Professional Documents
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TrÖÔØng ÑaÏi HoÏc ÑaØ LaÏt
TrÖÔØng ÑaÏi HoÏc ÑaØ LaÏt
F7G
GIAÙO TRÌNH
TIEÁNG ANH B4
(Daønh cho Sinh vieân Khoa Hoaù Hoïc)
2002
Tieáng Anh B4 (Daønh cho Sinh vieân Khoa Hoaù Hoïc -2-
MUÏC LUÏC
MUÏC LUÏC .................................................................................................................................... 1
ÑEÀ CÖÔNG CHI TIEÁT HOÏC PHAÀN ............................................................................................ 4
Unit One: INTRODUCTION TO CHEMISTRY .......................................................................... 8
I. Vocabulary in context: Put the words / phrases into the blanks ............................................ 9
II. Comprehension question: .................................................................................................... 9
III. Vocabulary in new context: Put the words / phrases into the blanks .................................. 9
IV. Grammar review: ............................................................................................................. 11
Unit Two: ATOMS..................................................................................................................... 16
I. Vocabulary in context: ........................................................................................................ 16
II. Vocabulary in new context: ............................................................................................... 17
III. Comprehension questions: Write T if the following statement is true, and F if false....... 17
IV. Grammar: PASSIVE VOICE STRUCTURE .................................................................... 18
Unit Three: STRUCTURE OF AN ATOM................................................................................. 26
I. Vocabulary in context ......................................................................................................... 27
II. Match words or phrases in column A and column B .......................................................... 27
III. Answer the questions........................................................................................................ 28
IV. Structure: Passive (continued).......................................................................................... 28
Unit Four: PROPERTIES OF ATOMS....................................................................................... 32
I. Vocabulary in context ......................................................................................................... 33
II. Comprehension questions .................................................................................................. 33
III. Grammar .......................................................................................................................... 34
VI- Writing: ............................................................................................................................ 36
Unit five: ELEMENTS AND SYMBOLS OF ELEMENTS ....................................................... 39
I. Vocabulary in context ......................................................................................................... 40
II. Vocabulary in new context ................................................................................................ 40
III. Comprehension questions................................................................................................. 41
IV. Grammar: Relative Clauses (review)............................................................................... 41
Unit Six : MOLECULES ............................................................................................................ 49
I. Vocabulary in Context ........................................................................................................ 49
II. Comprehension questions .................................................................................................. 50
III. Grammar .......................................................................................................................... 50
Unit Seven: THE VARIETY OF MOLECULES........................................................................ 55
I. Vocabulary in context ......................................................................................................... 56
II. Comprehension questions .................................................................................................. 56
III. Grammar .......................................................................................................................... 57
Unit Eight: GASES, LIQUIDS AND SOLIDS............................................................................ 63
I. Vocabulary in context ......................................................................................................... 64
II. Comprehension questions .................................................................................................. 65
III. Grammar: Verb + ing Structure........................................................................................ 66
Unit Nine: A COMPOUND'S IDENTITY .................................................................................. 72
I. Vocabulary in Context ........................................................................................................ 73
II. Comprehension questions .................................................................................................. 74
3. Trình ñoä: Sinh vieân khoâng chuyeân Ngoaïi ngöõ (ngaønh Hoùa Hoïc) naêm thöù hai (hoïc kyø IV)
Tieáng Anh B4 daønh cho sinh vieân khoâng chuyeân ngöõ ngaønh Hoùa Hoïc laø hoïc phaàn
ñöôïc khoa Ngoaïi ngöõ aùp duïng ñaàu tieân vaøo naêm hoïc 2001-2002 vaø ñöôïc chænh lyù boå
sung vaø hoaøn thieän cho sinh vieân ngaønh Hoaù Hoïc. Sinh vieân ñaõ hoïc qua Tieáng Anh B1,
B2, B3 vaø ñaõ ñöôïc laøm quen vôùi caùc kieán thöùc cô baûn veà tieáng Anh. Tieáng Anh B4 chuû
yeáu reøn kyõ naêng ñoïc hieåu ñoái vôùi caùc baøi ñoïc mang tính chaát chuyeân ngaønh ñoái vôùi
ngaønh maø sinh vieân ñang theo hoïc. Tieáng Anh B4 cho sinh vieân ngaønh Hoùa bao goàm 14
baøi ñoïc ñöôïc choïn loïc töø caùc taøi lieäu chuyeân moân, giôùi thieäu caùc khaùi nieäm cô baûn veà vaät
lyù, keøm caùc caâu hoûi ñoïc hieåu vaø moät soá baøi taäp cuûng coá ngöõ phaùp.
7. Nhieäm vuï cuûa sinh vieân:
- Tham gia ñaày ñuû caùc buoåi hoïc, vaéng phaûi coù pheùp. Sinh vieân naøo vaéng khoâng pheùp quaù 4
buoåi seõ khoâng ñöôïc döï thi.
- Chuaån bò baøi tröôùc khi ñeán lôùp.
- Chuaån bò ñaày ñuû phaán, khaên lau baûng cho giaùo vieân vaø caùc thieát bò khaùc (neáu caàn)
- Tham gia thi giöõa kyø vaø thi hoïc kyø.
Sinh vieân ñöôïc ñaùnh giaù döïa treân nhöõng tieâu chuaån sau.
- Dö lôùp vaø phaùt bieåu. - Thi giöõa kyø. - Thi hoïc kyø
Introduction To Chemistry Ngöõ Phaùp: OÂn taäp caùc thì cô baûn trong
tieáng Anh
Properties Of Atoms
Elements
A Compound's Identity Lieân keát ion vaø lieân keát hoùa trò
Ngöõ phaùp: Giôùi töø
Baøi 10
a. nonstop b. nonfat
5. Tom’s homework is ………because he felt sick last night
a. inexpensive b. incomplete
Can you find some other words with those above prefixes? List them in
here: ………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………….. ..
IV. Grammar review:
A. Present Simple tense:
In general, the Simple Present expresses events or situation that exist always,
usually, and habitually; they exist now, have existed, and probably will exist
in the future.
The most frequent tense in science is simple present.
Example :
A water molecule consists of two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom
Or
Electrons spin around the nucleus.
Formation:
To form the simple present, use the simple form of the verb for most forms.
Add -s or -es only to the third-person singular.
Example:
Chemistry seeks the answer to two questions.
Chemists investigate the properties of substances and how different
conditions affect the way substances behave.
Put the verb in the parentheses into correct forms:
1. Electrons (move) …………….along many paths called orbitals.
2. The periodic table (organize) ……………elements in specific vertical
and horizontal rows.
3. Each vertical column of the periodic table (include)……………. element
that are chemically related.
4. Groups of elements in the periodic table (tend)………………. to show
similar properties.
3. During the first 300 years after the birth of Christ, scholars and craft
workers in Egypt (develop)……………….. a chemical practice that
(come)………….. to be called alchemy.
4. Chemists (continue)………………. to have difficulty categorizing the
elements until 1869.
5. Late 1700's Antoine Lavoisier (write)……………… the first modern text
book on chemistry.
C. The Present Perfect tense:
The Present Perfect is used to express past time that is related to the present
in someway. Sometimes the past action is very recent, or it is still continuing
at the present moment, or we don't know exactly when the past action
happened, we only know that it happened sometime in the past.
To form the present perfect, use the Simple Present form of have + the past
participle of the main verb.
Example:
Chemists have tried to develop a full understanding of all substances.
Chemistry has been a very important course in school.
Right now Martha is in the science building. The chemistry experiment she is
doing is dangerous, so she (be)…………………very careful. She (want, not)
…………………to spill any of the acid. She (be, always)
……………….careful when she does a chemistry experiment.
Dennis (drink, usually)……………coffee with his breakfast, but this morning he
(drink)……………….tea instead.
This morning, it (rain)………….. I can see Janet from my window. She
(stand)……………at the corner of 5th and pine. She (hold)……………. Her
umbrella over her head. She (wait)…………………for the bus.
Use either the SIMPLE PAST or PRESENT PERFECT of the verbs in
parentheses:
1. I (know) ……………….…Tim when I (be)………..…….. a child, but I have
not seen him for years.
2. The company and the union finally (agree)…………….……….on
everything, and the rest of the negotiation have gone smoothly.
3. Mark (take)………………a trip to Asia last October. He (take)…………….
to Asia since he started his own import-export business.
4. Ivan (play)…………………….the violin with the London Symphony since
1985. Last year he (play)…………………..a Beethoven violin concerto at
the concert..
5. When she was in college, Julia (write)…………………….home at least once
a week. Now she has a job and is living in Chicago. In the last six months,
she (write)…………….……only three letters to her parents.
6. Our university (send) …………..………..210 students to study in other
countries last year. In total, we (send) ………..………….846 students abroad
over the last ten years.
7. Maseru is a pilot for France Air Lines. He (fly) ……….…………nearly 8
million miles during the last years. Last years, he (fly)…………..………203
miles.
8. Mark missed his physics examination because he (oversleep)………….. He
(oversleep)………………..….a lot since the beginning of the semester. He’d
better buy a new alarm clock.
9. Alex is an artist. He (draw)………………………..many beautiful pictures in
his lifetimes. Last week, he (draw)…………..…………….a beautiful
mountain scene.
10. Jack recently needs to get in touch with you. Since this morning, he
(call)………………… here four times trying to reach you. He (call)………..
at 9:00, 10:15, 12;15 and 1:45.
11. Janet (wear) …………………….………….her new blue dress only once
since she bought it. She (wear)…………….………………..it to her brother’s
wedding.
12. The night has ended and it’s daylight now. The sun (rise)…………………at
6:06
4. Atoms of different element are different from one another depending on their
………………………..
10. The fact that protons and neutrons can stay within the nucleus is thanks to a
force called …………………………………...
II. Vocabulary in new context:
chemical reactions - protons - positive - molecules - atom – nucleus – atoms - a
group of atoms - Atoms - Electrons - protons - neutrons
8. The concept of atoms and molecules enables us to understand more fully the
…………………………..
9. The nucleus contains small heavy particles called protons, which possess the
……………….charge and other small particles called neutrons which have the
same mass as the protons but have no charge at all.
10. At the center of every atom lies the core or …………………, which is very
small compared with the size of the atom as a whole.
III. Comprehension questions: Write T if the following statement is
true, and F if false.
1. Atoms are the most basic units of substance _____
2. A force called strong nuclear fore helps the protons and neutrons stay
together within the nuclear _____
8. Thanks to an additional energy, electrons can which around the nucleus ___
IV. Grammar: PASSIVE VOICE STRUCTURE
The passive is most frequently used when we do not know or it is not important to
know exactly who performs an action, or when we want to emphasize the role of the
now used as subject in passive voice.
In the passive, the object of an active verb becomes the subject of the passive verb.
Example:
…………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………
Scientists often compare the structure of an atom with that of the solar system.
…………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………..
We can beak protons and neutrons down into ever smaller particles called
quarks.
…………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………..
Electron in the outer shells control the chemical behavior of an atom.
…………………………………………………………………………………
The behavior of the atoms that make up a substance determines the behavior of
that substance.
…………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………
Since 1964, several groups of scientists claimed that they had created six new
elements.
…………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………..
Although molecules are made up of atoms, scientists still consider them
(molecules) one of the basis units of matter.
…………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………
People usually classify chemical elements as mental or non-mental.
…………………………………………………………………………………
Antoine Lavoisier wrote the first modern textbook on chemistry.
………………………………………………………………………………….
Put the verb in brackets into correct form
1. The three basis types of subatomic particles (call) ______ protons, neutrons,
and electrons.
2. Elements (make up of) ________________units called atoms
3. Theoretical chemistry (concern) ________primarily _________with the
ultimate goal of chemistry the structure of matter.
4. Analytical chemistry (concern) _________with the separation,
identification, and composition of various kinds of matter.
5. The chemistry of carbon compounds (call) _________Organic Chemistry.
At the present time, the oldest house in town (restore) ………………..by the
History Society. When the restoration is finished, the house is sure to be a
popular tourist attraction.
A: What a beautiful old wooden chest!
B: It (build) ……………………….by my grandfather over 50 years ago.
At one time, the entire world (rule) …………………..by dinosaurs. Some
dinosaurs (walk) …………………..on their hind legs and (stand) …………..
as tall as palm trees.
Disney land is a world famous amusement park in Southern California. It
(visit)………………by more then ten million people every year.
Many of us take water for granted in our daily lives, but people who live in the
desert (use, not)…………….……..water carelessly. To them, each drop is
precious.
I (agree, not)………………….with people who say space exploration is a waste
of money. What do you think?
Do you really think we (invade) …………………by creatures from outer space
in a near future?
Most insects (live)………………..for less than a year. The common housefly
(live) ………………..from 19 to 30 days.
(You, accept, already)………………………by this university when you heard
about the other scholarship?
I got into a taxi quickly because I (follow)…………………by two strange men.
As soon as o got into the taxi, I (feel)……………a little safer.
The impact of the earthquake yesterday (feel)……………..by people who lived
hundreds of kilometers from the epicenter.
Mark (influence)………………….a lot by his friends, isn’t he? He should be
more independent and think for himself.
WORD STUDY: The prefix re- means ‘to do something again’.
For example: re + do => redo (to do again)
re + read => reread (to read again)
Add the prefix re- to each word. Then choose the correct word to complete each
sentence: arrange, do, order, tell, build, married, take, write
Jose made many mistakes in his first composition. Before he gives it to his
teacher tomorrow, he is going to …………it.
Dave and Susan got divorced 10 years ago. Last year Susan got ……… and
moved to Canada with her new husband.
I think I should ……………the furniture in my apartment. The way I have the
tables and chairs makes the room look crowded.
Children love to hear their grandparents tell stories! They often ask their
grandparents to …………their favorite stories many times.
The new waiter at the restaurant forgot our order for dinner, so we had to ….
everything.
If you do not get good score on the TOEFL exam this weekend, you can ….. it
next month
FURTHER READINGS
The understanding and prediction of the properties of matter at the atomic level
represents one of the great achievements of twentieth-century science. The theory
developed to describe the behavior of electrons, atoms and molecules differs
radically from familiar Newtonian physics, the physics governing the motions of
macroscopic bodies and the physical events of our everyday experiences. The
discovery and formulation of the fundamental concepts of atomic physics in the
period 1901 to 1926 by such men as Planck, Einstein, de Broglie and Heisenberg
caused what can only be described as a revolution in the then-accepted basic
concepts of physics.
Rutherford's nuclear model for the atom set the stage for the understanding of the
structure of atoms and the forces holding them together.
range of l × 10-12 → 1 × 10-13 cm, while the diameter of an atom is typically of the
order of magnitude of 1 × 10-8 cm.) The forces responsible for binding the atom,
and in fact all matter (aside from the nuclei themselves), are electrostatic in origin:
the positively-charged nucleus attracts the negatively-charged electrons. There are
attendant magnetic forces which arise from the motions of the charged particles.
These magnetic forces give rise to many important physical phenomena, but they
are smaller in magnitude than are the electrostatic forces and they are not
responsible for the binding found in matter.
During a chemical reaction only the number and arrangement of the electrons are
changed, the nucleus remaining unaltered. The unchanging charge of the atomic
nucleus is responsible for retaining the atom's chemical identity through any
chemical reaction. Thus for the purpose of understanding the chemical properties
and behavior of atoms, the nucleus may be regarded as simply a point charge of
constant magnitude for a given element, giving rise to a central field of force which
binds the electrons to the atom.
Rutherford proposed his nuclear model of the atom in 1911, some fifteen years
before the formulation of quantum mechanics. Consequently his model, when first
proposed, posed a dilemma for classical physics. The nuclear model, based as it was
on experimental observations, had to be essentially correct, yet all attempts to
account for the stability of such a system using Newtonian mechanics ended in
failure.
Questions
What do we – human being benefit from the understanding and prediction of the
properties of matter at the atomic level?
What are the main differences between Newtonian mechanics and quantum
mechanics?
How does the text end? What does it say about Newtonian mechanics?
1
Ñònh lyù, quy taéc
2
Tónh ñieän hoïc
increasing distance from the nucleus. Shells can only hold a limited number of
electrons. For example, shell 1 can hold no more than two electrons. The number of
shells that atoms have varies, depending on the kind of atom and the energy level of
the electrons.
Electrons in the outer shells control the chemical behavior of an atom. This is
because these electrons can react with other atoms.
I. Vocabulary in context
shells - chemical behavior - Isotope - empty space – number of electrons -
energy - mass - spin around - constantly - Neutrons
Electron …………………the nucleus at very high speed.
Most of an atom is made up of ………………….
Protons and neutrons move about …………….within the nucleus.
The nucleus makes up nearly all …………..of an atom.
“…………….” is a word used to refer to atoms that have the same number of
protons but different numbers of neutrons.
……………..have very little mass.
Each electron carries a certain amount of ………………..
Electrons are arranged depending on their energy level in ………………..
Shells can only hold a limited ………………………..
The ……………………..of an atom is determined by electrons in the outer shell
of an atom
II. Match words or phrases in column A and column B
A B
Electrons are called orbitals
Number of electrons does not usually affect atom’s behavior
Number of protons move around the nucleus in atomic orbitals
Protons are a bit smaller than neutrons
Paths that electrons move along is equal in every atom of particular element
4. What is isotope?……………………………………………………………….
…………………………………………………………………………………
5. What is orbital? ………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………
They are going to build a new hospital just outside of town ……………...
Here is an example:
Add the suffix –less to each word. Then choose the best word for each
sentence:
Babies cannot take care of themselves. Someone most help them because
they are ……………………
Stephen found an old coin. He thought it was gold, but it wasn’t. in fact, it
had no value. It was ………………………
You must take your time and be careful when you wrote. If you try to hurry,
you will make ………………mistakes.
Alice was sick last night so she could not sleep. Today in class she was very
tired after such a ………….night.
Helen said nothing that hurt my feelings. I know she did not want to hurt my
feelings. She just was not thinking. She made a ……………mistake.
Most students are making a good progress but Jeremy seems a ……… case.
He does not have any improvement at all.
Wow, I have not seen you for ages, but you look the same as before. You are
……………..
Timmy had many accidents since the day he got his new car. He is a
…………………. Driver.
THE ATOMIC NUMBER refers to the number of protons an atom has. Since all
atoms of the same element have the same number of protons, they share the same
atomic number. Helium atoms, for example, have two protons, and so the atomic
number for helium is 2. Natural elements have atomic numbers that range
successively up to 92, which is the atomic number for uranium. Plutonium, which
also occurs in nature, has an atomic number of 94. Elements that have higher atomic
numbers must be created in a laboratory.
THE MASS NUMBER is the sum of the protons and neutrons in an atom.
Isotopes of the same element have different mass numbers, depending on the
number of neutrons each isotope contains. For example, the nucleus of protium, the
most common hydrogen isotope, consists of a single proton and so has the mass
number of 1. Deuterium, another hydrogen isotope, has a mass number of 2, because
its nucleus consists of a proton and a neutron.
ATOMIC MASS is the mass of an atom expressed in atomic mass units (amu).
Atomic mass units are extremely small-one amu equals 1/12 the mass of an atom of
the element carbon 13. The mass of most atoms in amu is almost identical to the
mass number. Electrons do not affect an atom's atomic mass because they have
virtually no mass.
ELECTRIC CHARGE. Atoms are normally electrically neutral. But they can
lose or gain electrons through chemical reactions or in a collision with an electron or
another atom. This gain or loss of electrons produces an electrically charged atom
called an ion. An atom that loses electrons becomes a positive ion; one that gains
electrons is called a negative ion. The gain or loss of electrons is called ionization.
I. Vocabulary in context
electrically neutral - atomic mass - create - mass number - electrons - atomic
valence - negative ion - number - behavior - atomic mass unit - positive ion
7. What happens when an atom loses electrons? When an atom gains electrons?
…………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………….
8. What does valence refer to? ……………………………………………………
9. When does an atom have a positive valence? ………………………………….
………………………………………………………………………………….
10. When does an atom have a negative valence? …………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………….
III. Grammar
Types of sentences
Single sentence or independent clause: A simple sentence has single subject
– verb combination. It usually has one subjects, but sometimes there may
be more than one subject.
Example:
All matter is made up atoms
There are two types of property of water: physical properties and chemical
properties.
All simple end by a stop (.) or a semicolon (;).
Compound sentences
A compound sentence is made up two (or sometimes more) simple
sentences that are joined by a conjunction (such as “for”, “and”, “nor”,
“but”, “or”, “yet”, “so”).
For example:
Some of the symbols have one letter, and some have two.
Symbols for the elements may be used merely as abbreviations
for the name of the element, but they are used more commonly
in formulas and equations to represent a fixed relative quantity
of the element
Complex sentences:
Complex sentences are made up one or more independent clauses and one
or more dependent clauses.
For example:
Because opposite changes attract, the atom could collapse in
on itself
Dependent clauses usually start with words like when, while, where,
because, although, if, etc.
Write independent if the following sentences are Independent, Compound, or
Complex:
1. Chemistry seeks the answer to two question (unit 1) ……………………….
2. The chemistry of carbon compound is called organic chemistry (unit 1) …..
3. Atoms vary greatly in weight, but they are all about the same size-more
than a million times smaller than the thickness of a human hair (unit 2) …..
4. if a hydrogen atom were about 4 miles (6.4 kilometers) in diameter, its
nucleus would be no bigger than a tennis ball (unit 3) ………………….
5. Atoms that have the same number of protons but different numbers of
neutrons are called isotope (unit 3) ……………………………………
6. Electrons in the outer shells control the chemical behavior of an atom (unit
3) ……..
7. If you see the symbol of an element, you should know the name of that
element……………………..
8. When they join with other elements, non-metals can either share electrons
in a covalent bond or gain electrons to become a negative iron to make an
ionic bend. ………………………..
9. Although all matter consists of chemical element, very little of the matter
on Earth is made up of elements in their pure or uncombined form……….
10. A solution is said to be dilute if there is les of the solute…………………..
Combine the following sentences
…………………………………………………………………………………
4. Empty space / most of/ made up of / an atom /is
…………………………………………………………………………………
5. Much smaller / protons or neutrons / than / electrons / are
…………………………………………………………………………………
B -Make sentences using suggested words
1. Mass number / sum / protons / neutrons / in an atom
…………………………………………………………………………………
2. Valence / capacity / atom / to combine / anther atom
…………………………………………………………………………………
3. Electrons / outer shells / control / chemical behavior / atom.
…………………………………………………………………………………
4. Analytical chemistry /experimental foundation/ chemistry.
…………………………………………………………………………………
5. Every atom / particular element / have / same number / protons
…………………………………………………………………………………
6. All chemical substances / either elements / compounds
…………………………………………………………………………………
7. The names / elements /come from / different sources.
…………………………………………………………………………………
8. Nuclei / term for / than / one nucleus.
…………………………………………………………………………………
9. Chemists / use / symbols for elements / write formulas / compounds
…………………………………………………………………………………
10. Nitrogen and phosphorus / be / very definitely non-metals.
…………………………………………………………………………………
11. molecular mass / carbon dioxide / about 44
…………………………………………………………………………………
12. Two molecules / the same kind /may also combine / form / larger molecule
…………………………………………………………………………………
reading would be ruined by having to look up the difference every time you
encountered one of those letters. Similarly, you should know your elements well
enough so that if you read or hear about one of them, you instantly know what they
are. Learn how to spell the names of the elements. Learn the symbols. Some of the
symbols have one letter, some have two, but each element symbol has one and only
one upper case letter in it.
I. Vocabulary in context
formulas - pure forms – elements - honor - element - Greek or Latin – substance
- common - letters - compounds - create - elements - atoms
1. An ………….is a …………………that cannot be broken down chemically
into a simpler substance
2. All chemical substances exist in two states: ………….or …………………..
3. There are only a few elements that exist naturally in their …………………...
4. Scientists can ……………some elements in a laboratory.
5. Scientists name elements by using words from …………………….
6. Some elements are named in ……………….of a place or individual
7. The symbol for an element contains one or two ………………...
8. Symbols are used to write ………………..for compounds.
9. By looking at the formulas, we can recognize which ……………and how
many ………….. of each are in a compound.
10. Only a few more than fifty elements are ………….to our experience to be
useful for our general knowledge.
II. Vocabulary in new context
Chemical symbols - Symbols - formulas -Chemical elements -
hundred - formulas
1. The formulas tell us something. They tell which elements and how many
atoms of each are in a compound.
……………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………….
2. You find in each box of the Periodic Chart an integer. The integer is the
atomic number
……………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………
3. Each vertical column of the periodic table includes elements. These elements
are chemically related.
……………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………..
4. Elements in Group I of the periodic table are very soft metals. They are not
found free in nature because they react with water.
……………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………..
5. Natural elements have atomic numbers. The atomic numbers range
successively up to 92.
……………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………..
• If / When / While
1. You see the symbol of an element. You should know the name of that
element.
If…………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………..
2. The hydrogen electron energy levels are found to depend only upon the
principal quantum number. The energy levels in other atoms are found to
have strong dependence upon the orbital quantum number.
While………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………
3. An atom has 6 protons. It is carbon
If …………………………………………………………………………………
4. Two atoms have the same number but different atomic weights. They are said
to be isotopes.
When………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………..
5. Electrons in the outer shells control the chemical behavior of an atom.. these
electrons can react with other atoms.
Because……………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………
• Further exercises on combining sentences
1. Scientists have discovered something. They discovered that the rare gases
are found as gases at ordinary temperatures and pressures.
…………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………
2. Helium is best known as gas in balloons and airships. Helium is used to
prevent chemical from reacting with other elements during storage and
transportation.
…………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………
3. There is a force. It is called van de Waals. It holds molecules together.
…………………………………………………………………………………
..………………………………………………………………………………
4. Van de Waals is a force. It holds molecules together. It is usually weaker than
the forces that hold the atoms of a molecules together.
…………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………
5. The theory of spontaneous suggests one idea. The idea is that life suddenly
arose from nonliving matter.
…………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………
6. WORD STUDY
7. The prefix over- means “too,” “too much,” or “too many.”
8. Look at the example:
9. The cities in developing countries are already overcrowded. (too
crowded)
10. Add the prefix over- to each word. Then choose the best word for each
sentence:
11. Eat …………………….
12. Populated ……………………
13. Wight ……………………
14. Heated ……………………
15. Slept ……………………
16. Cooked ……………………
17. 1. There are too man people on the island of Java in Indonesia. Java is ……..
18. 2. We were driving in the mountains on a very hot day, and our car ………..
We had to stop and let it cool down.
19. 3. Mary left the rice in the cooker too long. Now the rice is ………………..
20. 4. Martin has a class at 8;00 in the morning. He usually wakes up at 7:00 to
get ready. Today he was late for class because he didn’t wake up until 8:15.
he ……………………
21. 5. If you ………………………..everyday, you will soon be ………………
Eating too much can make you fat, and it’s not good for your health.
Further readings
elements are not soluble in water. The lightest of the alkali metals are very common
in the earth’s crust. Francium is both rare and radioactive.
Group II (2) elements, beryllium, magnesium, calcium, strontium, barium, and
radium, all have two electrons in the outside ring, and so have a valence of two.
Also called the alkaline earth metals, Group 2 elements in the free form are slightly
soft metals. Magnesium and calcium are common in the earth’s crust.
Group 3 elements, boron, aluminum, gallium, indium, and thallium, are a mixed
group. Boron has mostly non- metal properties. Boron will bond covalently by
preference. The rest of the group are metals. Aluminum is the only one common in
the earth’s crust. Group 3 elements have three electrons in the outer shell, but the
larger three elements have valences of both one and three.
Group 4 elements, carbon, silicon, germanium, tin, and lead, are not a coherent
group either. Carbon and silicon bond almost exclusively with four covalent bonds.
They both are common in the earth’s crust. Germanium is a rare semi-metal. Tin
and lead are definitely metals, even though they have four electrons in the outside
shell. Tin and lead have some differences in their properties from metal elements
that suggest the short distance from the line between metals and non-metals (semi-
metal weirdness). They both have more than one valence and are both somewhat
common in the earth’s crust.
Group 5 is also split between metals and non-metals. Nitrogen and phosphorus
are very definitely non-metals. Both are common in the earth’s crust. In the rare
instances that nitrogen and phosphorus form ions, they form triple negative ions.
Nitride (N-3) and phosphide (P-3) ions are unstable in water, and so are not found in
nature. All of the Group 5 elements have five electrons in the outer shell. For the
smaller elements it is easier to complete the shell to become stable, so they are non-
metals.
Group VII (6 or 16) elements, oxygen, sulfur, selenium, and tellurium, have six
electrons in the outside shell. We are not concerned with polonium as a Group 6
element. It is too rare, too radioactive, and too dangerous for us to even consider in a
basic course. Tellurium is the only element in Group 6 that is a semi-metal. There
are positive and negative ions of Tellurium. Oxygen, sulfur, and selenium are true
non-metals. They have a valence of negative two as an ion, but they also bond
covalently. Oxygen gas makes covalent double-bonded diatomic molecules. Oxygen
and sulfur are common elements. Selenium has a property that may be from semi-
metal weirdness; it conducts electricity much better when light is shining on it.
Selenium is used in photocells for this property.
On some charts you will see hydrogen above fluorine in Group VII (7 or 17).
Hydrogen does not belong there any more than it belongs above Group 1. Fluorine,
chlorine, bromine, and iodine make up Group 7, the halogens. We can forget about
astatine. It is too rare and radioactive to warrant any consideration here. Halogens
have a valence of negative one when they make ions because they have seven
electrons in the outer shell. They are all diatomic gases as free elements near room
temperature. They are choking poisonous gases. Fluorine and chlorine are yellow-
green, bromine is reddish, and iodine is purple as a gas. All can be found attached to
organic molecules. Chlorine is common in the earth’s crust. Fluorine is the most
active of them, and the activity decreases as the size of the halogen increases.
Questions:
4. You had lunch with your friends. Did you have dinner with them?
……………………………………………………………………………
5. The city suffers from air pollution. Does it suffer from water
pollution?
……………………………………………………………………………
B. Not only … but also
Example: + Atoms can gain electrons.
2. I know you country has good university. Does the United have good
universities too?
…………………………………………………………………………………
3. I know you lost your wallet. Did you lose your keys too?
…………………………………………………………………………………
4. I know she goes to school. Does she have a full time job too?
…………………………………………………………………………………
5. I know he bought a coat. Did he buy a new pair of shoes too?
…………………………………………………………………………………
WORD STUDY
Suffix –ly: Sometimes we can add the suffix –ly to an adjective to make an
adverb.
Here is an example:
Slow + -ly = slowly
Please speak slowly so I can understand
Add the suffix –ly to each adjective. Then choose the best adverb for each
sentence:
Accidental ………accidentally………
Inexpensive …………………………..
Careful ………………………………
Silent ………………………………..
Thoughtless …………………………
Similar ………………………………
1. Brian …………………told his friend that he didn’t like the color of her new
car. Then he was sorry for what he said. He didn’t think about it before he said.
2. Always read the directions ………………….before you take a test so you
don’t make any careless mistakes.
3. Loud talking is not allowed in the library. You must work ………………so
other people can study too.
4. Julia ………………..knocked her glass off the table, and it broke. She didn’t
mean to do it.
5. If you cook you meal at home and don’t go out too often, you can live ……..
You don’t have to spend too much money.
In a solid, the forces that attract and repel are balanced. The molecules in a solid
vibrate but do not move about to different parts of the solid. But if the solid's
temperature is raised, the molecules vibrate more rapidly. Eventually, the energy of
these vibrations becomes greater than the van der Waals forces that hold the
molecules in place. The solid then melts and becomes a liquid - a change of phase.
In a liquid, molecules move about easily, but they still have some force that
attracts them to one another called surface tension. Surface tension pulls the
molecules on the surface toward the molecules in the body of the liquid and
prevents the liquid from flying apart. The liquid acts as if it has a thin skin on it.
The molecules in a gas move about rapidly, and the attractive forces have little
effect on them. Gas molecules move freely through the available space. When they
collide, repelling forces send them apart again, so gases will always fill a container
completely.
Sometimes, when two kinds of molecules come near enough to each other they
react to form one or more new molecules. Two molecules of the same kind may also
combine to form a larger molecule. The process by which many small molecules
combine to form large molecule is called polymrization. Certain conditions, such as
the presence of ultraviolet light or nuclear radiation, can cause large molecules to
break down into several smaller ones
I. Vocabulary in context
weaker - diatomic molecule - attract - balance - complicated -
simple - shapes - tri-atomic repel - molecule - sizes -
size - number - forces - Van de Waals force
1. Molecules exist in a huge number of ………………and ………………….
2. The size of a molecule depends on the ……….and …………..of its atoms
3. A ………………….is one that consists of two atoms of the same element.
4. A …………………..is one that is made up 3 atoms of the same element.
5. The shape of a molecule is determined by ……………….within the
molecule.
6. The shape of some molecules are …………., but the shape of other
molecules are more …………………..
7. A force called ………………………………….holds molecules together.
8. The forces that hold molecules together are ………………….than those that
hold the atoms of a molecule together.
9. When molecules are far from each other, they ………….each other, but
when they are close, they …………………...
10. In a solid, there is a …………………between forces that attract and repel.
II. Comprehension questions
1. In what conditions can molecules in a solid move? …………………………
……………………………………………………………………………….
2. When / In what conditions does a solid melt and become a liquid? …………
…………………………………………………………………………………
3. Is there any forces attracting molecules in a liquid? ………………………….
…………………………………………………………………………………
4. What force is it? ………………….…………………………………………...
…………………………………………………………………………………
3
Oïp eïp, hö hoûng
1. A small fish needs camouflage4 to hide …………….its enemies cannot find it.
a. so that b. so c. therefore d. due to
4
Nguïy trang
3. The workers have gone on strike. __________, all production has ceased.
a. Because b. Therefore c. consequently d. Inasmuch as
4.………………….my company’s bid for building the library was the lowest,
we were awarded the contract.
a. Because b. Since c. For d. Inasmuch as
5. I needed to finish the marathon race ………………I could prove that I had the
strength and stamina5 to do it. I didn’t care whether I won or not.
a. because of b. so that c. for d. therefore
7. Our apartment building has had two robberies in the last month, …………I’m
going to put an extra lock on the door and install a telephone in my bedroom.
a. now that b. so that c. so d. since
9. The price of airline tickets has gone down recently. ……………the tickets
cost less, more people are flying than ever.
a. Consequently b. Because of c. Because d. For
10. The mountain road was closed to all traffic………………the heavy rainfall
had caused a hug mudslide that blocked the way.
a. therefore b. because c. due to d. so
11. Janet called the security guard……………..someone had taken her brief
while she was making a call at the public phone.
a. so that b. so c. because d. because of
12. Dolphins are sometimes caught and killed in commercial fishing nets
………..they often swim in school with other fish, such as tuna.
a. since b. as c. so d. because
WORD STUDY
5
Söùc chòu ñöïng, söï deûo dai
Suffixes: You can change some words into verbs by adding the suffix –ize. The
suffix –ize means ‘to make into (something)” or “to cause to be (something).”
Add the suffix –ize to each word. Then choose the best word for each sentence.
Be sure to use the correct tense
Colony ………………………
1. Spain and Portugal started many new cities in the New World, especially in
South Mexico. These countries ………………..most of Central and South
America.
4. Sometimes there are no rules for irregular verbs in English. If you want to
remember them, you have to ………………them and use them often.
5. Every fall I take my car to the auto mechanic. He changes the oil and adds
some chemicals to help it run well during the winter. He thinks all people should
……… their car to prevent problems during the very cold months.
Gas, or vapor, is the most energetic phase of matter commonly found here on
earth. The particles of gas, either atoms or molecules, have too much energy to settle
down attached to each other or to come close to other particles to be attracted by
them. Materials in the vapor phase have no shape of their own, that is, they take on
the shape of the container. Gases have no given volume. A certain amount of gas at
a pressure of one atmosphere and a volume of ten liters could become five liters if
the pressure was increased or would become more than ten liters if the pressure
were decreased. The gas expands to fill the container.
How can you picture the materials as a gas? A pool table is only in two
dimensions, but what if the balls kept moving and the pool table were in three
dimensions? Such a pool table would be like a gas. The rails of the 3-D pool table
would be the sides of the container. The billiard balls would bounce off each other
in completely elastic collisions and would bounce off the sides of the table to
produce a constant pressure. The real hallmark of the gas is that the motion of the
particles is so great that the forces of attraction between the particles are not able to
hold any of them together.
Liquids
Liquids are materials in which the atoms or molecules are as close to each other
as solids, but the materials can slip over each other to change places.
Solids
Solids are materials in which the atoms or molecules are set in place. In ionic
solids such as table salt crystals, the ions are connected to their neighbors by
electrical attraction. Covalently linked crystals such as diamonds produce the
hardest materials. In other solids, each unit may have its own spot in which it fits (as
in sugar crystals) or it may be just a jumble of molecules as in glass that have
decreased energy. Crystalline solids have characteristic angles and can be cleaved
along lines defined by the aligning of atoms or molecules of the crystal. Amorphous
(without crystal shape) solids can be like carbon black or linked as in plastics. The
common point about solids is that the atoms or molecules are in place. The
temperature that can be shown by solid materials is due to the movement in place of
the atoms or molecules. They have no independent linear motion of translation
because they are attached to one another. Solids can have molecular energy due to
vibration and rotation. Picture a class of second graders glued to their seat. Each
student can jump up and down and sideways and turn the chair around, but they
can’t move out of place. Another useful mental picture is a junkyard for springs.
The springs have all been tied to each other in one enormous mass. Each spring can
twist and vibrate, but it can’t get loose from its neighbor.
It is now necessary to change from being able to see and understand each atom
or molecule to our larger world. Solids show a definite shape and a definite volume.
Unless forces are used that are not commonly found near the earth’s surface, solids
cannot be compressed.
I. Vocabulary in context
Gases
Liquids
2. The forces that hold particles of liquid are …………..than the forces caused
by the motion of those particles.
Solids
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III. Grammar: Verb + ing Structure
+ I like swimming
+ He left the house, knowing that it was the last time he saw it
7. In the element form they must be stored under kerosene to keep them
from (react)…………… with the humidity in the air.
Further Exercises:
2. I look forward …………..…….you the next time I’m in town. I’ll be sure to let
you know ahead of the time so that we can plan to get together.
5. Because of the bomb scare, no one was allowed in the building. People were
prevented ………………..the front door by a guard who was stationed there.
Further readings
LIQUID BASICS
By now you know what a solid is. If you wave your arms around you can find a
gas. But what about liquids? Not that we suggest it but you know you've got some
spit. That's a liquid. What about your blood? That's a liquid too. The main thing is to
figure out what makes those things liquids.
Liquids are an in-between phase of matter. They are right between solids and
gases. One characteristic of a liquid is that it fills the shape of any container. So you
pour some water in a cup. It fills up the bottom of the cup first and then fills the rest.
It also takes the shape of the inside of the cup. It starts filling at the bottom because
of gravity. When it is in that cup it also has a flat surface. That's because of gravity
too.
One other characteristic of liquids is that they are very hard to compress. When
you compress something you take a certain amount and force it in a smaller space.
Solids are tough to compress too but gases are easy. When you compress something
you squeeze it so the atoms in the substance are closer together. When pressure goes
up... Substances are compressed. Liquids already have their atoms close together so
it's hard to push them even closer.
Evaporation
SOLID BASICS
Solids can be made up of many things. They can have elements or compounds
inside. They can also be made up of mixtures, or combinations of different
elements and compounds. Most of the solids you see are mixtures. Most rocks
are mixtures of many elements and compounds. Concrete is a good example of a
man-made solid mixture.
Characteristics Of Solids
In the same way that a solid holds its shape the atoms inside of a solid are not
allowed to move around much. This is a physical characteristic
of all solids. It happens no matter how small the pieces are. The
atoms in liquids and gases move around in all directions. The
solid atoms and molecules are trapped in their places. The
atoms still spin and the electrons still move but the entire atom
doesn't go anywhere. They just kind of jiggle in place.
Obviously not everything is a solid. If you look around you'll see solids,
liquids, and especially gases (remember the air around you). Sometimes liquids
feel a physical need to become a solid. Then look out! Phase changes are about to
happen.
Crystals
an atom may be assigned more than one valance number, depending on the number
of different bonds it tends to form.
I. Vocabulary in Context
negative valance - makeup - ratio - Valance - compound - positive valance -
Elements - subscripts - symbols - Chemical formulas -electrons -
atoms - ratio - atom – stable - equals - more than one
8. To show formulas for molecules in which there are more than one atom of
the same element, scientists use numbers as ……………….which is written
just below the symbols.
10. An atom that has the maximum amount of electrons is the outer shell is said
to be …………………..
11. When atoms bond, they transfer ……………..from one atom to another, or
share the electrons.
14. Atoms that tend to lose electrons have a ………………………., and atoms
that tend to gain electrons have a …………………….
2. What does the phrase “compound always have the same composition by
weight” mean? ………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………..
5. What happens when atoms of one element bond with atoms of another
element? ………………………………………………………………..
…………………………………………………………………………..
10. What kind of valance an atom has when it gains electrons? And when it
loses electrons? ……………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………
3. Chlorine, for example, tends to gain one electron ………another atom and
so has a valence of –1.
6. The negative charge of the electrons can be offset by the positive charge
of the protons, but the number ……… protons does not change …… a
chemical reaction.
8. Ionic bonds are created by the transfer of electrons ………. one atom to
one or more other atoms.
9. Oxidation also takes place within the human body, as inhaled oxygen
reacts ………. molecules of food lo produce energy, water, and carbon
dioxide.
FURTHER EXERCISES
5. The car stopped ……………..the traffic lights and wouldn’t start again, so
the driver got ………………..and pushed it ……………the side ………..the
road.
6. Children get gifts …………….Christmas and …………………their
birthday.
8. The man ………….the pipe and red hair is the brother ………..the girl
……... blue.
14. While ……… their way from the coast ……………the mountains they were
attacked …………….a jaguar.
Ionic bonds are created by the transfer of electrons from one atom to one or more
other atoms. The atoms that looses electrons become positive ions. The atoms that
gain electrons become negative ions. The force that holds ionic compounds together
is called an ionic bond.
Some atoms, such as metals tend to lose electrons to make the outside ring or
rings of electrons more stable and other atoms tend to gain electrons to complete the
outside ring. An ion is a charged particle. Electrons are negative. The negative
charge of the electrons can be offset by the positive charge of the protons, but the
number of protons does not change in a chemical reaction. When an atom loses
electrons, it becomes a positive ion because the number of protons exceeds the
number of electrons. Non-metal ions and most of the polyatomic ions have a
negative charge. The non-metal ions tend to gain electrons to fill out the outer shell.
When the number of electrons exceeds the number of protons, the ion is negative.
The attraction between a positive ion and a negative ion is an ionic bond. Any
positive ion will bond with any negative ion. They are not fussy. An ionic
compound is a group of atoms attached by an ionic bond that is a major unifying
portion of the compound. A positive ion, whether it is a single atom or a group of
atoms all with the same charge, is called a cation. A negative ion is called an anion.
The name of an ionic compound is the name of the positive ion (cation) first and the
negative (anion) ion second.
Table salt, properly called sodium chloride (NaCl), is an ionic compound. Salt is
formed when a sodium atom gives up an electron to a chlorine atom. The sodium
atom which loses the negative electric charge that the electron carries, becomes a
positive ion. The chlorine atom gains the negative charge, and becomes a negative
ion. Opposite charges attract, and so the two atoms are joined in an ionic bond.
COVALENT BONDS are formed when two or more atoms share pairs of
electrons. A shared pair consists of one electron from each of two atoms. These
electrons revolve around the nucleus of both atoms. Covalent bonds form molecules,
which ordinarily have no electrical charge. Compounds that consist of molecules
can be called covalent compounds.
Water is an example of a common compound. It is an example of a covalent
compound. It is made up of hydrogen and oxygen atoms. The outer shell of an
oxygen atom requires two additional atoms to become stable. Hydrogen atoms have
one electron, but need another to fill the outer shell. So when two hydrogen atoms
combine with one oxygen atom, all the vacancies are filled, forming a molecule of
water.
Nearly all elements in their natural states are joined by covalent bonds.
Hydrogen, for example, normally consists of covalently bonded molecules. An
ordinary hydrogen molecule (H2) has two atoms that share electrons, so that two
electrons revolve around each nucleus. Covalent compounds are often joined by
bonds that are much more complicated. Some individual molecules are held together
by many different covalent bonds.
I. Vocabulary in Context
ionic compound - anion - revolve - positive ion - covalent bonds -
covalent bonds - ionic bonds - ionic bond - cation
1. When electrons are transferred from one atom to one or more other
atoms, …………..are created.
8. When two or more atoms share pairs of electrons, they form …………
……….
2. Why does an atom become a positive ion when it loses electrons? ………..
…………………………………………………………………………….
4. Gas, or vapor, is the most energetic phase …….. matter commonly found
here on earth.
5. Gases and solids that dissolve ………… liquid are described as soluble.
8. A molecule's size depends …………. the size and number of its atoms.
2. Two or more atoms share pair of electrons. Covalent bonds are formed after
that. (when)
…………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………
9. Solids are materials. In these materials, the atoms or molecules are set in
place. (which).
…………………………………………………………………………………
10. Chemistry is the scientific study of the substance. These substances make
up the universe. (that).
…………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………
Further exercises on combining sentences
………………………………………………………………………………
g. That’s the house. I was born in it.
………………………………………………………………………………
h. Where is the lady? She ordered the fish.
………………………………………………………………………………
i. Do you know the children? They live in that house.
………………………………………………………………………………
j. The clothes come from Marks & Spencer. They are good quality.
………………………………………………………………………………
Further readings
Some atoms are very reluctant to combine with other atoms and exist in
the air around us as single atoms. These are the Noble Gases and have very stable
electron arrangements eg 2, 2.8 and 2.8.8 and are shown in the diagrams below.
All other atoms therefore, bond to become electronically more stable, that is to
become like Noble Gases in electron arrangement. Atoms can do this in two ways:
OR
The types of bonding and the resulting properties of the elements or compounds are
described in detail below. In all the electronic diagrams ONLY the outer
electrons are shown.
2. Covalent Bonding
The covalent bonding is caused by the mutual electrical attraction between the two
positive nuclei of the two atoms of the bond, and the electrons between them.
One single covalent bond is a sharing of 1 pair of electrons, two pairs of shared
electrons between the same two atoms gives a double bond and it is possible for two
atoms to share 3 pairs of electrons and give a triple bond.
The simplest molecules are formed from two atoms and examples of their formation
are shown below. The electrons are shown as dots and crosses to indicate which
atom the electrons come from, though all electrons are the same. The diagrams may
only show the outer electron arrangements for atoms that use two or more electron
shells. Examples of simple covalent molecules are …
Example 1
Example 2
2 chlorine atoms (2.8.7) form the molecule of the element chlorine Cl2
Example 3
1 atom of hydrogen (1) combines with 1 atom of chlorine (2.8.7) to form the
molecule of the compound hydrogen chloride HCl
Example 4
2 atoms of hydrogen (1) combine with 1 atom of oxygen (2.6) to form the molecule
of the compound we call water H2O
argon. The molecule can be shown as with two hydrogen - oxygen single
covalent bonds.
Example 5
3 atoms of hydrogen (1) combine with 1 atom of nitrogen (2.5) to form the molecule
of the compound we call ammonia NH3
Example 6
4 atoms of hydrogen (1) combine with 1 atom of carbon (2.4) to form the molecule
of the compound we call methane CH4
All the bonds in the above examples are single covalent bonds. Below are three
examples 7-9, where there is a double bond in the molecule, in order that the atoms
have stable Noble Gas outer electron arrangements around each atom.
Example 7
Example 8
Example 9
It is possible for many atoms to link up to form a giant covalent structure. This
produces a very strong 3-dimensional covalent bond network. This illustrated by
carbon in the form of diamond. Carbon can form four single bonds to four other
atoms etc. etc. This type of structure is thermally very stable and they have high
melting and boiling points. They are usually poor conductors of electricity
because the electrons are not usually free to move as they can in metallic structures.
Also because of the strength of the bonding in the structure they are often very hard
and will not dissolve in solvents like water.
3. Ionic Bonding
Ionic bonds are formed by one atom transferring electrons to another atom to
form ions. Ions are atoms, or groups of atoms, which have lost or gained electrons.
The atom losing electrons forms a positive ion (a cation) and is usually a metal.
The overall charge on the ion is positive due to excess positive nuclear charge
(protons do NOT change in chemical reactions).
The atom gaining electrons forms a negative ion (an anion) and is usually a non-
metallic element. The overall charge on the ion is negative because of the gain, and
therefore excess, of negative electrons.
The examples below combining a metal from Groups 1 (Alkali Metals), 2 or 3, with
a non-metal from Group 6 or Group 7 (The Halogens)
Example 1
In terms of electron arrangement, the sodium donates its outer electron to a chlorine
atom forming a single positive sodium ion and a single negative chloride ion. The
atoms have become stable ions, because electronically, sodium becomes like neon
and chlorine like argon.
Example 2
In terms of electron arrangement, the magnesium donates its two outer electrons to
two chlorine atoms forming a double positive magnesium ion and two single
negative chloride ions. The atoms have become stable ions, because electronically,
magnesium becomes like neon and chlorine like argon.
(* NOTE you can draw two separate chloride ions, but in these examples a number
subscript has been used, as in ordinary chemical formula)
Example 3
In terms of electron arrangement, the aluminium donates its three outer electrons to
three fluorine atoms forming a triple positive aluminium ion and three single
negative fluoride ions. The atoms have become stable ions, because electronically,
aluminium becomes like neon and also fluorine.
Example 4
In terms of electron arrangement, the two potassium atoms donates their outer
electrons to one oxygen atom. This results in two single positive potassium ions to
one double negative oxide ion. All the ions have the stable electronic structures
2.8.8 (argon like) or 2.8 (neon like)
Example 5
In terms of electron arrangement, one calcium atom donates its two outer electrons
to one oxygen atom. This results in a double positive calcium ion to one double
negative oxide ion. All the ions have the stable electronic structures 2.8.8 (argon
like) or 2.8 (neon like)
Example 6
In terms of electron arrangement, two aluminium atoms donate their three outer
electrons to three oxygen atoms. This results in two triple positive aluminium ions
to three double negative oxide ions. All the ions have the stable electronic structure
of neon 2.8
4. Bonding In Metals
The crystal lattice of metals consists of ions NOT atoms. The outer electrons (-)
from the original metal atoms are free to
move around between the positive metal
ions formed (+). These free or 'delocalised'
electrons are the 'electronic glue' holding
the particles together. There is a strong
electrical force of attraction between
these mobile electrons and the 'immobile'
positive metal ions - this is the metallic
bond.
• This strong bonding generally results in dense, strong materials with high
melting and boiling points.
• Metals are good conductors of electricity because these 'free' electrons carry
the charge of an electric current when a potential difference (voltage!) is applied
across a piece of metal.
• Metals are also good conductors of heat. This is also due to the free moving
electrons. Non-metallic solids conduct heat energy by hotter more strongly vibrating
atoms, knocking against cooler less strongly vibrating atoms to pass the particle
kinetic energy on. In metals, as well as this effect, the 'hot' high kinetic energy
electrons move around freely to transfer the particle kinetic energy more efficiently
to 'cooler' atoms.
• Typical metals also have a silvery surface but remember this may be easily
tarnished by corrosive oxidation in air and water.
I. Vocabulary in context
reactants - symbols - physical change - kind of atoms - chemically -
chemical reactions - product - chemical reaction - reactant -
chemical equation - product
1. Most activities in our lives, from the digestion of food to the burning of
fuel, all involve ………………………
2. The process in which one substance is …………….converted into a
different substance is called ……………………….
3. In a ……………………., the material/substance does not have a different
chemical formula after the change.
4. We use …………………………to show what occurs in chemical
reactions.
5. Chemical formulas and …………………are used to describe the substance
that are involved in the reaction.
6. Every chemical reaction has at least one ………………and at least one
……………………...
7. In a chemical reaction, the quantity of atoms and the ………………do not
change.
8. In a chemical reaction, the number of atoms in the ………………and the
number of atoms in the ………………are equal.
II. Vocabulary in new context
symbols - products - reactants – reactants - chemical equation - arrow -
chemical reaction - chemical reaction - products
6. The materials to the left of the arrow are the ………………, or the
materials that are going to react.
7. The materials to the right of the arrow are the ………………, or the
materials that have been produced by the reaction.
d. New bonds between atoms are formed during chemical reactions. -----
e. The structure of molecules or ions of the products are the same as that
of the reactants. -----------------
Further reading
Chemical Reactions
Now that we know the how and why of chemical bonding, we can look at some
chemical reactions. Chemical reactions happen all around us: when we light a
match, start a car, eat dinner or walk the dog. A chemical reaction is the pathway by
which two substances bond together. In fact we have already discussed several
chemical reactions. One we have mentioned is the reaction of hydrogen with
oxygen to form water. To write the chemical reaction you would place the reactants
(the substances reacting) on the left with an arrow pointing to the the products (the
substances being formed). Given this information, one might guess that the reaction
to form water is written:
H+O H2O
However there are 2 problems with this chemical reaction. First, because atoms
like to have full valence shells, single H or O atoms are rare (and unhappy)
creatures. As we saw in the previous lesson, both hydrogen and oxygen react with
themselves to form the molecules H2 and O2, respectively. These hydrogen and
oxygen molecules are much more common. Given this correction, one might guess
that the reaction looks like this:
H2 + O2 H 2O
But we still have one problem. As written, this equation tells us that 1 hydrogen
molecule (with 2 H atoms) reacts with 1 oxygen molecule (with 2 O atoms) to form
1 water molecule (with 2 H atoms and 1 O atom). In other words, we seem to have
lost 1 O atom along the way! To write a chemical reaction correctly, the number of
atoms on the left side of a chemical equation has to be precisely balanced with the
atoms on the right side of the equation. How does this happen in our example? In
actuality, the O atom that we 'lost' reacts with a 2nd molecule of hydrogen to form a
second molecule of water. The reaction is therefore written:
2H2 + O2 2H2O
In the chemical reaction above, the number in front of the molecule (called a
coefficient) indicates how many molecules participate in the reaction. A simulation
of the reaction can be viewed by clicking below (the atoms are represented as
spheres in the animation: red = hydrogen, blue = oxygen):
In order to write a correct chemical reaction, we must balance all of the atoms
on the left side of the reaction with the atoms on the right side. Let's look at another
Look at the reaction atom by atom. On the left side we find 1 carbon atom, and
1 on the right. There are 4 hydrogen atoms on the left, but only 2 on the right.
Therefore, you know 2 water molecules must be formed. Adding this coeffiecient
we get:
Now we have to balance the oxygen atoms. On the left you find 2 atoms, on the
right 4 (2 in the CO2 molecule and 1 in each of 2 H2O molecules). Therefore we
need to start with 4 oxygen atoms, or 2 molecules. The balanced equation would
then be:
Up until this point we have been talking about atoms and molecules. The
problem with this approach is that atoms and molecules are very small things. In a
single drop of water for example, there are trillions and trillions of water molecules.
A reaction between a single molecule of hydrogen and a single molecule of oxygen,
as we discussed above, would be undetectable. Instead of talking about single
molecules in science, we talk about groups of molecules. You can think of it like
buying eggs. You don't go to the store and buy an egg - you buy a dozen.
Contained within that dozen are the individual eggs. Its the same thing when we
talk about molecules. We don't talk about single units, we talk about groups.
But even a dozen molecules is a tiny amount. What we need is a big number - a
huge number! That number is the mole. The mole is the scientific community's
baker's dozen. One mole equals 6.02 x 1023 (also known as Avogadro's number). A
6 followed by 23 zeros. Now that's a pretty big number. But that's all it is, a
number. You can't just have a mole, you have to have a mole of something. A mole
of atoms. A mole of water molecules. A mole of pennies (which would make you
richer than you can imagine). Why the mole? As it turns out, the mole has some
interesting properties. One mole of hydrogen atoms (6.02 x 1023 H atoms) weighs 1
g. From the periodic table we know that an He atoms weighs 4 times as much as an
H atom, so go figure, 1 mole of He atoms weighs 4 g. In fact, one mole of any
The mole is also useful in chemical reactions. Though you can't measure
out an atom of hydrogen, you can measure out a mole. Since the mole is just a
constant number, the coefficients in a balanced chemical reaction give you the molar
proportions of reactants and products. In other words:
2H2 + O2 2H2O
tells us that:
3. is a term used to refer to the process in which substances lose and gain
electrons.
……………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………
2. Helium is best known as gas in balloons and airships. Helium is used to
prevent chemical from reacting with other elements during storage and
transportation.
……………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………
3. There is a force. It is called van de Waals. It holds molecules together.
……………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………
22. Van de Waals is a force. It holds molecules together. It is usually weaker
than the forces that hold the atoms of a molecules together.
……………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………
23. The theory of spontaneous suggests one idea. The idea is that life
suddenly arose from nonliving matter.
……………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………
24. The theory of spontaneous generation originated in ancient times. It
maintained that lower forms of life began in nonliving matter.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
25. During the mid-1960’s, an Italian scientist demonstrated that meat sealed
in a closed jar, and thus protected from flies, would not produce flies. The
scientist’s name was Francesco Redi.
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……………………………………………………………………………………
26. Luis Pasteur demonstrated something. He demonstrated that even the
tiniest bacteria always grow from other bacteria and do not spring into life
spontaneously.
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………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
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………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..
2. The fact that it is hard to find the answers to the question of ‘how did
life begin” (be) ……………..many scientists do not agree with each
other entirely.
3. Molecules are the smallest particles in which a substance can be divided and
still have the …………………… of the original substance.
4. In a liquid, molecules move about easily, but they still have some force that
attracts them to one another called ----------------------
5. The transfer of electrons from one atom to one or more other atoms is called
--------------------------
7. The process in which a substance increase the speed of a reaction is called -----
----------------
10. Two liquids that have the ability to form a solution are described as -----------------
Many inorganic compounds are ionic substances that occur as solids. They
include salts and many minerals. Nonmetal elements, such as boron, nitrogen,
oxygen, and silicon, make up a wide variety of inorganic compounds.
Although they do not contain living matter, inorganic compounds can be found
in living organisms. Blood, for example, contains coordination compounds, an
important class of inorganic compounds. Coordination compounds contain a central
metal atom surrounded by a nonmetal atom or molecule. Blood contains a
coordination compound made up of iron atoms that are each surrounded by nitrogen
and oxygen atoms.
Acids
Among the most common and important compounds are acids. Acids share
certain recognizable properties. For example, they turn litmus paper red, and they
tend to corrode metals. Acids also have a sour taste. We come into contact with
acids every day. Citric acid is found in citrus fruits such as oranges, and sulfuric
acid is commonly used as the fluid in automobile batteries.
Chemists use several definitions to describe the behavior of acids. They are often
defined as compounds that produce hydrogen ions when dissolved in water. Acids
can also be defined more generally as compounds that can donate a proton when
they combine with any other substance.
Acids vary in strength. The strength of an acid is measured by the number of
hydrogen ions it produces wit dissolves in water. Stronger acids produce more
hydrogen ions. Hydrochloric acid, which helps digestion in the human stomach, is
an example of a strong acid. Acetic acid, which is found in vine a weak acid.
ORGANIC ACIDS contain carbon atoms. They are often obtained from living
matter. Organic acids are used in the manufacture of detergents, foods, and soaps.
Amino acids, which are the building blocks of proteins, are common organic acids.
Others include ascorbic acid, which is vitamin C; and acetylsalicylic acid, or aspirin.
INORGANIC ACIDS do not, in general, contain carbon atoms. They tend to be
stronger than organic acids. They are used in plastics and synthetic fibers. Inorganic
acids are also used in the refining of petroleum. Nitric acid and hydrochloric acid
are common inorganic acids.
I. Vocabulary
properties - organic chemicals - compounds - organic acids - inorganic -
Carbon atoms – artificially - carbon atoms - Organic compounds -
non-mental elements - inorganic acids - compounds
8. One of the ……………….that acids have is that they turn litmus6 paper red.
10. Acids are one of the most common and important ………………………..
II. Comprehension questions
1. What is organic chemistry? ………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………..
2. What is the reason for the fact that carbons can form more compounds than
many other elements can? ……………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………..
……………………………………………………………………………..
6
Quyø, giaáy quyø
solution – strong nuclear force – Van der Waals forces – symbols – formulas –
compound – reactants – polar molecules – behavior – molecules – lose – gain –
valance – ion – isotope – covalent bonds – ionic bonds – chemical reaction –
chemical identity – suspension – chemical bonds
13. -------------------------------------- is
the capacity of an atom to combine with another
atom, forming a molecule.
15. The forces that hold the atoms of a molecule together are called ------------------
16. Scientists show the composition of molecules by using the ---------------------- for
elements in chemical formulas
17. The -----------------------------in a solid vibrate but do not move about to different
part of the solid.
19. A -------------------------------is formed when atoms of one element bond with atoms
of another element.
23. The number of atoms in the -----------------------------is the same as the number of
atoms in the products.
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----
2. two or more atoms / covalent bonds / formed / share pairs of electrons / when
/ are.
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3. that / the force / hold / together / ionic compounds / is called / an ionic bond.
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10. depends partly on / the kind / the types / of volcano eruption / of ejected
material
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2. People have increasingly built houses on places where marshes once were.
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3. The number of electrons in the outer shell of an element’s atom determines its
chemical behavior.
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Further readings
MIXTURE BASICS
Mixtures are usually how you find things in nature. Rocks, the ocean, just about
anything you find. They are substances
held together by PHYSICAL FORCES,
not chemical.
Solutions are also mixtures. If you put sand into a glass of water it is considered
to be a mixture. You can always tell a mixture because each of the substances can be
separated from the group in different physical ways. You can always get the sand
out of the water by filtering the water away.
Two classic examples of mixtures are concrete and salt water. You can see them
both being made everyday. Concrete is a mixture of lime (CaO)/cement, water,
sand, and other ground-up rocks and solids. All of these are mixed together.
Workers then pour the concrete into a mold and the concrete turns into a solid
(because of the cement solidifying) with the separate pieces inside. While the
cement hardening might be a chemical reaction... The rocks and gravel are held in
place by physical forces and used for added strength. The rocks and gravel are not
chemically bonded to the cement. The gravel is also not evenly distributed, there are
still pieces here and there. The concentrations change from area to area. Salt water is
a little different. First, it's a liquid. Second, it's an ionic solution. the salt is broken
up into sodium (Na) and chloride (Cl) ions in the water.
Now you might be wondering why concrete and salt water are not new
compounds when they are all mixed together. The special thing is that the basic
parts can still be removed by physical forces. You can take the solid concrete and
grind it up again. The individual components can then be separated and you can start
all over. Salt water is even easier. All you have to do is boil the water off and the
salt is left over, just like when you started.
The thing to remember about mixtures is that you start with some pieces,
combine them, and then you can do something to pull those pieces apart again. You
wind up with the same molecules (in the same amounts) that you started with.
SOLUTIONS
Before we dive into solutions let's separate solutions from mixtures. Solutions are
groups of molecules that are mixed up in a completely even distribution. Hmmm.
Not the easiest way to say it. Scientists say that solutions are HOMOGENEOUS
systems. A mixture can have a little higher concentration on one side of the liquid
than the other. Solutions have an even concentration throughout the system.
An example: Sugar in water vs. Sand in water. Sugar dissolves and is spread
throughout the glass of water. The sand sinks to the bottom. The sugar-water could
be considered a solution. The sand-water is a mixture.
Pretty much. Solutions can be solids dissolved in liquids. They could also be gases
dissolved in liquids (like carbonated water). They can be gases in other gases and
liquids in liquids. If you mix things up and they stay at an even distribution, it is a
solution. You won't find solid-solid solutions, they are usually considered to be
mixtures.
A simple solution is basically two substances that are going to be combined. One of
them is called the SOLUTE. A solute is the substance to be dissolved (sugar). The
other is a SOLVENT. The solvent is the one doing the dissolving (water). As a rule
of thumb there is usually more solvent than solute.
So what happens? How do you make that solution? Mix the two and stir. It's that
simple. Science breaks it into three steps. When you read the steps, remember...
Solute=Sugar, Solvent=Water, System=Glass.
(1) The solute is placed in the solvent and the concentrated solute slowly breaks into
pieces.
(2) The molecules of the solvent begin to move out of the way and they make room
for the molecules of the solute. Example: The water has to make room for the sugar
molecules.
(3) The solute and solvent interact with each other until the concentration of the two
substances is equal throughout the system. The concentration of sugar in the water
would be the same from a sample at the top, bottom or middle of the glass.
Sure. All sorts of things can change the concentrations of substances in solution.
Scientists use the word SOLUBILITY. Solubility is the ability of the solvent
(water) to dissolve the solute (sugar). You may have already seen the effect of
TEMPERATURE. Usually when you heat up a solvent it can dissolve more solid
materials (sugar) and less gas (Carbon dioxide). Next on the list of factors is
PRESSURE. When you increase the surrounding pressure you can usually dissolve
more gases in the liquid. Think about your soda can. They are able to keep the fizz
inside because the contents of the can are under higher pressure. Last is the
STRUCTURE of the substances. Some things dissolve easier in one kind of
substance than another. Sugar dissolves easily in water, oil does not. So... Water has
a low solubility when it comes to oil.
GLOSSARY
experimental foundation (1) neàn taûng veà maët thöïc tieãn, lyù thuyeát
independent linear motion (8) chuyeån ñoäng tuyeán tính ñoäc laäp (theo
ñöôøng thaúng)
miscible (14) coù theå troän laãn,coù theå taïo hoãn hôïp vôùi
opposite charges attraction (2) löïc huùt do traùi daáu ñieän tích
polar molecules (6) phaân töû coù caùc electrons coù xu höôùng doàn
pure forms (5) hình thöùc nguyeân chaát, khoâng pha taïp
transformations (1) söï chuyeån dòch (töø traïng thaùi naøy qua
tri-atomic repel (7) (löïc) ñaåy cuûa ba nguyeân töû khi ôû caïnh
nhau
REFERENCES:
Luder, Vernon, & Zuffanti. (1953). General Chemistry. W. B. Saunders
Company – Philadelphia and London.
World Book, Inc. (1994). The World Book of SCIENCE POWER – Version
No 1 – Chemistry, Physics, and Life Sciences. United States. ISBN 0-
7166-2294-7
http://www.tannerm.com/
http://www.chem4kids.com/