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The Isomorphism Theorems: M.Chi S
The Isomorphism Theorems: M.Chi S
Corollary
If f : (G , ·) −→ (T , ·) is a group homomorphism, then
G /Ker (f ) ∼
= Im(f ) .
Corollary
If f : (G , ·) −→ (T , ·) is a group homomorphism, then
G /Ker (f ) ∼
= Im(f ) .
Proposition
(The second isomorphism theorem)
Let (G , ·) be a group, H ≤ G and N E G . Then H ∩ N E H and
H/(H ∩ N) ∼
= HN/N .
Proposition
(The second isomorphism theorem)
Let (G , ·) be a group, H ≤ G and N E G . Then H ∩ N E H and
H/(H ∩ N) ∼
= HN/N .
Proposition
(The third isomorphism theorem)
Let (G , ·) be a group and K , N E G , with K ⊆ N. Then N/K E G /K and
(G /K )/(N/K ) ∼
= G /N .
Proposition
(The second isomorphism theorem)
Let (G , ·) be a group, H ≤ G and N E G . Then H ∩ N E H and
H/(H ∩ N) ∼
= HN/N .
Proposition
(The third isomorphism theorem)
Let (G , ·) be a group and K , N E G , with K ⊆ N. Then N/K E G /K and
(G /K )/(N/K ) ∼
= G /N .
Proposition
Let (Z, +) be the additive group of the integers, and H ≤ Z. Then there
is a nonnegative integer n ∈ N such that H = nZ.
Remark
Let n ∈ N∗ be a positive integer. Then the binary relations on Z of
congruence modulo n, respectively modulo the subgroup nZ, coincide:
Proposition
Let (Z, +) be the additive group of the integers, and H ≤ Z. Then there
is a nonnegative integer n ∈ N such that H = nZ.
Remark
Let n ∈ N∗ be a positive integer. Then the binary relations on Z of
congruence modulo n, respectively modulo the subgroup nZ, coincide:
Proposition
Let (G , ·) be a finite cyclic group, of order |G | = n.
Proposition
Let (G , ·) be a finite cyclic group, of order |G | = n.
1) If H ≤ G , then there is a positive integer d ∈ N∗ , with d|n, such that
H∼ = db · Zn .
Proposition
Let (G , ·) be a finite cyclic group, of order |G | = n.
1) If H ≤ G , then there is a positive integer d ∈ N∗ , with d|n, such that
H∼ = db · Zn .
2) For any divisor d ∈ N∗ of the order n of the group, G has a unique
subgroup of order d.
Proposition
Let (G , ·) be a finite cyclic group, of order |G | = n.
1) If H ≤ G , then there is a positive integer d ∈ N∗ , with d|n, such that
H∼ = db · Zn .
2) For any divisor d ∈ N∗ of the order n of the group, G has a unique
subgroup of order d.
3) The number of elements a ∈ G such that G = hai is (n)ϕ , where ϕ is
Euler’s function(given by (n)ϕ =the number of nonnegative integers k,
with 0 ≤ k ≤ n − 1, such that (k, n) = 1).
Proposition
Let (G , ·) be a finite cyclic group, of order |G | = n.
1) If H ≤ G , then there is a positive integer d ∈ N∗ , with d|n, such that
H∼ = db · Zn .
2) For any divisor d ∈ N∗ of the order n of the group, G has a unique
subgroup of order d.
3) The number of elements a ∈ G such that G = hai is (n)ϕ , where ϕ is
Euler’s function(given by (n)ϕ =the number of nonnegative integers k,
P0 ≤ k ≤ n − 1, such that (k, n) = 1).
with
4) (d)ϕ = n.
d|n
Proposition
Let (G , ·) be a finite cyclic group, of order |G | = n.
1) If H ≤ G , then there is a positive integer d ∈ N∗ , with d|n, such that
H∼ = db · Zn .
2) For any divisor d ∈ N∗ of the order n of the group, G has a unique
subgroup of order d.
3) The number of elements a ∈ G such that G = hai is (n)ϕ , where ϕ is
Euler’s function(given by (n)ϕ =the number of nonnegative integers k,
P0 ≤ k ≤ n − 1, such that (k, n) = 1).
with
4) (d)ϕ = n.
d|n
Direct products
Direct products
Definition
Let (G , ·) be a group and H, K E G . G is called the internal direct
product of its normal subgroups H and K , if G = HK and H ∩ K = 1.
Direct products
Definition
Let (G , ·) be a group and H, K E G . G is called the internal direct
product of its normal subgroups H and K , if G = HK and H ∩ K = 1.
Proposition
If (G , ·) is the direct product of its normal subgroups H and K , then
hk = kh, (∀)h ∈ H, k ∈ K and for any g ∈ G there are unique elements
h ∈ H and k ∈ K such that g = hk.
Direct products
Definition
Let (G , ·) be a group and H, K E G . G is called the internal direct
product of its normal subgroups H and K , if G = HK and H ∩ K = 1.
Proposition
If (G , ·) is the direct product of its normal subgroups H and K , then
hk = kh, (∀)h ∈ H, k ∈ K and for any g ∈ G there are unique elements
h ∈ H and k ∈ K such that g = hk.
Proposition
Let (H, ·) and (K , ·) be two groups. Then the binary operation defined on
the cartesian product H × K by
Proposition
Let (H, ·) and (K , ·) be two groups. Then the binary operation defined on
the cartesian product H × K by
Definition
Let (H, ·) and (K , ·) be two groups. The group defined in the previous
proposition is called the external direct product of the groups H and K .
M.Chiş () Lecture 5 3.XI.2008 8 / 26
Remark
If (G , ·) is the direct product of its normal subgroups H and K , and
g1 = h1 k1 , g2 = h2 = k2 , with h1 , h2 ∈ H, k1 , k2 ∈ K , then
Proposition
Let (H, ·) and (K , ·) be two groups. Then the binary operation defined on
the cartesian product H × K by
Definition
Let (H, ·) and (K , ·) be two groups. The group defined in the previous
proposition is called the external direct product of the groups H and K .
M.Chiş () Lecture 5 3.XI.2008 8 / 26
Proposition
Let (H × K , ·) be the external direct product of the groups (H, ·) and
(K , ·), and H,
b Kb ⊆ H × K the subsets of the cartesian product H × K
defined by
b := H × {1K } = {(h, 1K )| h ∈ H} ,
H
b := {1H } × K = {(1H , k)| k ∈ K } .
K
Then H,
b Kb E H × K, H ∼ b K∼
= H, =Kb, H × K = H
bK b ∩K
b and H b = 1.
Remark
According to the previous proposition, the external direct product
H × K is the internal direct product of the isomorphic copies H b and Kb
of the groups H and K . Consequently, we can identify the notions of
internal and external direct product. If a group (G , ·) is the internal
direct product of its subgroups H, K E G , we write G = H × K and we
shall simply call G the direct product of H and K .
Then H,
b Kb E H × K, H ∼ b K∼
= H, =Kb, H × K = H
bK b ∩K
b and H b = 1.
Remark
According to the previous proposition, the external direct product
H × K is the internal direct product of the isomorphic copies H b and Kb
of the groups H and K . Consequently, we can identify the notions of
internal and external direct product. If a group (G , ·) is the internal
direct product of its subgroups H, K E G , we write G = H × K and we
shall simply call G the direct product of H and K .
G = H 1 H2 . . . Hn ,
(H1 H2 . . . Hi−1 ) ∩ Hi = 1, (∀)i = 2, n .
G = H 1 H2 . . . Hn ,
(H1 H2 . . . Hi−1 ) ∩ Hi = 1, (∀)i = 2, n .
Remark
1) If the complement H is also normal in G , H is called a direct
complement of K in G and in this case G = H × K is the direct product
of H and K .
Remark
1) If the complement H is also normal in G , H is called a direct
complement of K in G and in this case G = H × K is the direct product
of H and K .
2) If H is a complement of the normal subgroup K in the group G ,
then any element g ∈ G can be uniquely written as g = hk, with h ∈ H
and k ∈ K .
Remark
1) If the complement H is also normal in G , H is called a direct
complement of K in G and in this case G = H × K is the direct product
of H and K .
2) If H is a complement of the normal subgroup K in the group G ,
then any element g ∈ G can be uniquely written as g = hk, with h ∈ H
and k ∈ K .
3) If H is a complement of the normal subgroup K in the group G , and
g1 = h1 k1 , g2 = h2 k2 ∈ G , we have
Remark
1) If the complement H is also normal in G , H is called a direct
complement of K in G and in this case G = H × K is the direct product
of H and K .
2) If H is a complement of the normal subgroup K in the group G ,
then any element g ∈ G can be uniquely written as g = hk, with h ∈ H
and k ∈ K .
3) If H is a complement of the normal subgroup K in the group G , and
g1 = h1 k1 , g2 = h2 k2 ∈ G , we have
Definition
The group defined in the previous proposition is called the semidirect
product of the group H with the group K via the homomorphism ϕ and is
denoted H nϕ K .
Definition
The group defined in the previous proposition is called the semidirect
product of the group H with the group K via the homomorphism ϕ and is
denoted H nϕ K .
b∼
H = H, b ∼
K = K, H
b E H nϕ K , H nϕ K = H
bKb, b ∩K
H b = 1.
Definition
Let (G , ·) be a group and M 6= ∅ a nonempty set. An application
α : G × M −→ M is called a (left) action of G on M if it satisfies the
properties:
Definition
Let (G , ·) be a group and M 6= ∅ a nonempty set. An application
α : G × M −→ M is called a (left) action of G on M if it satisfies the
properties:
Proposition
not
If α : G × M −→ M : (g , m) 7−→ (g , m)α = g · m is an action, the
association relation with respect to the action α is an equivalence relation
on M.
Proposition
not
If α : G × M −→ M : (g , m) 7−→ (g , m)α = g · m is an action, the
association relation with respect to the action α is an equivalence relation
on M.
Remark
The orbit of an element x ∈ M withe respect to an action
α : G × M −→ M is
[x]∼α = {y ∈ M| x ∼α y } = {y ∈ M| (∃)g ∈ G : y = g · x} =
not
= {g · x| g ∈ G } = G · x .
Remark
The orbit of an element x ∈ M withe respect to an action
α : G × M −→ M is
[x]∼α = {y ∈ M| x ∼α y } = {y ∈ M| (∃)g ∈ G : y = g · x} =
not
= {g · x| g ∈ G } = G · x .
StabG (x) := {g ∈ G | g · x = x} .
Proposition
The stabilizer StabG (x) of an element x ∈ M with respect to an action
α : G × M −→ M of a group (G , ·) on a set M is a subgroup of the group
G.
StabG (x) := {g ∈ G | g · x = x} .
Proposition
The stabilizer StabG (x) of an element x ∈ M with respect to an action
α : G × M −→ M of a group (G , ·) on a set M is a subgroup of the group
G.
|G · x| = [G : StabG (x)] .
Corollary
If M is a finite set, and R a representative system of the orbits defined by
the action α : G × M −→ M on M, then
X
|M| = [G : StabG (x)]
x∈R
|G · x| = [G : StabG (x)] .
Corollary
If M is a finite set, and R a representative system of the orbits defined by
the action α : G × M −→ M on M, then
X
|M| = [G : StabG (x)]
x∈R
Remark
For x ∈ M and g ∈ G we have
Remark
For x ∈ M and g ∈ G we have
Sylow’s theorem
Sylow’s theorem
Definition
Let p be a prime. A finite group (G , ·) is called p−group if its ordiner is
an integer power of the prime number p:
(∃)k ∈ N : |G | = p k .
Sylow’s theorem
Definition
Let p be a prime. A finite group (G , ·) is called p−group if its ordiner is
an integer power of the prime number p:
(∃)k ∈ N : |G | = p k .
Sylow’s theorem
Definition
Let p be a prime. A finite group (G , ·) is called p−group if its ordiner is
an integer power of the prime number p:
(∃)k ∈ N : |G | = p k .
Sylow’s theorem
Definition
Let p be a prime. A finite group (G , ·) is called p−group if its ordiner is
an integer power of the prime number p:
(∃)k ∈ N : |G | = p k .
Definition
If the group G is finite and |G | = p k m, with k, m ∈ N, m 6= 0, p 6 |m, a
p−subgroup H of G is called a p−Sylow subgroup of G if |H| = p k . We
denote by Sylp (G ) the set of p−Sylow subgroups of a group G . Also,
we denote k = vp (G ), so that
Sylp (G ) = {H ≤ G | |H| = p vp (G ) } .
Definition
If the group G is finite and |G | = p k m, with k, m ∈ N, m 6= 0, p 6 |m, a
p−subgroup H of G is called a p−Sylow subgroup of G if |H| = p k . We
denote by Sylp (G ) the set of p−Sylow subgroups of a group G . Also,
we denote k = vp (G ), so that
Sylp (G ) = {H ≤ G | |H| = p vp (G ) } .
N(p k ) ≡ 1 (mod p) .
N(p k ) ≡ 1 (mod p) .
N(p k ) ≡ 1 (mod p) .
N(p k ) ≡ 1 (mod p) .
N(p k ) ≡ 1 (mod p) .
Proposition
Let (G , ·) be a finitely generated abelian groups. Then there are
nonnegative integers m, n ∈ N, m ≤ n, and d1 , d2 , . . . , dm ∈ N with d1 ≥ 2
and di |di+1 , (∀)i = 1, m − 1, such that
G∼
= Zd1 × Zd2 × . . . × Zdm × Zn−m .
Proposition
Let (G , ·) be a finitely generated abelian groups. Then there are
nonnegative integers m, n ∈ N, m ≤ n, and d1 , d2 , . . . , dm ∈ N with d1 ≥ 2
and di |di+1 , (∀)i = 1, m − 1, such that
G∼
= Zd1 × Zd2 × . . . × Zdm × Zn−m .
G∼
= Zd1 × Zd2 × . . . × Zdm .
Proposition
Let (G , ·) be a finitely generated abelian groups. Then there are
nonnegative integers m, n ∈ N, m ≤ n, and d1 , d2 , . . . , dm ∈ N with d1 ≥ 2
and di |di+1 , (∀)i = 1, m − 1, such that
G∼
= Zd1 × Zd2 × . . . × Zdm × Zn−m .
G∼
= Zd1 × Zd2 × . . . × Zdm .