:

:
:

:-

: -
) (

: -
: - R

) (

: -
) (

: - ) (
) (

: -

: -

: - ) (

:
:

: -

: - ) - (
-

: -
: -

:-
: -

) (

: -

: - R

) (

" "

" " "

"
" "

-
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( " "
" "
) (
) (
:
" "
" "

2a
3a

2b

1a

) : (
- ( a ) ( b )

( a ) - ( b )
- ) ( a


) (-
) (+
(
) ( )


" "
) (

" "

) (

:
-

) (

) (

:

) (
" "

" " " "

) (

" " ) (

" "

) (

) (

) (

) ( - :
) (

) ( - :
) (

) ( - " " -

) ( -

 :

) (




" "

) (

) ( -
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- ) (

:
:

:
) ( L

-
-
-

) ( a

) ( )

) ( 20


) (Conductivity :
1
Resistivity

=

Conductivity

) ( mho
) (

1
R

= G

or

1
G

= R

G R


) ( -
/

:





-

 -
-

"
/

"

:
) (

R2 - R 1
R 1 t 2 - t1

R2 R1 T2 T1
T1 T2
) ( ) (
) (

)(t 2 - t 1

1+

R2 = R1

20

20

, -

 ( ) :

) (

, / -
) ( ) (

= ,

t1 = 2oc
)(t2 - t1

R2 = 1200 ohm s
R1 = 1000 ohm s
? = t2
1+

)1 + 0.004 (t2 - 20

R 2 = R1

= 1000

1200

= 70 c

t2

( ) :
) (

) ( - ) ( -
) ( -


R2 - R1
R1 t2 - t1

= 0.0032

52 - 20
20 515 - 15

, /




) (

) / (

- /
- /
-

-

- / ) (
- /
-
-

-
-

-
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-
-
-

- ) ( , /
-
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 :
:

:
) ( Thales
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) ( Electron
)

( Gilbert

"
"
) ( Gray

) ( Otto

) (Wall
)( Dufay

) ( + ) ( -

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) ( Faraday

R
L

XL

C
XC

UV

:
" " FPS

 " " CGS

" " MKS

" " MKSA
) ( ISO " " SI
:

) ( SI

) ( SI

Kg

Cd

Mol

:
:

: )

: ) (

) ( ) , (

) (

: - -

) (

) ( :
-
-
-

) ( -

: - -

) (





" : ) (+
) " ( -

) (

-

- ) (

- ) (

: - -


- :

) ( ) (

: - -

: - -

) (

:
) (
F )

q q2
1

q
2

F=k

( d K

: - -

) (
K - :
) (

1
4

=K

) (

= 0 r

 0
r
) ( ,

 - :
2

q q
1

) (

9 10

= F

r d

- :

) : (
+

= =

= - = -

= d =
2

q q
1

Newton

= 18 10

9 10

r d
3

9
) (3 10 6 10
= 10
)(0.03 0.03
9

): (

= F

= ,

,
= =
,

:
Newton

23

= 23 . 04 10

19

19

) 9 10 ( 1.6 10 )(1.6 10
)

26

) (10

26

(10

- :
-

-
-
-
-

) ( - " " + Q

= F

V1 > V2 > V3 > V4

) ( -
) (

) ( - :

-
-

) ( V

) ( -

) (

 (
) " "

 ) ( -

) ( - )
( -

) ( S

 ) ( -

: - -

E :
) (

F
q

=E

) (
" " q
E F :
) (

F = Eq

" " q

" " d
"

q
0

" " " q

) ( :
) (

) ( :
) (

qq
0

9 10 9
= F
d2

/
F
E = q

) () ): ( (

) : (

9 10
d2

= E

= ,

d = 0.02 m

) ( :

N/C

90000

= /

9 10 9 4 10- 9
0.02 0.02

= E

 ) : (

) ( A ) ( ) ( B

) ( ) ( -
) (

EA
EB

) ( " "

) ( ) ( -

N/C

= 4500

9 10 9 5 10 -9
0.1 0.1

= EA

N/C

900

9 10 9 4 10 -9
0.2 0.2

= EB

= = + /

: - -

A B
B A B A
A B A B

: - -

: ) ( R

: - -
:
- ) ( L
- ) ( A

- )

L
A

= R

) (

: - -
) P

( -

: - -
) : (

, ,
,

= L = , =
= A = , = , ,
= ,

)(

P L
A
8

= 0.688

=R

1.72 10 500
4

0.125 10

=R

) : (

) (

1.78 10

=P

A = 10 mm = 10 10
.

L = 500 m

P L
A

=R

= 0.89

8
1.78 10 500

= R

10 10

) : (

) ( ) (

10 m
8

= 2 . 83

A = 15 10

) : (

L = 1000 m
P L
A

=R

2.83 10 1000

=R

= 1.8866

15 10

) ( 1.4

) (

=1.78 10

A = 12 10

,
L

R =1.4

A
6

= 943 .8

1.4 12 10

1.78 10

=L

R A

= L

: - -
:

) ( q

) ( I ) ( q ) ( t
:
=

:
) (

q
= I
t

) ( I

) ( Ampere A

) ( Volta V

: - -

:
"
" :

V = R .I

) (

) : (

5 V 12

V 12
= = 2.4 A
R 5

=I

V = R .I

) : (

A,

V
220
=
= 100
I
2.2

V = R .I

: - -
-

) (

) ( I

 ) ( Vt

R
V

R
V

R
V
1

+ Vt-

) ( -

) (

= I R3

= I R2

V =V +V +V
2

= I R1

Rt :
) (

=I

) ( ) ( :

I R t = I R1 + I R 2 + I R 3
I :
) (

R =R +R +R
2

 ) (
:

) = R n (

) ( R ( n )
) : (
) (
) ( :
-

) (
)(

R =R +R +R
1

= 3 + 4 + 5 = 12

1 A

12
12

=Vt
t

3 V

= I R1 = 1

4 V

= I R2 = 1

5 V

= I R3 = 1

) : (
) ( ,
) ( :

 - - -

) (
(
)
= 10 1 . 5 = 15
) (

2 A

Rt = R n

30
15

t
t

I = V

= Vn

) (

V = V = V

= V = I R = 2 1 .5

) (

I
1

I +
V -

) ( -

RR

) (

) ( I
3

I I I
2

) I = I + I + I (
R
2

I = VR
.

) (

.
3

V
R

.
2

V
R

V
R

.
t

V
R

) ( V :
) (

1
R
.

1
R
.

1
R
.

1
R
.

) ( n
) ( R
) (

R.
n

= R
t

R R
2

1
R
.

1
R
.

1
R
.

 ) : (
) (
150

20

B.

C.

300

) ( -

) ( 300 150

R1

) (

100

150 300
150 + 300

= R
1

) ( -

100

=R

20

B.

C.

) ( -

C.

 ) 150

300

100

20

+ 20 = 100 + 20 = 120

 ) : (

) ( -
300

400

300

C.

400

B.

300

) ( -

400
=
= 200
400 400
2

) (

300
= 100
3

300 300 300

) (

B A

R
t

= 200 + 100 = 300

) ( -

40

60

25

100

B.

50

) ( -

40

60

= 60 + 40 = 100

100

= 50
3

25

50

100
2

= 50 + 25 = 75

= 30

75 50
75 + 50

R
R

 ) (
(

" "

(
(

:
- ) ( a
-

- )

"

/
(

:
-
-
-

"

-
-
-
:

:
"

(
(

"

R 1 , R 2 , R 3 , .... ... R n

R t = R 1 + R 2 + R 3 + + R n

Rt
R 2 , R 3 , ... R n
1
1
1
+
+
+ ...... +
R2 R3
Rn

R 1 ,
1
1
=
Rt
R1

, /

) ( ) ( :
-
-
-
-
-

-

-
.

) (

) ( -

) ( -

) ( -

) ( -

 ) ( -

) (


-

) ( -


: -
)

: -
) (

) (

: -

: -

:



) (

-

-

) (

) (

"
"
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) (

-

-

) (-

) (-

:
) (

-
-
-

:
)
(

:

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:
) (

-
-
-
-

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) (
:


:
" "

) (

:

" "
) ( ) (

) (

) ( ) (

) (

) (

: -

) (

) (

:
-

- :

) (

" "

" "

 " "

" "

) (

- :

) (

) (

 : --

) ( I ) ( L
) ( B
:
F = B I L sin
) ( B wb / m2

) ( I A
) ( L

) ( sin
) ( F N

= 90

F
F=BIL
N

: ---




) ( ) (

) (



) ( -

-
-

) ( -

) (
) (

: - -
) (
:
) (

) (

) (

) (

) (

) (

 ) (

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: -

: - - :

)
(


) (




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) (

: - -

)
(
) ( -

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) (
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 ) (

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-

) ( :

) (
-

) ( :
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) (

) ( =

) (

) ( / ) (
) (
) ( /

) (

 ) ( " "

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-
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) (

 : - -

) (
)

) ( /

) ( =

) ( =

) ( =

( ) :

) ( =

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) / ( -

) ( =

= /

( ) :

) ( =

:
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) ( ) ( ) (

) ( :
= ( )

: =

( )

) (
) (

) (

 ) ( ) ( :
= ( )
) (
) (
) ( :
=

) (

= ( )
) (

) ( Watt

= Watt

= /

W
) , = ( mW
) = ( KW
) = ( MW

) ( H . P
=
=
) ( ) ( :
= =

( )

) (

 ( ) :

) ( = ) ( ) (

= =

= , =
( ) :
,

=
= , =
=

= = =

( ) :

=
=

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) (
) ( ) ( :
=
) (
:
= =
:

= = = = /
=

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/
=

( ) :

,
) (

= ,

=
=

 = = , /
= = /
=

= , /

): (

= =
= =
=

= =

= /

) (

) ( :
-

:
F = B I L sin
) ( F

) ( B
) ( I
) ( L
) ( Sin

) ( :

) (

" :

) (

"

) ( :

) (

) (

) (

:
=

(
(

= /

: =

) (

) ( ) ( :
-
-
- ) (

-
) (

) (

/ ) / (

-
) / (

:
=

:
-
-


: -
) (
: -

) (

: -

) (

) (
) ( )

) ( -

) (






) (

: - -

: ) (
:

) (

, ,

) ( ) ( core

 ) (

) (

) (

) (

 ) (

) (

) (

 : - - ) (
- :

) (
)

( :

) (

) (

) " "

) (

/ =

 = , ) (

) (

= ,

) (
:

= ,

( )

)
)

= ,

( )

) (
:
.

) ( ) ( :

( ) ( :

 " "

) = ( K

) ( ) (

) (
) (
=

= =

) (
) ( ) ( ) ( ) (

 : -

) (

) (
) (

:

)
(

- ) (

-
) (

:

 : - -

) (

) (

: - -
:
=

= + +

+ +

=
+

 : - -
.

.


.


.

:
-
-
-
-
-

, /

, /

/

.

) ( P

 ) ( PL
) ( shelltype ) (

PL = P

) ( core type
1
= PL
P
) (
2
.

) (

) (

) (
(

-
-

-
-
(

""

= ,

" " = ,

) = ( K

= %

=
(
(

+ +

= %

-
-
-
-

) ( ) ( :

:
-

-

-
-
-
-

: - ) -
(

-

: -
: -

- :

:
) (

 ) (
-

) (

) (

) (
)
( -

 -

) (

-



/
-
) (
-
-
-
-
-
-

) (

) (

) ( :



) (

Ifs : Full - Scal

Rm

RZ
E

Voltage Source

x y
:
: ) (

" x " y Ifs

" x " y
fs

) ( 1

E
Rz + Rm

fs

 Rx
Rx
:

x y ) (

E
) ( 2
Rz + Rm + Rx

=I

) ( ) ( I Ifs
Rx I

sf

I
E / Rz + Rm + Rx
=
E / Rz + Rm
Isf

Rz + Rm
Rz + Rm + Rx

) ( Rx

)(

) ( -

) (

) (
) (

 ) (

:



) ( a ) (b
) ( c

( b ) power cord

(a) checking
lamp filament

( c ) open fnse

) (

) (

)(

PNP germanium
transistor

NPN germanium
transistor
)(

) (

: - -

A
) (



) (
) (

 )
(

) (

) (

) ( -

: - -

)(

) (
) (

 ) (
) (

)
(

 : - - " "

) (

) (

" "

" "

) (

) (

 ) (
) (

1.5 V

 ) (

 ) (

-
-

- ) / (

) (

:
:

) (
:

Shunt Resistance

) (
) (
) (

( :

=)

- ( (

( :

) (

) ( =

) ( =

, =

, =

) (

) (

) (


) (

) (


) (


=

) (

 ) (
) (
) (
)
(

: - -

( )

( )

) ( )
)

) ( )
:
= )

( :

= +

 :
=

=
=

) ( -

) (
:
(

-
-

1 - 10

=
1
1 - 50

= =
=
1
1 - 100

= =
=
1
=

) (

 ) (
) (


) (

: - -
) : (

) , (
) (
) ( ) - (

= ,

(=

0.5
0.1

=
=

39.9
0.1 -

= ,

) : (

) (

) ( -

) (

= = -

0.1- 6

0.1

5.9
0.1 =

= ,

:
:

" "

:
- -

D.C Electronic Voltmeters

 ) (

) (

A.C Electronic Voltameters

:
: ) (

) (

:
) (

) (

Op2

Op1

 ) ( -

) (

) (

 ) (

) (

.
.

) (

Oscilloscope

:
.

: - -
:

-

-

-
-
-
-
-
-

-
- :
-

-
-
-
) , (
) (
) (
-

 - ) (
) (

) (
-

-

-

-
.

) ( :

2
4
4

5
B

12 V

3
A

) (

) (

C , D

A , C

-
-

:
:

, / ) (

) / (

:
.

, / ) (

- :

) (

:
-
-

:
(

A , C R A C
2+1+1
4
=
4
4

1
=
4

1
1
1
=
+
+
RAC
2
4
R2 = 1

 ) (
) ( R t
D

12 V

) (
3+1+4 =8

) ( I

) ( 2

1
2
I 2

= Rt

12
V
=
8
Rt

= 1

=I

A , C VAC
1
VAC = 1 2

1
12
1 =1 2
Volt
= 8
Volt
12
3
I 2 = RVAc2 = 128 / 2
= = 16
A
4
A

) ( B ) (
2

5
A

C
4

12 V

 A , C R

) (
AC

= 6 = 13
) ( R t
2

13

12 V

24
R AC = 2 + 4

) (
2

R t = 3 + 13 + 5 = 9 3
C , D ) (
2
4
A

C
4

12 V

 ) (
A , C
) ( " " ) (
D

1
A

12 V

) ( )( R t

Rt = 3+1 =4

A , C ) (

5
A

12 V

) (

= 3+5 =8

) (
) (
) ( ) (

) (

A
A

 ) (

.

.
.
.

:
-

) ( ) (
:
.

.

.

.

-

) - (
A , B
) A , B (

3
8

18

+
60 V

) (

) (

) ( ) (

) (

) , / (

:
-

:
-
-

:
(

-
- /
-

PL
= R
A
-8

= 14952 10 -8 m 2
= 1.5 cm 2

178 10 210
=
2.5

cm 2

PL

= A

A = 14952 10 -4

.
)(X

)(X

.
) (

)(X

A , B

) (
R3 , 6
36
= R3 , 6
= 2

3+ 6

) (
B

18

60
V

4A

1A

5A

 ) (

) (
(
R 2 , 18 = 2 + 18 = 20
) (
D

20

5A

60 V

) (
( ) (

=4

20 5
20 + 5

= R 20 , 5

) (
B

60 V

) (
12

I= 5A

60 V
) (

) (
A , B

Rt
R t = 4 + 8 = 12

) (
) (

60
= 5A
12
) ( ) ( ) 5 (

= I

I 5 I20 :

5
=1A
25
I5=4A
) ( ) / (
I 20 = 5

) ( ) (
)
2
A
3
1
A
3
) ( :

( ) I 6 I 3 (
6
=
I3 = 1
9
3
=
I6 =1
9

1 A 18

2
A
3
1
A
3

5A
5

60 V

4A

) (

5A

V = 2 / 3 3 = 2 volt
1
= V
6 = 2 Volt
3
V = 4 5 = 20 Volt

18

V = 1 18 = 18 Volt

= V

5 8 = 40 Volt

:
) (
:

t 2 = 20 C
?? = R 2
0.00393 / C
) 0.00393 ( 20 - 150
) 150 ( 1 - 0.5109
R 2 = 73.365
:

)( t 2 - t 1
t1 = 55 C
R 1 = 150

R2=R1

1+

=
R 2 = 150 1 +
=

= )
= )

( =
( =

( -

) ( =
=
(

=
=

) ( =
=

, =

- -

- -

) (

) (

) (

) (

- -

- -

- -
- -


1- E. HUGHES, ELECTRICAL TECHNOLOGY: LONG MAN
1963.
2- A. DRAPER, ELECTRICAL MACHINES; LONG MAN 1967.
3- N. M. MORRIS, ELECTRONICS FOR WORKS
ELECTRICIANS; MCGRAW HILL BOOK 1976.
4- N. M. MORRIS, CONTROL ENGINEERING.
MCGRAW HILLL BOOK CEMPANY 1974.
5- N. M. MORRIS, ADVANCED INDUSTRIAL ELECTRONICS
MCGRAW HILLL BOOK CEMPANY 1974.
6- N. M. MORRIS INDUSTRIAL ELECTRONICS.
MCGRAW HILLL BOOK CEMPANY 1978.
7- ELECTRICAL TECHNOLOGY BY THERAGA.
8- DIRECT CURRENT MACHINES BY CLAYTON.