 4aistrea4i7 8as bee a!opte! as a po#ic/ to
ite7rate 7e!er perspectives ito po#ic/@ p#ai7 a! bu!7eti7.
A11ir4ative actio 8as a#so bee itro!uce! i t8e La, '%<(%%) o
Geera# E#ectios to esure t8at at #east 9% percet ,o4e are
o4iate! o t8e #ist o1 par#ia4etar/ ca!i!ates to a!!ress t8e 7e!er
!e1icit i t8e po#itics o1 t8e coutr/.
So@ t8e 1or4u#atio o1 t8e prob#e4 t8at ,e a!opte! is :
Is ,o4a participatio i 7over4et 8as reac8e! 9% HI
'.9 Ob:ectives a! Goa#
+urpose o1 t8e researc8 co!ucte! b/ our 7roup is to #ear a!
u!ersta! about ,o4eGs participatio i I!oesia 7over4et.
'.; A!vata7es
2sabi#it/ stu!ies o1 our 7roup are to carr/ out aca!e4ic a! socia#
use1u#ess. Aca!e4ic use1u#ess is to obtai !ata i prepari7 t8e Fia#
+aper to 4eet oe o1 t8e reAuire4ets 1or co4p#eti7 t8e 7eera#
course o1 citiEes8ip $civics*. About socia# use1u#ess@ our 7roup 8opes
to provi!e i1or4atio to t8e pub#ic about ,o4eDs participatio i
7over4et@ so t8at co44uities ca e8ace t8e support 1or ,o4e to
participate i I!oesiaGs 7over4et.
'.5 T8i6i7 Fra4e .or6
Our 7roup uses t8e 1o##o,i7 1ra4e,or6 i t8is t8esis. T8is is a
out#ie picture o1 a 7roup ,e !o about t8e researc8 o ,o4eDs
participatio i 7over4et. T8e researc8 activit/ is use1u# to provi!e
i1or4atio to t8e pub#ic@ so t8at peop#e ca better support i ,o4e
participatio i 7over4et.
'.- +re4ises<Scieti1ic State4ets
I t8e cote?t o1 I!oesia@ setti7 t8e 8u4a ri78ts o1 ,o4e ca
be 1ou! i t8e '0;5 costitutio a! #a,s. E1orce4et is carrie! out
b/ state istitutios a! #a, e1orce4et. Oe 4a:or source is t8e #a,
No. & /ear '0); coceri7 t8e rati1icatio o1 t8e Covetio o t8e
E#i4iatio o1 A## For4s o1 Discri4iatio a7aist .o4e. T8e #a,
e?press#/ a!opte! t8e Covetio o t8e E#i4iatio o1 A## For4s o1
Discri4iatio a7aist .o4e.
I t8e '0;5 costitutio@ T8e positio o1 ,o4e i po#itics are set i
Artic#e (& para7rap8 $'* o1 t8e '0;5 Costitutio: CA## citiEes s8a## be
eAua# be1ore t8e #a, a! 7over4et a! s8a## up8o#! t8e #a, a! t8e
7over4et ,it8out a/ e?ceptio.C
I La, No.'% =ear (%%) re7ar!i7 Geera# E#ectios o1 Me4bers o1
+ar#ia4et@ 3ouse o1 Represetatives@ a! t8e Re7ioa#. T8e positio o1
,o4e i po#itics provi!e! 1or i Artic#e 59J C#ist o1 prospective
ca!i!ates re1erre! to i Artic#e 5( cotais at #east 9%H $t8irt/
percet* o1 ,o4eDs represetatio.C Moreover@ it a#so provi!e! 1or i
Artic#e ) para7rap8 $'* #etter !@ ,8ic8 rea!s: Cto ic#u!e at #east 9%H
$t8irt/ percet* o1 ,o4eDs represetatio o t8e 4aa7e4et o1
cetra#B#eve# po#itica# parties.C
'.& 3/pot8esis
Our 8/pot8esis i t8is stu!/ is t8e participatio o1 ,o4e i
7over4et i I!oesia is #ess t8a 9% percet.
2. HYPOTHESIS JUSTIFICATION
(.' T8e 4eai7 o1 eac8 variab#e
.o4a
A ,o4a $< , 4 < *@ p#: ,o4e $< , 4 < * is a 1e4a#e 8u4a.
T8e ter4 woman is usua##/ reserve! 1or a a!u#t@ ,it8 t8e
ter47ir# bei7 t8e usua# ter4 1or a 1e4a#e c8i#! or a!o#escet.
3o,ever@ t8e ter4 woman is a#so so4eti4es use! to i!eti1/ a 1e4a#e
8u4a@ re7ar!#ess o1 a7e@ as i p8rases suc8 as K.o4eGs Ri78tsL.
$.i6ipe!ia*
Gover4et
Gover4et to t8e #e7is#ator@ a!4iistrators@ a! arbitrators i t8e
a!4iistrative bureaucrac/ ,8o cotro# a state at 7ive ti4e@ a! to
t8e s/ste4 o1 7over4et b/ ,8ic8 t8e/ are or7aiEe!. Gover4et is
t8e 4eas b/ ,8ic8 state po#ic/ is e1orce!@ as ,e## as t8e 4ec8ais4
1or !eter4ii7 t8e po#ic/ o1 t8e state. T8e ,or! 7over4et is !erive!
1ro4 t8e Lati verb gubernare@ a i1iitive 4eai7 Kto 7overL or Kto
4aa7eL.
Fe4iis4
Fe4iis4 is bot8 a ite##ectua# co44it4et a! a po#itica#
4ove4et t8at see6s :ustice 1or ,o4e a! t8e e! o1 se?is4 i a##
1or4s. 3o,ever@ t8ere are 4a/ !i11eret 6i!s o1 1e4iis4. Fe4iists
!isa7ree about ,8at se?is4 cosists i@ a! ,8at e?act#/ ou78t to be
!oe about itJ t8e/ !isa7ree about ,8at it 4eas to be a ,o4a or a
4a a! ,8at socia# a! po#itica# i4p#icatios 7e!er 8as or s8ou#!
8ave. Noet8e#ess@ 4otivate! b/ t8e Auest 1or socia# :ustice@ 1e4iist
iAuir/ provi!es a ,i!e ra7e o1 perspectives o socia#@ cu#tura#@
ecoo4ic@ a! po#itica# p8eo4ea.
(.( T8e !i4esio o1 eac8 variab#e
Di4esio o1 1e4iis4
Fe4iis4 is ot a 4oo#it8ic 4ove4et. Rat8er@ it is i1or4e! b/
severa# !i11eret 1e4iist i!eo#o7ies@ ic#u!i7 #ibera#@ cu#tura#@ ra!ica#@
socia#ist@ .o4e o1 Co#or@ a! #esbia 1e4iis4s $Doova@ '00(J
3e#e/@ Me7@ OG5rie@ McCart8/ M Soc6#os6ie@ '00)J Si4oi@ 3e#e/@ M
C8ristie@'000*. Eac8 1e4iist i!eo#o7/ su77ests !i11eret causes o1
se?is4 a! pro4otes !i11eret c8a7e strate7ies. Libera# 1e4iis4
su77ests t8at t8e cause o1 se?is4 is t8e resu#t o1 ri7i! 7e!er ro#e
socia#iEatio a! irratioa# pre:u!ices about t8e i1eriorit/ o1 ,o4e i
re#atio to 4e. It vie,s ,o4eGs oppressio as e4be!!e! i ecoo4ic@
cu#tura#@ a! #e7a# costraits t8at b#oc6 ,o4eGs access to 4a/
opportuities t8at are avai#ab#e to 4e $Doova@ '00(*.
Di4esio o1 .o4a
.e cosi!er ,o4eDs po#itica# participatio as 8avi7 t,o i4portat
!i4esios B t8e proportio o1 ,o4e i !ecisio 4a6i7 a! t8e
ic#usio o1 ,o4eDs perspectives i 7over4et po#icies a! pro7ra4s.
Di4esio o1 Gover4et
I!eo#o7/ cotais certai i!eas o ,8at it cosi!ers to be t8e
best 1or4 o1 7over4et $e.7. !e4ocrac/@ t8eocrac/@ etc.*@ a! t8e
best ecoo4ic s/ste4 $e.7. capita#is4@ socia#is4@ etc.*.
(.9 T8e c8aracteristic < i!icators o1 eac8 variab#e
Fe4iis4
5asic c8aracteristic o1 1e4iis4 ,8ic8 8as bee i4portat t8rou78out
its 8istor/ 8as bee t8e i4portace o1 ac8ievi7 eAua# ri78ts@ eAua#
respect a! eAua# opportuit/ 1or ,o4e i a## aspects o1 societ/ B
po#itica#@ ecoo4ic a! socia#. 2sua##/@ 1e4iis4 ivo#ves so4e sort o1
critiAue o1 ,8at is assu4e! to be or 8ave bee a !o4iat patriarc8/ i
,8ic8 ,o4e 8ave bee !eie! t8e eAua#it/ a! respect t8e/ !eserve.
.o4e
I t8e tra!itioa# I!oesia societ/@ ,o4e c#ear#/ occup/ a #o,er
socia# status t8a 4e. T8is is sti## t8e !o4iat va#ue i I!oesia
cu#ture. T8e i!ea t8at t8e 1e4a#eGs p#ace is i t8e 6itc8e is sti## eas/ to
1i!@ especia##/ i t8e vi##a7es. T8e 8usba!B,i1e re#atios8ip is a c8ie1B
assistat re#atios8ip rat8er t8a a parters8ip.
Nevert8e#ess@ t8e ro#e o1 ,o4e is i4provi7 i 4o!er I!oesia
societ/. Ma/ ,o4e ,or6 outsi!e t8e 8o4e@ particu#ar#/ i
restaurats@ 7ar4et@ a! ci7arette 1actories@ eve t8ou78 t8eir ,a7es
are #o,er t8a t8ose o1 4a#es. Ma/ 1e4a#e p8/sicias@ otaries@ a!
#a,/ers are 1ou! i 4o!er I!oesia. A 1e, ,o4e 8ave ac8ieve!
8i78 po#itica# positios as cabiet a! par#ia4et 4e4bers.
Gover4et
+o#itics o1 I!oesia ta6es p#ace i a 1ra4e,or6 o1 a presi!etia#
represetative !e4ocratic repub#ic@ ,8ereb/ t8e +resi!et o1 I!oesia
is bot8 8ea! o1 state a! 8ea! o1 7over4et@ a! o1 a 4u#t/Bpart/
s/ste4. E?ecutive po,er is e?ercise! b/ t8e 7over4et. Le7is#ative
po,er is veste! i bot8 t8e 7over4et a! t8e t,o +eop#eDs
Represetative Couci#s. T8e :u!iciar/ is i!epe!et o1 t8e e?ecutive
a! t8e #e7is#ature. T8e '0;5 costitutio provi!e! 1or a #i4ite!
separatio o1 e?ecutive@ #e7is#ative@ a! :u!icia# po,er. T8e
7over4eta# s/ste4 8as bee !escribe! as Cpresi!etia# ,it8
par#ia4etar/ c8aracteristics. Fo##o,i7 t8e I!oesia riots o1 Ma/
'00) a! t8e resi7atio o1 +resi!et Su8arto@ severa# po#itica# re1or4s
,ere set i 4otio via a4e!4ets to t8e Costitutio o1 I!oesia@
,8ic8 resu#te! i c8a7es to a## brac8es o1 7over4et.
(.; T8eories use! to so#ve t8e prob#e4 o1 researc8
a. Fe4iis4 is a !iverse@ co4peti7@ a! o1te opposi7 co##ectio o1
socia# t8eories@ po#itica# 4ove4ets@ a! 4ora# p8i#osop8ies@ #ar7e#/
4otivate! b/ or coceri7 t8e e?perieces o1 ,o4e@ especia##/ i
ter4s o1 t8eir socia#@ po#itica#@ a! ecoo4ica# ieAua#ities. Oe
istitutioa##/ pre!o4iat t/pe o1 1e4iis4 1ocuses o #i4iti7 or
era!icati7 7e!er ieAua#it/ to pro4ote ,o4eDs ri78ts@ iterests@ a!
issues i societ/. Aot8er opposi7 t/pe o1 4o!er 1e4iis4@ ,it8 !eep
8istorica# roots@ 1ocuses o eari7@ a! estab#is8i7 eAuit/ b/ a! 1or
,o4e@ visBaBvis 4e@ to pro4ote t8ose sa4e ri78ts@ iterests@ a!
issues@ re7ar!#ess o1 7e!er cosi!eratios. T8us@ as ,it8 a/ i!eo#o7/@
po#itica# 4ove4et or p8i#osop8/@ t8ere is o si7#e@ uiversa# 1or4 o1
1e4iis4 t8at represets a## 1e4iists. T8e 4ost ,e##B6o, t/pes o1
1e4iis4 are: #ibera# 1e4iis4@ socia# 1e4iis4@ ra!ica# 1e4iis4@ a!
postB4o!er 1e4iis4.
Liberal feminism see6s o specia# privi#e7es 1or ,o4e a! si4p#/
!e4a! t8at ever/oe receive eAua# cosi!eratio ,it8out
!iscri4iatio o t8e basis o1 se?. Libera# 1e4iists ,ou#! see6 to
re4ove barriers t8at prevet eAua# access 1or ,o4e to i1or4atio
tec8o#o7/ :obs ot o#/ to provi!e ecoo4ic eAua#it/ but to provi!e
access to 8i78erBpa/i7 :obs 1or ,o4e.
I cotrast to #ibera# 1e4iis4@ socia#ist 1e4iis4 re:ects
i!ivi!ua#is4 a! positivis4. Socia# 1e4iis4 be#ieves t8at tec8o#o7/
a! t8e socia# s8api7 o1 tec8o#o7/ 8ave o1te bee coceptua#iEe! i
ter4s o1 4e@ e?c#u!i7 ,o4e at a## #eve#s. Socia#ist 1e4iist re1or4
su77ests t8at t8e a##ocatio o1 resources 1or tec8o#o7/ !eve#op4et
s8ou#! be !eter4ie! b/ 7reatest bee1it 1or t8e co44o 7oo!. A
7ro,i7 use o1 c/ber protests to !isrupt capita#ist eterprises suc8 as
t8e .or#! 5a6 4i78t be see b/ socia#ists as a e?a4p#e o1 i1or4atio
tec8o#o7/ use 1or t8e co44o 7oo!.
Radical feminism 4aitais t8at ,o4eGs oppressio is t8e 1irst@
4ost ,i!esprea!@ a! !eepest oppressio. Ra!ica# 1e4iis4 re:ects
4ost scieti1ic t8eories@ !ata@ a! e?peri4et ot o#/ because t8e/
e?c#u!e ,o4e but a#so because t8e/ are ot ,o4eBcetere!. Ra!ica#
1e4iis4 su77ests t8at because 4e@ 4ascu#iit/@ a! patriarc8/ 8ave
beco4e co4p#ete#/ itert,ie! ,it8 tec8o#o7/ a! co4puter s/ste4s
i our societ/@ o tru#/ 1e4iist a#terative to tec8o#o7/ e?ists.
Postmodern feminist theories i4p#/ t8at o uiversa# researc8
a7e!a or app#icatio o1 tec8o#o7ies ,i## be appropriate a! t8at
various ,o4e ,i## 8ave !i11eret reactios to tec8o#o7ies !epe!i7
upo t8eir o, c#ass@ race@ se?ua#it/@ coutr/@ a! ot8er 1actors. T8is
!e1iitio o1 post4o!er 1e4iis4 para##e#s t8e !escriptio o1 t8e
co4p#e? a! !iverse coBevo#utio o1 ,o4e a! co4puti7. I cotrast
to #ibera# 1e4iis4@ post4o!eris4 !isso#ves t8e uiversa# sub:ect a!
t8e possibi#it/ t8at ,o4e spea6 i a ui1ie! voice or t8at t8e/ ca be
uiversa##/ a!!resse!. .a:c4aDs $'00'* t8ou78t1u# aa#/sis o1 t8e socia#
costructivist perspective o 7e!er a! tec8o#o7/ revea#s so4e o1 t8e
issues e4be!!e! i its assu4ptios. S8e poits out t8at t8ere is o
be8avior or 4eai7 ,8ic8 is uiversa##/ a! crossBcu#tura##/ associate!
,it8 eit8er 4ascu#iit/ or 1e4iiit/@ t8at ,8at is cosi!ere! 4ascu#ie
i so4e societies is cosi!ere! 1e4iie or 7e!erBeutra# i ot8ers. It
is ot t8at 7e!er !i11erece !oes ot e?ist but t8at it is 4ai1este!
!i11eret#/ i !i11eret societies. T8ere1ore@ a!!ressi7 t8e 7e!er 7ap
i IT e4p#o/4et base! upo a assu4e! C,o4aDs perspectiveC is
prob#e4atic. S8e cites 3ar!i7 $'0)-* i observi7 t8at t8ere are as
4a/ !i11eret C,o4eDs e?periecesC as t8ere are t/pes o1 ,o4e.
b. C/ber1e4iis4: C/ber1e4iis4 is a ,o4aBcetere! perspective t8at
a!vocates ,o4eGs use o1 e, i1or4atio a! co44uicatios
tec8o#o7ies 1or e4po,er4et. So4e c/ber1e4iists see t8ese
tec8o#o7ies as i8eret#/ #iberator/ a! ar7ue t8at t8eir !eve#op4et
,i## #ea! to a e! to 4a#e superiorit/ because ,o4e are uiAue#/
suite! to #i1e i t8e !i7ita# a7e $Mi##ar@ '00)*. T8e ter4 c/ber1e4iis4@
,8ic8 e?p#icit#/ 1uses 7e!er a! i1or4atio tec8o#o7/@ arose i t8e
#ate '0)%s a! ear#/ '00%s. 3a,t8ore a! "#ei i t8eir boo6@
KC/ber1e4iis4L@ state: K>ust as t8ere are #ibera#@ socia#ist@ ra!ica# a!
post4o!er 1e4iists@ so too oe 1i!s t8ese positios re1#ecte! i t8e
iterpretatios o1 C/ber1e4iis4L $3a,t8ore M "#ei@ '000*.
C/ber1e4iists sa, t8e potetia# o1 t8e Iteret a! co4puter
sciece as tec8o#o7ies to #eve# t8e p#a/i7 1ie#! a! ope e, aveues
1or :ob opportuities a! creativit/ 1or ,o4e ,8ere absece o1 se?is4@
racis4@ a! ot8er oppressio ,ou#! serve as 4a:or cotrasts bet,ee
t8e virtua# ,or#! a! t8e rea# ,or#!. Curret#/@ t8ere are ot 4a/
c#ear a! e?p#icit app#icatios o1 1e4iis4 t8eor/ i t8e cote?t o1
I1or4atio S/ste4 researc8. 3o,ever@ t8e e4er7i7 area o1
c/ber1e4iis4 ca bee1it 1ro4 !i11eret t/pes o1 1e4iis4 i or!er to
bui#! c/ber1e4iist t8eories. C/ber1e4iis4 uses aspects o1 !i11eret
1e4iist t8eories to re1#ect 4a/ iteractios a4o7 i1or4atio
tec8o#o7ies@ ,o4e@ a! 1e4iis4. Rosser $(%%5* be#ieves t8at
C/ber1e4iis4 appears curret#/ to pic6 a! c8oose a4o7 aspects o1
various 1e4iist t8eories i a so4e,8at ucritica# 1as8io ,it8out
!eve#opi7 a co8eret or successor t8eor/. T8ere1ore s8e proposes a
brie1 e?p#oratio o1 ,8at eac8 o1 t8e 1e4iist t8eories su77ests 1or t8is
#ess !eve#ope! t8eor/ o1 C/ber1e4iis4.
c. Fe4iist t8eor/: Fe4iist t8eor/ is t8e e?tesio o1 1e4iis4 ito
t8eoretica#@ or p8i#osop8ica# 7rou!. It eco4passes ,or6 !oe i a
broa! variet/ o1 !iscip#ies@ pro4iet#/ ic#u!i7 t8e approac8es to
,o4eDs ro#es a! #ives a! 1e4iist po#itics i at8ropo#o7/ a!
socio#o7/@ ecoo4ics@ ,o4eDs a! 7e!er stu!ies@ 1e4iist #iterar/
criticis4@ a! p8i#osop8/ $especia##/ Cotieta# p8i#osop8/*. Fe4iist
t8eor/ ai4s to u!ersta! t8e ature o1 ieAua#it/ a! 1ocuses o
7e!er po#itics@ po,er re#atios a! se?ua#it/. .8i#e 7eera##/ provi!i7
a critiAue o1 socia# re#atios@ 4uc8 o1 1e4iist t8eor/ a#so 1ocuses o
aa#/Ei7 7e!er ieAua#it/ a! t8e pro4otio o1 ,o4eDs ri78ts@
iterests@ a! issues. T8e4es e?p#ore! i 1e4iis4 ic#u!e
!iscri4iatio@ stereot/pi7@ ob:ecti1icatio $especia##/ se?ua#
ob:ecti1icatio*@ oppressio@ a! patriarc8/
(.5 Co1roti7 t8e t8eories to t8at 1act
"artii. A#t8ou78 s8e 8as bee 8ai#e! as I!oesiaGs 1irst 1e4iist@ t8e
>avaese aristocrat@ ,8o ,as bor i ')&0@ ,as actua##/ t8e Kvicti4L o1
t8is 6i! o1 7e!er costructio. Over t8e past !eca!es@ 8er i4a7e 8as
bee Kre4o!e#e!L to rei1orce t8e coutr/Gs patriarc8a# cu#ture@ as
revea#e! b/ 1e4iist sc8o#ar Sas6ia E#eoora .ieri7a.
As 1ar bac6 as I!oesiaGs co#oia# perio!@ K"artii ,as actua##/
!epicte! as a bri##iat a! rebe##ious ,o4a ,8o 1ou78t 1or ,o4eGs
ri78t to e!ucatio@L sai! .ieri7a@ ,8o curret#/ visite! >a6arta to
atte! t8e Apri# Festiva#@ a ce#ebratio o1 ,o4e.
Duri7 t8e O#! Or!er re7i4e u!er 1or4er presi!et Su6aro@ s8e
,et o@ "artii s/4bo#iEe! t8e stru77#e a7aist Dutc8 co#oia#
arro7ace@ as 8er 4ot8er co4e 1ro4 a oppresse! ,or6i7 c#ass
bac67rou!. 5ut t8e@ Kt8e Ne, Or!er re7i4e ta4e! Nt8e i4a7e o1O
"artii a! arro,e! 8er to a ,o4a ,it8 a !o4estic ro#e@L sai! t8e
pro1essor at t8e 2iversit/ o1 A4ster!a4. K3er spirit a! 1i78t a7aist
4a#e !o4iatio ,ere t8us erase!@L s8e a!!e!.
So@ t8a6s to Soe8artoGs Ne, Or!er re7i4e@ ,e 8ave uti# to!a/
ac6o,#e!7e! "artii as ot8i7 but a 7race1u# >avaese aristocrat@ ,it8
!ecet 4aers. A! because o1 t8at@ ever/ /ear ,8e ,e ce#ebrate
"artii Da/ o Apri# ('@ ,e ,itess c8i#!re 4arc8i7 i co#or1u#
tra!itioa# costu4es a! ,o4e s#avi7 over coo6i7 cotests@ 1#o,er
arra7e4ets a! 1as8io 4o!e#i7. T8e essece o1 "artiiGs stru77#e@
t8us@ 8as s8i1te! a,a/ to irre#evat issues. So@ ,8at 4a6es t8is c8a7i7
i4a7e o1 "artii i4portat to!a/I .e##@ rea#iEe it or ot@ it 8as 4ar6e!
t8e rise a! 1a## o1 t8e ,o4eGs e4acipatio 4ove4et i t8e coutr/.
Mariaa A4iru!!i@ !irector o1 >ura# +ere4pua Fou!atio@
e?p#aie! 8o, po,er1u# t8e i4a7e o1 "artii create! b/ Soe8arto
re4ais uti# to!a/@ ,it8 ,o4e sti## trappe! i t8e Ne, Or!erGs
K4ot8er#/L cocept o1 K7oo! ,o4eL. E?acerbati7 t8is@ s8e ,et o@
,ere re#i7ious !octries o1 1u!a4eta#ists rei1orci7 t8is perceptio
o1 t8e ro#e o1 ,o4e. A! to!a/@ t8e cocept o1 t8e i!ea# ,o4a 8as
bee re!uce! to t8e 1o##o,i7: KI!oesia ,o4e are suppose! to
e4brace Easter a! Is#a4ic cu#tures@ ,8ere t8e/ !ress i appropriate
c#ot8i7 t8at covers t8eir aurat Nparts o1 t8e bo!/ t8at are 4ustGt be
s8o,e!O@ as ,e## as beco4e 7oo! 4ot8ers ,8o serve t8eir 8usba!s@
urture t8eir c8i#!re a! support t8e 1a4i#/@L as state! b/ Mariaa@
a#so !uri7 t8e Apri# Festiva#. T8is 6i! o1 arro, perceptio o t8e ro#e
o1 ,o4e@ Mariaa sai!@ 8as 8a4pere! t8e e11orts o1 to!a/Gs 1e4iists
to 1i78t 1or ,o4eGs ri78ts. .8e t8ese 1e4iist 7roups 1ou78t a7aist
t8e recet#/ passe! +oro7rap8/ La,@ 1or e?a4p#e@ t8e/ ,ere accuse!
o1 bei7 i44ora#@ ,8i#e t8e/ actua##/ trie! to protect ,o4e 1ro4
bei7 cri4ia#iEe! b/ t8e #a,. KTo!a/@ ,e N1e4iistsO are o #o7er
perceive! as t8e 7uar! o1 t8e Re1or4 Era@L Mariaa #a4ete!. KIstea!@
,eGre 6o, as 7roups o1 7ir#s ,8o are out o1 cotro#.L Fe4iis4@ o
t8e ot8er 8a!@ s8e a!!e!@ ,as see as a !octrie preac8e! b/ i44ora#
#ibera# activists. KNo 4atter 8o, 4a/ ti4es ,e to#! t8e4 about
"artii@ t8e/ sti## t8i6 1e4iis4 ca4e 1ro4 t8e .est@L Mariaa sai!.
+ara##e#s ca be !ra, bet,ee to!a/Gs I!oesia 1e4iist
4ove4et a! Ger,ai@ t8e I!oesia .o4eGs Move4et t8at ,as
!estro/e! b/ 1or4er presi!et Soe8arto 1o##o,i7 t8e '0-5 tra7e!/ P
,8ic8 ,as b#a4e! o t8e I!oesia Co44uist +art/ $+"I*. KA#t8ou78
,e 8aveGt bee :ai#e! or 4ur!ere! #i6e Ger,ai 4e4bers@ ,e 1ee# t8e
o#! Ne, Or!erGs practice o1 barri7 N,o4eGsO 1ree!o4 8as o, bee
revive!@L Mariaa ar7ue!. K.8i#e Ger,ai ,as bes4irc8e! 1or bei7
+"IGs a11i#iate !uri7 t8at era@ 1e4iists to!a/ 8ave bee accuse! o1
bei7 part o1 .ester 4ove4ets ai4i7 to !estro/ I!oesia.L
Ger,ai B a 4ass ,o4eGs 4ove4et ,it8 4i##ios o1 4e4bers 1ro4
t8e 7rassroots a! 7#oba# co44uit/ P ,as 6o, as 7roup o1 /ou7 a!
bri##iat ,o4e activists 1i78ti7 1or ,o4eGs ri78ts i t8e 1ie#!s o1
i!eo#o7/@ e!ucatio@ po#itic a! ecoo4/ P a## ispire! b/ "artiiGs
pro7ressive i!eas. A e?pert i Ger,ai 8istor/@ .ieri7a@ sai! t8e
!estructio o1 t8e or7aiEatio 4ar6e! t8e ,orst setbac6 1or t8e
I!oesia ,o4eGs 4ove4et. =es@ ,8i#e t8ere oce ,as a pro7ressive
a! i1#uetia# ,o4eGs 4ove4et@ I!oesia to!a/ 8as ture! ito a
bree!i7 p#ace 1or 6uti#aa6 ,a7i@ or per1u4e! 1e4a#e 78osts P a ter4
.ieri7a use! to !epict ,o4e 7roups carr/i7 out Soe8artoGs
patriarc8a# a7e!a. T8ese 6uti#aa6 ,a7i@ .ieri7a e?p#aie!@ ,ere
7roups o1 ,o4e ,eari7 1as8ioab#e c#ot8es a! per1u4e. Istea! o1
voici7 ,o4eGs ri78ts #i6e Ger,ai !i!@ t8ese ,o4e ,or6e! o
K!iverti7L ,o4eGs 1ocus o !o4estic issues suc8 as K!apur P su4ur P
6asurL $6itc8e@ bat8roo4 a! be!roo4*. 2!er 7over4etBcotro##e!
or7aiEatios #i6e D8ar4a .aita@ D8ar4a +erti,i a! +"" $Fa4i#/
E4po,er4et a! .e#1are Move4et*@ t8ese 6uti#aa6 ,a7i 8a!
burie! ,o4eGs critica# t8i6i7 o vio#ece a! oppressio. A! as
4etioe! be1ore@ ,e ca see 8o, success1u# t8e/ ,ere 1ro4 t8e ,a/
,e arro,#/ ce#ebrate "artii Da/.
Apri# Festiva#Gs !irector FaiEa 3i!a/ati Mar!Eoe6i sai! t8at a u4ber
o1 1e4iists #i6e 8erse#1 ,ere cocere! t8at "artiiGs ispiratioa# i!eas
8a! bee #ost a#o7 t8e ,a/@ a! a## s8e ,ou#! be re4e4bere! 1or ,as
8er po#iteess a! 8er !ress sese. K"artii@ t8us@ 8as #ive! a4o7 us
o#/ as a 4/t8 P a po#ite >avaese aristocrat@ ,8o 1ia##/ 8a! to accept
t8e 1act t8at s8e 8a! to s8are 8er 8usba! ,it8 ot8er ,o4e P a#t8ou78
s8e ever a7ree! ,it8 po#/7a4/@L FaiEa sai!. KNo oe ,i## re4e4ber
8er as a rebe##ious 1i7ure ,it8 pro7ressive i!eas.L O1 course@ #i6e t8e
1e4iists 8ave su77este!@ t8e Re1or4 Era i '00) 8as 7ive ,o4e
opportuities to revive t8e rea# spirit o1 "artii. 3o,ever@ as Mariaa
su77este!@ t8e Re1or4 Era ,as ot8i7 but Ka s8ortBter4 8oe/4ooL
4o4et 1or ,o4eGs 4ove4et.
.8e t8e #ate 1or4er presi!et Ab!urra84a .a8i! c8a7e! t8e
a4e o1 t8e 4iistr/ o1 ,o4e a11airs ito t8e 4iistr/ o1 ,o4eGs
e4po,er4et@ 1or e?a4p#e@ 1e4iists 1e#t ver/ co1i!et about t8eir
cause. I a!!itio to t8at@ t8e Natioa# Co44issio o Vio#ece A7aist
.o4e $"o4as +ere4pua* ,as 7ive 1u## support to cotiue its
ivesti7atio ito t8e Ma/ '00) tra7e!/@ ,8ere 4a/ C8iese ,o4e
,ere se?ua##/ abuse!. KDuri7 Me7a,atiGs era@ ,e ,ere 4ore
et8usiastic because t8e 1irst ,o4a ,as 1ia##/ ista##e! as a presi!et
a4i! oppositio 1ro4 so4e re#i7ious #ea!ers@L Mariaa sai!. KMe7a,ati
t8e a#so succee!e! i passi7 t8e #a, o !o4estic vio#ece.L
Ce#ebrati7 ,o4eGs ac8ieve4et eve 4ore@ s8e a!!e!@ ,as t8e
po#ic/ o1 7rati7 ,o4e a 9% percet Auota o1 seats i t8e +ar#ia4et.
KT8e /ear 4ar6e! t8e itro!uctio o1 t8e poro7rap8/ bi##@ ,8ic8 ,as
4etioe! b/ +resi!et S5= !uri7 8is 1irst Npresi!etia#O speec8@L sai!
Mariaa. K3e eve too6 t8e opportuit/ to co44et about ,o4eGs
be##/ buttosQL A! 1ro4 t8at 4o4et o@ s8e ,et o@ t8e ,o4eGs
4ove4et i I!oesia starte! to #ose its 7rou!. .8i#e batt#i7 a7aist
t8e cri4ia#iEatio o1 ,o4e@ 1e4iists 8ave bee #abe#e! as K.ester
!evi#is8 a7etsL@ 7aii7 a ba! reputatio i societ/.
I!oesia Cote4porar/ Fe4iis4
5/ t8e /ear'0)%s eter a Ke,L perspective to #iberati7 ,o4e.
I!oesiaGs ,o4e stu!ets a! activist #eart about #ibera#
1e4iist i!eo#o7/ 4ost#/ 1ro4 2S a! 2".
State o1 I!oesia 1orce! b/ $2S* to 8ave ,o4eGs e4po,er4et
4iister. I '0&)B'0)9@ t8ere ,as a 1irst =ou7 State Miister o1
.o4e: Lasi:a8 Soetato.
.o4e stu!ets e7a7e ,it8 F4a#e strea4G #e1t or7aiEatio
$4ost#/ !iscussio 7roups*..o4e ,8o :oie! 4a#e or7aiEatio@
#ater o 1or4e! a e, ,o4e or7aiEatio ,it8 1e4iist as t8eir
4ai perspectives to criticiEe! societ/ a! state. Oe o1 t8ese
,as "a#/aa4itra. I or!er to be save! as or7aiEatio 1ro4
scrutiiEe! Ne, Or!er re7i4e@ "a#/aa4itra c8ose t8eir
operatio as ,o4eGs i1or4atio ceters.
Ot8er ,o4e or7aiEatio 1or4e! 1o##o, ,it8 ,o4e issue a!
use aa#/tica# a! bui#! or7aiEatio ,it8 1e4iist i!eo#o7/.
Most o1 e, ,o4eGs or7aiEatio trie! to bui#! t8eir
or7aiEatio b/ se#1 1u!e! a! o#/ accepte! 1ro4 s4a##
!oatio $p8i#at8rop/* a! a bit 1ro4 outsi!e 1orei7 resources.
.o4eGs or7aiEatio ,ere itro!uce! aa#/sis .o4e i
Deve#op4et
'00%s eter Fso ca##e! 1u!i7 a7ec/L to 1u!e! ,o4eGs
or7aiEatios. T8ose 1u!i7 a7ecies 1ro4 F.esterG atios.
5/ 4i! '00%s ,o4eGs or7aiEatios raise! t8eir voices a!
4e!ia 7ive t8e4 4ore attetio. A! ,or! o1 KGe!erL a#4ost
beca4e 4aistrea4 ,or!. I '00( 1or4e! So#i!aritas +ere4pua@
or7aiEatio 1ocuse! ,o4eGs 4i7rat ,or6er ,or6 a! poor
,o4e@ i '00; L53 A+I" $.o4e Le7a# Ai! Asociatio* ,as
1or4e!. >ura# +ere4pua@ a 1irst I!oesia 1e4iist :oura# t8at
so#! to pub#ic is 1or4e! b/ #ectures o1 2iversit/ o1 I!oesia.
Ear#/ '00) varie! ,o4e 1ro4 !i11eret or7aiEatios ,or6e!
to7et8er 8a! i 8a! $8e#! secret 4eeti7 a! 8ave secret co!e*
to oppose! Soe8artoGs re7i4e a! cocere! about 8i78 prices
1oo!s a! 4i#6s. T8eir !ecisio ,as to 8ave !e4ostratio
a7aist Soe8arto@ it ,as Februar/ ('@ '00). S4a## u4ber
,o4e@ appro? (% $,8o !are!Q* 8e#! a !e4ostratio@ t8ese
,o4e ca##e! t8e4Bse#ves Suara Ibu +e!u#i. I or!er ot too
sou! po#itics. T8ree ,o4e arreste! b/ t8e po#ice. Duri7 t8eir
tria#@ 4a/ ,e##B6o, activists $4e<,o4e* ca4e to t8e court
to support t8e4. A! t8ere ,as 4e!ia 1reE/. $see Ruite Roo4 i
t8e Move4et*
Most t8e ,o4e or7aiEatios c#ai4e! to be ,it8 1e4iist
i!eo#o7/@ a! trie! to bui#! or7aiEatio ,it8 oB8ierarc8ica#
or7aiEatio. So4e8o, uti# o,@ t8ere ,as ot /et cosesus
a! acc#ai4e! co44it4et about ,8at ,as<is I!oesia
Fe4iist. T8ere ,as oe ,riter<researc8er c8aracteriEe! t8at
I!oesia 1e4iis4 are: ,o4e ,it8 re#i7io@ ot a7aist
4arria7e@ a! ,or6 to to7et8er ,it8 4a#e couterpart.
Most Recet Fe4iis4 i I!oesia
Is#a4ic 1e4iis4 is a 1or4 o1 1e4iis4 cocere! ,it8 t8e ro#e
o1 ,o4e i Is#a4. It ai4s 1or t8e 1u## eAua#it/ o1 a## Mus#i4s@ re7ar!#ess
o1 7e!er@ i pub#ic a! private #i1e. Is#a4ic 1e4iists a!vocate ,o4eDs
ri78ts@ 7e!er eAua#it/@ a! socia# :ustice 7rou!e! i a Is#a4ic
1ra4e,or6. A#t8ou78 roote! i Is#a4@ t8e 4ove4etDs pioeers 8ave a#so
uti#ise! secu#ar a! Europea or oBMus#i4 1e4iist !iscourses a!
reco7iEe t8e ro#e o1 Is#a4ic 1e4iis4 as part o1 a ite7rate! 7#oba#
1e4iist 4ove4et. A!vocates o1 t8e 4ove4et see6 to 8i78#i78t t8e
!eep#/ roote! teac8i7s o1 eAua#it/ i t8e re#i7io@ a! ecoura7e a
Auestioi7 o1 t8e patriarc8a#Biterpretatio o1 Is#a4ic teac8i7 t8rou78
t8e RurDa $8o#/ boo6*@ hadith$sa/i7s o1 Mu8a44a!* a! sharia $#a,*
to,ar!s t8e creatio o1 a 4ore eAua# a! :ust societ/. Mus#i4 4a:orit/
coutries 8ave pro!uce! severa# 1e4a#e 8ea! o1 states a! pri4e
4iisters: 5eaEir 58utto o1 +a6ista@ Ma4e Ma!ior 5o/e o1 See7a#@
Tasu Ci##er o1 Tur6e/@ "aAus8a >as8ari o1 "usovo@ a! Me7a,ati
Su6aro +utri o1 I!oesia. 5a7#a!es8 ,as t8e seco! coutr/ i t8e
,or#! $a1ter Mar/ a! E#iEabet8 I i '-t8 cetur/ E7#a!* to 8ave oe
1e4a#e 8ea! o1 state 1o##o, aot8er@ t8ose t,o bei7 "8a#e!a
Sia a! S8ei68 3asia.
Ot8er essetia# 1acts $.ORLD.IDE FEMINISM*
'. Seeca Fa##s@ Ne, =or6@ ,as t8e #ocatio o1 E#iEabet8 Ca!/ StatoGs
');) speec8@ KA Dec#aratio o1 t8e Ri78ts o1 .o4e@L ,8ic8 ca##e!
1or 1u## po#itica# a! socia# ri78ts 1or ,o4e.
(. Mar7aret Sa7er be7a a!vocati7 1or ,o4eGs repro!uctive ri78ts i
'0'( a! is t8e 1ou!er o1 ,8at is o, 6o, as +#ae! +aret8oo!.
9. T8e Natioa# Or7aiEatio 1or .o4e $NO.* ,as 1or4e! i '0-- a!
is t8e #ar7est 1e4iist or7aiEatio i t8e 2ite! States. 5ett/
Frie!a ,as its 1irst presi!et.
;. I t8e 2ite! States@ 1e4iists 8e#pe! pus8 t8rou78 Tit#e IT
#e7is#atio i '0&(@ ,8ic8 7ave /ou7 1e4a#e at8#etes t8e sa4e
opportuities a! access to 1u!i7 as t8eir 4a#e couterparts.
5. Fe4iists sti## 8ope to pass t8e EAua# Ri78ts A4e!4et $ERA*@ ,8ic8
,ou#! 7uaratee protectio u!er t8e #a,. T8e ERA 8as bee be1ore
ever/ sessio o1 t8e 2.S. Co7ress sice '0)( but 8as /et to pass.
(.- 3/pot8esis >usti1ie!
T8e 1ace o1 I!oesia 1e4iis4 is !isti7uis8e! b/ its persistece i
overco4i7 see4i7#/ isur4outab#e 8istorica# c8a##e7es. A#t8ou78
t8ese c8a##e7es@ ,8et8er i t8e 7uise o1 co#oia#is4@ aut8oritariais4
or patriarc8a# va#ues@ 8ave o1te restricte! t8e 1ree e?pressio o1 a
aut8etic ,o4eGs voice@ t8e/ 8ave si4u#taeous#/ serve! to cr/sta##iEe
I!oesia 1e4iis4 ito a 1or4i!ab#e po#itica# 1orce. Moreover@ its
8/bri! 1or4 t8at icorporates ,o4e 1ro4 opposite po#arities o1 t8e
po#itica# spectru4@ ,8i#e so4eti4es eco4passi7 !iver7et vie,s@
evert8e#ess serves as a prospective 4o!e# o1 t8e I!oesia atioa#
4otto Kuit/ i !iversit/L. T8e recet c8a##e7es co1roti7 Is#a4ic
1e4iists@ 7ive t8e curret asce!ac/ o1 po#itica# Is#a4@ 4a/ prove to
be t8e 4ost serious tria# t8e/ 8ave /et ecoutere!. It 4a/ ver/ ,e##
reAuire t8e passa7e o1 ti4e a! t8e 7ra!ua# resur7ece o1 a
!epo#iticiEe! Is#a4@ oe t8at is cote?tua# to I!oesia rat8er t8a
Mi!!#e Easter cu#ture@ 1or t8e #o1t/ 7oa#s o1 I!oesiaGs 1e4iists to be
rea#iEe!.
3. CRITICAL NOTE
9.' 3/pot8esis :usti1icatio
Represetatio o1 .o4e i t8e Le7is#atures $D+R@ M+R@ D+D*
I a!!itio to t8e '0;5 costitutio a! its a4e!4ets $co4p#ete!
i (%%(*@ t8e po#ic/ basis 1or t8e 1uctioi7 o1 t8e 7over4et ,as
!eter4ie! b/ t8e e#aboratio o1 t8e '0;5 costitutio t8at 8a! bee
!eve#ope! b/ t8e M+R i t8e GarisBGaris 5esar 3a#ua Ne7ara $G53N@
5roa! Gui!e#ies o1 State +o#ic/*. Fro4 '00)@ t8ese 7ui!e#ies cotaie!
provisios re7ar!i7 t8e ro#e o1 ,o4e@ a! t8ere 8as i a!!itio bee a
:uior Miistr/ 1or .o4eGs A11airs $#atter#/ 1or .o4eGs
E4po,er4et*. I t8e '000 5roa! Gui!e#ies@ it ,as !ec#are! t8at t8e
e4po,er4et o1 ,o4e ,ou#! be co!ucte! t8rou78 a t,o1o#!
strate7/. First@ i4prove4ets ,ou#! be 4a!e i t8e positio a! ro#e o1
,o4e i t8e atio a! state@ t8rou78 atioa# po#icies 1or4u#ate! a!
i4p#e4ete! b/ istitutios resposib#e 1or 7e!er eAua#it/ a! :ustice.
Seco!@ i4prove4ets ,ou#! be 4a!e i t8e Aua#it/@ ro#e a!
i!epe!ece o1 ,o4eGs or7aiEatios@ i cotiui7 e11orts to
e4po,er ,o4e a! sa1e7uar! t8e prosperit/ a! ,e##Bbei7 o1 t8e
1a4i#/ a! societ/. T8ese 7ui!e#ies app#ie! to a## state a7ecies@
ic#u!i7 t8e e?ecutive $t8e presi!et*@ t8e :u!iciar/ $t8e Supre4e
Court*@ t8e #e7is#ature $D+R<M+R* a! t8e state au!it a7ec/ $5a!a
+e4eri6sa "eua7a@ 5+"*. 2!er t8e a4e!e! costitutio@ t8e 5roa!
Gui!e#ies o #o7er e?ist: t8e/ 8ave bee rep#ace! b/ t8e presi!etGs
visio a! 4issio.
It is ot@ 8o,ever@ t8e provisios o1 #e7is#atio t8at 8i!er ,o4eGs
access to #e7is#atures. I rea#it/@ t8e represetatio o1 ,o4e i
#e7is#ative bo!ies at bot8 t8e atioa# #eve# a! t8e provicia# a!
!istrict #eve#s $i t8e re7ioa# a! District +eop#eGs Represetative
Asse4b#ies $D+RDs** is sti## re#ative#/ #o,. I '000@ appro?i4ate#/ -
percet o1 t8e 4e4bers o1 provicia# D+RDs a! 1e,er t8a 5 percet o1
t8e 4e4bers o1 !istrict D+RDs ,ere ,o4e. Accurate 1i7ures 1or t8e
u4ber o1 ,o4e 4e4bers o1 D+RDs are sti## ot avai#ab#e a1ter t8e
(%%; e#ectiosU,8ic8 spea6s 1or itse#1.

I t8e (%%; e#ectio@ t8e u4ber o1 ,o4e i t8e #e7is#ature
icrease! b/ (.5 percet i co4pariso ,it8 t8e e#ectio o1 '000
A#t8ou78 t8ere is a icrease i t8e u4ber o1 ,o4e
represetatives@ t8ere is sti## a te!ec/ 1or ,o4e to 8o#! posts t8at
are tra!itioa##/ see as Fso1tG $i.e. re#ati7 to ,o4eGs issues*@ so t8at
t8e !istributio o1 1e4a#e 4e4bers i t8e co44issios o1 t8e atioa#
#e7is#ature re1#ects tra!itioa# patters 1or !ivi!i7 resposibi#ities
bet,ee 4e a! ,o4e. T8e 8i78est perceta7e o1 ,o4e 4e4bers
is 1ou! i Co44issio VIII $re#i7io@ socia#@ e4po,er4et o1 ,o4e*@
1o##o,e! b/ Co44issio T $e!ucatio@ /out8@ sport@ touris4@ art a!
cu#ture*@ as s8o, i tab#e -. .o4eGs represetatio is re#ative#/ #o,
i Fpresti7eG co44issios ,8ic8 !ea# ,it8 ecoo4ics@ povert/ a!
po#itics@ ,8ic8 are si7i1icat i !eter4ii7 e?ecutive pro7ra44es a!
bu!7et.
.8i#e t8e a4e!e! '0;5 costitutio states t8at Fa## citiEes are
eAua# be1ore t8e #a,G a! t8at t8e F7over4et 7uaratees 1ree!o4 o1
uio a! associatio@ a! to e?press opiios bot8 ora##/ a! ,riti7G@
evert8e#ess t8e #o, represetatio o1 ,o4e i po#itics persists. It is
roote! i a patriarc8a# cu#ture. I spite o1 positive actio 4easures@
suc8 as t8e Auota 1or ,o4e represetatives@ ,o4e are sti## 1aci7
various obstac#es i ac8ievi7 eAua#it/ ,it8 4e i a## aspects o1 #i1e.
A#t8ou78 t8ere is a icrease i t8e u4ber o1 ,o4e
represetatives@ t8ere is sti## a te!ec/ 1or ,o4e to 8o#! posts t8at
are tra!itioa##/ see as Fso1tG $i.e. re#ati7 to ,o4eGs issues*@ so t8at
t8e !istributio o1 1e4a#e 4e4bers i t8e co44issios o1 t8e atioa#
#e7is#ature re1#ects tra!itioa# patters 1or !ivi!i7 resposibi#ities
bet,ee 4e a! ,o4e. T8e 8i78est perceta7e o1 ,o4e 4e4bers
is 1ou! i Co44issio VIII $re#i7io@ socia#@ e4po,er4et o1 ,o4e*@
1o##o,e! b/ Co44issio T $e!ucatio@ /out8@ sport@ touris4@ art a!
cu#ture*@ as s8o, i tab#e . .o4eGs represetatio is re#ative#/ #o, i
Fpresti7eG co44issios ,8ic8 !ea# ,it8 ecoo4ics@ povert/ a! po#itics@
,8ic8 are si7i1icat i !eter4ii7 e?ecutive pro7ra44es a! bu!7et.
.8i#e t8e a4e!e! '0;5 costitutio states t8at Fa## citiEes are
eAua# be1ore t8e #a,G a! t8at t8e F7over4et 7uaratees 1ree!o4 o1
uio a! associatio@ a! to e?press opiios bot8 ora##/ a! ,riti7G@
evert8e#ess t8e #o, represetatio o1 ,o4e i po#itics persists. It is
roote! i a patriarc8a# cu#ture. I spite o1 positive actio 4easures@
suc8 as t8e Auota 1or ,o4e represetatives@ ,o4e are sti## 1aci7
various obstac#es i ac8ievi7 eAua#it/ ,it8 4e i a## aspects o1 #i1e.
Obstac#es +reveti7 .o4e 1ro4 5eco4i7 Me4bers o1 +ar#ia4et
T8ere are severa# 1actors i1#ueci7 t8e patters o1 t8e recruit4et o1 4e
a! ,o4e as #e7is#ators.T8e/ ic#u!e t8e 1o##o,i7 :
V T8e cu#tura# cote?t i I!oesia is sti## 8eavi#/ patriarc8a#. T8e co44o
perceptio is t8at t8e po#itica# area is 1or 4e@ a! t8at it is #ess
pre1erab#e 1or ,o4e to beco4e 4e4bers o1 par#ia4et.
V T8e se#ectio o1 ca!i!ates b/ po#itica# parties is usua##/ !oe b/ a s4a##
7roup o1 o11icia#s or part/ #ea!ers@ a#4ost a#,a/s 4e. I I!oesia
a,areess o1 7e!er eAua#it/ a! :ustice issues is sti## #o,. Ma#e po#itica#
#ea!ers 8ave a !isproportioate i1#uece over part/ po#itics a! ,o4e !o
ot receive 4uc8 support.
T8e 4e!ia 8ave /et to e11ective#/ 4obi#iEe t8e pub#ic re7ar!i7 t8e
i4portace o1 ,o4eGs represetatio i par#ia4et.
V Despite t8e e?istece o1 ,o4eGs or7aiEatios 1i78ti7 1or t8e 7oa# o1
icrease! represetatio o1 ,o4e $sice '000*@ t8ere is #itt#e e11ective
et,or6i7 a4o7 t8ese or7aiEatios@ NGOs a! po#itica# parties to,ar!s
t8is co44o 7oa#.
V +overt/ a! t8e #o, #eve#s o1 e!ucatio o1 ,o4e 4a6e it !i11icu#t to
recruit ,o4e ,8o 8ave t8e po#itica# capabi#ities t8at ,ou#! a##o, t8e4 to
co4pete o a eAua# basis ,it8 4e. T8e sta!ar! 1or Aua#i1icatio set b/
t8e (%%9 e#ectora# #a, a##o,s ca!i!ates ,it8 at #east a seior 8i78 sc8oo#
!e7ree to co4pete i e#ectios. T8e ,o4e ,8o 8ave t8e po#itica# abi#ities
reAuire! te! to e7a7e i a!vocac/ or c8oose oBpartisa ro#es.
V .o4e ,it8 1a4i#ies o1te e?periece obstac#es@ i particu#ar oppositio
1ro4 t8eir spouses.
V +o#itica# activities usua##/ reAuire #ar7e ivest4ets o1 ti4e a! 4oe/@
a! 4a/ ,o4e 8o#! positios t8at are ot re,ar!i7 1iacia##/.
V T8e #ar7e u4ber o1 po#itica# parties cotesti7 e#ectios a! ,ii7
seats i par#ia4et ca a11ect t8e #eve# o1 represetatio o1 ,o4e. As
po#itica# parties receive a #i4ite! u4ber o1 seats i t8e #e7is#ature@ t8ese
te! to be !ivi!e! a4o7 4a#e ca!i!ates ,8o te! to be ra6e! at t8e top
o1 t8e part/ e#ectio #ist.
Strate7ies to Icrease t8e Represetatio o1 .o4e
First a! 1ore4ost@ t8e #i6s bet,ee ,o4eGs et,or6s a!
or7aiEatios 4ust be supporte! a! stre7t8ee!. T8ere are curret#/
severa# 4a:or associatios o1 ,o4eGs or7aiEatios. For e?a4p#e@ t8e
"o7res .aita I!oesia $"O.ANI@ Natioa# Couci# o1 .o4eGs
Or7aiEatios o1 I!oesia* is a 1e!eratio o1 &) ,o4eGs or7aiEatios
,8ic8 cooperates ,it8 ,o4e 1ro4 a ra7e o1 !i11eret re#i7ios@
et8icities a! pro1essioa# or7aiEatios. T8e 5MOI.I $Fe!eratio o1
I!oesia Mus#i4 .o4e Or7aiEatios* is a 1e!eratio o1 appro?i4ate#/
() Mus#i4 ,o4eGs or7aiEatios. T8e Ceter 1or t8e +o#itica#
E4po,er4et o1 .o4e is a et,or6 o1 or7aiEatios t8at cuts across
part/@ re#i7ious a! pro1essioa# #ies a! ic#u!es appro?i4ate#/ (-
or7aiEatios. A## t8ese et,or6s 8ave si7i1icat potetia# to support
icrease! represetatio o1 ,o4e i par#ia4et@ bot8 i Auatitative a!
Aua#itative ter4s@ i1 t8e/ a! t8eir 4e4ber or7aiEatios ,or6 to7et8er to
s/er7iEe t8eir e11orts.
Furt8er strate7ies ic#u!e:
V Icreasi7 t8e represetatio o1 ,o4e i po#itica# parties b/ itro!uci7
a Auota s/ste4 ,it8i po#itica# parties a! esuri7 t8e accessio o1 ,o4e
to strate7ic !ecisioB4a6i7 positiosJ
V Co!ucti7 a!vocac/ ,it8 t8e #ea!ers o1 po#itica# parties to e8ace
a,areess o1 t8e ee!s o1 a si7i1icat voti7 b#oc6J
V E8aci7 ,o4eGs access to t8e 4e!ia as a too# to ra##/ pub#ic opiioJ
V E4po,eri7 ,o4e t8rou78 e!ucatio@ traii7 a! icrease! access to
i1or4atioJ a!
V Itro!uci7 a 1or4a# Auota ,it8 e1orce4et 4ec8ais4s to icrease t8e
u4ber o1 ,o4e 4e4bers o1 t8e #e7is#ature
3.2 The Limitation o the Fie!" o Re#ea$%h
T8e 1act t8at ,o4e are so u!erBrepresete! 4a6es t8is 1ie#! o1
researc8 to be a biase! researc8. T8e 1act t8at over t8ese /ears@ ,o4e
#ea!ers are see 4ore success1u# t8a 4e is ver/ 4uc8 a biase! poit
because o#/ a 8a!1u# o1 ,o4e are etruste!J 8ece t8e 1i7ure is too
#itt#e to be cosi!ere! a actua#it/.
.o4e out,ei78 4e i ,or#! popu#atio b/ a ver/ #ar7e (.5:' ratio.
Oe ca coc#u!e t8at ,o4e are 4ore i abu!ace@ a! t8at t8e #ac6
o1 represetatio ca be attribute! to t8eir #o, Aua#it/ o1 #ivi7
sta!ar!s. .8at t8is 4ea is t8at ,o4e are ot as Aua#i1ie! as 4e@
a! t8is prove! to be true i t8e #ast cetur/ ,8ere ,o4e are ot
7ive t8e eAua# sc8o#astic opportuit/ as 4e ,ere. T8ere1ore t8e
4ove4et is sti## cosi!ere! ver/ e, a! va7ue because t8e resu#ts so
1ar 8ave bee ver/ e7#i7et.
As a resu#t@ oe ca o#/ see a 4ore :usti1ie! rate o1 success ,8e
oe sees a 7oo! represetatio o1 ,o4e i t8is area o1 researc8.
&. Con%!'#ion
&.1 En" Note#
Ever/oe is ta6i7 otes about 8o, po,er1u# ,o4e ca be. 5/
po,er1u# 8ere is ot ecessari#/ t8at t8e/ are 4uscu#ar ,o4e t8at ca
beat 4e i p8/sica# stress. It is u!oubte!#/ true t8at ,o4e a#so p#a/
a bi7 part i societ/@ a! ,8/ a ,o4a caGt be 4ore represete! i a
societ/I .o4e strive to be 4ore reco7iEe! ot o#/ as a 7oo! 4ot8er
to t8eir 6i!s@ but a#so to be a 7reat perso t8at ca i4pact t8e ,or#!.
T8e 1act t8at t8e/ are ot 7ive t8e sa4e opportuit/ because 8istor/
a#,a/s te!s to be represete! b/ 4a#e 1i7ures #e! to t8is 1e4iistic
4ove4et.
T8e 1e4iistic 4ove4et 8as brou78t a 7reater sese o1 ur7ec/ 1or
,o4e to be 4ore success1u# i t8eir areas o1 1ie#!. More ,o4e start
to ,or6 8ar!er to be ab#e to 7et reco7iEe!@ a! i tur@ t8e rea#it/ is
t8at ,o4e are starti7 to 7et reco7iEe! b/ t8eir 8ar! ,or6. T8e/ are
a stro7 1i7ure t8at t8e/ are ver/ !eter4ie! to be a 4ore active
ca!i!ate to 8e#p t8eir surrou!i7s. I t8e ear#/ '0%%s@ ,o4e ri78ts
4ove4ets are 4ore o1 a aarc8ist 4ove4et@ c#ai4i7 ri78ts a!
eAua#it/ 1or a##. 3o,ever@ as ti4e passes@ ,o4e start to rea#iEe t8at a##
t8ose 4ove4ets prove ,ort8#ess i1 t8e/ !o ot prove t8e4se#ves to be
co4petet peop#e. I or!er 1or so4eoe to be treate! as eAua##/@ oe
8as to ,or6 :ust as 8ar! as t8e bec84ar6 poit@ t8is is c#ear#/
reco7iEe! b/ ,o4e.
So 1ar@ ,o4e are 4ore represete! i various atios@ a! t8e/ are
a#so ac6o,#e!7e! 1or t8eir 8ar! ,or6 i various po#itica# 4ove4ets.
T8is is 7reat e,s 1or ,o4e because 1or t8e 1irst ti4e i !eca!es@
,o4e are truste! ito t8is positio@ a! so 1ar t8e/ 8ave ot bee
!isappoiti7. A#t8ou78 t8e 1i7ures o1 ,o4e are sti## see as 4iiscu#e@
t8ese 8a!1u#s o1 ,o4e prove t8at t8e/ are :ust as capab#e to #ea! a
atio as 4e. Fro4 ,8at is see a! e?pecte!@ ,o4e s8ou#! be 4ore
represete! i t8e po#itica# a! par#ia4etar/ 1ie#!s 4ore i t8e co4i7
/ears.
T8e 4ost i4portat 4ove4et o1 a 1e4iist 7roup is t8e reco7itio
t8at t8e/ ee! to up7ra!e t8e4se#ves. A#t8ou78 8ar! ,or6 is a#so a
stro7 poit o1 success@ ,o4e start to cosi!er t8e virtue o1 e!ucatio
a! cre!etia#s. 3ece oe sees o,a!a/s t8at ,o4e are starti7 to
1i## up 2iversit/ c#asses i or!er 1or t8e4 to be co4petet i t8eir
areas o1 1ie#!. T8e 1act t8at ,o4e ,ats to be co4petet t8rou78
e!ucatio bri7s 1or trust i t8e 1act t8at t8e/ ca be :ust@ or 4ore t8a
capab#e o1 t8eir ot8er 7e!er parts. .o4e rea#iEe t8at oe !a/ t8e
se?ua# pre1erece ,ou#! be a 4ere 8istor/ a! t8at t8e/ ,i## be
represete! 4ore i t8e popu#atio ot because o1 t8e4 outu4beri7
t8eir 4a#e couterparts b/ (.5 to '@ but 4ore because o1 t8eir
cre!etia#s@ !eter4iatio a! 8ar! ,or6. .o4e ca be positive about
t8e icreasi7 rate o1 t8eir represetatio i various pro1essioa# 1ie#!s
1or t8e /ears to co4e.
&.2 S'((e#tion# o$ Ne)t Re#ea$%he$# in the Same Fie!"
T8is is c#ear#/ a iteresti7 topic to !ebate@ because t8e 1act t8at
t8e !ata is ver/ #itt#e@ a! t8at t8e 4ove4et o#/ starts ver/ recet#/.
T8e ever i4portat 1act o1 1e4iistic 1ie#!s is 7oi7 to be 4ore
pro4iet i t8e /ears to co4e@ as oe ,i## see 4ore eAua#it/ o1
7e!er@ a! 8ece t8e !ata ,i## be 4ore accurate. As o1 o,@ t8e !ata
sti## proves ver/ icoc#usive o1 ,8et8er 1e4a#e ,i## be a better #ea!er
t8a 4a#e@ but t8e 1act sti## re4ais: ,o4e ee! to be 7ive t8e sa4e
opportuit/ as 4e. T8ere1ore@ t8e !ata above 4a/ o#/ be correcte!
,it8 ti4e.
Oe su77estio t8at ca be propose! 8ere is to cosi!er t8e
perceptio o1 4e i a societ/@ ,8/ ,o4e are a#,a/s treate! to be t8e
#o,erBec8e#o o1 t8e 7roup. T8e@ oe ca 8ear 4eGs su77estios to
icrease t8e !e7ree o1 respect a societ/ 8as 1or ,o4e. A#so #oo6 ito
t8e 1ai#ures o1 ,o4e $a#t8ou78 t8is is sti## ver/ rare ,it8 ver/ #itt#e
!ata*@ a! #oo6 ito t8e ,ea6esses o1 ,o4e as #ea!ers.
&. BIBLIO*RAPHY
'. Se6retariat Ne7ara Repub#i6 I!oesia $o#ie*@ accesse! o October
(%'' avai#ab#e at:
8ttp:<<,,,.sete7.7o.i!<i!e?.p8pI
optioWco4XcotetMtas6Wvie,Mi!W((-%MIte4i!W('0
(. "ED2D2"AN +EREM+2AN DI 5IDANG +OLITI" $o#ie*@ accesse! o
Nove4ber (%'' avai#ab#e at:
8ttp:<<4utia68aris4a.b#o7spot.co4<(%'%<''<6e!u!u6aB
pere4puaB!iBbi!a7Bpo#iti6.8t4#
9. Fe4iis4e 2tu6 I!oesia $o#ie*@ accesse! o Nove4ber (%''
avai#ab#e at:
8ttp:<<!a1i!1.b#o7spot.co4<(%''<%5<1e4iis4eButu6B
i!oesia.8t4#
;. Fe4iis4e $o#ie*@ accesse! o Nove4ber (%'' avai#ab#e at:
8ttp:<<sab!a.or7<arti6e#<1e4iis4e
5. Fe4iis4 $o#ie*@ accesse! o Nove4ber (%'' avai#ab#e at:
8ttp:<<c8eri6a.,or!press.co4<ta7<1e4iis4<
-. "esetaraa !a#a4 po#iti6 $o#ie*@ accesse! o Nove4ber (%''
avai#ab#e at:
8ttp:<<,,,.berpo#iti6.co4<static<4/posti7<(%%)<%9<4/posti7X''
'&0.8t4#
7. 2iAue Face o1 I!oesia Fe4iis4 accesse! o Nove4ber (%''
avai#ab#e at:
8ttp:<<u,a.aca!e4ia.e!u<Mos8e=e8u!a5erstei<+apers<9);)(-<T8
eX2iAueXFaceXo1XI!oesiaXFe4iis4
). Fe4iist T8eor/Ba overvie, accesse! at Nove4ber (%'' avai#ab#e
at:
8ttp:<<,,,.victoria,eb.or7<7e!er<1e4t8eor/.8t4#
0. +o#iti6 I!oesia accesse! at Nove4ber (%'' avai#ab#e at:
8ttp:<<,arta1e4iis.,or!press.co4<cate7or/<po#iti6Bi!oesia<
LA+PIRAN
,CO++ENTS AND -UESTIONS.
Co44ets:
'. At t8e ti4e o1 presetatio@ !iscussio o1 our 7roup is too broa! or
ot speci1ic
(. At presetatio@ t8e 8/pot8esis o1 our 7roup is ot p#ace! o a s#i!e
Ruestios:
'. Fro4 Mic8ae# A $ Group '* :
a. 3o, 4uc8 t8e e4acipatio o1 ,o4e 8e#!I
As,er: E4acipatio o1 ,o4e 8as bee co!ucte! proper#/.
because ,o4e to!a/ are ot oppresse! a! 8ave t8eir 1ree!o4.
No,a!a/s@ ,o4e are ab#e to 7et 8i78 e!ucatio a! it is proo1 o1
t8e e4acipatio o1 ,o4e are a#rea!/ ,e## u!er,a/
b. .8at !o /ou t8i6 about state4et KDiba#i6 +ria Su6ses@ Ter!apat
.aita Ta77u8L I
As,er: I our opiio@ t8e state4et is true. positio o1 ,o4e
a! 4e are eAua#@ t8ere1ore ,e be#ieve i 4arria7e ,8e a
8usba! a! ,i1e respect eac8 ot8er ature ,i## be ac8ieve! as
t8at state4et sa/s.
(. Fro4 3arr/ S $Group 5* :
a. .8at 1actor are a11ect 1e4iis4I
As,er: +o#itica# socia#iEatio@ po#itica# e!ucatio a! po#itica#
recruit4et.
b. .8ic8 1actors are i1#uece t8e #ac6 o1 7reater participatio o1
,o4e i 7over4etI
As,er: +o#itica# e!ucatio.
c. 3o, 8u4a ri78ts a11ect o1 1e4iis4I
As,er: 3u4a ri78ts is oe o1 ecoura7e4et 1or ,o4e to !o
t8e 1e4iist 4ove4et. 5ecause t8e ,o4e !e4a!e! t8e ri78t o1
1ree!o4 to per1or4 t8eir ri78ts.
9. Fro4 Davi! + $Group '* :
a. .8at !o /ou t8i6 about specia# treat4et 1or ,o4e i societ/I
As,er: About specia# treat4et 1or ,o4e@ our opiio is t8at it
ca 1aci#itate ,o4e i carr/i7 out 8is !uties. 5ecause ,e 6o,
t8at ,o4e so4eti4es 8ave t,o :obs as a 8ouse,i1e a! as a
,or6er.
b. Specia# treat4et suc8 as #a!ies par6i7@ !o /ou t8i6 it is ,ort8 to
be 4aitaie!I
As,er: It is ,ort8@ t8e reaso is sa4e as as,er o1 Auestio b.
;. Fro4 Rut8 D $Group ;* :
a. .8at is /our basic reasos ,o4e s8ou#! be 8oore!I
As,er: Fro4 #o7 a7o ,e 6o, t8at t8ere are 1i7urative C8eave
u!er 4ot8ers 1eetC. Mot8er is a ,o4a. So@ it is ature i1 ,e
t8i6 t8at ,o4a s8ou#! be 8oore!.
b. .8at is /our cocept o1 1e4iis4I
As,er: Fe4iis4 Ra!ica#
5. Fro4 Iva S $Group ;* :
a. .8/ 4e are cosi!ere! 4ore po,er1u# t8a ,o4e sice 1irst
ti4eI
As,er: T8e/ be#ieve t8at patriarc8/ is se?ist po,er s/ste4@ ,8ic8
cosi!ers 4e 8ave superiorit/ over ,o4e. .ea6ess i t8e 1ace
o1 4a#es is !ue to its p8/sica# bio#o7ica# structure@ i ,8ic8 ,o4e
8ave e?periece! 4estruatio@ 4eopause@ pre7ac/@ 4estrua#
pai a! c8i#!birt8@ breast1ee!i7@ pareti7@ a! so o. A## o1 t8at
4a6es ,o4e !epe!et o 4e. Di11erece o1 repro!uctive
1uctio is ,8at causes ,8/ 4e are cosi!ere! 4ore p8/sica##/
po,er1u# sice t8e 1irst ti4e.
-. Fro4 Au!re/ 5 $Group '* :
a. .8at is /our opiio about .o4e a! Se?ua#it/I
As,er: .e !oGt a7ree. 5ecause o1 a## t8is peop#e@ especia##/ t8e
,o4e a#,a/s t8i6 o1 1e4iis4 or a 1e4iist s8ou#! be
i!epe!et i t8e sese o1 1reeBat #ar7e@ a! brea6 a,a/ 1ro4
4e. I a arro, sese t8e/ #e7a#iEe #esbia $re#atios8ip a4o7
,o4e* a! t8i6 t8at 4a !oes ot ee! to e?ist. Or i ter4s o1
t8eir art to e?press 1e4iis4 as a 4ove4et a7aist t8e se?ua#
e?p#oitatio o1 ,o4e@ but istea! te! to revea# t8e e?p#oitatio
o1 ,8ic8 see4e! eve see 8o, #o, t8e !i7it/ o1 ,o4e.