Lecture 8: Hermetian Operators and

the Uncertainty Principle

The material in this lecture covers the following in Atkins.
11.6 The uncertainty principle

Lecture on-line
Hermetian Operators and the Uncertainty Principle (PDF)
Hermetian Operators and the Uncertainty Principle(PPT)
handouts
Assigned problems
Tutorials on-line
Reminder of the postulates of quantum mechanics
The postulates of quantum mechanics (This is the writeup for
Dry-lab-II)( This
lecture has covered postulate 4)
Basic concepts of importance for the understanding of the
postulates
Observables are Operators - Postulates of Quantum Mechanics
Expectation Values - More Postulates
Forming Operators
Hermitian Operators **You should read this**
Dirac Notation **You should read this**
Use of Matricies
Basic math background
Differential Equations
Operator Algebra
Eigenvalue Equations
Extensive account of Operators
Historic development of quantum mechanics from classical
mechanics
The Development of Classical Mechanics
Experimental Background for Quantum mecahnics
Early Development of Quantum mechanics
Audio-visuals on-line
Heisenberg Uncertainty principle (PDF)
(simplified version from Wilson)
Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle (HTML)
(simplified version from Wilson)
Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle (PowerPoint
****)(simplified version from Wilson)
Postulates of Quantum mechanics (PDF)
(simplified version from Wilson)
Postulates of Quantum mechanics (HTML)
(simplified version
from Wilson)
Postulates of quantum mechanics (PowerPoint
****)(simplified version from Wilson)
Hermetian Operators
H
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Consider a system described by the state function .
Let

F
^


be the operator representing the observable F
The average value of F , or the expectation value is given by
<F> =

*
F
^


d
A physical expectation value must be real
Thus :
<F> = <F>

*
F
^


d = (

*
F
^


d )


=

(
F
^


)

d =
An operator that satisfy this condition is H He e r r m mi i t t i i a a n n
One Definition of
Hermitian operator
Hermetian Operators
We shall now show that a hermitian operator
A satisfy

f Agdx g(Af) dx ; if f and g are well behaved

* *

We have from the difinition of a hermetian operator

* *

) A dx A dx

Let ( ) x = f(x) +cg(x); c = constant
We have : [f(x) cg(x)] A[f(x) cg(x)]dt
[f(x) cg(x)] (A[f(x) cg(x)]) dt
*
*

+ + =

+ +

This equation must hold for any c

Alternative definition of
Hermitian operator
Hermetian Operators
We have :

+ + =

+ +
[ ( ) ( )]

[ ( ) ( )]
[ ( ) ( )] (

[ ( ) ( )])
*
*
f x cg x A f x cg x d
f x cg x A f x cg x d

Expanding :
f A c f A
c g A cc g A
* *
* * * *

=
f d g d
f d g d


The first and last term on each side are the same as A
is hermetian

Alternative definition of
Hermitian operator
f A c g A
c f A c c g A
f) d ( f) d
g) d ( g) d
* *
* *
(

(

* *

Hermetian Operators
c f A g dt c g A f dt
c g (A f) dt c f (A g) dt
* * *
* * *

hus :
This equation must be satisfied for all c
i i i i f A g dt g A f dt g (A f) dt f (A g) dt
* * * *

c =i
f A g dt g A f dt g (A f) dt f (A g) dt
* * * *

c =1
f A g dt g A f dt g (A f) dt f (A g) dt
* * * *

after dividing with i

Alternative definition of
Hermitian operator
Hermetian Operators
f A g dt g (A f) dt
* *

After adding the two equations from c = 1 and c = i :

f A g dt g A f dt g (A f) dt f (A g) dt
* * * *

f A g dt g A f dt g (A f) dt f (A g) dt
* * * *

Alternative definition of
Hermitian operator
Let the linear operators A and B have
a complete set of common eigenfunctions



The Uncertainty Principle

Ag = a g
i i i

Bg = b g
i i i
Let A and B represent two observables

In this case if the system is described by
g
i
A meassurement of A and B will
have as the only outcome
< >= A a
i
and
< >= B b
i
Operators with common
eigenfunctions commute
The Uncertainty Principle
Let the linear operators A and B have
a complete set of common eigenfunctions

Ag a g
i i i
=

Bg b g
i i i
=
Then A and B must commute :


ABf BAf = [A,B]f = 0
for any function f
proof :
f c g
i
i
i
=

since g forms a complete set of

eigenfunctions
i

Operators with common
eigenfunctions commute
The Uncertainty Principle
[A,B]f = ?

f c g
i
i
i
=

( )

( ) (

)
ABf AB c g A c Bg
A c b g c b Ag c b a g
i i
i
i i
i
i i i
i
i i i
i
i i i i
i
=

( )

( ) (

)
BAf BA c g B c Ag
B c a g c b Bg c a b g c b a g
i i
i
i i
i
i i i
i
i i i
i
i i i i
i
i i i i
i
=

ABf - BAf = [A, B]f = 0
Thus :
Operators with common
eigenfunctions commute
The Uncertainty Principle
On the other hand:
If A and B do not commute :

[ , ] A B f 0
Than we can not find a commen set
of eigenfunctions g such that :
i

Ag = a g
i i i

Bg = b g
i i i
We can not find states such that the
meassurement of A and B each time
have the same outcome a and b
i i

Operators that commute
have common
eigenfunctions
Why ?
The Uncertainty Principle
We have shown
( , ]
d
dx
x)f - (x
d
dx
)f = [
d
dx
x f f = 1
Consider now :

[x, p x,
i i
x,
i
x
] [ ] [ ] = = = =
h h h
h
d
dx
d
dx
i
[ , ] ; [ , ]
d
dx
x x
d
dx
= = 1 1
Also:
[x, p p p x

x
2
x
2
x
2
] x
= p p x +p p p p

x
2
x
2
x x x x
x x x
[ , ] x p p
x x
[ , ] p x p
x x

[x, p p p

x
2
x x
] = + = i i
d
dx
h h h 2
2
Important operators
that don' t commute
The Uncertainty Principle
For a particle in 3 - D
[x,H] = [x, (T + V)] =

[ ,

] [ ,

( , , )] x T x V x y z +
o
= [ ,

] x T
= + + [ , ( )] x
m
p p p
x y z
1
2
2 2 2
= + +
1
2
1
2
1
2
2 2 2
m
x p
m
x p
m
x p
x y z
[ , ] [ , ] [ , ]
o
o
=
1
2
2
m
x p
x
[ , ]

=
1
2
2
m
i p
x
( ) h

=
i
m
p
x
h

We might also show:

[ ,

]
( , , )
p H
i
dV x y z
dx
x
=
h
Important operators
that don' t commute
The Uncertainty Principle
The two operators p and x do not commute
x


[x, p
x
] = ih
Thus we can not simultaniously find
eigenfunctions to both operators
Consider a statefunction that is an eigenfunction to H

Since :

[ ,

] x H i = h
The statefunction is not an eigenfunction to x
Thus a state described by will not
have a sharp value for x

The meassurement of x can have different outcomes

Important operators
that don' t commute
The Uncertainty Principle

[ ,

]
( , , )
p H
i
dV x y z
dx
x
=
h
Also since :
A system described by the statefunction
will not in general have a sharp value for p
x

That is the meassurement of p will have

more than one outcome
x

Exceptions ?
Important operators
that don' t commute
What you should learn from this lecture
2. A hermitian operator A satisfy
A dx (A ) dx or f Agdx g(Af) dx
for the "well behaved functions , f, and g
* * * *

=

=

1.

|

*
Dirac notation

m n m n m n mn
F d F F mF n F

= =
( )
= =
3.



[A, B] = 0
If the linear operators A and B have
a complete set of common eigenfunctions
4.


.
[A, B] = 0 ,
.
In this case one can find states such that a meassurement
of A and B will give the same outcomes a and b
the meassurements are carried out. The two values
a and b are eigenvalues to
n m
n m
If the linear operators A and B have
a complete set of common eigenfunctions
each
time
A and B
What you should learn from this lecture
5.




The uncertainty relation of quantum mechanics :
If do not commute, [A, B] 0 , meassurements
of A and B will give different values each time.
If the standard deviation in the meassurements of A and B
are A and B than :
A B =
1
2i
[A, B]
on the state we might have A B or A < B.
However A B must be constant.
*
A and B
d
Depending

6. commutation relations :
[x, p
x
Im tan
[ ,

] [ ,

]; ] ;[ ,

]
( , , )
por t
x H x T i p H
i
dV x y z
dx
x
= = = h
h
The Dirac Notation
We shall often be working with integrals of the form

m
*
F
^

n
d
where

F
^


is an operator
We shall introduce the D
D
I
I
R
R
A
A
C
C
b
b
r
r
a
a
c
c
e
e
t
t
notation or
abbreviation

m
*
F
^

n
d = <
m
|

F
^


|
n
> = (
m
|

F
^


|
n
) = < m|

F
^


|n>
We might also write

m
*
F
^

n
d = F
mn
Dirac notation Appendix A
For the special case in which

F
^


= 1 one has

m
*

n
d = <
m
*
|

n
> = <m|n>
We might refer to <m|n> as an overlap integral
The special overlap integral

m
*

m
d = <
m
*
|

m
> = <m|m>
is refered to as the norm of
m
We have
<m|n>
* = (

m
*

n
d )

=

d
In particular < m|m> = <m|m>

Dirac notation
Appendix A
The Uncertainty Principle
Consider a large number N of
identical boxes with identical
particles all described by the
same statefunction ( , , ) : x y z
Consider the observable A represented by the operator A

Let [A, H] 0

Thus the system described by do not

have sharp value for A.

The average (expectation ) value is defined by :

< A >= A
*

d
Appendix B
<A> A
1
A
2
A
n
The Uncertainty Principle
The measurement of A on each of the n identical
systems will give a different outcome A
i
We define the variance as :
1
n
i
i

< >
( )
= = A A A
A
2 2 2
( )

A
A d
2 2
=

< >
*
(

) A
=

< > + < >

*
(

) A
2
2
2
A A A d
=

< >

+ < >

* * *

A

2
d A A d A d 2
2
=

< > = < > < >

*

A
2
d A A A
2 2 2
Appendix B
The Uncertainty Principle
We define :
A =
A
2
as the standard deviation
e shall later show that two for two observables A and B
A B =
1
2i
[A,B]
*

d
Consider as an example x and p
x


[x, p
x
] = ih
Since :

x =
1
2i
[x, p ]
*
x
p d
x

=
1
2
h
We can not simultaniously obtain sharp values
for x and p
x
Appendix B
The Uncertainty Principle
( ) exp x
ikx
=

p k
x
= h

p k
x
= h
( ) exp x
ikx
=

< < x
< < x

x
p
x
=
= 0

x
p
x
=
= 0
Appendix B
The Uncertainty Principle
We can write as a superposition of cosnx
n = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8...

C nx
C e e
n
n
n
n
n
n
inx inx
0
0
cos
( )
Now x decreases
and p increases
x

Appendix B
The Uncertainty Principle
Appendix B