Lecture-2

Evolution Of Microprocessor
It can be classified in three generations:

- First Generation

- Second Generation

- Third Generation
First Generation
Microprocessor introduced between 1971
and 1973 were the first generation
systems.
Designed using the PMOS technology
This technology provided low cost, slow
speed and low output currents and was
not compatible with TTL (transistor-
transistor logic).
Second Generation
After 1973, second generation
microprocessors such as Motorola 6800
and 6809, Intel 8085 and Zilog Z80
evolved.
These processors were fabricated using
the NMOS technology.
The NMOS process offers faster speed
and higher density than NMOS and is TTL
compatible.
Third Generation
After 1978, the third generation microprocessors were
introduced.
These processors are 16 bits wide and include typical
processors such as Intel 8086/80186/80286 and
Motorola 68000/68010.
These microprocessors are designed using the HMOS
(High density and high power metal oxide
semiconductor).
HMOS provides the following advantages over NMOS:
Speed-Power product of HMOS is 4 times better than NMOS.
Circuit densities provided by HMOS are approximately twice
those of NMOS.
Microprocessor Progression: Intel

The first microprocessor to make it into a home
computer was the Intel 8080, a complete 8-bit
computer on one chip, introduced in 1973.


The first microprocessor to make a real splash in the
market was the Intel 8088, introduced in 1979 and
incorporated into the IBM PC (which first appeared
around 1982).

Then PC market moved from the 8088 to the 80286 to
the 80386 to the 80486 to the Pentium to the Pentium II
to the Pentium III to the Pentium 4.
All of these microprocessors are made by Intel and all of
them are improvements on the basic design of the 8088.
The Pentium 4 can execute any piece of code that ran
on the original 8088, but it does it about 5,000 times
faster!

Intel Processors
Name Date Transistors Microns Clock speed Data width MIPS
8080 1974 6,000 6 2 MHz 8 bits 0.64
8088 1979 29,000 3 5 MHz
16 bits
8-bit bus
0.33
80286 1982 134,000 1.5 6 MHz 16 bits 1
80386 1985 275,000 1.5 16 MHz 32 bits 5
80486 1989 1,200,000 1 25 MHz 32 bits 20
Pentium 1993 3,100,000 0.8 60 MHz
32 bits
64-bit bus
100
Pentium II 1997 7,500,000 0.35 233 MHz
32 bits
64-bit bus
~300
Pentium III 1999 9,500,000 0.25 450 MHz
32 bits
64-bit bus
~510
Pentium 4 2000 42,000,000 0.18 1.5 GHz
32 bits
64-bit bus
~1,700
Pentium 4
"Prescott"
2004 125,000,000 0.09 3.6 GHz
32 bits
64-bit bus
~7,000
Terminology
Date is the year that the processor was first
introduced. Many processors are re-introduced
at higher clock speeds for many years after the
original release date.
Transistors is the number of transistors on the
chip. One can see that the number of transistors
on a single chip has risen steadily over the
years.
Microns is the width, in microns, of the smallest
wire on the chip. For comparison, a human hair
is 100 microns thick. As the feature size on the
chip goes down, the number of transistors rises.

Clock speed is the maximum rate that the chip can be
clocked at. Given in megahertz (MHz), the clock speed
determines how many instructions per second the
processor can execute.

Data Width is the width of the ALU. An 8-bit ALU can
add/subtract/multiply/etc. two 8-bit numbers, while a 32-
bit ALU can manipulate 32-bit numbers.
- An 8-bit ALU would have to execute four
instructions to add two 32-bit numbers, while a 32-bit
ALU can do it in one instruction.
- In many cases, the external data bus is the same
width as the ALU, but not always.
-The 8088 had a 16-bit ALU and an 8-bit bus, while
the modern Pentiums fetch data 64 bits at a time for their
32-bit ALUs.

MIPS stands for "millions of instructions per
second" and is a rough measure of the
performance of a CPU.
Instruction set: Set of instructions that the
microprocessor can execute.
Bandwidth : Number of bits processed in a single
instruction.
In both cases, the higher the value, the more
powerful the CPU. For example, a 32-bit
microprocessor that runs at 50MHz is more
powerful than a 16-bit microprocessor that runs at
25MHz.



Basic Computer Buses
All computers use three types of basic buses. The name
of the bus is generally determined by the type of signal it
is carrying or the method of operation. We group the
buses into three areas as you see them in their most
common uses.
They are as follows:
System Bus
Instruction (I), Operand (O), Input/Output Memory (I/O
MEM) or Input/Output Controller (IOC), and Computer
Interconnection System (CIS)
Time multiplexed bus
The System Bus
The system bus contains three buses. These are:
(i) Address bus (ii) Data bus (or Memory bus)
(iii) Control bus (or timing and control bus)
These buses connect the microprocessor to
each of the memory and I/O elements so that
information transfer between the microprocessor
and any of the other elements can take place.
Address bus

The address bus consists of all the signals
necessary to define any of the possible memory
address locations within the computer, or for
modular memories any of the possible memory
address locations within a module.
Information transfer normally takes place only in
one direction, from the microprocessor to the
memory or I/O elements.
Therefore this is called unidirectional bus.
This bus is usually 16 to 32 bits wide.

An address is defined as a label, symbol,
or other set of characters used to
designate a location or register where
information is stored.
Before data or instructions can be written
into or read from memory by the CPU or
I/O sections, an address must be
transmitted to memory over the address
bus.
Data bus
Information can flow in both directions, to or
from the microprocessor. That is why it is called
bidirectional bus.
This bus is usually 8, 16 or 32 bits wide.
Data bus handles the transfer of all data and
instructions between functional areas of the
computer.
The bidirectional data bus can only transmit
in one direction at a time.
Data bus is also used to transfer data between
memory
and I/O section during input/output operations
.
The information on the data bus is either
written into memory at the address defined
by the address bus or consists of data
read from the memory address specified
by the address bus.

Control bus
Used by the CPU to direct and
monitor the actions of the other
functional areas of the computer.
Used to transmit a variety of
signals (read, write, interrupt)
necessary to control and co
ordinate the operations of the
computer.
Instruction (I) Bus
The instruction (I) bus allows communication
between the CPU and memory.
It carries to the CPU the program instruction
words to be operated on by the CPU from
memory or returns instructions to memory.
The I bus is controlled by the CPU.
It is capable of sending or receiving data while
the operand (O) bus is receiving or sending data
at the same time, but only in one direction at a
time.
Operand (O) Bus
The operand (O) bus allows communication
between the CPU and memory or the CPU and
an I/O Controller (IOC).
The CPU controls the operation in both cases.
The O bus is capable of sending or receiving
data, while the I bus is receiving or sending data
at the same time, but only in one direction at a
time.
The direction of the data depends on whether
the CPU is reading data from memory or data is
being written back into memory.
I/O MEM Bus or Input/Output
Controller (IOC) BUS
The I/O memory bus allows communica
tion between an I/O controller (IOC) and
memory.
It is controlled by the IOC.
To respond to the CPU, the I/O MEM bus
must use the O bus.
Computer Interconnection
System (CIS)
CIS provides the co
mplete functional re
plication of the
computer intra-
connection among
CPUs, IOCs, and
memories in separa
te computers.
Memory organization:
A memory unit is an integral part of any
microcomputer system and its primary
purpose is to hold program and data.
A microcomputer memory system can be
logically divided into three groups:
- Processor memory
- Primary or main memory
- Secondary memory

Processor memory
Refers to the microprocessor registers.
These registers used to hold temporary results
when a computation is in progress.
Primary/Main memory
Storage area in which all programs are executed.
Microprocessor can directly access only those
items that are stored in primary memory.
Primary memory normally includes ROM (Read
Only Memory) and RAM (Random Access
Memory).
Secondary memory
Storage medium comprising slow devices such as
magnetic tapes and disks.
These devices are used to hold large data files and huge
programs such as compilers and data base management
systems which are not needed by the processor
frequently.
Secondary memories are also referred to as auxiliary or
backup store or virtual memory.
The microcomputer cannot directly execute programs
and data in excess of the main memory.
In order to execute these programs, the microcomputer
must transfer them to its main memory by a system
program called the operating system.
ROM
As the name implies, a ROM permits only a read access.
Some ROMs are custom made, means their contents
are programmed by the manufacturer. Such ROMs are
called mask programmable ROMs (PROM).
Sometimes a user may have to program a ROM in the
field. For instance, PROM is available. The main
disadvantage of a PROM is that it cannot be
reprogrammed.
Some ROMs can be reprogrammed, these are called
Erasable Programmable Read Only Memories
(EPROMs). In an EPROM, programs are entered using
electrical impulses and the stored information is erased
by using ultraviolet rays.
With advances in IC technology, it is
possible to achieve an electrical means of
erasure. These new ROMs are called
Electrically Alterable ROMs (EAROMs)
or Electrically Erasable PROM
(EEPROMs or E2PROMs).
Volatile and nonvolatile memory
Information stored in RAM will be lost if the
power is turned off. This property is known
as volatility and hence RAMs memory is
called volatile memories.
Some information in a magnetic tape or
magnetic disk is not lost when the power is
turned off. Therefore, these storage
devices are called nonvolatile memories.
Such ac ROM.
Static RAM
Some RAMs are constructed using bipolar
transistors and the information is stored in
the form of voltage levels in flip-flops.
These voltage levels usually do not drift
away or decay.
Such memories are called static RAMs
because the stored information remains
constant for some period of time
Dynamic RAM
Some RAMs that are designed using MOS
transistors, the information is held in the
form of electrical charges in capacitors.
Here, the stored charge has the tendency
to decay.
Therefore, a stored 1 would become a 0 if
no precautions were taken. These
memories are referred to as dynamic
RAMs.
In order to prevent any information loss,
dynamic RAMs have to be refreshed at
regular intervals.
Refreshing means boosting the signal
level and writing it back.
This activity is performed by a hardware
unit called refresh logic which can either
be a separate chip or is contained in the
microprocessor chip .