MIND, SELF AND SOCIETY

from the Standpoint of a Social Behaviorist

George Herbert Mead
Table of Contents:
Part I: The Point of View of Social Behaviorism
1. Social Psychology and Behaio!is"
#. The Behaio!is$ic Signi%icance o% A$$i$&des
'. The Behaio!is$ic Signi%icance o% (es$&!es
). *ise o% Pa!allelis" in Psychology
+. Pa!allelis" and $he A",ig&i$y o% -Conscio&sness-
.. The P!og!a" o% Behaio!is"
Part II: Mind
/. 0&nd$ and $he Conce1$ o% $he (es$&!e
2. I"i$a$ion and $he O!igin o% Lang&age
3. The 4ocal (es$&!e and $he Signi%ican$ Sy",ol
15. Tho&gh$, Co""&nica$ion and $he Signi%ican$ Sy",ol
11. Meaning
1#. 6nie!sali$y
1'. The Na$&!e o% *e%lec$ie In$elligence
1). Behaio!is", 0a$sonis", and *e%lec$ion
1+. Behaio!is" and Psychological Pa!allelis"
1.. Mind and $he Sy",ol
1/. The *ela$ion o% Mind $o *es1onse and Eni!on"en$
Part III: The Self
12. The Sel% and $he O!ganis"
13. The Bac7g!o&nd o% $he (enesis o% $he Sel%
#5. Play, $he (a"e, and $he (ene!ali8ed O$he!
#1. The Sel% and $he S&,9ec$ie
##. The -I- and $he -Me-
#'. Social A$$i$&des and $he Physical 0o!ld
#). Mind as $he Indiid&al I"1o!$a$ion o% $he Social P!ocess
#+. The -I- and $he -Me- as Phases o% $he Sel%
#.. The *eali8a$ion o% $he Sel% in $he Social Si$&a$ion
#/. The Con$!i,&$ion o% $he -Me- and $he -I-
#2. The Social C!ea$ii$y o% $he E"e!gen$ Sel%
#3. A Con$!as$ o% Indiid&alis$ic and Social Theo!ies o% $he Sel%
Part IV: Society
'5. The Basis o% :&"an Socie$y; Man and $he Insec$s
'1. The Basis o% :&"an Socie$y; Man and $he 4e!$e,!a$es
'#. O!ganis", Co""&ni$y, and Eni!on"en$
''. The Social Fo&nda$ions and F&nc$ions o% Tho&gh$ and Co""&nica$ion
'). The Co""&ni$y and $he Ins$i$&$ion
'+. The F&sion o% $he -I- and $he -Me- in Social Ac$ii$ies
'.. De"oc!acy and 6nie!sali$y in Socie$y
'/. F&!$he! Conside!a$ion o% *eligio&s and Econo"ic A$$i$&des
'2. The Na$&!e o% Sy"1a$hy
'3. Con%lic$ and In$eg!a$ion
)5. The F&nc$ions o% Pe!sonali$y and *eason in Social O!gani8a$ion
)1. O,s$acles and P!o"ises in Social O!gani8a$ion
)#. S&""a!y and Concl&sion
S!!lementary "ssays
1. The F&nc$ion o% I"age!y in Cond&c$
#. The Biologic Indiid&al
'. The Sel% and $he P!ocess o% *e%lec$ion
). F!ag"en$s on E$hics
I# S$CI%& PS'CH$&$G' %() B"H%VI$*ISM
SOCIAL 1sychology has, as a !&le, deal$ <i$h a!io&s 1hases o% social e=1e!ience %!o" $he
1sychological s$and1oin$ o% indiid&al e=1e!ience. The 1oin$ o% a11!oach <hich I <ish $o s&gges$ is
$ha$ o% dealing <i$h e=1e!ience %!o" $he s$and1oin$ o% socie$y, a$ leas$ %!o" $he s$and1oin$ o%
co""&nica$ion as essen$ial $o $he social o!de!. Social 1sychology, on $his ie<, 1!es&11oses an
a11!oach $o e=1e!ience %!o" $he s$and1oin$ o% $he indiid&al, ,&$ &nde!$a7es $o de$e!"ine in
1a!$ic&la! $ha$ <hich ,elongs $o $his e=1e!ience ,eca&se $he indiid&al hi"sel% ,elongs $o a social
s$!&c$&!e, a social o!de!.
No e!y sha!1 line can ,e d!a<n ,e$<een social 1sychology and indiid&al 1sychology. Social
1sychology is es1ecially in$e!es$ed in $he e%%ec$ <hich $he social g!o&1 has in $he de$e!"ina$ion o%
$he e=1e!ience and cond&c$ o% $he indiid&al "e",e!. I% <e a,andon $he conce1$ion o% a
s&,s$an$ie so&l endo<ed <i$h $he sel% o% $he indiid&al a$ ,i!$h, $hen <e "ay !ega!d $he
deelo1"en$ o% $he indiid&al>s sel%, and o% his sel%?conscio&sness <i$hin $he %ield o% his e=1e!ience,
as $he social 1sychologis$>s s1ecial in$e!es$. The!e a!e, $hen, ce!$ain 1hases o% 1sychology <hich
a!e in$e!es$ed in s$&dying $he !ela$ion o% $he indiid&al o!ganis" $o $he social g!o&1 $o <hich i$
,elongs, and $hese 1hases cons$i$&$e social 1sychology as a ,!anch o% gene!al 1sychology. Th&s, in
$he s$&dy o% $he e=1e!ience and ,ehaio! o% $he indiid&al o!ganis" o! sel% in i$s de1endence &1on
$he social g!o&1 $o <hich i$ ,elongs, <e %ind a de%ini$ion o% $he %ield o% social 1sychology.
0hile "inds and seles a!e essen$ially social 1!od&c$s, 1!od&c$s o! 1heno"ena o% $he social side o%
h&"an e=1e!ience, $he 1hysiological "echanis" &nde!lying e=1e!ience is %a! %!o" i!!elean$ ??
indeed is indis1ensa,le?? $o $hei! genesis and e=is$ence@ %o! indiid&al e=1e!ience and ,ehaio! is,
o% co&!se, 1hysiologically ,asic $o social e=1e!ience and ,ehaio!; $he 1!ocesses and "echanis"s
o% $he la$$e! Aincl&ding $hose <hich a!e essen$ial $o $he o!igin and e=is$ence o% "inds and selesB a!e
de1enden$ 1hysiologically &1on $he 1!ocesses and "echanis"s o% $he %o!"e!, and &1on $he social
%&nc$ioning o% $hese. Indiid&al 1sychology, nee!$heless, de%ini$ely a,s$!ac$s ce!$ain %ac$o!s %!o" $he
si$&a$ion <i$h <hich social 1sychology deals "o!e nea!ly in i$s conc!e$e $o$ali$y. 0e shall a11!oach
$his la$$e! %ield %!o" a ,ehaio!is$ic 1oin$ o% ie<.
The co""on 1sychological s$and1oin$ <hich is !e1!esen$ed ,y ,ehaio!is" is %o&nd in Cohn B.
0a$son. The ,ehaio!is" <hich <e shall "a7e &se o% is "o!e adeD&a$e $han $ha$ o% <hich 0a$son
"a7es &se. Behaio!is" in $his <ide! sense is si"1ly an a11!oach $o $he s$&dy o% $he e=1e!ience o%
$he indiid&al %!o" $he 1oin$ o% ie< o% his cond&c$, 1a!$ic&la!ly, ,&$ no$ e=cl&siely, $he cond&c$ as i$
is o,se!a,le ,y o$he!s. :is$o!ically, ,ehaio!is" en$e!ed 1sychology $h!o&gh $he doo! o% ani"al
1sychology. The!e i$ <as %o&nd $o ,e i"1ossi,le $o &se <ha$ is $e!"ed in$!os1ec$ion. One canno$
a11eal $o $he ani"al>s in$!os1ec$ion, ,&$ "&s$ s$&dy $he ani"al in $e!"s o% e=$e!nal cond&c$. Ea!lie!
ani"al 1sychology added an in%e!en$ial !e%e!ence $o conscio&sness, and een &nde!$oo7 $o %ind $he
1oin$ in cond&c$ a$ <hich conscio&sness a11ea!s. This in%e!ence had 1e!ha1s, a!ying deg!ees o%
1!o,a,ili$y, ,&$ i$ <as one <hich co&ld no$ ,e $es$ed e=1e!i"en$ally. I$ co&ld ,e $hen si"1ly d!o11ed
as %a! as science <as conce!ned. I$ <as no$ necessa!y %o! $he s$&dy o% $he cond&c$ o% $he indiid&al
ani"al. :aing $a7en $ha$ ,ehaio!is$ic s$and1oin$ %o! $he lo<e! ani"als, i$ <as 1ossi,le $o ca!!y i$
oe! $o $he h&"an ani"al.
The!e !e"ained, ho<ee!, $he %ield o% in$!os1ec$ion, o% e=1e!iences <hich a!e 1!ia$e and ,elong $o
$he indiid&al hi"sel% ? e=1e!iences co""only called s&,9ec$ie. 0ha$ <as $o ,e done <i$h $heseE
Cohn B. 0a$son>s a$$i$&de <as $ha$ o% $he F&een in Alice in Wonderland - -O%% <i$h $hei! headsG-?
$he!e <e!e no s&ch $hings. The!e <as no i"age!y, and no conscio&sness. The %ield o% so?called
in$!os1ec$ion 0a$son e=1lained ,y $he &se o% lang&age sy",ols.+,- These sy",ols <e!e no$
necessa!ily &$$e!ed lo&dly eno&gh $o ,e hea!d ,y o$he!s, and o%$en only inoled $he "&scles o% $he
$h!oa$ <i$ho&$ leading $o a&di,le s1eech. Tha$ <as all $he!e <as $o $ho&gh$. One $hin7s, ,&$ one
$hin7s in $e!"s o% lang&age. In $his <ay 0a$son e=1lained $he <hole %ield o% inne! e=1e!ience in
$e!"s o% e=$e!nal ,ehaio!. Ins$ead o% calling s&ch ,ehaio! s&,9ec$ie i$ <as !ega!ded as $he %ield o%
,ehaio! $ha$ <as accessi,le only $o $he indiid&al hi"sel%. One co&ld o,se!e his o<n "oe"en$s,
his o<n o!gans o% a!$ic&la$ion, <he!e o$he! 1e!sons co&ld no$ no!"ally o,se!e $he". Ce!$ain %ields
<e!e accessi,le $o $he indiid&al alone, ,&$ $he o,se!a$ion <as no$ di%%e!en$ in 7ind@ $he di%%e!ence
lay only in $he deg!ee o% accessi,ili$y o% o$he!s $o ce!$ain o,se!a$ions. One co&ld ,e se$ &1 in a
!oo" ,y hi"sel% and o,se!e so"e$hing $ha$ no one else co&ld o,se!e. 0ha$ a "an o,se!ed in
$he !oo" <o&ld ,e his o<n e=1e!ience. No<, in $his <ay so"e$hing goes on in $he $h!oa$ o! $he
,ody o% $he indiid&al <hich no one else can o,se!e. The!e a!e, o% co&!se, scien$i%ic ins$!&"en$s
$ha$ can ,e a$$ached $o $he $h!oa$ o! $he ,ody $o !eeal $he $endency $o<a!d "oe"en$. The!e a!e
so"e "oe"en$s $ha$ a!e easily o,se!a,le and o$he!s <hich can ,e de$ec$ed only ,y $he indiid&al
hi"sel%, ,&$ $he!e is no D&ali$a$ie di%%e!ence in $he $<o cases. I$ is si"1ly !ecogni8ed $ha$ $he
a11a!a$&s o% o,se!a$ion is one $ha$ has a!io&s deg!ees o% s&ccess. Tha$, in ,!ie%, is $he 1oin$ o%
ie< o% 0a$son>s ,ehaio!is$ic 1sychology. I$ ai"s $o o,se!e cond&c$ as i$ $a7es 1lace, and $o
&$ili8e $ha$ cond&c$ $o e=1lain $he e=1e!ience o% $he indiid&al <i$ho&$ ,!inging in $he o,se!a$ion o%
an inne! e=1e!ience, a conscio&sness as s&ch.
The!e <as ano$he! a$$ac7 on conscio&sness, $ha$ o% 0illia" Ca"es in his 135) a!$icle en$i$led,
-Does >Conscio&sness> E=is$E-+.- Ca"es 1oin$ed o&$ $ha$ i% a 1e!son is in a !oo" $he o,9ec$s o% $he
in$e!io! can ,e loo7ed a$ %!o" $<o s$and1oin$s. The %&!ni$&!e, %o! ins$ance, "ay ,e conside!ed %!o"
$he s$and1oin$ o% $he 1e!son <ho ,o&gh$ i$ and &sed i$, %!o" $he 1oin$ o% ie< o% i$s colo! al&es
<hich a$$ach $o i$ in $he "inds o% $he 1e!sons <ho o,se!e $he", i$s aes$he$ic al&e, i$s econo"ic
al&e, i$s $!adi$ional al&e. All o% $hese <e can s1ea7 o% in $e!"s o% 1sychology@ $hey <ill ,e 1&$ in$o
!ela$ionshi1 <i$h $he e=1e!ience o% $he indiid&al. One "an 1&$s one al&e &1on i$ and ano$he! gies
i$ ano$he! al&e. B&$ $he sa"e o,9ec$s can ,e !ega!ded as 1hysical 1a!$s o% a 1hysical !oo". 0ha$
Ca"es insis$ed &1on <as $ha$ $he $<o cases di%%e! only in an a!!ange"en$ o% ce!$ain con$en$s in
di%%e!en$ se!ies. The %&!ni$&!e, $he <alls, $he ho&se i$sel%, ,elong $o one his$o!ical se!ies. 0e s1ea7
o% $he ho&se as haing ,een ,&il$, o% $he %&!ni$&!e as haing ,een "ade. 0e 1&$ $he ho&se and
%&!ni$&!e in$o ano$he! se!ies <hen one co"es in and assesses $hese o,9ec$s %!o" $he 1oin$ o% ie<
o% his o<n e=1e!ience. :e is $al7ing a,o&$ $he sa"e chai!, ,&$ $he chai! is %o! hi" no< a "a$$e! o%
ce!$ain con$o&!s, ce!$ain colo!s, $a7en %!o" his o<n e=1e!ience. I$ inoles $he e=1e!ience o% $he
indiid&al. No< one can $a7e a c!oss?sec$ion o% ,o$h o% $hese $<o o!de!s so $ha$ a$ a ce!$ain 1oin$
$he!e is a "ee$ing o% $he $<o se!ies. The s$a$e"en$ in $e!"s o% conscio&sness si"1ly "eans $he
!ecogni$ion $ha$ $he !oo" lies no$ only in $he his$o!ical se!ies ,&$ also in $he e=1e!ience o% $he
indiid&al. The!e has ,een o% la$e in 1hiloso1hy a g!o<ing !ecogni$ion o% $he i"1o!$ance o% Ca"es>s
insis$ence $ha$ a g!ea$ deal has ,een 1laced in conscio&sness $ha$ "&s$ ,e !e$&!ned $o $he so?called
o,9ec$ie <o!ld.+/-
Psychology i$sel% canno$ e!y <ell ,e "ade a s$&dy o% $he %ield o% conscio&sness alone@ i$ is
necessa!ily a s$&dy o% a "o!e e=$ensie %ield. I$ is, ho<ee!, $ha$ science <hich does "a7e &se o%
in$!os1ec$ion, in $he sense $ha$ i$ loo7s <i$hin $he e=1e!ience o% $he indiid&al %o! 1heno"ena no$
deal$ <i$h in any o$he! sciences H1heno"ena $o <hich only $he indiid&al hi"sel% has e=1e!ien$ial
access. Tha$ <hich ,elongs Ae=1e!ien$iallyB $o $he indiid&al D&a indiid&al, and is accessi,le $o hi"
alone, is ce!$ainly incl&ded <i$hin $he %ield o% 1sychology, <ha$ee! else is o! is no$ $h&s incl&ded.
This is o&! ,es$ cl&e in a$$e"1$ing $o isola$e $he %ield o% 1sychology. The 1sychological da$&" is ,es$
de%ined, $he!e%o!e, in $e!"s o% accessi,ili$y. Tha$ <hich is accessi,le, in $he e=1e!ience o% $he
indiid&al, only $o $he indiid&al hi"sel%, is 1ec&lia!ly 1sychological.
I <an$ $o 1oin$ o&$, ho<ee!, $ha$ een <hen <e co"e $o $he disc&ssion o% s&ch -inne!- e=1e!ience,
<e can a11!oach i$ %!o" $he 1oin$ o% ie< o% $he ,ehaio!is$, 1!oided $ha$ <e do no$ $oo na!!o<ly
conceie $his 1oin$ o% ie<. 0ha$ one "&s$ insis$ &1on is $ha$ o,9ec$iely o,se!a,le ,ehaio! %inds
e=1!ession <i$hin $he indiid&al, no$ in $he sense o% ,eing in ano$he! <o!ld, a s&,9ec$ie <o!ld, ,&$ in
$he sense o% ,eing <i$hin his o!ganis". So"e$hing o% $his ,ehaio! a11ea!s in <ha$ <e "ay $e!"
-a$$i$&des,- $he ,eginnings o% ac$s. No<, i% <e co"e ,ac7 $o s&ch a$$i$&des <e %ind $he" giing !ise
$o all so!$s o% !es1onses. The $elesco1e in $he hands o% a noice is no$ a $elesco1e in $he sense $ha$
i$ is $o $hose on $o1 o% Mo&n$ 0ilson. I% <e <an$ $o $!ace $he !es1onses o% $he as$!ono"e!, <e hae
$o go ,ac7 in$o his cen$!al ne!o&s sys$e", ,ac7 $o a <hole se!ies o% ne&!ons@ and <e %ind
so"e$hing $he!e $ha$ ans<e!s $o $he e=ac$ <ay in <hich $he as$!ono"e! a11!oaches $he ins$!&"en$
&nde! ce!$ain condi$ions. Tha$ is $he ,eginning o% $he ac$@ i$ is a 1a!$ o% $he ac$. The e=$e!nal ac$
<hich <e do o,se!e is a 1a!$ o% $he 1!ocess <hich has s$a!$ed <i$hin@ $he al&es+0- <hich <e say
$he ins$!&"en$ has a!e al&es $h!o&gh $he !ela$ionshi1 o% $he o,9ec$ $o $he 1e!son <ho has $ha$ so!$
o% a$$i$&de. I% a 1e!son did no$ hae $ha$ 1a!$ic&la! ne!o&s sys$e", $he ins$!&"en$ <o&ld ,e o% no
al&e. I$ <o&ld no$ ,e a $elesco1e.
In ,o$h e!sions o% ,ehaio!is" ce!$ain cha!ac$e!is$ics <hich $hings hae and ce!$ain e=1e!iences
<hich indiid&als hae can ,e s$a$ed as occ&!!ences inside o% an ac$.+1- B&$ 1a!$ o% $he ac$ lies
<i$hin $he o!ganis" and only co"es $o e=1!ession la$e!@ i$ is $ha$ side o% ,ehaio! <hich I $hin7
0a$son has 1assed oe!. The!e is a %ield <i$hin $he ac$ i$sel% <hich is no$ e=$e!nal, ,&$ <hich
,elongs $o $he ac$, and $he!e a!e cha!ac$e!is$ics o% $ha$ inne! o!ganic cond&c$ <hich do !eeal
$he"seles in o&! o<n a$$i$&des, es1ecially $hose connec$ed <i$h s1eech. No<, i% o&! ,ehaio!is$ic
1oin$ o% ie< $a7es $hese a$$i$&des in$o acco&n$ <e %ind $ha$ i$ can e!y <ell coe! $he %ield o%
1sychology. In any case, $his a11!oach is one o% 1a!$ic&la! i"1o!$ance ,eca&se i$ is a,le $o deal <i$h
$he %ield o% co""&nica$ion in a <ay <hich nei$he! 0a$son no! $he in$!os1ec$ionis$ can do. 0e <an$
$o a11!oach lang&age no$ %!o" $he s$and1oin$ o% inne! "eanings $o ,e e=1!essed, ,&$ in i$s la!ge!
con$e=$ o% coo1e!a$ion in $he g!o&1 $a7ing 1lace ,y "eans o% signals and ges$&!es.+2- Meaning
a11ea!s <i$hin $ha$ 1!ocess. O&! ,ehaio!is" is a social ,ehaio!is".
Social 1sychology s$&dies $he ac$ii$y o! ,ehaio! o% $he indiid&al as i$ lies <i$hin $he social 1!ocess@
$he ,ehaio! o% an indiid&al can ,e &nde!s$ood only in $e!"s o% $he ,ehaio! o% $he <hole social
g!o&1 o% <hich he is a "e",e!, since his indiid&al ac$s a!e inoled in la!ge!, social ac$s <hich go
,eyond hi"sel% and <hich i"1lica$e $he o$he! "e",e!s o% $ha$ g!o&1.
0e a!e no$, in social 1sychology, ,&ilding &1 $he ,ehaio! o% $he social g!o&1 in $e!"s o% $he
,ehaio! o% $he se1a!a$e indiid&als co"1osing i$@ !a$he!, <e a!e s$a!$ing o&$ <i$h a Oen social
<hole o% co"1le= g!o&1 ac$ii$y, in$o <hich <e analy8e Aas ele"en$sB $he ,ehaio! o% each o% $he
se1a!a$e indiid&als co"1osing i$. 0e a$$e"1$, $ha$ is, $o e=1lain $he cond&c$ o% $he indiid&al in
$e!"s o% $he o!gani8ed cond&c$ o% $he social g!o&1, !a$he! $han $o acco&n$ %o! $he o!gani8ed cond&c$
o% $he social g!o&1 in $e!"s o% $he cond&c$ o% $he se1a!a$e indiid&als ,elonging $o i$. Fo! social
1sychology, $he <hole Asocie$yB is 1!io! $o $he 1a!$ A$he indiid&alB, no$ $he 1a!$ $o $he <hole@ and $he
1a!$ is e=1lained in $e!"s o% $he <hole, no$ $he <hole in $e!"s o% $he 1a!$ o! 1a!$s. The social ac$/ is
no$ e=1lained ,y ,&ilding i$ &1 o&$ o% s$i"&l&s 1l&s !es1onse@ i$ "&s$ ,e $a7en as a dyna"ic <hole?
as so"e$hing going on?no 1a!$ o% <hich can ,e conside!ed o! &nde!s$ood ,y i$sel%?a co"1le=
o!ganic 1!ocess i"1lied ,y each indiid&al s$i"&l&s and !es1onse inoled in i$.
In social 1sychology <e ge$ a$ $he social 1!ocess %!o" $he inside as <ell as %!o" $he o&$side. Social
1sychology is ,ehaio!is$ic in $he sense o% s$a!$ing o%% <i$h an o,se!a,le ac$ii$y?$he dyna"ic, on?
going social 1!ocess, and $he social ac$s <hich a!e i$s co"1onen$ ele"en$s?$o ,e s$&died and
analy8ed scien$i%ically. B&$ i$ is no$ ,ehaio!is$ic in $he sense o% igno!ing $he inne! e=1e!ience o% $he
indiid&al?$he inne! 1hase o% $ha$ 1!ocess o! ac$ii$y. On $he con$!a!y, i$ is 1a!$ic&la!ly conce!ned <i$h
$he !ise o% s&ch e=1e!ience <i$hin $he 1!ocess as a <hole. I$ si"1ly <o!7s %!o" $he o&$side $o $he
inside ins$ead o% %!o" $he inside $o $he o&$side, so $o s1ea7, in i$s endeao! $o de$e!"ine ho< s&ch
e=1e!ience does a!ise <i$hin $he 1!ocess. The ac$, $hen, and no$ $he $!ac$, is $he %&nda"en$al da$&"
in ,o$h social and indiid&al 1sychology <hen ,ehaio!is$ically conceied, and i$ has ,o$h an inne!
and an o&$e! 1hase, an in$e!nal and an e=$e!nal as1ec$.
These gene!al !e"a!7s hae had $o do <i$h o&! 1oin$ o% a11!oach. I$ is ,ehaio!is$ic, ,&$ &nli7e
0a$sonian ,ehaio!is" i$ !ecogni8es $he 1a!$s o% $he ac$ <hich do no$ co"e $o e=$e!nal o,se!a$ion,
and i$ e"1hasi8es $he ac$ o% $he h&"an indiid&al in i$s na$&!al social si$&a$ion.
"ndnotes
1. IEs1ecially in Behavior, an Introduction to Comparative Psychology, cha1. J@ Psychology
from the Standpoint of a Behaviorist, cha1. i=@ Behaviorism, cha1s. =, =i.K
2. IP&,lished in $he Journal of Philosophy, Psychology and Scientific Method *e1!in$ed in
!ssays in "adical !mpiricismK
'. Mode!n 1hiloso1hical !ealis" has hel1ed $o %!ee 1sychology %!o" a conce!n <i$h a
1hiloso1hy o% "en$al s$a$es A13#)B.
). 4al&e; $he %&$&!e cha!ac$e! o% $he o,9ec$ in so %a! as i$ de$e!"ines yo&! ac$ion $o i$ A13#)B.
+. An ac$ is an i"1&lse $ha$ "ain$ains $he li%e?1!ocess ,y $he selec$ion o% ce!$ain so!$s o% s$i"&li
i$ needs. Th&s, $he o!ganis" c!ea$es i$s eni!on"en$. The s$i"&l&s is $he occasion %o! $he
e=1!ession o% $he i"1&lse.
S$i"&li a!e "eans, $endency is $he !eal $hing. In$elligence is $he selec$ion o% s$i"&li $ha$ <ill
se$ %!ee and "ain$ain li%e and aid in !e,&ilding i$ A13#/B.
The 1&!1ose need no$ ,e -in ie<,- ,&$ $he s$a$e"en$ o% $he ac$ incl&des $he goal $o <hich
$he ac$ "oes. This is a na$&!al $eleology, in ha!"ony <i$h a "echanical s$a$e"en$ A13#+B.
.. The s$&dy o% $he 1!ocess o% lang&age o! s1eech?i$s o!igins and deelo1"en$?is a ,!anch o%
social 1sychology, ,eca&se i$ can ,e &nde!s$ood only in $e!"s o% $he social 1!ocesses o%
,ehaio! <i$hin a g!o&1 o% in$e!ac$ing o!ganis"s@ ,eca&se i$ is one o% $he ac$ii$ies o% s&ch a
g!o&1. The 1hilologis$, ho<ee!, has o%$en $a7en $he ie< o% $he 1!isone! in a cell. The
1!isone! 7no<s $ha$ o$he!s a!e in a li7e 1osi$ion and he <an$s $o ge$ in co""&nica$ion <i$h
$he". So he se$s a,o&$ so"e "e$hod o% co""&nica$ion, so"e a!,i$!a!y a%%ai!, 1e!ha1s,
s&ch as $a11ing on $he <all. No<, each o% &s, on $his ie<, is sh&$ &1 in his o<n cell o%
conscio&sness, and 7no<ing $ha$ $he!e a!e o$he! 1eo1le so sh&$ &1, deelo1s <ays $o se$ &1
co""&nica$ion <i$h $he".
7. -A social ac$ "ay ,e de%ined as one in <hich $he occasion o! s$i"&l&s <hich se$s %!ee an
i"1&lse is %o&nd in $he cha!ac$e! o! cond&c$ o% a liing %o!" $ha$ ,elongs $o $he 1!o1e!
eni!on"en$ o% $he liing %o!" <hose i"1&lse i$ is. I <ish, ho<ee!, $o !es$!ic$ $he social ac$
$o $he cla< o% ac$s <hich inole $he coo1e!a$ion o% "o!e $han one indiid&al, and <hose
o,9ec$ as de%ined ,y $he ac$, in $he sense o% Be!gson, is a social o,9ec$. I "ean ,y a social
o,9ec$ one $ha$ ans<e!s $o all $he 1a!$s o% $he co"1le= ac$, $ho&gh $hese 1a!$s a!e %o&nd in
$he cond&c$ o% di%%e!en$ indiid&als. The o,9ec$ie o% $he ac$s is $hen %o&nd in $he li%e?1!ocess
o% $he g!o&1, no$ in $hose o% $he se1a!a$e indiid&als alone.- IF!o" -The (enesis o% $he Sel%
and Social Con$!ol,- International Journal of !thics, JJJ4 A13#+B, #.'?.).
.# TH" B"H%VI$*ISTIC SIG(I3IC%(C" $3 %TTIT4)"S
The 1!o,le" $ha$ 1!esen$s i$sel% as c!&cial %o! h&"an 1sychology conce!ns $he %ield $ha$ is o1ened
&1 ,y in$!os1ec$ion@ $his %ield a11a!en$ly co&ld no$ ,e deal$ <i$h ,y a 1&!ely o,9ec$ie 1sychology
<hich only s$&died cond&c$ as i$ $a7es 1lace %o! $he o,se!e!. In o!de! $ha$ $his %ield co&ld ,e ,!o&gh$
<i$hin $he !ange o% o,9ec$ie 1sychology, $he ,ehaio!is$, s&ch as 0a$son, did <ha$ he co&ld $o c&$
do<n $he %ield i$sel%, $o deny ce!$ain 1heno"ena s&11osed $o lie only in $ha$ %ield, s&ch as
-conscio&sness as dis$inc$ %!o" cond&c$ <i$ho&$ conscio&sness. The ani"al 1sychologis$ s$&died
cond&c$ <i$ho&$ $a7ing &1 $he D&es$ion as $o <he$he! i$ <as conscio&s cond&c$ o! no$.+,- B&$ <hen
<e !each $he %ield o% h&"an cond&c$ <e a!e in %ac$ a,le $o dis$ing&ish !e%le=es <hich $a7e 1lace
<i$ho&$ conscio&sness. The!e see"s, $hen, $o ,e a %ield <hich $he ,ehaio!is$ic 1sychology canno$
!each. The 0a$sonian ,ehaio!is$ si"1ly did <ha$ he co&ld $o "ini"i8e $his di%%e!ence.
The %ield o% ines$iga$ion o% $he ,ehaio!is$ has ,een D&i$e la!gely $ha$ o% $he yo&ng in%an$, <he!e $he
"e$hods e"1loyed a!e 9&s$ $he "e$hods o% ani"al 1sychology. :e has endeao!ed $o %ind o&$ <ha$
$he 1!ocesses o% ,ehaio! a!e, and $o see ho< $he ac$ii$ies o% $he in%an$ "ay ,e &sed $o e=1lain $he
ac$ii$ies o% $he ad&l$. I$ is he!e $ha$ $he 1sychologis$ ,!ings in $he condi$ioned !e%le=es. :e sho<s
$ha$ ,y a "e!e associa$ion o% ce!$ain s$i"&li he can ge$ !es&l$s <hich <o&ld no$ %ollo< %!o" $hese
seconda!y s$i"&li alone. This condi$ioning o% !e%le=es can ,e ca!!ied oe! in$o o$he! %ields, s&ch as
$hose o% $e!!o! on $he 1a!$ o% an in%an$. :e can ,e "ade $o %ea! so"e$hing ,y associa$ing $he o,9ec$
<i$h o$he!s 1!od&cing $e!!o!. The sa"e 1!ocess can ,e &sed %o! e=1laining "o!e ela,o!a$e cond&c$
in <hich <e associa$e ele"en$s <i$h ce!$ain een$s <hich a!e no$ di!ec$ly connec$ed <i$h $he", and
,y ela,o!a$ing $his condi$ioning <e can, i$ is ,elieed, e=1lain $he "o!e e=$ended 1!ocesses o%
!easoning and in%e!ence. In $his <ay a "e$hod <hich ,elongs $o o,9ec$ie 1sychology is ca!!ied oe!
in$o $he %ield <hich is deal$ <i$h o!dina!ily in $e!"s o% in$!os1ec$ion. Tha$ is, ins$ead o% saying <e
hae ce!$ain ideas <hen <e hae ce!$ain e=1e!iences, and $ha$ $hese ideas i"1ly so"e$hing else,
<e say $ha$ a ce!$ain e=1e!ience has $a7en 1lace a$ $he sa"e $i"e $ha$ $he %i!s$ e=1e!ience has
$a7en 1lace, so $ha$ no< $his seconda!y e=1e!ience a!o&ses $he !es1onse <hich ,elongs $o $he
1!i"a!y e=1e!ience.
The!e !e"ain con$en$s, s&ch as $hose o% i"age!y, <hich a!e "o!e !esis$an$ $o s&ch analysis. 0ha$
shall <e say o% !es1onses $ha$ do no$ ans<e! $o any gien e=1e!ienceE 0e can say, o% co&!se, $ha$
$hey a!e $he !es&l$s o% 1as$ e=1e!iences. B&$ $a7e $he con$en$s $he"seles, $he ac$&al is&al i"age!y
$ha$ one has; i$ has o&$line@ i$ has colo!@ i$ has al&es@ and o$he! cha!ac$e!s <hich a!e isola$ed <i$h
"o!e di%%ic&l$y. S&ch e=1e!ience is one <hich 1lays a 1a!$, and a e!y la!ge 1a!$, in o&! 1e!ce1$ion,
o&! cond&c$@ and ye$ i$ is an e=1e!ience <hich can ,e !eealed only ,y in$!os1ec$ion. The
,ehaio!is$ has $o "a7e a de$o&! a,o&$ $his $y1e o% e=1e!ience i% he is going $o s$ic7 $o $he
0a$sonian $y1e o% ,ehaio!is$ic 1sychology.
S&ch a ,ehaio!is$ desi!es $o analy8e $he ac$, <he$he! indiid&al o! social, <i$ho&$ any s1eci%ic
!e%e!ence $o conscio&sness <ha$ee! and <i$ho&$ any a$$e"1$ $o loca$e i$ ei$he! <i$hin $he %ield o%
o!ganic ,ehaio! o! <i$hin $he la!ge! %ield o% !eali$y in gene!al. :e <ishes, in sho!$, $o deny i$s
e=is$ence as s&ch al$oge$he!. 0a$son insis$s $ha$ o,9ec$iely o,se!a,le ,ehaio! co"1le$ely and
e=cl&siely cons$i$&$es $he %ield o% scien$i%ic 1sychology, indiid&al and social. :e 1&shes aside as
e!!oneo&s $he idea o% -"ind- o! -conscio&sness,- and a$$e"1$s $o !ed&ce all -"en$al- 1heno"ena $o
condi$ioned !e%le=es and si"ila! 1hysiological "echanis"s?in sho!$, $o 1&!ely ,ehaio!is$ic $e!"s.
This a$$e"1$, o% co&!se, is "isg&ided and &ns&ccess%&l, %o! $he e=is$ence as s&ch o% "ind o!
conscio&sness, in so"e sense o! o$he!, "&s$ ,e ad"i$$ed?$he denial o% i$ leads inei$a,ly $o o,io&s
a,s&!di$ies. B&$ $ho&gh i$ is i"1ossi,le $o reduce "ind o! conscio&sness $o 1&!ely ,ehaio!is$ic
$e!"s?in $he sense o% $h&s e=1laining i$ a<ay and denying i$s e=is$ence as s&ch en$i!ely?ye$ i$ is no$
i"1ossi,le $o e#plain i$ in $hese $e!"s, and $o do so <i$ho&$ e=1laining i$ a<ay, o! denying i$s
e=is$ence as s&ch, in $he leas$. 0a$son a11a!en$ly ass&"es $ha$ $o deny $he e=is$ence o% "ind o!
conscio&sness as a 1sychical s$&%%, s&,s$ance, o! en$i$y is $o deny i$s e=is$ence al$oge$he!, and $ha$
a na$&!alis$ic o! ,ehaio!is$ic acco&n$ o% i$ as s&ch is o&$ o% $he D&es$ion. B&$, on $he con$!a!y, <e
"ay deny i$s e=is$ence as a 1sychical en$i$y <i$ho&$ denying i$s e=is$ence in so"e o$he! sense a$ all@
and i% <e $hen conceie i$ %&nc$ionally, and as a na$&!al !a$he! $han a $!anscenden$al 1heno"enon, i$
,eco"es 1ossi,le $o deal <i$h i$ in ,ehaio!is$ic $e!"s. In sho!$, i$ is no$ 1ossi,le $o deny $he
e=is$ence o% "ind o! conscio&sness o! "en$al 1heno"ena, no! is i$ desi!a,le $o do so@ ,&$ i$ is
1ossi,le $o acco&n$ %o! $he" o! deal <i$h $he" in ,ehaio!is$ic $e!"s <hich a!e 1!ecisely si"ila! $o
$hose <hich 0a$son e"1loys in dealing <i$h non?"en$al 1sychological 1heno"ena A1heno"ena
<hich, acco!ding $o his de%ini$ion o% $he %ield o% 1sychology, a!e all $he 1sychological 1heno"ena
$he!e a!eB. Men$al ,ehaio! is no$ !ed&ci,le $o non?"en$al ,ehaio!. B&$ "en$al ,ehaio! o!
1heno"ena can ,e e=1lained in $e!"s o% non?"en$al ,ehaio! o! 1heno"ena, as a!ising o&$ o%, and
as !es&l$ing %!o" co"1lica$ions in, $he la$$e!.
I% <e a!e going $o &se ,ehaio!is$ic 1sychology $o e=1lain conscio&s ,ehaio! <e hae $o ,e "&ch
"o!e $ho!o&ghgoing in o&! s$a$e"en$ o% $he ac$ $han 0a$son <as. 0e hae $o $a7e in$o acco&n$ no$
"e!ely $he co"1le$e o! social ac$, ,&$ <ha$ goes on in $he cen$!al ne!o&s sys$e" as $he ,eginning
o% $he indiid&al>s ac$ and as $he o!gani8a$ion o% $he ac$. O% co&!se, $ha$ $a7es &s ,eyond $he %ield o%
o&! di!ec$ o,se!a$ion. I$ $a7es &s ,eyond $ha$ %ield ,eca&se <e canno$ ge$ a$ $he 1!ocess i$sel%. I$ is
a %ield $ha$ is "o!e o! less sh&$ o%%, see"ingly ,eca&se o% $he di%%ic&l$y o% $he co&n$!y i$sel% $ha$ has
$o ,e ines$iga$ed. The cen$!al ne!o&s sys$e" is only 1a!$ly e=1lo!ed. P!esen$ !es&l$s, ho<ee!,
s&gges$ $he o!gani8a$ion o% $he ac$ in $e!"s o% a$$i$&des. The!e is an o!gani8a$ion o% $he a!io&s 1a!$s
o% $he ne!o&s sys$e" $ha$ a!e going $o ,e !es1onsi,le %o! ac$s, an o!gani8a$ion <hich !e1!esen$s
no$ only $ha$ <hich is i""edia$ely $a7ing 1lace, ,&$ also $he la$e! s$ages $ha$ a!e $o $a7e 1lace. I% one
a11!oaches a dis$an$ o,9ec$ he a11!oaches i$ <i$h !e%e!ence $o <ha$ he is going $o do <hen he
a!!ies $he!e. I% one is a11!oaching a ha""e! he is "&sc&la!ly all !eady $o sei8e $he handle o% $he
ha""e!. The la$e! s$ages o% $he ac$ a!e 1!esen$ in $he ea!ly s$ages?no$ si"1ly in $he sense $ha$ $hey
a!e all !eady $o go o%%, ,&$ in $he sense $ha$ $hey se!e $o con$!ol $he 1!ocess i$sel%. They de$e!"ine
ho< <e a!e going $o a11!oach $he o,9ec$, and $he s$e1s in o&! ea!ly "ani1&la$ion o% i$. 0e can
!ecogni8e, $hen,, $ha$ $he inne!a$ion o% ce!$ain g!o&1s o% cells in $he cen$!al ne!o&s sys$e" can
al!eady ini$ia$e in adance $he la$e! s$ages o% $he ac$. The ac$ as a <hole can ,e $he!e de$e!"ining
$he 1!ocess.
0e can also !ecogni8e in s&ch a gene!al a$$i$&de $o<a!d an o,9ec$ an a$$i$&de $ha$ !e1!esen$s
al$e!na$ie !es1onses, s&ch as a!e inoled <hen <e $al7 a,o&$ o&! ideas o% an o,9ec$. A 1e!son
<ho is %a"ilia! <i$h a ho!se a11!oaches i$ as one <ho is going $o !ide i$. :e "oes $o<a!d $he
1!o1e! side and is !eady $o s<ing hi"sel% in$o $he saddle. :is a11!oach de$e!"ines $he s&ccess o%
$he <hole 1!ocess. B&$ $he ho!se is no$ si"1ly so"e$hing $ha$ "&s$ ,e !idden. I$ is an ani"al $ha$
"&s$ ea$, $ha$ ,elongs $o so"e,ody. I$ has ce!$ain econo"ic al&es. The indiid&al is !eady $o do a
<hole se!ies o% $hings <i$h !e%e!ence $o $he ho!se, and $ha$ !eadiness is inoled in any one o% $he
"any 1hases o% $he a!io&s ac$s. I$ is a ho!se $ha$ he is going $o "o&n$@ i$ is a ,iological ani"al@ i$ is
an econo"ic ani"al. Those cha!ac$e!s a!e inoled in $he ideas o% a ho!se. I% <e see7 $his ideal
cha!ac$e! o% a ho!se in $he cen$!al ne!o&s sys$e" <e <o&ld hae $o %ind i$ in all $hose di%%e!en$ 1a!$s
o% $he ini$ia$ed ac$s. One <o&ld hae $o $hin7 o% each as associa$ed <i$h $he o$he! 1!ocesses in
<hich he &ses $he ho!se, so $ha$ no "a$$e! <ha$ $he s1eci%ic ac$ is, $he!e is a !eadiness $o ac$ in
$hese di%%e!en$ <ays <i$h !e%e!ence $o $he ho!se. 0e can %ind in $ha$ sense in $he ,eginning o% $he
ac$ 9&s$ $hose cha!ac$e!s <hich <e assign $o -ho!se- as an idea, o! i% yo& li7e, as a conce1$.
I% <e a!e going $o loo7 %o! $his idea in a cen$!al ne!o&s sys$e" <e hae $o loo7 %o! i$ in $he ne&!ons,
1a!$ic&la!ly in $he connec$ion ,e$<een $he ne&!ons. The!e a!e <hole se$s o% connec$ions $he!e <hich
a!e o% s&ch a cha!ac$e! $ha$ <e a!e a,le $o ac$ in a n&",e! o% <ays, and $hese 1ossi,le ac$ions hae
$hei! e%%ec$ on $he <ay in <hich <e do ac$. Fo! e=a"1le, i% $he ho!se ,elongs $o $he !ide!, $he !ide!
ac$s in a di%%e!en$ <ay $han i% i$ ,elongs $o so"eone else. These o$he! 1!ocesses inoled de$e!"ine
$he i""edia$e ac$ion i$sel% and 1a!$ic&la!ly $he la$e! s$ages o% $he ac$, so $ha$ $he $e"1o!al
o!gani8a$ion o% $he ac$ "ay ,e 1!esen$ in $he i""edia$e 1!ocess. 0e do no$ 7no< ho< $ha$
$e"1o!al o!gani8a$ion $a7es 1lace in $he cen$!al ne!o&s sys$e". In so"e sense $hese la$e!
1!ocesses <hich a!e going $o $a7e 1lace, and a!e in so"e sense s$a!$ed, a!e <o!7ed in$o $he
i""edia$e 1!ocess. A ,ehaio!is$ic $!ea$"en$, i% i$ is "ade ,!oad eno&gh, i% i$ "a7es &se o% $he
al"os$ inde%ini$e co"1le=i$ies e=is$ing in $he ne!o&s sys$e", can ad9&s$ i$sel% $o "any %ields <hich
<e!e s&11osed $o ,e con%ined $o an in$!os1ec$ie a$$ac7. O% co&!se, a g!ea$ deal o% $his "&s$ ,e
hy1o$he$ical. 0e lea!n "o!e day ,y day o% <ha$ $he connec$ions a!e, ,&$ $hey a!e la!gely
hy1o$he$ical. :o<ee!, $hey can a$ leas$ ,e s$a$ed in a ,ehaio!is$ic %o!". 0e can, $he!e%o!e, in
1!inci1le, s$a$e ,ehaio!is$ically <ha$ <e "ean ,y an idea.
"ndnotes
1. Co"1a!a$ie 1sychology %!eed 1sychology in gene!al %!o" ,eing con%ined solely $o $he %ield
o% $he cen$!al ne!o&s sys$e", <hich, $h!o&gh $he 1hysiological 1sychologis$s, had $a7en $he
1lace o% conscio&sness as s&ch, as $he %ield o% 1sychological ines$iga$ion. I$ $h&s ena,led
1sychology in gene!al $o conside! $he ac$ as a <hole, and as incl&ding o! $a7ing 1lace <i$hin
$he en$i!e social 1!ocess o% ,ehaio!. In o$he! <o!ds, co"1a!a$ie 1sychology ? and
,ehaio!is" as i$s o&$g!o<$h ? has e=$ended $he %ield o% gene!al 1sychology ,eyond $he
cen$!al ne!o&s sys$e" o% $he indiid&al o!ganis" alone, and has ca&sed 1sychologis$s $o
conside! $he indiid&al ac$ as a 1a!$ o% $he la!ge! social <hole $o <hich i$ in %ac$ ,elongs, and
%!o" <hich, in a de%ini$e sense, i$ ge$s i$s "eaning?, $ho&gh $hey do no$, o% co&!se, lose
in$e!es$ $he!e,y in $he cen$!al ne!o&s sys$e" and $he 1hysiological 1!ocesses going on in i$.
/# TH" B"H%VI$*ISTIC SIG(I3IC%(C" $3 G"ST4*"S
The ,ehaio!is$ o% $he 0a$sonian $y1e has ,een 1!one $o ca!!y his 1!inci1le o% condi$ioning oe! in$o
$he %ield o% lang&age. By a condi$ioning o% !e%le=es $he ho!se has ,eco"e associa$ed <i$h $he <o!d
-ho!se.- and $his in $&!n !eleases $he se$ o% !es1onses. 0e &se $he <o!d, and $he !es1onse "ay ,e
$ha$ o% "o&n$ing, ,&ying, selling o! $!ading. 0e a!e !eady $o do all $hese di%%e!en$ $hings. This
s$a$e"en$, ho<ee!, lac7s $he !ecogni$ion $ha$ $hese di%%e!en$ 1!ocesses <hich $he ,ehaio!is$ says
a!e iden$i%ied <i$h $he <o!d -ho!se- "&s$ ,e <o!7ed in$o $he ac$ i$sel%, o! $he g!o&1 o% ac$s, <hich
ga$he! a,o&$ $he ho!se. They go $o "a7e &1 $ha$ o,9ec$ in o&! e=1e!ience, and $he %&nc$ion o% $he
<o!d is a %&nc$ion <hich has i$s 1lace in $ha$ o!gani8a$ion@ ,&$ i$ is no$, ho<ee!, $he <hole 1!ocess.
0e %ind $ha$ sa"e so!$ o% o!gani8a$ion see"ingly e=$ended in $he cond&c$ o% ani"als lo<e! $han
"an@ $hose 1!ocesses <hich go $o "a7e &1 o&! o,9ec$s "&s$ ,e 1!esen$ in $he ani"als $he"seles
<ho hae no$ $he &se o% lang&age. I$ is, o% co&!se, $he g!ea$ al&e, o! one o% $he g!ea$ al&es, o%
lang&age $ha$ i$ does gie &s con$!ol oe! $his o!gani8a$ion o% $he ac$. Tha$ is a 1oin$ <e <ill hae $o
conside! in de$ail la$e!, ,&$ i$ is i"1o!$an$ $o !ecogni8e $ha$ $ha$ $o <hich $he <o!d !e%e!s is so"e$hing
$ha$ can lie in $he e=1e!ience o% $he indiid&al <i$ho&$ $he &se o% lang&age i$sel%. Lang&age does 1ic7
o&$ and o!gani8e $he con$en$ in e=1e!ience. I$ is i"1le"en$ed %o! $ha$ 1&!1ose.
Lang&age is 1a!$ o% social ,ehaio!. +,- The!e is an inde%ini$e n&",e! o% signs o! sy",ols <hich
"ay se!e $he 1&!1ose o% <ha$ <e $e!" -lang&age.- 0e a!e !eading $he "eaning o% $he cond&c$ o%
o$he! 1eo1le <hen, 1e!ha1s, $hey a!e no$ a<a!e o% i$. The!e is so"e$hing $ha$ !eeals $o &s <ha$ $he
1&!1ose is?9&s$ $he glance o% an eye, $he a$$i$&de o% $he ,ody <hich leads $o $he !es1onse. The
co""&nica$ion se$ &1 in $his <ay ,e$<een indiid&als "ay ,e e!y 1e!%ec$. Cone!sa$ion in ges$&!es
"ay ,e ca!!ied on <hich canno$ ,e $!ansla$ed in$o a!$ic&la$e s1eech. This is also $!&e o% $he lo<e!
ani"als. Dogs a11!oaching each o$he! in hos$ile a$$i$&de ca!!y on s&ch a lang&age o% ges$&!es.
They <al7 a!o&nd each o$he!, g!o<ling and sna11ing, and <ai$ing %o! $he o11o!$&ni$y $o a$$ac7. :e!e
is a 1!ocess o&$ o% <hich lang&age "igh$ a!ise, $ha$ is, a ce!$ain a$$i$&de o% one indiid&al $ha$ calls
o&$ a !es1onse in $he o$he!, <hich in $&!n calls o&$ a di%%e!en$ a11!oach and a di%%e!en$ !es1onse,
and so on inde%ini$ely. In %ac$, as <e shall see, lang&age does a!ise in 9&s$ s&ch a 1!ocess as $ha$.
0e a!e $oo 1!one, ho<ee!, $o a11!oach lang&age as $he 1hilologis$ does, %!o" $he s$and1oin$ o%
$he sy",ol $ha$ is &sed.+.- 0e analy8e $ha$ sy",ol and %ind o&$ <ha$ is $he in$en$ in $he "ind o% $he
indiid&al in &sing $ha$ sy",ol, and $hen a$$e"1$ $o discoe! <he$he! $his sy",ol calls o&$ $his in$en$
in $he "ind o% $he o$he!. 0e ass&"e $ha$ $he!e a!e se$s o% ideas in 1e!sons> "inds and $ha$ $hese
indiid&als "a7e &se o% ce!$ain a!,i$!a!y sy",ols <hich ans<e! $o $he in$en$ <hich $he indiid&als
had. B&$ i% <e a!e going $o ,!oaden $he conce1$ o% lang&age in $he sense I hae s1o7en o%, so $ha$ i$
$a7es in $he &nde!lying a$$i$&des, <e can see $ha$ $he so?called in$en$, $he idea <e a!e $al7ing a,o&$,
is one $ha$ is inoled in $he ges$&!e o! a$$i$&des <hich <e a!e &sing. The o%%e!ing o% a chai! $o a
1e!son <ho co"es in$o $he !oo" is in i$sel% a co&!$eo&s ac$. 0e do no$ hae $o ass&"e $ha$ a
1e!son says $o hi"sel% $ha$ $his 1e!son <an$s a chai!. The o%%e!ing o% a chai! ,y a 1e!son o% good
"anne!s is so"e$hing <hich is al"os$ ins$inc$ie. This is $he e!y a$$i$&de o% $he indiid&al. F!o" $he
1oin$ o% ie< o% $he o,se!e! i$ is a ges$&!e. S&ch ea!ly s$ages o% social ac$s 1!ecede $he sy",ol
1!o1e!, and deli,e!a$e co""&nica$ion.
One o% $he i"1o!$an$ doc&"en$s in $he his$o!y o% "ode!n 1sychology, 1a!$ic&la!ly %o! $he 1sychology
o% lang&age, is Da!<in>s !#pression of the !motions in Man and Animals :e!e Da!<in ca!!ied oe!
his $heo!y o% eol&$ion in$o $he %ield o% <ha$ <e call -conscio&s e=1e!ience.- 0ha$ Da!<in did <as $o
sho< $ha$ $he!e <as a <hole se!ies o% ac$s o! ,eginnings o% ac$s <hich called o&$ ce!$ain !es1onses
$ha$ do e=1!ess e"o$ions. I% one ani"al a$$ac7s ano$he!, o! is on $he 1oin$ o% a$$ac7ing, o! o% $a7ing
$he ,one o% ano$he! dog, $ha$ ac$ion calls o&$ iolen$ !es1onses <hich e=1!ess $he ange! o% $he
second dog. The!e <e hae a se$ o% a$$i$&des <hich e=1!ess $he e"o$ional a$$i$&de o% dogs@ and <e
can ca!!y $his analysis in$o $he h&"an e=1!ession o% e"o$ion.
The 1a!$ o% o&! o!ganis" $ha$ "os$ iidly and !eadily e=1!esses $he e"o$ions is $he %ace, and
Da!<in s$&died $he %ace %!o" $his 1oin$ o% ie<. :e $oo7, na$&!ally, $he ac$o!, $he "an <hose
,&siness i$ is $o e=1!ess $he e"o$ions ,y $he "oe"en$s o% $he co&n$enance, and s$&died $he
"&scles $he"seles@ and in s$&dying $he" he &nde!$oo7 $o sho< <ha$ $he al&e o% $hese changes o%
$he %ace "igh$ ,e in $he ac$&al ac$. 0e s1ea7 o% s&ch e=1!essions as $hose o% ange!, and no$e $he
<ay in <hich $he ,lood "ay s&%%&se $he %ace a$ one s$age and $hen leae i$ a$ ano$he!. Da!<in
s$&died $he ,lood %lo< in %ea! and in $e!!o!. In $hese e"o$ions one can %ind changes $a7ing 1lace in
$he ,lood %lo< i$sel%. These changes hae $hei! al&e. They !e1!esen$, o% co&!se, changes in $he
ci!c&la$ion o% ,lood in $he ac$s. These ac$ions a!e gene!ally ac$ions <hich a!e !a1id and can only
$a7e 1lace i% $he ,lood is %lo<ing !a1idly. The!e "&s$ ,e a change in $he !hy$h" o% ci!c&la$ion and
$his gene!ally !egis$e!s i$sel% in $he co&n$enance.
Many o% o&! ac$s o% hos$ili$y e=hi,i$ $he"seles in a$$i$&des o% $he %ace si"ila! $o ani"als <hich
a$$ac7 <i$h $hei! $ee$h. The a$$i$&de, o! in a "o!e gene!ali8ed $e!", $he ges$&!e, has ,een 1!ese!ed
a%$e! $he al&e o% $he ac$ has disa11ea!ed. The $i$le o% Da!<in>s <o!7 indica$es his 1oin$ o% a11!oach.
:e <as dealing <i$h $hese ges$&!es, $hese a$$i$&des, as e=1!essie o% e"o$ions and ass&"ing a$ $he
$i"e $ha$ $he ges$&!e has $his %&nc$ion o% e=1!essing $he e"o$ions. Tha$ a$$i$&de has ,een 1!ese!ed,
on $his ie<, a%$e! $he al&e o% $he ac$ has disa11ea!ed. This ges$&!e see"s $o !e"ain %o! $he
1&!1ose o% e=1!essing e"o$ions. One na$&!ally ass&"ed $he!e an a$$i$&de in $he e=1e!ience o%
ani"als <hich ans<e!s in so"e sense $o $hose o% $he h&"an ani"al. One co&ld a11ly $he doc$!ine
o% $he s&!ial o% $he %i$$es$ he!e also. The i"1lica$ion in $his 1a!$ic&la! case <as $ha$ $hese ges$&!es
o! a$$i$&des had los$ $he al&e <hich $hey had in $he o!iginal ac$s, and ye$ had s&!ied. The
indica$ion <as $ha$ $hey had s&!ied ,eca&se $hey se!ed ce!$ain al&a,le %&nc$ions, and $he
s&gges$ion <as $ha$ $his <as $he e=1!ession o% $he e"o$ions. Tha$ a$$i$&de on Da!<in>s 1a!$ is
!e%lec$ed in $he <o!7 o% o$he! 1sychologis$s, "en <ho <e!e in$e!es$ed, as Da!<in <as, in $he s$&dy
o% $he ac$, in $he in%o!"a$ion $ha$ is coneyed ,y one indiid&al $o ano$he! ,y his a$$i$&de. They
ass&"e $ha$ $hese ac$s had a !eason %o! e=is$ence ,eca&se $hey e=1!essed so"e$hing in $he "ind
o% $he indiid&al. I$ is an a11!oach li7e $ha$ o% $he 1hilologis$. They ass&"e $ha$ lang&age e=is$ed %o!
$he 1&!1ose o% coneying ce!$ain ideas, ce!$ain %eelings.
I% one conside!s, he !eali8es $ha$ $his is a %alse a11!oach. I$ is D&i$e i"1ossi,le $o ass&"e $ha$
ani"als do &nde!$a7e $o e=1!ess $hei! e"o$ions. They ce!$ainly do no$ &nde!$a7e $o e=1!ess $he"
%o! $he ,ene%i$ o% o$he! ani"als. The "os$ $ha$ can ,e said is $ha$ $he -e=1!essions- did se$ %!ee a
ce!$ain e"o$ion in $he indiid&al, an esca1e ale, so $o s1ea7, an e"o$ional a$$i$&de <hich $he
ani"al needed, in so"e sense, $o ge$ !id o%. They ce!$ainly co&ld no$ e=is$ in $hese lo<e! ani"als as
"eans o% e=1!essing e"o$ions@ <e canno$ a11!oach $he" %!o" $he 1oin$ o% ie< o% e=1!essing a
con$en$ in $he "ind o% $he indiid&al. 0e can, o% co&!se, see ho<, %o! $he ac$o!, $hey "ay ,eco"e
de%ini$ely a lang&age. An ac$o!, %o! e=a"1le, "ay &nde!$a7e $o e=1!ess his !age, and he "ay do i$
,y an e=1!ession o% $he co&n$enance, and so coney $o $he a&dience $he e"o$ion he in$ended.
:o<ee!, he is no$ e=1!essing his o<n e"o$ion ,&$ si"1ly coneying $o $he a&dience $he eidence
o% ange!, and i% he is s&ccess%&l he "ay do i$ "o!e e%%ec$iely, as %a! as $he a&dience is conce!ned,
$han a 1e!son <ho is in !eali$y ange!ed. The!e <e hae $hese ges$&!es se!ing $he 1&!1ose o%
e=1!ession o% $he e"o$ions, ,&$ <e canno$ conceie $ha$ $hey a!ose as s&ch a lang&age in o!de! $o
e=1!ess e"o$ion. Lang&age, $hen, has $o ,e s$&died %!o" $he 1oin$ o% ie< o% $he ges$&!al $y1e o%
cond&c$ <i$hin <hich i$ e=is$ed <i$ho&$ ,eing as s&ch a de%ini$e lang&age. And <e hae $o see ho<
$he co""&nica$ie %&nc$ion co&ld hae a!isen o&$ o% $ha$ 1!io! so!$ o% cond&c$.
The 1sychology o% Da!<in ass&"ed $ha$ e"o$ion <as a 1sychological s$a$e, a s$a$e o%
conscio&sness, and $ha$ $his s$a$e co&ld no$ i$sel% ,e %o!"&la$ed in $e!"s o% $he a$$i$&de o! $he
,ehaio! o% $he %o!". I$ <as ass&"ed $ha$ $he e"o$ion is $he!e and $ha$ ce!$ain "oe"en$s "igh$
gie eidence o% i$. The eidence <o&ld ,e !eceied and ac$ed &1on ,y o$he! %o!"s $ha$ <e!e
%ashioned li7e i$sel%. Tha$ is, i$ 1!es&11osed $he conscio&s s$a$e oe! agains$ $he ,iological
o!ganis". The conscio&s s$a$e <as $ha$ <hich <as $o ,e e=1!essed in $he ges$&!e o! $he a$$i$&de. I$
<as $o ,e e=1!essed in ,ehaio! and $o ,e !ecogni8ed in so"e %ashion as e=is$en$ in $he
conscio&sness o% $he o$he! %o!" $h!o&gh $his "edi&" o% e=1!ession. S&ch <as $he gene!al
1sychological a$$i$&de <hich Da!<in acce1$ed.
Con$!a!y $o Da!<in, ho<ee!, <e %ind no eidence %o! $he 1!io! e=is$ence o% conscio&sness as
so"e$hing <hich ,!ings a,o&$ ,ehaio! on $he 1a!$ o% one o!ganis" $ha$ is o% s&ch a so!$ as $o call
%o!$h an ad9&s$ie !es1onse on $he 1a!$ o% ano$he! o!ganis", <i$ho&$ i$sel% ,eing de1enden$ on s&ch
,ehaio!. 0e a!e !a$he! %o!ced $o concl&de $ha$ conscio&sness is an e"e!gen$ %!o" s&ch ,ehaio!@
$ha$ so %a! %!o" ,eing a 1!econdi$ion o% $he social ac$, $he social ac$ is $he 1!econdi$ion o% i$. The
"echanis" o% $he social ac$ can ,e $!aced o&$ <i$ho&$ in$!od&cing in$o i$ $he conce1$ion o%
conscio&sness as a se1a!a,le ele"en$ <i$hin $ha$ ac$@ hence $he social ac$, in i$s "o!e ele"en$a!y
s$ages o! %o!"s, is 1ossi,le <i$ho&$, o! a1a!$ %!o", so"e %o!" o% conscio&sness.
"ndnotes
1. 0ha$ is $he ,asic "echanis" <he!e,y $he social 1!ocess goes onE I$ is $he "echanis" o%
ges$&!e, <hich "a7es 1ossi,le $he a11!o1!ia$e !es1onses $o one ano$he!>s ,ehaio! o% $he
di%%e!en$ indiid&al o!ganis"s inoled in $he social 1!ocess. 0i$hin any gien social ac$, an
ad9&s$"en$ is e%%ec$ed, ,y "eans o% ges$&!es, o% $he ac$ions o% one o!ganis" inoled $o $he
ac$ions o% ano$he!@ $he ges$&!es a!e "oe"en$s o% $he %i!s$ o!ganis" <hich ac$ as s1eci%ic
s$i"&li calling %o!$h $he AsociallyB a11!o1!ia$e !es1onses o% $he second o!ganis". The %ield o%
$he o1e!a$ion o% ges$&!es is $he %ield <i$hin <hich $he !ise and deelo1"en$ o% h&"an
in$elligence has $a7en 1lace $h!o&gh $he 1!ocess o% $he sy",oli8a$ion o% e=1e!ience <hich
ges$&!e??es1ecially ocal ges$&!es?hae "ade 1ossi,le. The s1eciali8a$ion o% $he h&"an
ani"al <i$hin $his %ield o% $he ges$&!e has ,een !es1onsi,le, &l$i"a$ely, %o! $he o!igin and
g!o<$h o% 1!esen$ h&"an socie$y and 7no<ledge, <i$h all $he con$!ol oe! na$&!e and oe!
$he h&"an eni!on"en$ <hich science "a7es 1ossi,le.
2. I-The *ela$ions O% Psychology and Philology,- Psychological Bulletin, I A135)B, '/+ %%.K
0# *IS" $3 P%*%&&"&ISM I( PS'CH$&$G'
The 1sychology <hich s$!esses 1a!allelis" has $o ,e dis$ing&ished %!o" $he 1sychology <hich
!ega!ds ce!$ain s$a$es o% conscio&sness as e=is$ing in $he "ind o% $he indiid&al, and s&cceeding
each o$he! in acco!dance <i$h $hei! o<n la<s o% associa$ion. The <hole doc$!ine o% $he 1sychology
<hich %ollo<s :&"e <as 1!edo"inan$ly associa$ionis$ic. (ien ce!$ain s$a$es o% conscio&sness $hey
<e!e s&11osed $o ,e held $oge$he! ,y o$he! si"ila! ele"en$s. A"ong $hese ele"en$s <e!e $hose o%
1leas&!e and 1ain. Connec$ed <i$h $his a$o"is" o% associa$ed conscio&s s$a$es <as a 1sychology
o% ac$ion g!o&nded on $he associa$ion o% 1leas&!e and 1ain <i$h ce!$ain o$he! sensa$ions and
e=1e!iences. The doc$!ine o% associa$ion <as $he do"inan$ 1sychological doc$!ine@ i$ deal$ <i$h s$a$ic
!a$he! $han dyna"ic e=1e!ience.
The 1&shing o% $he 1sychological side %&!$he! and %&!$he! in$o $he cen$!al ne!o&s sys$e" !eealed
$ha$ $he!e <e!e <hole se!ies o% e=1e!iences <hich "igh$ ,e called sensa$ions and ye$ <e!e e!y
di%%e!en$ %!o" $hose <hich co&ld ,e !ega!ded as s$a$ic, s&ch as so&nd, odo!, $as$e, and colo!.
Associa$ion ,elonged $o $his s$a$ic <o!ld. I$ <as inc!easingly !ecogni8ed $ha$ $he!e <as a la!ge 1a!$
o% o&! e=1e!ience <hich <as dyna"ic.+,- The %o!" o% ac$&al doing <as 1!esen$ in so"e o% $he
sensa$ions <hich ans<e!ed $o $he inne!a$ion o% senso!y ne!es. The!e <as also $he s$&dy o% $hose
$!ac$s <hich <en$ do<n $o $he isce!a, and $hese ce!$ainly <e!e aligned <i$h $he e"o$ional
e=1e!iences. The <hole 1!ocess o% $he ci!c&la$ion o% $he ,lood had ,een o1ened &1, and $he ac$ion
<hich inoled $he s&dden change o% $he ci!c&la$ion o% $he ,lood. Fea!, hos$ili$y, ange!, <hich called
%o! s&dden "oe"en$, o! $e!!o!, <hich de1!ied $he indiid&al o% $he a,ili$y $o "oe, !e%lec$ed
$he"seles in $he isce!al condi$ions@ and also had $hei! senso!y as1ec$s connec$ed <i$h $he cen$!al
ne!o&s sys$e". The!e <as, $hen, a $y1e o% e=1e!ience <hich did no$ %all in$o 1lace in a s$a$ic <o!ld.
0ilhel" 0&nd$ a11!oached his 1!o,le" %!o" $he s$and1oin$ o% $his so!$ o% 1hysiology <hich o%%e!ed
a cle< ,y "eans o% <hich one co&ld %ollo< o&$ $hese a!io&s dyna"ic e=1e!iences in$o $he
"echanis" o% $he o!ganis" i$sel%.
The $!ea$"en$ <hich had ,een gien $o $he cen$!al ne!o&s sys$e" and i$s "o$o! and senso!y
ne!es had ,een $ha$ o% ,!inging a ne!e c&!!en$ $o a cen$!al ne!o&s sys$e" <hich <as $hen in $&!n
!es1onsi,le %o! a sensa$ion $ha$ ha11ened in -conscio&sness.- To ge$ a co"1le$e s$a$e"en$ o% <ha$
<e call $he ac$ one had $o %ollo< &1 $he senso!y side and $hen %ollo< o&$ $he "o$o! !es&l$s $ha$ $oo7
1lace ,eca&se o% <ha$ ha11ened in Conscio&sness. The 1hysiology $o <hich I hae !e%e!!ed in a
ce!$ain sense se1a!a$ed i$sel% %!o" $he %ield o% conscio&sness. I$ <as di%%ic&l$ $o ca!!y oe! s&ch a
"echanis" as $his in$o $he lo<e! ani"als. Tha$, a$ leas$, $oo7 $he 1sychologis$ o&$ o% $he %ield o%
ani"al e=1e!ience. Da!<in !ega!ded $he ani"al as $ha$ o&$ o% <hich h&"an cond&c$ eoles, as <ell
as $he h&"an %o!", and i% $his is $!&e $hen i$ "&s$ ,e $ha$ in so"e sense conscio&sness eoles.
The !es&l$ing a11!oach is %!o" $he 1oin$ o% ie< o% cond&c$ i$sel%, and he!e $he 1!inci1le o%
1a!allelis" is ,!o&gh$ in. 0ha$ $a7es 1lace in conscio&sness !&ns 1a!allel <i$h <ha$ $a7es 1lace in
$he cen$!al ne!o&s sys$e". I$ is necessa!y $o s$&dy $he con$en$ o% $he %o!" as 1hysiological and also
as 1sychological. The cen$e! o% conscio&sness, <i$hin <hich is !egis$e!ed $ha$ <hich a%%ec$s $he
senso!y ne!es and o&$ o% <hich s1!ings $he cond&c$ d&e $o sensa$ion and "e"o!y i"ages, is $o ,e
$a7en o&$ o% $he 1hysiological "echanis"@ and ye$ one "&s$ %ind a 1a!allel in <ha$ $a7es 1lace in $he
ne!o&s sys$e" %o! <ha$ $he 1hysiologis$ had 1laced in conscio&sness as s&ch. 0ha$ I hae
!e%e!!ed $o in $he "a$$e! o% $he e"o$ions see"ed $o 1!esen$ a 1hysiological co&n$e!1a!$ %o! <ha$
$a7es 1lace in conscio&sness, a %ield $ha$ see"ed $o ,elong 1ec&lia!ly $o $he "en$al side o% li%e.
:a$e, loe, ange!?$hese a!e see"ingly s$a$es o% "ind. :o< co&ld $hey ,e s$a$ed in 1hysiological
$e!"sE The s$&dy o% $he ac$s $he"seles %!o" an eol&$iona!y s$and1oin$, and also $he s$&dy o% $he
changes $ha$ $a7e 1lace in $he o!ganis" i$sel% <hen i$ is &nde! $he in%l&ence o% <ha$ <e call an
e"o$ion, 1!esen$ analog&es $o $hese e"o$ional s$a$es. One co&ld %ind so"e$hing $he!e $ha$
de%ini$ely ans<e!ed $o $he e"o$ions.
The %&!$he! deelo1"en$ o% $his lead occ&!!ed in Ca"es>s $heo!y o% $he e"o$ions. Beca&se <e !&n
a<ay <hen <e a!e a%!aid, and s$!i7e <hen <e a!e ang!y, <e can %ind so"e$hing in $he 1hysiological
o!ganis" $ha$ ans<e!s $o %ea! and $o ange!. I$ is an a$$i$&de in $he o!ganis" <hich ans<e!s $o $hese
e"o$ional s$a$es, es1ecially $hese isce!al condi$ions $o <hich I hae !e%e!!ed, and $he s&dden
changes in $he ci!c&la$ion <hich a!e %o&nd associa$ed <i$h e"o$ions. I$ ,eco"es 1ossi,le $o !ela$e
$he 1sychical condi$ions <i$h 1hysiological ones. The !es&l$ <as $ha$ one co&ld "a7e a "&ch "o!e
co"1le$e s$a$e"en$ o% $he cond&c$ o% $he indiid&al in 1hysiological $e!"s, co&ld %ind a 1a!allel %o!
$ha$ <hich is s$a$ed in $e!"s o% conscio&sness in $he "echanis" o% $he ,ody and in $he o1e!a$ion o%
$ha$ "echanis". S&ch a 1sychology <as called, na$&!ally eno&gh, a 1hysiological 1sychology. I$
<as a s$a$e"en$ in $e!"s o% <ha$ <en$ on in $he o!ganis" o% $he con$en$ <i$h <hich $he 1sychologis$
had ,een dealing. 0ha$ is $he!e in $he ac$ o% $he ani"al <hich ans<e!s $o $hese di%%e!en$ so?called
1sychological ca$ego!iesE 0ha$ is $he!e $ha$ ans<e!s $o $he sensa$ions, $o $he "o$o! !es1onsesE
0hen $hese D&es$ions <e!e ans<e!ed 1hysiologically, $hey, o% co&!se, inoled "echanis"s
loca$ed inside o% $he ac$, %o! all $ha$ $a7es 1lace in $he ,ody is ac$ion. I$ "ay ,e delayed ac$ion, ,&$
$he!e is no$hing $he!e $ha$ is i$sel% si"1ly a s$a$e, a 1hysiological s$a$e $ha$ co&ld ,e co"1a!ed <i$h a
s$a$ic s$a$e. 0e co"e $hen $o $he sensa$ions and &nde!$a7e $o s$a$e $he" in $e!"s o% co"1le$e
!e%le= ac$ion. 0e deal <i$h $he sensa$ion %!o" $he s$and1oin$ o% $he s$i"&l&s, and <hen <e co"e $o
deal <i$h $he a!io&s e"o$ional s$a$es <e deal <i$h $he" in $e!"s o% $he 1!e1a!a$ion %o! ac$ion and
$he ac$ i$sel% as i$ is going on.+.- Tha$ is, i$ ,eco"es no< essen$ial $o !ela$e a se$ o% 1sychical s$a$es
<i$h $he di%%e!en$ 1hases o% $he ac$. Pa!allelis", $hen, is an a$$e"1$ $o %ind analog&es ,e$<een
ac$ion and e=1e!ienced con$en$s.
The inei$a,le !es&l$ o% $his analysis <as $o ca!!y 1sychology %!o" a s$a$ic $o a dyna"ic %o!". I$ <as
no$ si"1ly a D&es$ion o% !ela$ing <ha$ <as %o&nd in in$!os1ec$ion <i$h <ha$ is %o&nd in $he o!ganis"@
i$ ,eca"e a D&es$ion o% !ela$ing $oge$he! $hose $hings <hich <e!e %o&nd in in$!os1ec$ion in $he
dyna"ic <ay in <hich $he 1hysiological ele"en$s <e!e !ela$ed $o $he li%e o% $he o!ganis".
Psychology ,eca"e in $&!n associa$ional, "o$o!, %&nc$ional, and %inally ,ehaio!is$ic.
The his$o!ical $!ans%o!"a$ion o% 1sychology <as a 1!ocess <hich $oo7 1lace g!ad&ally.
Conscio&sness <as so"e$hing <hich co&ld no$ ,e si"1ly dis1ensed <i$h. In ea!ly 1sychology $he!e
<as a c!&de a$$e"1$ $o acco&n$ %o! conscio&sness as a ce!$ain sec!e$ion in $he ,!ain, ,&$ $his <as
only a !idic&lo&s 1hase o% $he $!ans%o!"a$ion. Conscio&sness <as so"e$hing $ha$ <as $he!e, ,&$ i$
<as so"e$hing $ha$ co&ld ,e ,!o&gh$ in$o close! and close! !ela$ionshi1 <i$h <ha$ <en$ on in $he
,ody. 0ha$ <en$ on $he!e had a ce!$ain de%ini$e o!de!. Ee!y$hing $ha$ $oo7 1lace in $he ,ody <as
1a!$ o% an ac$. The ea!lie! conce1$ion o% $he cen$!al ne!o&s sys$e" ass&"ed $ha$ one co&ld loca$e
ce!$ain %ac&l$ies o% $he "ind in ce!$ain 1a!$s o% $he ,!ain, ,&$ a s$&dy o% $he cen$!al ne!o&s sys$e"
did no$ !eeal any s&ch co!!ela$ion. I$ ,eca"e eiden$ $ha$ $he!e <e!e no$hing ,&$ 1a$hs in $he
cen$!al ne!o&s sys$e".+/- The cells o% $he ,!ain <e!e seen $o ,e 1a!$s o% $he ne!o&s 1a$hs
1!oided <i$h "a$e!ial %o! ca!!ying on $he sys$e", ,&$ no$hing <as %o&nd $he!e $o ca!!y on $he
1!ese!a$ion o% an idea as s&ch. The!e <as no$hing in $he cen$!al ne!o&s sys$e" <hich <o&ld
ena,le one $o loca$e a $!ac$ gien oe! $o a,s$!ac$ions. The!e <as a $i"e <hen $he %!on$al lo,e <as
!ega!ded as $he loc&s o% $ho&gh$?1!ocesses ?,&$ $he %!on$al lo,e also !e1!esen$s no$hing ,&$ 1a$hs.
The 1a$hs "a7e e!y co"1lica$ed cond&c$ 1ossi,le, $hey co"1lica$e $he ac$ eno!"o&sly $h!o&gh $he
"echanis" o% $he ,!ain@ ,&$ $hey do no$ se$ &1 any s$!&c$&!e <hich %&nc$ionally ans<e!s $o ideas. So
$he s$&dy o% conscio&sness %!o" $he s$and1oin$ o% $he o!ganis" inei$a,ly led "en $o loo7 a$
conscio&sness i$sel% %!o" $he 1oin$ o% ie< o% ac$ion.
0ha$, %o! e=a"1le, is o&! e=1e!ience $ha$ ans<e!s $o clenching o% $he %is$E Physiological 1sychology
%ollo<ed $he ac$ion o&$ $h!o&gh $he ne!es $ha$ ca"e %!o" $he "&scles o% $he a!" and hand. The
e=1e!ience o% $he ac$ <o&ld $hen ,e $he sensa$ion o% <ha$ <as going on@ in conscio&sness as s&ch
$he!e is an a<a!eness o% <ha$ $he o!gan <as doing@ $he!e is a 1a!allelis" ,e$<een <ha$ goes on in
$he o!gan and <ha$ $a7es 1lace in conscio&sness. This 1a!allelis" is, o% co&!se, no$ a co"1le$e
1a!allelis". The!e see"s $o ,e conscio&sness co!!es1onding only $o $he senso!y ne!es.+0- 0e a!e
conscio&s o% so"e $hings and no$ conscio&s o% o$he!s, and a$$en$ion see"s $o 1lay a e!y g!ea$ 1a!$
in de$e!"ining <hich is $he case. The 1a!allelis" <hich <e ca!!y oe! does no$ see" $o ,e
co"1le$e, ,&$ one <hich occ&!s only a$ a!io&s 1oin$s. The $hing $ha$ is in$e!es$ing he!e is $ha$ i$ is
$he o!ganis" $ha$ no< 1!oides $he cle< %o! $he analysis. Only 1o!$ions o% $he !es1onse a11ea! in
conscio&sness as s&ch. The o!ganis" has ass&"ed $he 1!i"a!y 1lace. E=1e!i"en$al 1sychology
s$a!$ed o%% %!o" <ha$ i$ co&ld ge$ hold o% in $he 1hysiological sys$e", and $hen &nde!$oo7 $o %ind o&$
<ha$ in conscio&sness see"ed $o ans<e! $o i$. The scien$is$ %el$ $ha$ he had $he sa"e ass&!ance
$ha$ $he 1hysiologis$ had in iden$i%ying $hese %ac$s in $he ne!o&s sys$e", and gien $hose %ac$s he
co&ld loo7 in$o conscio&sness. I$ <as si"1le! $o s$a!$ o%% <i$h $he ne&!osis and $hen !egis$e! <ha$
<as %o&nd in $he 1sychosis. Th&s, $he acce1$ance o% so"e so!$ o% a 1a!allelis" ,e$<een $he
con$en$s o% conscio&sness and $he 1hysiological 1!ocesses o% $he cen$!al ne!o&s sys$e" led $o a
conce1$ion o% $hose con$en$s dyna"ically, in $e!"s o% ac$s, ins$ead o% s$a$ically, in $e!"s o% s$a$es. In
$his <ay $he con$en$s o% conscio&sness <e!e a11!oached %!o" ,elo< A$ha$ is, na$&!alis$icallyB !a$he!
$han %!o" a,oe A$ha$ is, $!anscenden$allyB, ,y a s$&dy o% $he 1hysiological 1!ocesses o% $he cen$!al
ne!o&s sys$e" $o de$e!"ine <ha$ in $he "ind ans<e!s $o $he ac$ii$ies o% $he 1hysiological
o!ganis".
The!e <as a D&es$ion as $o $he di!ec$ie cen$e!s %o! &ni%ied ac$ion. 0e a!e a1$ $o $hin7 o% $he cen$!al
ne!o&s sys$e" %!o" $he 1oin$ o% ie< o% $he $ele1hone ,oa!d, <i$h calls co"ing in and !es1onses
going o&$. Ce!$ain cen$e!s co"e $o ,e conceied as 1!inci1al cen$e!s. I% yo& go ,ac7 $o $he ,ase o%
$he ,!ain, $o $ha$ 1o!$ion <hich is $he essence o% $he cen$!al ne!o&s sys$e" o% lo<e! %o!"s, yo& do
%ind an o!gani8a$ion $he!e <hich con$!ols in i$s ac$ii$y o$he! ac$ii$ies@ ,&$ <hen yo& co"e $o cond&c$
in $he h&"an %o!", yo& %ail $o %ind any s&ch sys$e" in <hich $he!e is a single di!ec$ie cen$e! o!
g!o&1 o% cen$e!s. One can see $ha$ $he a!io&s 1!ocesses <hich a!e inoled in !&nning a<ay %!o"
dange! can ,e 1!ocesses <hich a!e so in$e!!ela$ed <i$h o$he! ac$ii$ies $ha$ $he con$!ol co"es in $he
o!gani8a$ion. One sees $he $!ee as a 1ossi,le 1lace o% esca1e i% a ,&ll is a%$e! hi"@ and in gene!al,
one sees $hings <hich <ill ena,le $he ongoing ac$ii$y $o ,e ca!!ied o&$. A a!ying g!o&1 o% cen$e!s
"ay ,e $he de$e!"ining %ac$o! in $he <hole ac$ii$y o% $he indiid&al. Tha$ is $he conce1$ <hich has
also ,een ca!!ied oe! in$o $he %ield o% g!o<$h. Ce!$ain 1a!$s o% $he e",!yo s$a!$ g!o<ing, and con$!ol
$he ac$ion o% g!o<$h &n$il so"e o$he! 1!ocess co"es in$o con$!ol. In $he co!$e=, $ha$ o!gan <hich in
so"e sense ans<e!s $o h&"an in$elligence, <e %ail $o %ind any e=cl&sie and &na!ying con$!ol, $ha$
is, any eidence o% i$ in $he s$!&c$&!e o% $he %o!" i$sel%. In so"e <ay <e can ass&"e $ha$ $he co!$e=
ac$s as a <hole, ,&$ <e canno$ co"e ,ac7 $o ce!$ain cen$e!s and say $ha$ $his is <he!e $he "ind is
lodged in $hin7ing and in ac$ion. The!e a!e an inde%ini$e n&",e! o% cells connec$ed <i$h each o$he!,
and $hei! inne!a$ion in so"e sense leads $o a &ni$a!y ac$ion, ,&$ <ha$ $ha$ &ni$y is in $e!"s o% $he
cen$!al ne!o&s sys$e" i$ is al"os$ i"1ossi,le $o s$a$e. All $he di%%e!en$ 1a!$s o% $he co!$e= see" $o
,e inoled in ee!y$hing $ha$ ha11ens. All $he s$i"&li $ha$ !each $he ,!ain a!e !e%lec$ed in$o all 1a!$s
o% $he ,!ain, and ye$ <e do ge$ a &ni$a!y ac$ion. The!e !e"ains, $hen, a 1!o,le" <hich is ,y no
"eans de%ini$ely soled; $he &ni$y o% $he ac$ion o% $he cen$!al ne!o&s sys$e". 0&nd$ &nde!$oo7 $o
%ind ce!$ain cen$e!s <hich <o&ld ,e !es1onsi,le %o! $his so!$ o% &ni$y, ,&$ $he!e is no$hing in $he
s$!&c$&!e o% $he ,!ain i$sel% <hich isola$ed any 1a!$s o% $he ,!ain as $hose <hich di!ec$ cond&c$ as a
<hole. The &ni$y is a &ni$y o% in$eg!a$ion, $ho&gh 9&s$ ho< $his in$eg!a$ion $a7es 1lace in de$ail <e
canno$ say.
0ha$ I <an$ed $o ,!ing o&$ is $ha$ $he a11!oach $o 1sychological $heo!y %!o" $he s$and1oin$ o% $he
o!ganis" "&s$ inei$a,ly ,e $h!o&gh an e"1hasis &1on cond&c$, &1on $he dyna"ic !a$he! $han $he
s$a$ic. I$ is, o% co&!se, 1ossi,le $o <o!7 in $he o$he! di!ec$ion, $ha$ is, $o loo7 a$ e=1e!ience %!o" $he
1oin$ o% ie< o% $he 1sychologis$ and $o d!a< concl&sions as $o <ha$ "&s$ go on in $he cen$!al
ne!o&s sys$e". I$ is 1ossi,le $o !ecogni8e, %o! e=a"1le, $ha$ <e a!e no$ si"1ly a$ $he "e!cy o% $he
di%%e!en$ s$i"&li $ha$ 1lay in $he cen$!al ne!o&s sys$e"?$he na$&!al ie< o% $he 1hysiologis$. 0e can
see $hese o!gans ad9&s$ $he"seles $o di%%e!en$ $y1es o% s$i"&li. 0hen ai! <aes co"e in $hey a%%ec$
$he 1a!$ic&la! o!gans o% $he ea!@ <hen $as$es and odo!s co"e in $he s$i"&li ge$ $o $!ac$s in $he 1!o1e!
o!gans $ha$ !es1ond. The!e "ay see" $o ,e "e!ely a !es1onse o% $he o!ganis" $o $he s$i"&li. This
1osi$ion is $a7en oe! in$o $he 1sychology o% S1ence!, <ho acce1$ed $he Da!<inian 1!inci1le o%
eol&$ion. The in%l&ence o% eni!on"en$ is e=e!cised oe! $he %o!", and $he ada1$a$ion o% $he %o!"
!es&l$s %!o" $he in%l&ences o% $he eni!on"en$ on i$. S1ence! conceied o% $he cen$!al ne!o&s
sys$e" as ,eing con$in&ally 1layed &1on ,y s$i"&li <hich se$ &1 ce!$ain 1a$hs, so $ha$ i$ <as $he
eni!on"en$ <hich <as %ashioning $he %o!".
The 1heno"ena o% a$$en$ion, ho<ee!, gie a di%%e!en$ 1ic$&!e o% cond&c$. The h&"an ani"al is an
a$$en$ie ani"al, and his a$$en$ion "ay ,e gien $o s$i"&li $ha$ a!e !ela$iely %ain$. One can 1ic7 o&$
so&nds a$ a dis$ance. O&! <hole in$elligen$ 1!ocess see"s $o lie in $he a$$en$ion <hich is selec$ie o%
ce!$ain $y1es o% s$i"&li.+1- O$he! s$i"&li <hich a!e ,o",a!ding $he sys$e" a!e in so"e %ashion
sh&n$ed o%%. 0e gie o&! a$$en$ion $o one 1a!$ic&la! $hing. No$ only do <e o1en $he doo! $o ce!$ain
s$i"&li and close i$ $o o$he!s, ,&$ o&! a$$en$ion is an o!gani8ing 1!ocess as <ell as a selec$ie
1!ocess. 0hen giing a$$en$ion $o <ha$ <e a!e going $o do <e a!e 1ic7ing o&$ $he <hole g!o&1 o%
s$i"&li <hich !e1!esen$ s&ccessie ac$ii$y. O&! a$$en$ion ena,les &s $o o!gani8e $he %ield in <hich
<e a!e going $o ac$. :e!e <e hae $he o!ganis" as ac$ing and de$e!"ining i$s eni!on"en$. I$ is no$
si"1ly a se$ o% 1assie senses 1layed &1on ,y $he s$i"&li $ha$ co"e %!o" <i$ho&$. The o!ganis"
goes o&$ and de$e!"ines <ha$ i$ is going $o !es1ond $o, and o!gani8es $ha$ <o!ld. One o!ganis"
1ic7s o&$ one $hing and ano$he! 1ic7s o&$ a di%%e!en$ one, since i$ is going $o ac$ in a di%%e!en$ <ay.
S&ch is an a11!oach $o <ha$ goes on in $he cen$!al ne!o&s sys$e" <hich co"es $o $he 1hysiologis$
%!o" $he 1sychologis$.
The 1hysiology o% a$$en$ion is a %ield <hich is s$ill. a da!7 con$inen$. The o!ganis" i$sel% %i$s i$sel% $o
ce!$ain $y1es o% cond&c$, and $his is o% conside!a,le i"1o!$ance in de$e!"ining <ha$ $he ani"al <ill
do. The!e also lie ,ac7 in $he o!ganis" !es1onses, s&ch as $hose o% esca1e %!o" dange!, $ha$
!e1!esen$ a 1ec&lia! sensi$ii$y. A so&nd in so"e o$he! di!ec$ion <o&ld no$ hae $he sa"e e%%ec$.
The eye is e!y sensi$ie $o "o$ions $ha$ lie o&$side o% $he %ield o% cen$!al ision, een $ho&gh $his
a!ea o% $he !e$ina o% $he eye is no$ so sensi$ie $o %o!" and dis$inc$ions o% colo!. Yo& loo7 %o! a ,oo7
in a li,!a!y and yo& ca!!y a so!$ o% "en$al i"age o% $he ,ac7 o% $he ,oo7@ yo& !ende! yo&!sel%
sensi$ie $o a ce!$ain i"age o% a %!iend yo& a!e going $o "ee$. 0e can sensi$i8e o&!seles $o ce!$ain
$y1es o% s$i"&li and <e can ,&ild &1 $he so!$ o% ac$ion <e a!e going $o $a7e. In a chain se$ o%
!es1onses $he %o!" ca!!ies o&$ one ins$inc$ie !es1onse and $hen %inds i$sel% in $he 1!esence o%
ano$he! s$i"&l&s, and so %o!$h@ ,&$ as in$elligen$ ,eings <e ,&ild &1 s&ch o!gani8ed !eac$ions
o&!seles. The %ield o% a$$en$ion is one in <hich $he!e "&s$ ,e a "echanis" in <hich <e can
o!gani8e $he di%%e!en$ s$i"&li <i$h !e%e!ence $o o$he!s so $ha$ ce!$ain !es1onses can $a7e 1lace. The
desc!i1$ion o% $his is so"e$hing <e can !each $h!o&gh a s$&dy o% o&! o<n cond&c$, and a$ 1!esen$
$ha$ is $he "os$ $ha$ <e can say.
Pa!allelis" in 1sychology <as e!y la!gely &nde! $he con$!ol o% $he s$&dy o% $he cen$!al ne!o&s
sys$e", and $ha$ led on inei$a,ly $o %&nc$ional, "o$o!, ol&n$a!is$ic, and %inally ,ehaio!is$ic
1sychology. The "o!e one co&ld s$a$e o% $he 1!ocesses o% $he indiid&al in $e!"s o% $he cen$!al
ne!o&s sys$e", $he "o!e one <o&ld &se $he 1a$$e!n <hich one %o&nd in $he cen$!al ne!o&s sys$e"
$o in$e!1!e$ cond&c$. 0ha$ I a" insis$ing &1on is $ha$ $he 1a$$e!ns <hich one %inds in $he cen$!al
ne!o&s sys$e" a!e 1a$$e!ns o% ac$ion?no$ o% con$e"1la$ion, no$ o% a11!ecia$ion as s&ch, ,&$ 1a$$e!ns
o% ac$ion. On $he o$he! hand I <an$ $o 1oin$ o&$ $ha$ one is a,le $o a11!oach $he cen$!al ne!o&s
sys$e" %!o" $he 1sychologis$>s 1oin$ o% ie< and se$ ce!$ain 1!o,le"s $o $he 1hysiologis$. :o< is $he
1hysiologis$ $o e=1lain a$$en$ionE 0hen $he 1hysiologis$ a$$e"1$s $ha$ he is ,o&nd $o do so in $e!"s
o% $he a!io&s 1a$hs. I% he is going $o e=1lain <hy one 1a$h is selec$ed !a$he! $han ano$he! he "&s$
go ,ac7 $o $hese $e!"s o% 1a$hs and ac$ions. Yo& canno$ se$ &1 in $he cen$!al ne!o&s sys$e" a
selec$ie 1!inci1le <hich can ,e gene!ally a11lied $h!o&gho&$@ yo& canno$ say $he!e is a s1eci%ic
so"e$hing in $he cen$!al ne!o&s sys$e" $ha$ is !ela$ed $o a$$en$ion@ yo& canno$ say $ha$ $he!e is a
gene!al 1o<e! o% a$$en$ion. Yo& hae $o s$a$e i$ s1eci%ically, so $ha$ een <hen yo& a!e di!ec$ing yo&!
s$&dy o% $he cen$!al ne!o&s sys$e" %!o" $he 1oin$ o% ie< o% 1sychology, $he $y1e o% e=1lana$ion
$ha$ yo& a!e going $o ge$ <ill hae $o ,e in $e!"s o% 1a$hs <hich !e1!esen$ ac$ion.
S&ch, in ,!ie%, is $he his$o!y o% $he a11ea!ance o% 1hysiological 1sychology in i$s 1a!allelis$ic %o!", a
1sychology <hich had "oed $o $he ne=$ s$age ,eyond $ha$ o% associa$ionalis". A$$en$ion is
o!dina!ily s$!essed in $!acing $his $!ansi$ion, ,&$ $he e"1hasis on a$$en$ion is one <hich is de!ied
la!gely %!o" $he s$&dy o% $he o!ganis" as s&ch, and i$ acco!dingly sho&ld ,e seen in $he la!ge!
con$e=$ <e hae 1!esen$ed.
"ndnotes
1. The lines o% associa$ion %ollo< $he lines o% $he ac$ A13#)B.
#. Th&s Cohn De<ey added $o Ca"es>s doc$!ine $he necessi$y o% con%lic$ in ac$ion in o!de! %o!
e"o$ions $o a!ise.
3. IA"ong 1hiloso1he!s, :en!i Be!gson es1ecially s$!essed $his 1oin$. See his Matiere et
Memoire$
). 0e a!e conscio&s al<ays o% <ha$ <e hae done, nee! o% doing i$. 0e a!e al<ays conscio&s
di!ec$ly only o% senso!y 1!ocesses, nee! o% "o$o! 1!ocesses@ hence <e a!e conscio&s o%
"o$o! 1!ocesses only $h!o&gh senso!y 1!ocesses, <hich a!e $hei! !es&l$an$s. The con$en$s o%
conscio&sness hae, $he!e%o!e, $o ,e co!!ela$ed <i$h o! %i$$ed in$o a 1hysiological sys$e" in
dyna"ic $e!"s, as 1!ocesses going on.
+. ISee Sec$ions 1' and 1).K
1# P%*%&&"&ISM %() TH" %MBIG4IT' $3 5C$(SCI$4S("SS5
-Conscio&sness- is a e!y a",ig&o&s $e!". One o%$en iden$i%ies conscio&sness <i$h a ce!$ain
so"e$hing $ha$ is $he!e &nde! ce!$ain condi$ions and is no$ $he!e &nde! o$he! condi$ions. One
a11!oaches $his "os$ na$&!ally ,y ass&"ing $ha$ i$ is so"e$hing $ha$ ha11ens &nde! ce!$ain
condi$ions o% $he o!ganis", so"e$hing, $hen, $ha$ can ,e conceied o% as !&nning 1a!allel <i$h
ce!$ain 1heno"ena in $he ne!o&s sys$e", ,&$ no$ 1a!allel <i$h o$he!s. The!e see"s $o ,e no
conscio&sness $ha$ ans<e!s $o $he "o$o! 1!ocesses as s&ch@ $he conscio&sness <e hae o% o&!
ac$ion is $ha$ <hich is senso!y in $y1e and <hich ans<e!s $o $he c&!!en$ <hich co"es %!o" $he
senso!y ne!es <hich a!e a%%ec$ed ,y $he con$!ac$ion o% $he "&scles. 0e a!e no$ conscio&s o% $he
ac$&al "o$o! 1!ocesses, ,&$ <e hae a senso!y 1!ocess $ha$ !&ns 1a!allel $o i$. This is $he si$&a$ion
o&$ o% <hich 1a!allelis$ic 1sychology a!ises. I$ i"1lies on $he one side an o!ganis" <hich is a going
conce!n, $ha$ see"ingly can !&n <i$ho&$ conscio&sness. A 1e!son con$in&es $o lie <hen he is &nde!
a gene!al anes$he$ic. Conscio&sness leaes and conscio&sness !e$&!ns, ,&$ $he o!ganis" i$sel% !&ns
on. And $he "o!e co"1le$ely one is a,le $o s$a$e $he 1sychological 1!ocesses in $e!"s o% $he cen$!al
ne!o&s sys$e" $he less i"1o!$an$ does $his conscio&sness ,eco"e.
The e=$!e"e s$a$e"en$ o% $ha$ so!$ <as gien ,y :&go M&ns$e!,e!g.+,- :e ass&"ed $he o!ganis"
i$sel% si"1ly !an on, ,&$ $ha$ ans<e!ing $o ce!$ain ne!o&s changes $he!e <e!e conscio&s s$a$es. I%
one said $ha$ he did so"e$hing, <ha$ $ha$ a"o&n$ed $o <as a conscio&sness o% $he "oe"en$ o% $he
"&scles o% his ,ody in doing i$@ $he conscio&sness o% $he ,eginning o% $he ac$ is $ha$ <hich he
in$e!1!e$ed as his o<n oli$ion $o ac$. The!e is only a conscio&sness o% ce!$ain 1!ocesses $ha$ a!e
going on. Pa!allelis" in $his e=$!e"e %o!", ho<ee!, le%$ o&$ o% acco&n$ 9&s$ s&ch 1!ocesses as $hose
o% a$$en$ion and $he selec$ie cha!ac$e! o% conscio&sness. I% $he 1hysiologis$ had ,een a,le $o 1oin$
o&$ $he "echanis" o% $he cen$!al ne!o&s sys$e" ,y <hich <e o!gani8e o&! ac$ion, $he!e "igh$ ,e
s$ill do"inan$ s&ch a s$a$e"en$ in $e!"s o% $his e=$!e"e 1a!allelis" <hich <o&ld !ega!d $he
indiid&al as si"1ly conscio&s o% $he selec$ion <hich $he o!ganis" "ade. B&$ $he 1!ocess o%
selec$ion i$sel% is so co"1le= $ha$ i$ ,eco"es al"os$ i"1ossi,le $o s$a$e i$, es1ecially in s&ch $e!"s.
Conscio&sness as s&ch is 1ec&lia!ly selec$ie, and $he 1!ocesses o% selec$ion, o% sensi$i8ing $he
o!gan $o s$i"&li, a!e so"e$hing e!y di%%ic&l$ $o isola$e in $he cen$!al ne!o&s sys$e". 0illia" Ca"es
1oin$s o&$ $ha$ $he a"o&n$ o% di%%e!ence <hich yo& hae $o gie $o a ce!$ain s$i"&l&s $o "a7e i$
do"inan$ is e!y sligh$, and he co&ld conceie o% an ac$ o% oli$ion <hich holds on $o a ce!$ain
s$i"&l&s, and 9&s$ gies i$ a li$$le "o!e e"1hasis $han i$ o$he!<ise <o&ld hae. 0&nd$ $!ied $o "a7e
1a!allelis" 1ossi,le ,y ass&"ing $he 1ossi,ili$y o% ce!$ain cen$e!s <hich co&ld 1e!%o!" $his selec$ie
%&nc$ion. B&$ $he!e <as no sa$is%ac$o!y s$a$e"en$ o% $he <ay in <hich one co&ld ge$ $his in$e!ac$ion
,e$<een an o!ganis" and a conscio&sness>. o% $he <ay in <hich conscio&sness co&ld ac$ &1on a
cen$!al ne!o&s sys$e". So $ha$ <e ge$ a$ $his s$age o% $he deelo1"en$ o% 1sychology 1a!allelis"
!a$he! $han in$e!ac$ionis".
The 1a!allelis$ic 1hase o% 1sychology !eeals i$sel% no$ si"1ly as one o% $he 1assing %o!"s <hich has
a11ea!ed in 1sychological ines$iga$ion, ,&$ as one <hich has se!ed a e!y eiden$ 1&!1ose and
"e$ a e!y eiden$ need.
0e do dis$ing&ish, in so"e sense, $he e=1e!iences $ha$ <e call conscio&s %!o" $hose going on in
$he <o!ld a!o&nd &s. 0e see a colo! and gie i$ a ce!$ain na"e. 0e %ind $ha$ <e a!e "is$a7en, d&e
$o a de%ec$ in o&! ision, and <e go ,ac7 $o $he s1ec$!al colo!s and analy8e i$. 0e say $he!e is
so"e$hing $ha$ is inde1enden$ o% o&! i""edia$e senso!y 1!ocess. 0e a!e $!ying $o ge$ hold o% $ha$
1a!$ o% e=1e!ience $ha$ can ,e $a7en as inde1enden$ o% one>s o<n i""edia$e !es1onse. 0e <an$ $o
ge$ hold o% $ha$ so $ha$ <e can deal <i$h $he 1!o,le" o% e!!o!. 0he!e no e!!o! is inoled <e do no$
d!a< $he line. I% <e discoe! $ha$ a $!ee seen a$ a dis$ance is no$ $he!e <hen <e !each $he s1o$, <e
hae "is$a7en so"e$hing else %o! a $!ee. Th&s, <e hae $o hae a %ield $o <hich <e can !e%e! o&!
o<n e=1e!ience@ and also <e !eD&i!e o,9ec$s <hich a!e !ecogni8ed $o ,e inde1enden$ o% o&! o<n
ision. 0e <an$ $he "echanis" <hich <ill "a7e $ha$ dis$inc$ion a$ any $i"e, and <e gene!ali8e i$ in
$his <ay. 0e <o!7 o&$ $he $heo!y o% sense 1e!ce1$ion in $e!"s o% $he e=$e!nal s$i"&l&s, so $ha$ <e
can ge$ hold o% $ha$ <hich can ,e de1ended &1on in o!de! $o dis$ing&ish i$ %!o" $ha$ <hich canno$ ,e
de1ended &1on in $he sa"e <ay. Een an o,9ec$ $ha$ is ac$&ally $he!e can s$ill ,e so !esoled. In $he
la,o!a$o!y <e can dis$ing&ish ,e$<een $he s$i"&l&s and $he sense e=1e!ience. The e=1e!i"en$e!
$&!ns on a ce!$ain ligh$ and he 7no<s 9&s$ <ha$ $ha$ %igh$ is. :e can $ell <ha$ $a7es 1lace in $he !e$ina
and in $he cen$!al ne!o&s sys$e", and $hen he as7s <ha$ $he e=1e!iences a%$. :e 1&$s all so!$s o%
ele"en$s in $he 1!ocess so $ha$ $he s&,9ec$ <ill "is$a7e <ha$ i$ is. :e ge$s on $he one side
conscio&s da$a, and on $he o$he! side $he 1hysical 1!ocesses $ha$ a!e going on. :e ca!!ies $his
analysis only in$o a %ield <hich is o% i"1o!$ance %o! his ines$iga$ion@ and he hi"sel% has o,9ec$s o&$
$he!e <hich co&ld ,e analy8ed in $he sa"e %ashion.
0e <an$ $o ,e a,le $o dis$ing&ish <ha$ ,elongs $o o&! o<n e=1e!ience %!o" $ha$ <hich can ,e
s$a$ed, as <e say, in scien$i%ic $e!"s. 0e a!e s&!e o% so"e 1!ocesses, ,&$ <e a!e no$ s&!e as $o $he
!eac$ion o% 1eo1le $o $hese 1!ocesses. 0e !ecogni8e $ha$ $he!e a!e all so!$s o% di%%e!ences a"ong
indiid&als. 0e hae $o "a7e $his dis$inc$ion, so <e hae $o se$ &1 a ce!$ain 1a!allelis" ,e$<een
$hings <hich a!e $he!e and hae a &ni%o!" al&e %o! ee!y,ody, and $hings <hich a!y <i$h ce!$ain
indiid&als. 0e see" $o ge$ a %ield o% conscio&sness and a %ield o% 1hysical $hings <hich a!e no$
conscio&s.
I <an$ $o dis$ing&ish $he di%%e!ences in $he &se o% $he $e!" conscio&sness $o s$and %o! accessi,ili$y $o
ce!$ain con$en$s, and as synony"o&s <i$h ce!$ain con$en$s $he"seles. 0hen yo& sh&$ yo&! eyes
yo& sh&$ yo&!sel% o%% %!o" ce!$ain s$i"&li. I% one $a7es an anes$he$ic $he <o!ld is inaccessi,le $o hi".
Si"ila!ly, slee1 !ende!s one inaccessi,le $o $he <o!ld. No< I <an$ $o dis$ing&ish $his &se o%
conscio&sness, $ha$ o% !ende!ing one accessi,le and inaccessi,le $o ce!$ain %ields, %!o" $hese
con$en$s $he"seles <hich a!e de$e!"ined ,y $he e=1e!ience o% $he indiid&al. 0e <an$ $o ,e a,le
$o deal <i$h an e=1e!ience <hich a!ies <i$h $he di%%e!en$ indiid&als, $o deal <i$h $he di%%e!en$
con$en$s <hich in so"e sense !e1!esen$ $he sa"e o,9ec$. 0e <an$ $o ,e a,le $o se1a!a$e $hose
con$en$s <hich a!y %!o" con$en$s <hich a!e in so"e sense co""on $o all o% &s. O&! 1sychologis$s
&nde!$a7e de%ini$ely $o deal <i$h e=1e!ience as i$ a!ies <i$h indiid&als. So"e o% $hese e=1e!iences
a!e de1enden$ &1on $he 1e!s1ec$ie o% $he indiid&al and so"e a!e 1ec&lia! $o a 1a!$ic&la! o!gan. I%
one is colo!?,lind he has a di%%e!en$ e=1e!ience %!o" a 1e!son <i$h a no!"al eye.
0hen <e &se -conscio&sness,- $hen, <i$h !e%e!ence $o $hose condi$ions <hich a!e a!ia,le <i$h $he
e=1e!ience o% $he indiid&al, $his &sage is a D&i$e di%%e!en$ one %!o" $ha$ o% !ende!ing o&!seles
inaccessi,le $o $he <o!ld.+.- In one case <e a!e dealing <i$h $he si$&a$ion o% a 1e!son going $o
slee1, dis$!ac$ing his a$$en$ion o! cen$e!ing his a$$en$ion?a 1a!$ial o! co"1le$e e=cl&sion o% ce!$ain
1a!$s o% a %ield. The o$he! &se is in a11lica$ion $o $he e=1e!ience o% $he indiid&al $ha$ is di%%e!en$
%!o" $he e=1e!ience o% any,ody else, and no$ only di%%e!en$ in $ha$ <ay ,&$ di%%e!en$ %!o" his o<n
e=1e!ience a$ di%%e!en$ $i"es. O&! e=1e!ience a!ies no$ si"1ly <i$h o&! o<n o!ganis" ,&$ %!o"
"o"en$ $o "o"en$, and ye$ i$ is an e=1e!ience <hich is o% so"e$hing <hich has no$ a!ied as o&!
e=1e!iences a!y, and <e <an$ $o ,e a,le $o s$&dy $ha$ e=1e!ience in $his a!ia,le %o!", so $ha$
so"e so!$ o% 1a!allelis" has $o ,e se$ &1. One "igh$ a$$e"1$ $o se$ &1 $he 1a!allelis" o&$side o% $he
,ody, ,&$ $he s$&dy o% $he s$i"&li inei$a,ly $a7es &s oe! in$o $he s$&dy o% $he ,ody i$sel%.
Di%%e!en$ 1osi$ions <ill lead $o di%%e!en$ e=1e!iences in !ega!d $o s&ch an o,9ec$ as a 1enny 1laced
on a ce!$ain s1o$. The!e a!e o$he! 1heno"ena $ha$ a!e de1enden$ &1on $he cha!ac$e! o% $he eye, o!
$he e%%ec$ o% 1as$ e=1e!iences. 0ha$ $he 1enny <o&ld ,e e=1e!ienced as de1ends &1on $he 1as$
e=1e!iences $ha$ "ay hae occ&!!ed $o $he di%%e!en$ indiid&als. I$ is a di%%e!en$ 1enny $o one 1e!son
%!o" <ha$ i$ is $o ano$he!@ ye$ $he 1enny is $he!e as an en$i$y ,y i$sel%. 0e <an$ $o ,e a,le $o deal
<i$h $hese s1a$ially 1e!s1ec$ial di%%e!ences in indiid&als. S$ill "o!e i"1o!$an$ %!o" a 1sychological
s$and1oin$ is $he 1e!s1ec$ie o% "e"o!y, ,y "eans o% <hich one 1e!son sees one 1enny and
ano$he! sees ano$he! 1enny. These a!e cha!ac$e!s <hich <e <an$ $o se1a!a$e, and i$ is he!e $ha$ $he
legi$i"acy o% o&! 1a!allelis" lies, na"ely, in $ha$ dis$inc$ion ,e$<een $he o,9ec$ as i$ can ,e
de$e!"ined, 1hysically and 1hysiologically, as co""on $o all, and $he e=1e!ience <hich is 1ec&lia!
$o a 1a!$ic&la! o!ganis", a 1a!$ic&la! 1e!son.
Se$$ing $his dis$inc$ion &1 as a 1sychological doc$!ine gies $he so!$ o% 1sychology $ha$ 0&nd$ has
"os$ e%%ec$iely and e=ha&s$iely 1!esen$ed. :e has $!ied $o 1!esen$ $he o!ganis" and i$s
eni!on"en$ as iden$ical 1hysical o,9ec$s %o! any e=1e!ience, al$ho&gh $he !e%lec$ion o% $he" in $he
di%%e!en$ e=1e!iences a!e all di%%e!en$. T<o 1e!sons s$&dying $he sa"e cen$!al ne!o&s sys$e" a$ $he
dissec$ing $a,le <ill see i$ a li$$le di%%e!en$ly@ ye$ $hey see $he sa"e cen$!al ne!o&s sys$e". Each o%
$he" has a di%%e!en$ e=1e!ience in $ha$ 1!ocess. No<, 1&$ on one side $he o!ganis" and i$s
eni!on"en$ as a co""on o,9ec$ and $hen $a7e <ha$ is le%$, so $o s1ea7, and 1&$ $ha$ in$o $he
e=1e!ience o% $he se1a!a$e indiid&als, and $he !es&l$ is a 1a!allelis"; on $he one side $he 1hysical
<o!ld, and on $he o$he! side conscio&sness.
The ,asis %o! $his dis$inc$ion is, as <e hae seen, a %a"ilia! and a 9&s$i%ia,le one, ,&$ <hen 1&$ in$o
$he %o!" o% a 1sychology, as 0&nd$ did, i$ !eaches i$s li"i$s@ and i% ca!!ied ,eyond leads in$o
di%%ic&l$y. The legi$i"a$e dis$inc$ion is $ha$ <hich ena,les a 1e!son $o iden$i%y $ha$ 1hase o% an
e=1e!ience <hich is 1ec&lia! $o hi"sel%, <hich has $o ,e s$&died in $e!"s o% a "o"en$ in his
,iog!a1hy. The!e a!e %ac$s <hich a!e i"1o!$an$ only in so %a! as $hey lie in $he ,iog!a1hy o% $he
indiid&al. The $echniD&e o% $ha$ so!$ o% a se1a!a$ion co"es ,ac7 $o $he 1hysiological eni!on"en$
on one side and $o $he e=1e!ience on $he o$he!. In $his <ay an e=1e!ience o% $he o,9ec$ i$sel% is
con$!as$ed <i$h $he indiid&al>s e=1e!ience, conscio&sness on one side <i$h $he &nconscio&s <o!ld
on $he o$he!.
I% <e %ollo< $his dis$inc$ion do<n $o i$s li"i$s <e !each a 1hysiological o!ganis" $ha$ is $he sa"e %o!
all 1eo1le, 1layed &1on ,y a se$ o% s$i"&li <hich is $he sa"e $o all. 0e <an$ $o %ollo< $he e%%ec$s o%
s&ch s$i"&li in $he cen$!al ne!o&s sys$e" &1 $o $he 1oin$ <he!e a 1a!$ic&la! indiid&al has a s1eci%ic
e=1e!ience. 0hen <e hae done $ha$ %o! a 1a!$ic&la! case, <e &se $his analysis as a ,asis %o!
gene!ali8ing $ha$ dis$inc$ion. 0e can say $ha$ $he!e a!e 1hysical $hings on one side and "en$al
een$s on $he o$he!. 0e ass&"e $ha$ $he e=1e!ienced <o!ld o% each 1e!son is loo7ed &1on as a
!es&l$ o% a ca&sal se!ies $ha$ lies inside o% his ,!ain. 0e %ollo< s$i"&li in$o $he ,!ain, and $he!e <e
say conscio&sness %lashes o&$. In $his <ay <e hae &l$i"a$ely $o loca$e all e=1e!ience in $he ,!ain,
and $hen old e1is$e"ological ghos$s a!ise. 0hose ,!ain is i$E :o< is $he ,!ain 7no<nE 0he!e does
$ha$ ,!ain lieE The <hole <o!ld co"es $o lie inside o% $he o,se!e!>s ,!ain@ and his ,!ain lies in
ee!y,ody else>s ,!ain, and so on <i$ho&$ end. All so!$s o% di%%ic&l$ies a!ise i% one &nde!$a7es $o e!ec$
$his 1a!allelis$ic diision in$o a "e$a1hysical one. The essen$ially 1!ac$ical na$&!e o% $his diision
"&s$ no< ,e 1oin$ed o&$.
"ndnotes
1. ISee %ie Willenshandlung$
2. IAnd, inciden$ally, %!o" a $hi!d &se in <hich -conscio&sness- is !es$!ic$ed $o $he leel o% $he
o1e!a$ion o% sy",ols. On conscio&sness see -The De%ini$ion o% $he Psychical, & 'niversity o%
Chicago %ecennial Pu(lications, III A135'B, // %%.@ -0ha$ Social O,9ec$s M&s$ Psychology
P!es&11oseE- Journal o% Philosophy, 4II A1315B, 1/) %%.K
2# TH" P*$G*%M $3 B"H%VI$*ISM
0e hae seen $ha$ a ce!$ain so!$ o% 1a!allelis" is inoled in $he a$$e"1$ $o s$a$e $he e=1e!ience o%
$he indiid&al in so %a! as i$ is 1ec&lia! $o hi" as an indiid&al. 0ha$ is accessi,le only $o $ha$
indiid&al, <ha$ $a7es 1lace only in $he %ield o% his o<n inne! li%e, "&s$ ,e s$a$ed in i$s !ela$ionshi1 $o
$he si$&a$ion <i$hin <hich i$ $a7es 1lace. One indiid&al has one e=1e!ience and ano$he! has ano$he!
e=1e!ience, and ,o$h a!e s$a$ed in $e!"s o% $hei! ,iog!a1hies@ ,&$ $he!e is in addi$ion $ha$ <hich is
co""on $o $he e=1e!ience o% all. And o&! scien$i%ic s$a$e"en$ co!!ela$es $ha$ <hich $he indiid&al
hi"sel% e=1e!iences, and <hich can &l$i"a$ely ,e s$a$ed only in $e!"s o% his e=1e!ience, <i$h $he
e=1e!ience <hich ,elongs $o ee!yone. This is essen$ial in o!de! $ha$ <e "ay in$e!1!e$ <ha$ is
1ec&lia! $o $he indiid&al. 0e a!e al<ays se1a!a$ing $ha$ <hich is 1ec&lia! $o o&! o<n !eac$ion, $ha$
<hich <e can see $ha$ o$he! 1e!sons canno$ see, %!o" $ha$ <hich is co""on $o all. 0e a!e !e%e!!ing
<ha$ ,elongs $o $he e=1e!ience 9&s$ o% $he indiid&al $o a co""on lang&age, $o a co""on <o!ld.
And <hen <e ca!!y o&$ $his !ela$ionshi1, $his co!!ela$ion, in$o <ha$ $a7es 1lace 1hysically and
1hysiologically, <e ge$ a 1a!allelis$ic 1sychology.
The 1a!$ic&la! colo! o! odo! $ha$ any one o% &s e=1e!iences is a 1!ia$e a%%ai!. I$ di%%e!s %!o" $he
e=1e!ience o% o$he! indiid&als, and ye$ $he!e is $he co""on o,9ec$ $o <hich i$ !e%e!s. I$ is $he sa"e
ligh$, $he sa"e !ose, $ha$ is inoled in $hese e=1e!iences. 0ha$ <e $!y $o do is $o %ollo< $hese
co""on s$i"&li in $h!o&gh $he ne!o&s sys$e" o% each o% $hese indiid&als. 0e ai" $o ge$ $he
s$a$e"en$ in &nie!sal $e!"s <hich <ill ans<e! $o $hose 1a!$ic&la! condi$ions. 0e <an$ $o con$!ol
$he" as %a! as <e can, and i$ is $ha$ de$e!"ina$ion o% $he condi$ions &nde! <hich $he 1a!$ic&la!
e=1e!ience $a7es 1lace $ha$ ena,les &s $o ca!!y o&$ $ha$ con$!ol.+,-
I% one says $ha$ his e=1e!ience o% an o,9ec$ is "ade &1 o% di%%e!en$ sensa$ions and $hen &nde!$a7es
$o s$a$e $he condi$ions &nde! <hich $hose sensa$ions $a7e 1lace, he "ay say $ha$ he is s$a$ing $hose
condi$ions in $e!"s o% his o<n e=1e!ience. B&$ $hey a!e condi$ions <hich a!e co""on $o all. :e
"eas&!es, he de$e!"ines 9&s$ <ha$ is $a7ing 1lace, ,&$ $his a11a!a$&s <i$h <hich he "eas&!es Is,
a%$e! all, "ade &1 o% his sens&o&s e=1e!ience. Things $ha$ a!e ho$ o! cold, !o&gh o! s"oo$h, $he
o,9ec$s $he"seles, a!e s$a$ed in $e!"s o% sensa$ions@ ,&$ $hey a!e s$a$ed in $e!"s o% sensa$ions
<hich <e can "a7e &nie!sal, and <e $a7e $hese co""on cha!ac$e!s o% e=1e!ience and %ind in
$e!"s o% $he" $hose e=1e!iences <hich a!e 1ec&lia! $o $he di%%e!en$ indiid&als.
Psychology is in$e!es$ed in $his co!!ela$ion, in %inding o&$ <ha$ $he !ela$ionshi1 is ,e$<een <ha$ goes
on in $he 1hysical <o!ld and <ha$ goes on in $he o!ganis" <hen a 1e!son has a senso!y
e=1e!ience. Tha$ 1!og!a" <as ca!!ied o&$ ,y :e!"ann :el"hol$8.+.- The <o!ld <as $he!e in $e!"s
<hich co&ld ,e s$a$ed in $he la<s o% science, i.e., $he s$i"&li <e!e s$a$ed in 1hysical $e!"s. 0ha$
goes on in $he ne!o&s sys$e" co&ld ,e s$a$ed "o!e and "o!e e=ac$ly, and $his co&ld ,e co!!ela$ed
<i$h ce!$ain de%ini$e e=1e!iences <hich $he indiid&al %o&nd in his o<n li%e. And $he 1sychologis$ is
in$e!es$ed in ge$$ing $he co!!ela$ion ,e$<een $he condi$ions &nde! <hich $he e=1e!ience $a7es 1lace
and $ha$ <hich is 1ec&lia! $o $he indiid&al. :e <ishes $o "a7e $hese S$a$e"en$s as &nie!sal as
1ossi,le, and is scien$i%ic in $ha$ !es1ec$. :e <an$s $o s$a$e $he e=1e!ience o% an indiid&al 9&s$ as
closely as he can in $e!"s o% $he %ield <hich he can con$!ol, $hose condi$ions &nde! <hich i$ a11ea!s.
:e na$&!ally $!ies $o s$a$e $he cond&c$ o% $he indiid&al in $e!"s o% his !e%le=es, and he ca!!ies ,ac7
as %a! as he can $he "o!e co"1le= !e%le=es o% $he indiid&al $o $he si"1le! %o!"s o% ac$ion. :e &ses,
as %a! as he is a,le $o &se, a ,ehaio!is$ic s$a$e"en$, ,eca&se $ha$ can ,e %o!"&la$ed in $e!"s o% $his
sa"e %ield oe! <hich he has con$!ol.
The "o$ie ,ac7 o% "ode!n 1sychology ge$s an e=1!ession in $he %ield o% "en$al $es$ing, <he!e one
is ge$$ing co!!ela$ions ,e$<een ce!$ain si$&a$ions and ce!$ain !es1onses. I$ is cha!ac$e!is$ic o% $his
1sychology $ha$ no$ only is i$ as ,ehaio!is$ic as i$ can ,e Ain $ha$ i$ s$a$es $he e=1e!ience o% $he
indiid&al as co"1le$ely as i$ can in o,9ec$ie $e!"sB, ,&$ i$ also is in$e!es$ed in ge$$ing s&ch
s$a$e"en$s and co!!ela$ions so $ha$ i$ can con$!ol cond&c$ as %a! as 1ossi,le. 0e %ind "ode!n
1sychology in$e!es$ed in 1!ac$ical 1!o,le"s, es1ecially $hose o% ed&ca$ion. 0e hae $o lead $he
in$elligences o% in%an$s and child!en in$o ce!$ain de%ini$e &ses o% "edia, and ce!$ain de%ini$e $y1es o%
!es1onses. :o< can <e $a7e $he indiid&al <i$h his 1ec&lia!i$ies and ,!ing hi" oe! in$o a "o!e
nea!ly &ni%o!" $y1e o% !es1onseE :e has $o hae $he sa"e lang&age as o$he!s, and $he sa"e &ni$s
o% "eas&!e"en$@ and he has $o $a7e oe! a ce!$ain de%ini$e c&l$&!e as a ,ac7g!o&nd %o! his o<n
e=1e!ience. :e has $o %i$ hi"sel% in$o ce!$ain social s$!&c$&!es and "a7e $he" a 1a!$ o% hi"sel%. :o<
is $ha$ $o ,e acco"1lishedE 0e a!e dealing <i$h se1a!a$e indiid&als and ye$ $hese indiid&als hae
$o ,eco"e a 1a!$ o% a co""on <hole. 0e <an$ $o ge$ $he co!!ela$ion ,e$<een $his <o!ld <hich is
co""on and $ha$ <hich is 1ec&lia! $o $he indiid&al. So <e hae 1sychology a$$ac7ing $he D&es$ions
o% lea!ning, and $he 1!o,le"s o% $he school, and $!ying $o analy8e di%%e!en$ in$elligences so $ha$ <e
can s$a$e $he" in $e!"s <hich a!e as %a! as 1ossi,le co""on@ <e <an$ so"e$hing <hich can
co!!ela$e <i$h $he $as7 <hich $he child has $o ca!!y o&$. The!e a!e ce!$ain de%ini$e 1!ocesses inoled
in s1eech. 0ha$ is $he!e $ha$ is &ni%o!" ,y "eans o% <hich <e a!e a,le $o iden$i%y <ha$ $he
indiid&al can do and <ha$ 1a!$ic&la! $!aining he "ay hae $o $a7eE Psychology also goes oe! in$o
$he %ield o% ,&siness D&es$ions, o% sales"anshi1, 1e!sonnel D&es$ions@ i$ goes oe! in$o $he %ield o%
$ha$ <hich is a,no!"al and $!ies $o ge$ hold o% $ha$ <hich is 1ec&lia! in $he a,no!"al indiid&al and
$o ,!ing i$ in$o !ela$ion <i$h $he no!"al, and <i$h $he s$!&c$&!es <hich ge$ $hei! e=1!ession in $hese
a,no!"ali$ies. I$ is in$e!es$ing $o see $ha$ 1sychology s$a!$s o%% <i$h $his 1!o,le" o% ge$$ing
co!!ela$ions ,e$<een $he e=1e!ience o% indiid&als and condi$ions &nde! <hich i$ $a7es 1lace, and
&nde!$a7es $o s$a$e $his e=1e!ience in $e!"s o% ,ehaio!@ and $ha$ i$ a$ once endeao!s $o "a7e a
1!ac$ical &se o% $his co!!ela$ion i$ %inds %o! $he 1&!1oses o% $!aining and con$!ol. I$ is ,eco"ing
essen$ially a 1!ac$ical science, and has 1&shed $o one side $he 1sychological and 1hiloso1hical
1!o,le"s <hich hae ,een $ied &1 <i$h ea!lie! dog"a &nde! associa$ional 1sychology. S&ch a!e $he
in%l&ences <hich <o!7 in $he ,ehaio!is$ic 1sychology.
This 1sychology is no$, and sho&ld no$ ,e !ega!ded as, a $heo!y <hich is $o ,e 1&$ oe! agains$ an
associa$ional doc$!ine. 0ha$ i$ is $!ying $o do is $o %ind o&$ <ha$ $he condi$ions a!e &nde! <hich $he
e=1e!ience o% $he indiid&al a!ises. Tha$ e=1e!ience is o% $he so!$ $ha$ $a7es &s ,ac7 $o cond&c$ in
o!de! $ha$ <e "ay %ollo< i$. I$ is $ha$ <hich gies a dis$inc$ie "a!7 $o a 1sychological ines$iga$ion.
:is$o!y and all $he social sciences deal <i$h h&"an ,eings, ,&$ $hey a!e no$ 1!i"a!ily 1sychological.
Psychology "ay ,e o% g!ea$ i"1o!$ance in dealing <i$h, say, econo"ics, $he 1!o,le" o% al&e, o%
desi!e, $he 1!o,le"s o% 1oli$ical science, $he !ela$ion o% $he indiid&al $o $he s$a$e, 1e!sonal !ela$ions
<hich hae $o ,e conside!ed in $e!"s o% indiid&als. All o% $he social sciences can ,e %o&nd $o hae
a 1sychological 1hase. :is$o!y is no$hing ,&$ ,iog!a1hy, a <hole se!ies o% ,iog!a1hies@ and ye$ all o%
$hese social sciences deal <i$h indiid&als in $hei! co""on cha!ac$e!s@ and <he!e $he indiid&al
s$ands o&$ as di%%e!en$ he is loo7ed a$ %!o" $he 1oin$ o% ie< o% $ha$ <hich he acco"1lishes in $he
<hole socie$y, o! in $e!"s o% $he des$!&c$ie e%%ec$ <hich he "ay hae. B&$ <e a!e no$ 1!i"a!ily
occ&1ied as social scien$is$s in s$&dying his e=1e!ience as s&ch. Psychology does &nde!$a7e $o
<o!7 o&$ $he $echniD&e <hich <ill ena,le i$ $o deal <i$h $hese e=1e!iences <hich any indiid&al "ay
hae a$ any "o"en$ in his li%e, and <hich a!e 1ec&lia! $o $ha$ indiid&al. And $he "e$hod o% dealing
<i$h s&ch an e=1e!ience is in ge$$ing $he condi$ions &nde! <hich $ha$ e=1e!ience o% $he indiid&al
$a7es 1lace. 0e sho&ld &nde!$a7e $o s$a$e $he e=1e!ience o% $he indiid&al 9&s$ as %a! as <e can in
$e!"s o% $he condi$ions &nde! <hich i$ a!ises. I$ is essen$ially a con$!ol 1!o,le" $o <hich $he
1sychologis$ is $&!ning. I$ has, o% co&!se, i$s as1ec$ o% !esea!ch %o! 7no<ledge. 0e <an$ $o inc!ease
o&! 7no<ledge, ,&$ $he!e is ,ac7 o% $ha$ an a$$e"1$ $o ge$ con$!ol $h!o&gh $he 7no<ledge <hich <e
o,$ain@ and i$ is e!y in$e!es$ing $o see $ha$ o&! "ode!n 1sychology is going %a!$he! and %a!$he! in$o
$hose %ields <i$hin <hich con$!ol can ,e so !eali8ed. I$ is s&ccess%&l in so %a! as i$ can <o!7 o&$
co!!ela$ions <hich can ,e $es$ed. 0e <an$ $o ge$ hold o% $hose %ac$o!s in $he na$&!e o% $he indiid&al
<hich can ,e !ecogni8ed in $he na$&!e o% all "e",e!s o% socie$y ,&$ <hich can ,e iden$i%ied in $he
1a!$ic&la! indiid&al. Those a!e 1!o,le"s <hich a!e %o!cing $he"seles "o!e and "o!e $o $he %!on$.
The!e is ano$he! 1hase o% !ecen$ 1sychology <hich I sho&ld !e%e! $o, na"ely, con%ig&!a$ion o! gestalt
1sychology, <hich has ,een o% in$e!es$ in !ecen$ yea!s. The!e <e hae $he !ecogni$ion o% ele"en$s
o! 1hases o% e=1e!ience <hich a!e co""on $o $he e=1e!ience o% $he indiid&al and $o $hose
condi$ions &nde! <hich $his e=1e!ience a!ises.+/- The!e a!e ce!$ain gene!al %o!"s in $he %ield o%
1e!ce1$ion in $he e=1e!ience o% $he indiid&al as <ell as in $he o,9ec$s $he"seles. They can ,e
iden$i%ied. One canno$ $a7e s&ch a $hing as a colo! and ,&ild i$ &1 o&$ o% ce!$ain se$s o% sensa$ions.
E=1e!ience, een $ha$ o% $he indiid&al, "&s$ s$a!$ <i$h so"e <hole. I$ "&s$ inole so"e <hole in
o!de! $ha$ <e "ay ge$ $he ele"en$s <e a!e a%$e!. 0ha$ is o% 1ec&lia! i"1o!$ance $o &s is $his
!ecogni$ion o% an ele"en$ <hich is co""on in $he 1e!ce1$ion o% $he indiid&al and $ha$ <hich is
!ega!ded as a condi$ion &nde! <hich $ha$ 1e!ce1$ion a!ises?a Posi$ion iii o11osi$ion $o an analysis o%
e=1e!ience <hich 1!oceeds on $he ass&"1$ion $ha$ $he <hole <e hae in o&! 1e!ce1$ion is si"1ly an
o!gani8a$ion o% $hese se1a!a$e ele"en$s. (es$al$ 1sychology gies &s ano$he! ele"en$ <hich is
co""on $o $he e=1e!ience o% $he indiid&al and $he <o!ld <hich de$e!"ines $he condi$ions &nde!
<hich $ha$ e=1e!ience a!ises. 0he!e ,e%o!e one had $o do <i$h $he s$i"&li and <ha$ co&ld ,e $!aced
o&$ in $he cen$!al ne!o&s sys$e", and $hen co!!ela$ed <i$h $he e=1e!ience o% $he indiid&al, no< <e
hae a ce!$ain s$!&c$&!e $ha$ has $o ,e !ecogni8ed ,o$h in $he e=1e!ience o% $he indiid&al and $ile
condi$ioning <o!ld.
A ,ehaio!is$ic 1sychology !e1!esen$s a de%ini$e $endency !a$he! $han a sys$e", a $endency $o s$a$e
as %a! as 1ossi,le $he condi$ions &nde! <hich $he e=1e!ience o% $he indiid&al a!ises. Co!!ela$ion
ge$s i$s e=1!ession in 1a!allelis". The $e!" is &n%o!$&na$e in $ha$ i$ ca!!ies <i$h i$ $he dis$inc$ion
,e$<een "ind and ,ody, ,e$<een $he 1sychical and $he 1hysical. I$ is $!&e $ha$ all $he o1e!a$ions o%
s$i"&li can ,e $!aced $h!o&gh $o $he cen$!al ne!o&s sys$e", so <e see" $o ,e a,le $o $a7e $he
1!o,le" inside o% o&! s7ins and ge$ ,ac7 $o so"e$hing in $he o!ganis", $he cen$!al ne!o&s sys$e",
<hich is !e1!esen$a$ie o% ee!y$hing $ha$ ha11ens o&$side. I% <e s1ea7 o% aligh$ as in%l&encing &s, i$
does no$ in%l&ence &s &n$il i$ s$!i7es $he !e$ina o% $he eye. So&nd does no$ e=e!$ in%l&ence &n$il i$
!eaches $he ea!, and so on, so $ha$ <e can say $he <hole <o!ld can ,e s$a$ed in $e!"s o% <ha$ goes
on inside o% $he o!ganis" i$sel%. And <e can say $ha$ <ha$ <e a!e $!ying $o co!!ela$e a!e $he
ha11enings in $he cen$!al ne!o&s sys$e" on $he one side and $he e=1e!ience o% $he indiid&al on
$he o$he!.
B&$ <e hae $o !ecogni8e $ha$ <e hae "ade an a!,i$!a!y c&$ $he!e. 0e canno$ $a7e $he cen$!al
ne!o&s sys$e" ,y i$sel%, no! $he 1hysical o,9ec$s ,y $he"seles. The <hole 1!ocess is one <hich
s$a!$s %!o" a s$i"&l&s and inoles ee!y$hing $ha$ $a7es 1lace. Th&s, 1sychology co!!ela$es $he
di%%e!ence o% 1e!ce1$ions <i$h $he 1hysical in$ensi$y o% $he s$i"&l&s. 0e co&ld s$a$e $he in$ensi$y o% a
<eigh$ <e <e!e li%$ing in $e!"s o% $he cen$!al ne!o&s sys$e" ,&$ $ha$ <o&ld ,e a di%%ic&l$ <ay o%
s$a$ing i$. Tha$ is no$ <ha$ 1sychology is $!ying $o do. I$ is no$ $!ying $o !ela$e a se$ o% 1sychoses $o a
se$ o% ne&!oses. 0ha$ i$ is $!ying $o do is $o s$a$e $he e=1e!iences o% $he indiid&al in $e!"s o% $he
condi$ions &nde! <hich $hey a!ise, and s&ch condi$ions can e!y seldo" ,e s$a$ed in $e!"s o% $he
ne&!oses. Occasionally <e can %ollo< $he 1!ocess !igh$ &1 in$o $he cen$!al ne!o&s sys$e", ,&$ i$ is
D&i$e i"1ossi,le $o s$a$e "os$ o% $he condi$ions in $hose $e!"s. 0e con$!ol e=1e!iences in $he
in$ensi$y o% $he ligh$ <hich <e hae, in $he noises $ha$ <e 1!od&ce, con$!ol $he" in $e!"s o% $he
e%%ec$s <hich a!e 1!od&ced on &s ,y hea$ and cold. Tha$ is <he!e <e ge$ o&! con$!ol. 0e "ay ,e
a,le $o change $hese ,y dealing <i$h ac$&al o!ganis"s, ,&$ in gene!al <e a!e $!ying $o co!!ela$e $he
e=1e!ience o% $he indiid&al <i$h $he si$&a$ion &nde! <hich i$ a!ises. In o!de! $ha$ <e "ay ge$ $ha$
so!$ o% con$!ol <e hae $o hae a gene!ali8ed s$a$e"en$. 0e <an$ $o 7no< $he condi$ions &nde!
<hich e=1e!ience "ay a11ea!. 0e a!e in$e!es$ed in %inding $he "os$ gene!al la<s o% co!!ela$ion <e
can %ind. B&$ $he 1sychologis$ is in$e!es$ed in %inding $ha$ so!$ o% condi$ion <hich can ,e co!!ela$ed
<i$h $he e=1e!ience o% $he indiid&al. 0e a!e $!ying $o s$a$e $he e=1e!ience o% $he indiid&al and
si$&a$ions in 9&s$ as co""on $e!"s as <e can, and i$ is $his <hich gies $he i"1o!$ance $o <ha$ <e
call ,ehaio!is$ic 1sychology. I$ is no$ a ne< 1sychology $ha$ co"es in and $a7es $he 1lace o% an old
sys$e".
An o,9ec$ie 1sychology is no$ $!ying $o ge$ !id o% conscio&sness, ,&$ $!ying $o s$a$e $he in$elligence
o% $he indiid&al in $e!"s <hich <ill ena,le &s $o see ho< $ha$ in$elligence is e=e!cised, and ho< i$
"ay ,e i"1!oed. I$ is na$&!al, $hen, $ha$ s&ch a 1sychology as $his sho&ld see7 %o! a s$a$e"en$
<hich <o&ld ,!ing $hese $<o 1hases o% $he e=1e!ience as close $o each o$he! as 1ossi,le, o!
$!ansla$e $he" in$o lang&age <hich is co""on $o ,o$h %ields. 0e do no$ <an$ $<o lang&ages, one o%
ce!$ain 1hysical %ac$s and one o% ce!$ain conscio&s %ac$s. i% yo& 1&sh $ha$ analysis $o $he li"i$ yo& ge$
s&ch !es&l$s as <he!e yo& say $ha$ ee!y$hing $ha$ $a7es 1lace in conscio&sness in so"e <ay has $o
,e loca$ed in $he head, ,eca&se yo& a!e %ollo<ing &1 a ce!$ain so!$ o% ca&sal !ela$ion <hich a%%ec$s
conscio&sness. The head yo& $al7 a,o&$ is no$ s$a$ed in $e!"s o% $he head yo& a!e o,se!ing.
Be!$!and *&ssell says $he !eal head he is ,&$ $he 1hysiologis$>s o<n head. 0he$he! $ha$ is $he case
o! no$, i$ is a "a$$e! o% in%ini$e indi%%e!ence $o 1sychologis$s. Tha$ is no$ a 1!o,le" in $he 1!esen$
1sychology, and ,ehaio!is" is no$ $o ,e !ega!ded as legi$i"a$e &1 $o a ce!$ain 1oin$ and as $hen
,!ea7ing do<n. Behaio!is$ic 1sychology only &nde!$a7es $o ge$ a co""on s$a$e"en$ $ha$ is
signi%ican$ and "a7es o&! co!!ela$ion s&ccess%&l. The his$o!y o% 1sychology has ,een a his$o!y
<hich "oed in $his di!ec$ion, and anyone <ho loo7s a$ <ha$ $a7es 1lace in $he 1sychological
Associa$ions a$ $he 1!esen$ $i"e, and $he <ays in <hich 1sychology is ,eing ca!!ied oe! in$o o$he!
%ields, sees $ha$ $he in$e!es$, $he i"1&lse $ha$ lies ,ehind i$, is in ge$$ing 9&s$ s&ch a co!!ela$ion <hich
<ill ena,le science $o ge$ a con$!ol oe! $he condi$ions o% e=1e!ience.
The $e!" -1a!allelis"- has an &n%o!$&na$e i"1lica$ion; i$ is his$o!ically and 1hiloso1hically ,o&nd &1
<i$h $he con$!as$ o% $he 1hysical oe! agains$ $he 1sychical, <i$h conscio&sness oe! agains$ $he
&nconscio&s <o!ld. Ac$&ally, <e si"1ly s$a$e <ha$ an e=1e!ience is oe! agains$ $hose condi$ions
&nde! <hich i$ a!ises. Tha$ %ac$ lies ,ehind -1a!allelis",- and $o ca!!y o&$ $he co!!ela$ion one has $o
s$a$e ,o$h %ields in as co""on a lang&age as 1ossi,le, and ,ehaio!is" is si"1ly a "oe"en$ in
$ha$ di!ec$ion. Psychology is no$ so"e$hing $ha$ deals <i$h conscio&sness@ 1sychology deals <i$h
$he e=1e!ience o% $he indiid&al in i$s !ela$ion $o $he condi$ions &nde! <hich $he e=1e!ience goes on.
I$ is social 1sychology <he!e $he condi$ions a!e social ones. I$ is ,ehaio!is$ic <he!e $he a11!oach $o
e=1e!ience is "ade $h!o&gh cond&c$.+0-
"ndnotes
1. IThe %ollo<ing "e$hodological in$e!1!e$a$ion o% 1a!allelis" is %&!$he! disc&ssed in Sec$ion
1+.K
2. I%ie )ehre von dem *onempfindungen+ ,and(uch der physiologishen -pti.K
3. I0. Lohle!, %ie physischen /estalten in "uhe und im stationaren 0ustand+ /estalt
Psychology$
). By <ay o% %&!$he! aoiding ce!$ain "e$a1hysical i"1lica$ions I <ish $o say $ha$ i$ does no$
%ollo< $ha$ ,eca&se <e hae on $he one side e=1e!ience <hich is indiid&al, <hich "ay ,e
1e!ha1s 1!ia$e in $he sense $o <hich I hae !e%e!!ed $o 1!iacy, and hae on $he o$he! a
co""on <o!ld, $ha$ <e hae $<o se1a!a$e leels o% e=is$ence o! !eali$y <hich a!e $o ,e
dis$ing&ished "e$a1hysically %!o" each o$he!. A g!ea$ deal $ha$ a11ea!s si"1ly as $he
e=1e!ience o% an indiid&al, as his o<n sensa$ion o! 1e!ce1$ion, ,eco"es 1&,lic la$e!. Ee!y
discoe!y as s&ch ,egins <i$h e=1e!iences <hich hae $o ,e s$a$ed in $e!"s o% $he ,iog!a1hy
o% $he discoe!e!. The "an can no$e e=ce1$ions and i"1lica$ions <hich o$he! 1eo1le do no$
see and can only !eco!d $he" in $e!"s o% his o<n o$he! 1e!sons "ay ge$ a li7e e=1e!ience.
:e 1&$s $he" in $ha$ %o!" in o!de! $ha$ e=1e!ience, and $hen he &nde!$a7es $o %ind o&$ <ha$
$he e=1lana$ion o% $hese s$!ange ac$s is. :e <o!7s o&$ hy1o$heses and $es$s $he" and $hey
,eco"e co""on 1!o1e!$y $he!ea%$e!. Tha$ is, $he!e is a close !ela$ionshi1 ,e$<een $hese
$<o %ields o% $he 1sychical and $he 1hysical, $he 1!ia$e and $he 1&,lic. 0e "a7e dis$inc$ions
,e$<een $hese, !ecogni8ing $ha$ $he sa"e %ac$o! "ay no< ,e only 1!ia$e and ye$ la$e! "ay
,eco"e 1&,lic. I$ is $he <o!7 o% $he discoe!e! $h!o&gh his o,se!a$ions and $h!o&gh his
hy1o$heses and e=1e!i"en$s $o ,e con$in&ally $!ans%o!"ing <ha$ is his o<n 1!ia$e
e=1e!ience in$o a &nie!sal %o!". The sa"e "ay ,e said o% o$he! %ields, as in $he <o!7 o% $he
g!ea$ a!$is$ <ho $a7es his o<n e"o$ions and gies $he" a &nie!sal %o!" so $ha$ o$he!s "ay
en$e! in$o $he".
6# 74()T %() TH" C$(C"PT $3 TH" G"ST4*"
The 1a!$ic&la! %ield o% social science <i$h <hich <e a!e conce!ned is one <hich <as o1ened &1
$h!o&gh $he <o!7 o% Da!<in and $he "o!e ela,o!a$e 1!esen$a$ion o% 0&nd$.
I% <e $a7e 0&nd$>s 1a!allelis$ic s$a$e"en$ <e ge$ a 1oin$ o% ie< %!o" <hich <e can a11!oach $he
1!o,le" o% social e=1e!ience. 0&nd$ &nde!$oo7 $o sho< $he 1a!allelis" ,e$<een <ha$ goes on in
$he ,ody as !e1!esen$ed ,y 1!ocesses o% $he cen$!al ne!o&s sys$e", and <ha$ goes on in $hose
e=1e!iences <hich $he indiid&al !ecogni8es as his o<n. :e had $o %ind $ha$ <hich <as co""on $o
$hese $<o %ields?<ha$ in $he 1sychical e=1e!ience co&ld ,e !e%e!!ed $o in 1hysical $e!"s.+,-
0&nd$ isola$ed a e!y al&a,le conce1$ion o% $he ges$&!e as $ha$ <hich ,eco"es la$e! a sy",ol, ,&$
<hich is $o ,e %o&nd in i$s ea!lie! s$ages as a 1a!$ o% a social ac$.+.- I$ is $ha$ 1a!$ o% $he social ac$
<hich se!es as a s$i"&l&s $o o$he! %o!"s inoled in $he sa"e social ac$. I hae gien $he
ill&s$!a$ion o% $he dog?%igh$ as a "e$hod o% 1!esen$ing $he ges$&!e. The ac$ o% each dog ,eco"es $he
s$i"&l&s $o $he o$he! dog %o! his !es1onse. The!e is $hen a !ela$ionshi1 ,e$<een $hese $<o@ and as
$he ac$ is !es1onded $o ,y $he o$he! dog, i$, in $&!n, &nde!goes change. The e!y %ac$ $ha$ $he dog is
!eady $o a$$ac7 ano$he! ,eco"es a s$i"&l&s $o $he o$he! dog $o change his o<n 1osi$ion o! his o<n
a$$i$&de. :e has no soone! done $his $han $he change o% a$$i$&de in $he second dog in $&!n ca&ses
$he %i!s$ dog $o change his a$$i$&de. 0e hae he!e a cone!sa$ion o% ges$&!es. They a!e no$,
ho<ee!, ges$&!es in $he sense $ha$ $hey a!e signi%ican$. 0e do no$ ass&"e $ha$ $he dog says $o
hi"sel%, -I% $he ani"al co"es %!o" $his di!ec$ion he is going $o s1!ing a$ "y $h!oa$ and I <ill $&!n in
s&ch a <ay.- 0ha$ does $a7e 1lace is an ac$&al change in his o<n 1osi$ion d&e $o $he di!ec$ion o%
$he a11!oach o% $he o$he! dog.
0e %ind a si"ila! si$&a$ion in ,o=ing and in %encing, as in $he %ein$ and $he 1a!!y $ha$ is ini$ia$ed on
$he 1a!$ o% $he o$he!. And $hen $he %i!s$ one o% $he $<o in $&!n changes his a$$ac7@ $he!e "ay ,e
conside!a,le 1lay ,ac7 and %o!$h ,e%o!e ac$&ally a s$!o7e !es&l$s. This is $he sa"e si$&a$ion as in $he
dog?%igh$. I% $he indiid&al is s&ccess%&l a g!ea$ deal o% his a$$ac7 and de%ense "&s$ ,e no$
conside!ed, i$ "&s$ $a7e 1lace i""edia$ely. :e "&s$ ad9&s$ hi"sel% -ins$inc$iely- $o $he a$$i$&de o%
$he o$he! indiid&al. :e "ay, o% co&!se, $hin7 i$ o&$. :e "ay deli,e!a$ely %ein$ in o!de! $o o1en &1 a
1lace o% a$$ac7. B&$ a g!ea$ deal has $o ,e <i$ho&$ deli,e!a$ion.
In $his case <e hae a si$&a$ion in <hich ce!$ain 1a!$s o% $he ac$ ,eco"e a s$i"&l&s $o $he o$he! %o!"
$o ad9&s$ i$sel% $o $hose !es1onses@ and $ha$ ad9&s$"en$ in $&!n ,eco"es a s$i"&l&s $o $he %i!s$ %o!"
$o change his o<n ac$ and s$a!$ on a di%%e!en$ one. The!e a!e a se!ies o% a$$i$&des, "oe"en$s, on
$he 1a!$ o% $hese %o!"s <hich ,elong $o $he ,eginnings o% ac$s $ha$ a!e $he s$i"&li %o! $he !es1onses
$ha$ $a7e 1lace. The ,eginning o% a !es1onse ,eco"es $he s$i"&l&s $o $he %i!s$ %o!" $o change his
a$$i$&de, $o ado1$ a di%%e!en$ ac$. The $e!" -ges$&!e- "ay ,e iden$i%ied <i$h $hese ,eginnings o% social
ac$s <hich a!e s$i"&li %o! $he !es1onse o% o$he! %o!"s. Da!<in <as in$e!es$ed in s&ch ges$&!es
,eca&se $hey e=1!essed e"o$ions, and he deal$ <i$h $he" e!y la!gely as i% $his <e!e $hei! sole
%&nc$ion. :e loo7ed a$ $he" as se!ing $he %&nc$ion <i$h !e%e!ence $o $he o$he! %o!"s <hich $hey
se!ed <i$h !e%e!ence $o his o<n o,se!a$ion. The ges$&!es e=1!essed e"o$ions o% $he ani"al $o
Da!<in@ he sa< in $he a$$i$&de o% $he dog $he 9oy <i$h <hich he acco"1anied his "as$e! in $a7ing a
<al7. And he le%$ his $!ea$"en$ o% $he ges$&!es la!gely in $hese $e!"s.
I$ <as easy %o! 0&nd$ $o sho< $ha$ $his <as no$ a legi$i"a$e 1oin$ o% a$$ac7 on $he 1!o,le" o% $hese
ges$&!es. They did no$ a$ ,o$$o" se!e $he %&nc$ion o% e=1!ession o% $he e"o$ions; $ha$ <as no$ $he
!eason <hy $hey <e!e s$i"&li, ,&$ !a$he! ,eca&se $hey <e!e 1a!$s o% co"1le= ac$s in <hich di%%e!en$
%o!"s <e!e inoled. They ,eca"e $he $ools $h!o&gh <hich $he o$he! %o!"s !es1onded. 0hen $hey
did gie !ise $o a ce!$ain !es1onse, $hey <e!e $he"seles changed in !es1onse $o $he change <hich
$oo7 1lace in $he o$he! %o!". They a!e 1a!$ o% $he o!gani8a$ion o% $he social ac$, and highly i"1o!$an$
ele"en$s in $ha$ o!gani8a$ion. To $he h&"an o,se!e! $hey a!e e=1!essions o% e"o$ion, and $ha$
%&nc$ion o% e=1!essing e"o$ion can legi$i"a$ely ,eco"e $he %ield o% $he <o!7 o% $he a!$is$ and o% $he
ac$o!. The ac$o! is in $he sa"e 1osi$ion as $he 1oe$; he is e=1!essing e"o$ions $h!o&gh his o<n
a$$i$&de, his $ones o% oice, $h!o&gh his ges$&!es, 9&s$ as $he 1oe$ $h!o&gh his 1oe$!y is e=1!essing
his e"o$ions and a!o&sing $ha$ e"o$ion in o$he!s. 0e ge$ in $his <ay a %&nc$ion <hich is no$ %o&nd in
$he social ac$ o% $hese ani"als, o! in a g!ea$ deal o% o&! o<n cond&c$, s&ch as $ha$ o% $he ,o=e! and
$he %ence!. 0e hae $his in$e!1lay going on <i$h $he ges$&!es se!ing $hei! %&nc$ions, calling o&$ $he
!es1onses o% $he o$he!s, $hese !es1onses ,eco"ing $he"seles s$i"&li %o! !ead9&s$"en$, &n$il $he
%inal social ac$ i$sel% can ,e ca!!ied o&$. Ano$he! ill&s$!a$ion o% $his is in $he !ela$ion o% 1a!en$?%o!" $o
$he in%an$?$he s$i"&la$ing c!y, $he ans<e!ing $one on $he 1a!$ o% $he 1a!en$?%o!", and $he conseD&en$
change in $he c!y o% $he in%an$?%o!". :e!e <e hae a se$ o% ad9&s$"en$s o% $he $<o %o!"s ca!!ying o&$
a co""on social ac$ inoled in $he ca!e o% $he child. Th&s <e hae, in all $hese ins$ances, a social
1!ocess in <hich one can isola$e $he ges$&!e <hich has i$s %&nc$ion in $he social 1!ocess, and <hich
can ,eco"e an e=1!ession o% e"o$ions, o! la$e! can ,eco"e $he e=1!ession o% a "eaning, an idea.
The 1!i"i$ie si$&a$ion is $ha$ o% $he social ac$ <hich inoles $he in$e!ac$ion o% di%%e!en$ %o!"s, <hich
inoles, $he!e%o!e, $he ad9&s$"en$ o% $he cond&c$ o% $hese di%%e!en$ %o!"s $o each o$he!, in ca!!ying
o&$ $he social 1!ocess. 0i$hin $ha$ 1!ocess one can %ind <ha$ <e $e!" $he ges$&!es, $hose 1hases o%
$he ac$ <hich ,!ing a,o&$ $he ad9&s$"en$ o% $he !es1onse o% $he o$he! %o!". These 1hases o% $he ac$
ca!!y <i$h $he" $he a$$i$&de as $he o,se!e! !ecogni8es i$, and also <ha$ <e call $he inne! a$$i$&de.
The ani"al "ay ,e ang!y o! a%!aid. The!e a!e s&ch e"o$ional a$$i$&des <hich lie ,ac7 o% $hese ac$s,
,&$ $hese a!e only 1a!$ o% $he <hole 1!ocess $ha$ is going on. Ange! e=1!esses i$sel% in a$$ac7@ %ea!
e=1!esses i$sel% in %ligh$. 0e can see, $hen $ha$ $he ges$&!es "ean $hese a$$i$&des on $he 1a!$ o% $he
%o!", $ha$ is, $hey hae $ha$ "eaning %o! &s. 0e see $ha$ an ani"al is ang!y and $ha$ he is going $o
a$$ac7. 0e 7no< $ha$ $ha$ is in $he ac$ion o% $he ani"al, and is !eealed ,y $he a$$i$&de o% $he ani"al.
0e canno$ say $he ani"al "eans i$ in $he sense $ha$ he has a !e%lec$ie de$e!"ina$ion $o a$$ac7. A
"an "ay s$!i7e ano$he! ,e%o!e he "eans i$@ a "an "ay 9&"1 and !&n a<ay %!o" a lo&d so&nd
,ehind his ,ac7 ,e%o!e he 7no< <ha$ he is doing. I% he has $he idea in his "ind, $hen $he ges$&!e no$
only "eans $his $o $he o,se!e! ,&$ i$ also "eans $he idea <hich $he indiid&al has. In one case $he
o,se!e! sees $ha$ $he a$$i$&de o% $he dog "eans a$$ac7, ,&$ he does no$ say $ha$ i$ "eans a
conscio&s de$e!"ina$ion $o a$$ac7 on $he 1a!$ o% $he dog. :o<ee!, i% so"e,ody sha7es his %is$ in
yo&! %ace yo& ass&"e $ha$ he has no$ only a hos$ile a$$i$&de ,&$ $ha$ he has so"e idea ,ehind i$.
Yo& ass&"e $ha$ i$ "eans no$ only a 1ossi,le a$$ac7, ,&$ $ha$ $he indiid&al has an idea in his
e=1e!ience.
0hen, no, $ha$ ges$&!e "eans $his idea ,ehind i$ and i$ a!o&ses $ha$ idea in $he o$he! indiid&al,
$hen <e hae a signi%ican$ sy",ol. In $he case o% $he dog?%igh$ <e hae a ges$&!e <hich calls o&$
a11!o1!ia$e !es1onse@ in $he 1!esen$ case <e hae a sy",ol <hich ans<e!s $o a "eaning in $he
e=1e!ience o% $he %i!s$ indiid&al and <hich also calls o&$ $ha$ "eaning in $he second indiid&al.
0he!e $he ges$&!e !eaches $ha$ si$&a$ion i$ has ,eco"e <ha$ <e call -lang&age.- I$ is no< a
signi%ican$ sy",ol and i$ signi%ies a ce!$ain "eaning.+/-
The ges$&!e is $ha$ 1hase o% $he indiid&al ac$ $o <hich ad9&s$"en$ $a7es 1lace on $he 1a!$ o% o$he!
indiid&als in $he social 1!ocess o% ,ehaio!. The ocal ges$&!e ,eco"es a signi%ican$ sy",ol
A&ni"1o!$an$, as s&ch, on $he "e!ely a%%ec$ie side o% e=1e!ienceB <hen i$ has $he sa"e e%%ec$ on
$he indiid&al "a7ing i$ $ha$ i$ has on $he indiid&al $o <ho" i$ is add!essed o! <ho e=1lici$ly
!es1onds $o i$, and $h&s inoles a !e%e!ence $o $he sel% o% $he indiid&al "a7ing i$. The ges$&!e in
gene!al, and $he ocal ges$&!e in 1a!$ic&la!, indica$es so"e o,9ec$ o! o$he! <i$hin $he %ield o% social
,ehaio!, an o,9ec$ o% co""on in$e!es$ $o all $he indiid&als inoled in $he gien social ac$ $h&s
di!ec$ed $o<a!d o! &1on $ha$ o,9ec$. The %&nc$ion o% $he ges$&!e is $o "a7e ad9&s$"en$ 1ossi,le
a"ong $he indiid&als i"1lica$ed in any gien social ac$ <i$h !e%e!ence $o $he o,9ec$ o! o,9ec$s <i$h
<hich $ha$ ac$ is conce!ned@ and $he signi%ican$ ges$&!e o! signi%ican$ sy",ol a%%o!ds %a! g!ea$e!
%acili$ies %o! s&ch ad9&s$"en$ and !ead9&s$"en$ $han does $he non?signi%ican$ ges$&!e, ,eca&se i$
calls o&$ in $he indiid&al "a7ing i$ $he sa"e a$$i$&de $o<a!d i$ Ao! $o<a!d i$s "eaningB $ha$ i$ calls o&$
in $he o$he! indiid&als 1a!$ici1a$ing <i$h hi" in $he gien social ac$, and $h&s "a7es hi" conscio&s
o% $hei! a$$i$&de $o<a!d i$ Aas a co"1onen$ o% his ,ehaio!B and ena,les hi" $o ad9&s$ his s&,seD&en$
,ehaio! $o $hei!s in $he ligh$ o% $ha$ a$$i$&de. In sho!$, $he conscio&s o! signi%ican$ cone!sa$ion o%
ges$&!es is a "&ch "o!e adeD&a$e and e%%ec$ie "echanis" o% "&$&al ad9&s$"en$ <i$hin $he social
ac$?inoling, as i$ does, $he $a7ing, ,y e$ch o% $he indiid&als ca!!ying i$ on, o% $he a$$i$&des o% $he
o$he!s $o<a!d hi"sel%?$han is $he &nconscio&s o! non?signi%ican$ cone!sa$ion o% ges$&!es.
0hen, in any gien social ac$ o! si$&a$ion, one indiid&al indica$es ,y a ges$&!e $o ano$he! indiid&al
<ha$ $his o$he! indiid&al is $o do, $he %i!s$ indiid&al is conscio&s o% $he "eaning o% his o<n ges$&!e?
o! $he "eaning o% his ges$&!e a11ea!s in his o<n e=1e!ience?in so %a! as he $a7es $he a$$i$&de o% $he
second indiid&al $o<a!d $ha$ ges$&!e, and $ends $o !es1ond $o i$ i"1lici$ly in $he sa"e <ay $ha$ $he
second indiid&al !es1onds $o i$ e=1lici$ly. (es$&!es ,eco"e signi%ican$ sy",ols <hen $hey i"1lici$ly
a!o&se in an indiid&al "a7ing $he" $he sa"e !es1onses <hich $hey e=1lici$ly a!o&se, o! a!e
s&11osed $o a!o&se, in o$he! indiid&als, $he indiid&als $o <ho" $hey a!e add!essed@ and in all
cone!sa$ions o% ges$&!es <i$hin $he social 1!ocess, <he$he! e=$e!nal A,e$<een di%%e!en$ indiid&alsB
o! in$e!nal A,e$<een a gien indiid&al and hi"sel%B, $he indiid&al>s conscio&sness o% $he con$en$
and %lo< o% "eaning inoled de1ends on his $h&s $a7ing $he a$$i$&de o% $he o$he! $o<a!d his o<n
ges$&!es. In $his <ay ee!y ges$&!e co"es <i$hin a gien social g!o&1 o! co""&ni$y $o s$and %o! a
1a!$ic&la! ac$ o! !es1onse, na"ely, $he ac$ o! !es1onse <hich i$ calls %o!$h e=1lici$ly in $he indiid&al
$o <ho" i$ is add!essed, and i"1lici$ly in $he indiid&al <ho "a7es i$@ and $his 1a!$ic&la! ac$ o!
!es1onse %o! <hich i$ s$ands is i$s "eaning as a signi%ican$ sy",ol. Only in $e!"s o% ges$&!es as
signi%ican$ sy",ols is $he e=is$ence o% "ind o! in$elligence 1ossi,le@ %o! only in $e!"s o% ges$&!es
<hich a!e signi%ican$ sy",ols can $hin7ing?<hich is si"1ly an in$e!nali8ed o! i"1lici$ cone!sa$ion o%
$he indiid&al <i$h hi"sel% ,y "eans o% s&ch ges$&!es?$a7e 1lace. The in$e!nali8a$ion in o&!
e=1e!ience o% $he e=$e!nal cone!sa$ions o% ges$&!es <hich <e ca!!y on <i$h o$he! indiid&als in $he
social 1!ocess is $he essence o% $hin7ing@ and $he ges$&!es $h&s in$e!nali8ed a!e signi%ican$ sy",ols
,eca&se $hey hae $he sa"e "eanings %o! all indiid&al "e",e!s o% $he gien socie$y o! social
g!o&1, i.e., $hey !es1ec$iely a!o&se $he sa"e a$$i$&des in $he indiid&als "a7ing $he" $ha$ $hey
a!o&se in $he indiid&als !es1onding $o $he"; O$he!<ise $he indiid&al co&ld no$ in$e!nali8e $he" o!
,e conscio&s o% $he" and $hei! "eanings. As <e shall see, $he sa"e 1!oced&!e <hich is
!es1onsi,le %o! $he genesis and e=is$ence o% "ind o! conscio&sness??na"ely, $he $a7ing o% $he
a$$i$&de o% $he o$he! $o<a!d one>s sel%, o! $o<a!d one>s o<n ,ehaio!??also necessa!ily inoles $he
genesis and e=is$ence a$ $he sa"e $i"e o% signi%ican$ sy",ols, o! signi%ican$ ges$&!es.
In 0&nd$>s doc$!ine, $he 1a!allelis" ,e$<een $he ges$&!e and $he e"o$ion o! $he in$ellec$&al a$$i$&de
o% $he indiid&al, "a7es i$ 1ossi,le $o se$ &1 a li7e 1a!allelis" in $he o$he! indiid&al. The ges$&!e
calls o&$ a ges$&!e in $he o$he! %o!" <hich <ill a!o&se o! call o&$ $he sa"e e"o$ional a$$i$&de and $he
sa"e idea. 0he!e $his has $a7en 1lace $he indiid&als hae ,eg&n $o $al7 $o each o$he!. 0ha$ I
!e%e!!ed $o ,e%o!e <as a cone!sa$ion o% ges$&!es <hich did no$ inole signi%ican$ sy",ols o!
ges$&!es. The dogs a!e no$ $al7ing $o each o$he!@ $he!e a!e no ideas in $he "inds o% $he dogs@ no! do
<e ass&"e $ha$ $he dog is $!ying $o coney an idea $o $he o$he! dog. B&$ i% $he ges$&!e, in $he case o%
$he h&"an indiid&al, has 1a!allel <i$h i$ a ce!$ain 1sychical s$a$e <hich is $he idea o% <ha$ $he
1e!son is going $o do, and i% $his ges$&!e calls o&$ a li7e ges$&!e in $he o$he! indiid&al and calls o&$
a si"ila! idea, $hen i$ ,eco"es a signi%ican$ ges$&!e. I$ s$ands %o! $he ideas in $he "inds o% ,o$h o%
$he".
The!e is so"e di%%ic&l$y in ca!!ying o&$ $his analysis i% <e acce1$ 0&nd$>s 1a!allelis". 0hen a
1e!son sha7es his %is$ in yo&! %ace, $ha$ is a ges$&!e in $he sense in <hich <e &se $he $e!", $he
,eginning o% an ac$ $ha$ calls o&$ a !es1onse on yo&! 1a!$. Yo&! !es1onse "ay a!y; i$ "ay de1end
on $he si8e o% $he "an, i$ "ay "ean sha7ing yo&! %is$, o! i$ "ay "ean %ligh$. A <hole se!ies o%
di%%e!en$ !es1onses a!e 1ossi,le. In o!de! $ha$ 0&nd$>s $heo!y o% $he o!igin o% lang&age "ay ,e
ca!!ied o&$, $he ges$&!e <hich $he %i!s$ indiid&al "a7es &se o% "&s$ in so"e sense ,e !e1!od&ced in
$he e=1e!ience o% $he indiid&al in o!de! $ha$ i$ "ay a!o&se $he sa"e idea in his "ind. 0e "&s$ no$
con%&se $he ,eginning o% lang&age <i$h i$s la$e! s$ages. I$ is D&i$e $!&e $ha$ as soon as <e see $he
a$$i$&de o% $he dog <e say $ha$ i$ "eans an a$$ac7, o! $ha$ <hen <e see a 1e!son loo7ing a!o&nd %o!
a chai! $ha$ i$ "eans he <o&ld li7e $o si$ do<n. The ges$&!e is one <hich "eans $hese 1!ocesses,
and $ha$ "eaning is a!o&sed ,y <ha$ <e see. B&$ <e a!e s&11osed $o ,e a$ $he ,eginning o% $hese
deelo1"en$s o% lang&age. I% <e ass&"e $ha$ $he!e is a ce!$ain 1sychical s$a$e ans<e!ing $o a
1hysical s$a$e ho< a!e <e going $o ge$ $o $he 1oin$ <he!e $he ges$&!e <ill a!o&se $he same ges$&!e
in $he a$$i$&de o% $he o$he! indiid&alE In $he e!y ,eginning $he o$he! 1e!son>s ges$&!e "eans <ha$
yo& a!e going $o do a,o&$ i$. I$ does no$ "ean <ha$ he is $hin7ing a,o&$ o! een his e"o$ion.
S&11osing his ang!y a$$ac7 a!o&sed %ea! in yo&, $hen yo& a!e no$ going $o hae ange! in yo&! "ind,
,&$ %ea!. :is ges$&!e "eans %ea! as %a! as yo& a!e conce!ned. Tha$ is $he 1!i"i$ie si$&a$ion. 0he!e
$he ,ig dog a$$ac7s $he li$$le dog, $he li$$le dog 1&$s his $ail ,e$<een his legs and !&ns a<ay, ,&$ $he
ges$&!e does no$ call o&$ in $he second indiid&al <ha$ i$ did in $he %i!s$. The !es1onse is gene!ally o%
a di%%e!en$ 7ind %!o" $he s$i"&l&s in $he social ac$, a di%%e!en$ ac$ion is a!o&sed. I% yo& ass&"e $ha$
$he!e is a ce!$ain idea ans<e!ing $o $ha$ ac$, $hen yo& <an$ a$ a la$e! s$age $o ge$ $he idea o% $he %i!s$
%o!", ,&$ o!iginally yo&! idea <ill ,e yo&! o<n idea <hich ans<e!s $o a ce!$ain end. I% <e say $ha$
ges$&!e -A- has idea -a- as ans<e!ing $o i$, ges$&!e -A- in $he %i!s$ %o!" calls o&$ ges$&!e -B- and i$s
!ela$ed idea -,- in $he second %o!". :e!e $he idea $ha$ ans<e!s $o ges$&!e -A- is no$ idea -a- ,&$ idea
-,.- S&ch a 1!ocess can nee! a!o&se in one "ind 9&s$ $he idea <hich $he o$he! 1e!son has in his.
:o<, in $e!"s o% 0&nd$>s 1sychological analysis o% co""&nica$ion, does a !es1onding o!ganis" ge$
o! e=1e!ience $he sa"e idea o! 1sychical co!!ela$e o% any gien ges$&!e $ha$ $he o!ganis" "a7ing
$his ges$&!e hasE The di%%ic&l$y is $ha$ 0&nd$ 1!es&11oses seles as an$eceden$ $o $he social
1!ocess in o!de! $o e=1lain co""&nica$ion <i$hin $ha$ 1!ocess, <he!eas, on $he con$!a!y, seles
"&s$ ,e acco&n$ed %o! in $e!"s o% $he social 1!ocess, and in $e!"s o% co""&nica$ion@ and
indiid&als "&s$ ,e ,!o&gh$ in$o essen$ial !ela$ion <i$hin $ha$ 1!ocess ,e%o!e co""&nica$ion, o! $he
con$ac$ ,e$<een $he "inds o% di%%e!en$ indiid&als, ,eco"es 1ossi,le. The ,ody is no$ a sel%, as
s&ch@ i$ ,eco"es a sel% only <hen i$ has deelo1ed a "ind <i$hin $he con$e=$ o% social e=1e!ience. I$
does no$ occ&! $o 0&nd$ $o acco&n$ %o! $he e=is$ence and deelo1"en$ o% seles and "inds <i$hin,
o! in $e!"s o%, $he social 1!ocess o% e=1e!ience@ and his 1!es&11osi$ion o% $he" as "a7ing 1ossi,le
$ha$ 1!ocess, and co""&nica$ion <i$hin i$, inalida$es his analysis o% $ha$ 1!ocess. Fo! i%, as 0&nd$
does, yo& 1!es&11ose $he e=is$ence o% "ind a$ $he s$a!$, as e=1laining o! "a7ing 1ossi,le $he social
1!ocess o% e=1e!ience, $hen $he o!igin o% "inds and $he in$e!ac$ion a"ong "inds ,eco"e "ys$e!ies.
B&$ i%, on $he o$he! hand, yo& !ega!d $he social 1!ocess o% e=1e!ience as 1!io! Ain a !&di"en$a!y
%o!"B $o $he e=is$ence o% "ind and e=1lain $he o!igin o% "inds in $e!"s o% $he in$e!ac$ion a"ong
indiid&als <i$hin $ha$ 1!ocess, $hen no$ only $he o!igin o% "inds, ,&$ also $he in$e!ac$ion a"ong
"inds A<hich is $h&s seen $o ,e in$e!nal $o $hei! e!y na$&!e and 1!es&11osed ,y $hei! e=is$ence o!
deelo1"en$ a$ allB cease $o see" "ys$e!io&s o! "i!ac&lo&s. Mind a!ises $h!o&gh co""&nica$ion ,y
a cone!sa$ion o% ges$&!es in a social 1!ocess o! con$e=$ o% e=1e!ience?no$ co""&nica$ion $h!o&gh
"ind.
0&nd$ $h&s oe!loo7s $he i"1o!$an$ %ac$ $ha$ co""&nica$ion is %&nda"en$al $o $he na$&!e o% <ha$ <e
$e!" -"ind-@ and i$ is 1!ecisely in $he !ecogni$ion o% $his %ac$ $ha$ $he al&e and adan$age o% a
,ehaio!is$ic acco&n$ o% "ind is chie%ly $o ,e %o&nd. Th&s, 0&nd$>s analysis o% co""&nica$ion
1!es&11oses $he e=is$ence o% "inds <hich a!e a,le $o co""&nica$e, and $his e=is$ence !e"ains an
ine=1lica,le "ys$e!y on his 1sychological ,asis@ <he!eas $he ,ehaio!is$ic analysis o%
co""&nica$ion "a7es no s&ch 1!es&11osi$ion, ,&$ ins$ead e=1lains o! acco&n$s %o! $he e=is$ence o%
"inds in $e!"s o% co""&nica$ion and social e=1e!ience@ and ,y !ega!ding "inds as 1heno"ena
<hich hae a!isen and deelo1ed o&$ o% $he 1!ocess o% co""&nica$ion and o% social e=1e!ience
gene!ally??1heno"ena <hich $he!e%o!e 1!es&11ose $ha$ 1!ocess, !a$he! $han ,eing 1!es&11osed ,y
i$??$his analysis is a,le $o $h!o< !eal ligh$ on $hei! na$&!e. 0&nd$ 1!ese!es a d&alis" o! se1a!a$ion
,e$<een ges$&!e Ao! sy",olB and idea, ,e$<een senso!y 1!ocess and 1sychic con$en$, ,eca&se his
1sycho1hysical 1a!allelis" co""i$s hi" $o $his d&alis"@ and al$ho&gh he !ecogni8es $he need %o!
es$a,lishing a %&nc$ional !ela$ionshi1 ,e$<een $he" in $e!"s o% $he 1!ocess o% co""&nica$ion <i$hin
$he social ac$, ye$ $he only !ela$ionshi1 o% $his so!$ <hich can ,e es$a,lished on his 1sychological
,asis is one <hich en$i!ely %ails $o ill&"ina$e $he ,ea!ing $ha$ $he con$e=$ o% social e=1e!ience has
&1on $he e=is$ence and deelo1"en$ o% "ind. S&ch ill&"ina$ion is 1!oided only ,y $he ,ehaio!is$ic
analysis o% co""&nica$ion, and ,y $he s$a$e"en$ o% $he na$&!e o% "ind in $e!"s o% co""&nica$ion $o
<hich $ha$ analysis leads.
"ndnotes
1. 1Cf /rund23ge der physiologischen Psychologie$
The %&nda"en$al de%ec$ o% 0&nd$>s 1sycho1hysical 1a!allelis" is $he %&nda"en$al de%ec$ o%
all 1sycho1hysical 1a!allelis"; $he !eD&i!ed 1a!allelis" is no$ in %ac$ co"1le$e on $he
1sychical side, since only $he senso!y and no$ $he "o$o! 1hase o% $he 1hysiological 1!ocess
o% e=1e!ience has a 1sychic co!!ela$e@ hence $he 1sychical as1ec$ o% $he !eD&i!ed 1a!allelis"
can ,e co"1le$ed only 1hysiologically, $h&s ,!ea7ing i$ do<n. And $his %&nda"en$al de%ec$ o%
his 1sycho1hysical 1a!allelis" i$ia$es $he analysis o% social e=1e!iences? ?and es1ecially o%
co""&nica$ion??<hich he ,ases &1on $he ass&"1$ion o% $ha$ 1a!allelis".
2. I4ol.erpychologie, 4ol. 1. Fo! Mead>s $!ea$"en$ o% 0&nd$ co"1a!e -The *ela$ions o%
Psychology and Philology,- Psychological Bulletin, I A135)B, '/+ %%., <i$h $he "o!e c!i$ical
-The I"agina$ion in 0&nd$>s T!ea$"en$ o% My$h and *eligion,- i(id, III A135.B, '3' ff5
3. ISee -A Behaio!is$ic Acco&n$ o% $he Signi%ican$ Sy",ol,- Journal of Philosophy, JIJ AI3##B,
1+/ %%K
8# IMIT%TI$( %() TH" $*IGI( $3 &%(G4%G"
0&nd$>s di%%ic&l$y has ,een !esoled in $he 1as$ $h!o&gh $he conce1$ o% i"i$a$ion. O% co&!se, i% i$ <e!e
$!&e $ha$ <hen a 1e!son sha7es his %is$ in yo&! %ace yo& 9&s$ i"i$a$e hi", yo& <o&ld ,e doing <ha$ he
is doing and hae $he sa"e idea as he has. The!e a!e, in %ac$, ce!$ain cases <he!e $he !es1onses
a!e li7e $he s$i"&li in $he social ac$, ,&$ as a !&le $hey a!e di%%e!en$. And ye$ i$ has ,een gene!ally
ass&"ed $ha$ ce!$ain %o!"s i"i$a$e each o$he!. The!e has ,een a good deal o% s$&dy on $his 1!o,le"
o% i"i$a$ion and $he 1a!$ i$ is s&11osed $o 1lay in cond&c$, es1ecially in lo<e! %o!"s@ ,&$ $he !es&l$ o%
$his s$&dy has ,een $o "ini"i8e i"i$a$ion, een in $he cond&c$ o% $he highe! ani"als. The "on7ey
has ,een $!adi$ionally $he "os$ i"i$a$ie ani"al, ,&$ &nde! scien$i%ic s$&dy $his <as %o&nd $o ,e a
"y$h. The "on7ey lea!ns e!y D&ic7ly ,&$ he does no$ i"i$a$e. Dogs and ca$s hae ,een s$&died
%!o" $his s$and1oin$, and $he cond&c$ o% one %o!" has no$ ,een %o&nd $o se!e $he 1&!1ose o%
a!o&sing $he sa"e ac$ in $he o$he! %o!".
In $he h&"an %o!" $he!e see"s $o ,e i"i$a$ion in $he case o% a ocal ges$&!e, $he i"1o!$an$ ges$&!e
as %a! as lang&age is conce!ned. So $he 1hilologis$ in 1a!$ic&la!, ,e%o!e $he 1sychologis$ !eached a
"o!e acc&!a$e analysis, <en$ on $he ass&"1$ion $ha$ ? <e i"i$a$e $he so&nds $ha$ <e hea!. The!e
see"ed $o ,e a good deal o% eidence %o! $his also in ce!$ain ani"al %o!"s, 1a!$ic&la!ly $hose %o!"s
$ha$ &$ili8e a !iche! 1hone$ic a!$ic&la$ion, s&ch as ,i!ds. The s1a!!o< can ,e $a&gh$ $o i"i$a$e $he
cana!y ,y close associa$ion <i$h $he cana!y. The 1a!!o$ lea!ns $o -s1ea7.- I$ is no$, <e shall see,
gen&ine s1eech, %o! he is no$ coneying ideas, ,&$ <e co""only say $he 1a!!o$ i"i$a$es $he so&nds
$ha$ a11ea! a,o&$ i$.
I"i$a$ion as a gene!al ins$inc$ is no< disc!edi$ed in h&"an 1sychology. The!e <as a $i"e <hen
1eo1le ass&"ed $ha$ $he!e <as a de%ini$e i"1&lse on $he 1a!$ o% $he h&"an ani"al 9&s$ $o do <ha$ i$
sa< o$he! 1eo1le do. The!e is a g!ea$ deal o% see"ing i"i$a$ion on $he 1a!$ o% child!en. Also $he!e is
a"ong &ndeelo1ed %o!"s a s1eech $ha$ a11ea!s $o ,e no$hing ,&$ i"i$a$ion. The!e a!e 1e!sons
<ho" <e conside! &nin$elligen$ <ho say $hings oe! <i$ho&$ haing any idea o% <ha$ is "ean$, a
,a!e !e1e$i$ion o% so&nds $hey hea!. B&$ $he D&es$ion s$ill !e"ains <hy $he %o!" sho&ld so i"i$a$e. Is
$he!e any !eason %o! i"i$a$ionE 0e ass&"e $ha$ all cond&c$ has ,ac7 o% i$ so"e %&nc$ion. 0ha$ is
$he %&nc$ion o% i"i$a$ionE See"ingly <e ge$ an ans<e! in $he deelo1"en$ o% yo&ng %o!"s. The
yo&ng %o= goes a,o&$ <i$h $he 1a!en$s, h&n$s <i$h $he", lea!ns $o sei8e and aoid $he !igh$ ani"als@
i$ has no o!iginal o,9ec$ion $o $he odo! o% a "an, ,&$ a%$e! i$ has ,een <i$h $he old %o= $he scen$ o%
"an <ill ca&se i$ $o !&n a<ay. The!e is, in $his case, a se!ies o% !es1onses <hich ,eco"e de%ini$ely
associa$ed <i$h a 1a!$ic&la! s$i"&l&s@ i% $he yo&ng %o!" goes a,o&$ <i$h $he 1a!en$, $hose !es1onses
<hich a!e all $he!e in i$s na$&!e ,eco"e associa$ed <i$h ce!$ain de%ini$e s$i"&li. 0e can, in a e!y
gene!ali8ed sense, s1ea7 o% $he %o= as i"i$a$ing i$s 1a!en$s and aoiding "an. B&$ $ha$ &sage <o&ld
no$ i"1ly !&nning a<ay as an a&$o"a$ic ac$ o% i"i$a$ion. The yo&ng %o= has ,een 1&$ in a si$&a$ion in
<hich i$ does !&n a<ay, and <hen $he odo! o% "an is 1!esen$ i$ ,eco"es de%ini$ely associa$ed <i$h
$his %ligh$ !es1onse. No yo&ng %o!"s in $he lo<e! ani"als ee! "e!ely i"i$a$e $he ac$s o% $he ad&l$
%o!", ,&$ $hey do acD&i!e d&!ing $hei! 1e!iod o% in%ancy $he associa$ion o% a se$ o% "o!e o! less
ins$inc$ie !es1onses $o a ce!$ain se$ o% s$i"&li.
The a,oe o,se!a$ions and !ese!a$ions do no$, as <e shall see, 9&s$i%y $he D&es$iona,le sense in
<hich $he no$ion o% i"i$a$ion has o%$en ,een &sed. The $e!" -i"i$a$ion- ,eca"e o% g!ea$ i"1o!$ance,
%o! a $i"e, in social 1sychology and in sociology. I$ <as &sed as a ,asis %o! a <hole $heo!y o%
sociology ,y $he F!ench sociologis$, (a,!iel Ta!de.+,- The 1sychologis$ a$ %i!s$, <i$ho&$ adeD&a$e
analysis, ass&"ed on $he 1a!$ o% $he 1e!son a $endency $o do <ha$ o$he! 1e!sons do. One can see
ho< di%%ic&l$ i$ <o&ld ,e $o <o!7 o&$ any "echanis" o% $ha$ so!$. 0hy sho&ld a 1e!son <in7 ,eca&se
ano$he! 1e!son <in7sE 0ha$ s$i"&l&s <o&ld ca&se ano$he! 1e!son $o ac$ in $ha$ <ayE The sigh$ o%
ano$he! 1e!son ac$ing in ano$he! <ayE This is an i"1ossi,le ass&"1$ion.
In $he 1a!allelis" o% 0&nd$ <e hae $he ,asis %o! his acco&n$ o% lang&age. 0&nd$ ass&"ed a
1hysical si$&a$ion <hich has a ce!$ain i"1o!$ %o! $he cond&c$ o% $he %o!", and on $he o$he! hand he
ass&"ed a 1sychical co"1le= o% ideas <hich a!e in a ce!$ain sense $he e=1!ession o% 1hysiological
o! ,iological al&es. :is 1!o,le" is $o ge$ o&$ o% $his si$&a$ion lang&age as signi%ican$
co""&nica$ion.
The!e a!e s&ch si$&a$ions as $ha$ !e1!esen$ed ,y $he cone!sa$ion o% ges$&!es $o <hich I hae
!e%e!!ed, si$&a$ions in <hich ce!$ain 1hases o% $he ac$ ,eco"e s$i"&li $o $he %o!"s inoled in i$ $o
ca!!y o&$ $hei! 1a!$ in $he ac$. No< $hese 1a!$s o% $he ac$ <hich a!e s$i"&li %o! $he o$he! %o!"s in $hei!
social ac$ii$y a!e ges$&!es. (es$&!es a!e $hen $ha$ 1a!$ o% $he ac$ <hich is !es1onsi,le %o! i$s
in%l&ence &1on o$he! %o!"s. The ges$&!e in so"e sense s$ands %o! $he ac$ as %a! as i$ a%%ec$s $he
o$he! %o!". The $h!ea$ o% iolence, s&ch as a clenched %is$, is $he s$i"&l&s $o $he o$he! %o!" %o!
de%ense o! %ligh$. I$ ca!!ies <i$h i$ $he i"1o!$ o% $he ac$ i$sel%. I a" no$ !e%e!!ing $o i"1o!$ in $e!"s o%
!e%lec$ie conscio&sness, ,&$ in $e!"s o% ,ehaio!. Fo! $he o,se!e! $he ges$&!e "eans $he dange!
and $he !es1onse o% $he indiid&al $o $ha$ dange!. I$ calls o&$ a ce!$ain so!$ o% an ac$. I% <e ass&"e a
conscio&sness in <hich $he!e is no$ only 1!esen$ $he s$i"&l&s in $he %o!" o% sensa$ion ,&$ also an
idea, $hen $he!e is in $he "ind $he sensa$ion in <hich $his s$i"&l&s a11ea!s, a ision o% $he clenched
%is$, and ,esides $ha$ $he idea o% $he a$$ac7. The clenched %is$ in so %a! as i$ calls o&$ $ha$ idea "ay
,e said $o "ean $he dange!.
No< $he 1!o,le" is $o ge$ $his !ela$ionshi1 ,e$<een $he idea and $he sy",ol i$sel% in$o $he
cone!sa$ion o% ges$&!es. As I 1oin$ed o&$ ,e%o!e, $his !ela$ionshi1 is no$ gien in $he i""edia$e
!es1onse o% %igh$ing o! !&nning. I$ "ay ,e 1!esen$ $he!e, ,&$ as %a! as $he cone!sa$ion o% ges$&!es is
conce!ned an ac$ o% one so!$ calls o&$ an ac$ o% a di%%e!en$ so!$ in $he o$he! %o!". Tha$ is, $he $h!ea$
<hich is inoled leads, <e <ill say, $o %ligh$. The idea o% %ligh$ is no$ $he idea o% a$$ac7. In $he
cone!sa$ion o% ges$&!es $he!e is $he 1!e1a!a$ion %o! $he %&ll social 1!ocess inoling $he ac$ions in
di%%e!en$ %o!"s, and $he ges$&!es, <hich a!e $he 1a!$s o% $he ac$, se!e $o s$i"&la$e $he o$he! %o!"s.
They call o&$ ac$s di%%e!en$ %!o" $he"seles. 0hile $hey "ay call o&$ ac$s <hich a!e ali7e, as a !&le
$he !es1onse is di%%e!en$ %!o" $he s$i"&l&s i$sel%. The c!y o% a child calls o&$ $he !es1onse o% $he ca!e
o% $he "o$he!@ $he one is %ea! and $he o$he! 1!o$ec$ion, solici$&de. The !es1onse is no$ in any sense
iden$ical <i$h $he o$he! ac$. I% $he!e is an idea, in $he 0&nd$ian sense, $he 1sychical con$en$ $ha$
ans<e!s $o a ce!$ain 1a!$ic&la! s$i"&l&s, $ha$ <ill no$ ge$ i$s !e%lec$ion in $he !es1onse.
0ha$ lang&age see"s $o ca!!y is a se$ o% sy",ols ans<e!ing $o ce!$ain con$en$ <hich is "eas&!a,ly
iden$ical in $he e=1e!ience o% $he di%%e!en$ indiid&als. I% $he!e is $o ,e co""&nica$ion as s&ch $he
sy",ol has $o "ean $he sa"e $hing $o all indiid&als inoled. I% a n&",e! o% indiid&als !es1ond in
di%%e!en$ <ays $o $he s$i"&l&s, $he s$i"&l&s "eans di%%e!en$ $hings $o $he". I% a n&",e! o% 1e!sons
a!e li%$ing a <eigh$, one 1e!son $a7es one 1osi$ion and ano$he! a di%%e!en$ 1osi$ion. I% i$ is a
coo1e!a$ie 1!ocess !eD&i!ing di%%e!en$ so!$s o% !es1onses, $hen $he call on $he 1a!$ o% one indiid&al
$o ac$ calls o&$ di%%e!en$ !es1onses in $he o$he!s. The cone!sa$ion o% ges$&!es does no$ ca!!y <i$h i$
a sy",ol <hich has a &nie!sal signi%icance $o all $he di%%e!en$ indiid&als. I$ "ay ,e D&i$e e%%ec$ie
<i$ho&$ $ha$, since $he s$i"&l&s <hich one indiid&al gies "ay ,e $he 1!o1e! s$i"&l&s $o ca I o&$
di%%e!en$ !es1onses in $he indiid&als in $he g!o&1. I$ is no$ essen$ial $ha$ $he indiid&als sho&ld gie
an iden$ical "eaning $o $he 1a!$ic&la! s$i"&l&s in o!de! $ha$ each "ay 1!o1e!ly !es1ond. Peo1le ge$
in$o a c!o<d and "oe $his <ay, and $ha$ <ay@ $hey ad9&s$ $he"seles $o $he 1eo1le co"ing $o<a!d
$he", as <e say, &nconscio&sly. They "oe in an in$elligen$ %ashion <i$h !e%e!ence $o each o$he!,
and 1e!ha1s all o% $he" $hin7 o% so"e$hing en$i!ely di%%e!en$, ,&$ $hey do %ind in $he ges$&!es o%
o$he!s, $hei! a$$i$&des and "oe"en$s, adeD&a$e s$i"&li %o! di%%e!en$ !es1onses. This ill&s$!a$es a
cone!sa$ion o% ges$&!es in <hich $he!e is coo1e!a$ie ac$ii$y <i$ho&$ any sy",ol $ha$ "eans $he
sa"e $hing $o all. O% co&!se, i$ is 1ossi,le %o! in$elligen$ indiid&als &nde! s&ch condi$ions $o $!ansla$e
$hese ges$&!es in$o signi%ican$ sy",ols, ,&$ one need no$ s$o1 $o $!ansla$e in$o $e!"s o% $ha$ so!$.
S&ch a &nie!sal disco&!se is no$ a$ all essen$ial $o $he cone!sa$ion o% ges$&!es in coo1e!a$ie
cond&c$.
S&ch coo1e!a$ie cond&c$ is 1!es&"a,ly $he only $y1e o% cond&c$ <hich one %inds a"ong $he an$s
and ,ees. In $hese e!y co"1le= socie$ies $he!e is an in$e!!ela$ionshi1 o% di%%e!en$ %o!"s $ha$
see"ingly is as co"1le= as h&"an cond&c$ in "any !es1ec$s. The!e a!e socie$ies o% a "illion
indiid&als in so"e o% $he la!ge an$ nes$s, and diided &1 in$o di%%e!en$ g!o&1s <i$h di%%e!en$
%&nc$ions. 0ha$ is a s$i"&l&s $o ac$ion %o! one leads $o a di%%e!en$ !es1onse in ano$he!. The!e is
coo1e!a$ie ac$ii$y, ,&$ no eidence o% any signi%ican$ lang&age in $he cond&c$ o% $hese insec$s. I$ is,
o% co&!se, a %ield in <hich a g!ea$ deal o% <o!7 has $o ,e done, ,&$ s$ill $he!e has ,een no eidence
%o&nd o% any signi%ican$ sy",ols.
I <an$ $o "a7e clea! $he di%%e!ence ,e$<een $hose $<o si$&a$ions. The!e can ,e a high deg!ee o%
in$elligence, as <e &se $ha$ $e!", in $he cond&c$ o% ani"als <i$ho&$ any signi%ican$ sy",ols, <i$ho&$
any 1!esen$a$ion o% "eanings as s&ch. 0ha$ is essen$ial is coo1e!a$ie ac$ii$y, so $ha$ $he ges$&!e
o% one %o!" calls o&$ $he 1!o1e! !es1onse $o o$he!s. B&$ $he ges$&!e o% one "ay call o&$ e!y
di%%e!en$ !es1onses on $he 1a!$ o% o$he! %o!"s, and ye$ $he!e "ay ,e no co""on "eaning <hich all
$he di%%e!en$ %o!"s gie $o any 1a!$ic&la! ges$&!e. The!e is no co""on sy",ol $ha$ %o! $he an$s
"eans %ood. Food "eans a g!ea$ "any $hings, $hings $ha$ hae $o ,e ga$he!ed, $ha$ hae $o ,e
s$o!ed, $ha$ hae $o ,e ca!!ied ,y $he <o!7e!s and 1laced in $he "o&$hs o% $he %igh$e!s. The!e is no
eidence $ha$ $he!e is any sy",ol $ha$ "eans %ood as s&ch. The sigh$, $he odo! o% %ood, and i$s
1osi$ion lead $o a ce!$ain !es1onse. An an$ 1ic7s a %ood o,9ec$ &1 and s$agge!s ,ac7 $o $he nes$ <i$h
i$. La$e! i$ "eans so"e$hing $o ,e ea$en, i$ "eans a <hole se!ies o% ac$ii$ies. The odo! along $he
1a$h is a s$i"&l&s $o o$he! insec$s %ollo<ing along $he 1a$h, ,&$ $he!e is no sy",ol $ha$ "eans -1a$h-
$o s&ch a g!o&1. The odo! o% a s$!ange %o!" in $he nes$ "eans a$$ac7 %!o" o$he! %o!"s, ,&$ i% a
s$!ange an$ is di11ed in liD&id %o!"ed ,y c!&shing an$s %!o" $he nes$ and $hen 1laced in $he nes$
$he!e is no a$$ac7, een $ho&gh his %o!" is e!y "&ch la!ge!. The odo! does no$ "ean an ene"y as
s&ch. Con$!as$ $hese $<o si$&a$ions; in one $he!e is a highly co"1le= social ac$ii$y in <hich $he
ges$&!es a!e si"1ly s$i"&li $o $he a11!o1!ia$e !es1onse o% $he <hole g!o&1@ in $he h&"an si$&a$ion
$he!e is a di%%e!en$ !es1onse <hich is "edia$ed ,y "eans o% 1a!$ic&la! sy",ols o! 1a!$ic&la!
ges$&!es <hich hae $he sa"e "eaning %o! all "e",e!s o% a g!o&1. :e!e $he c!y o% an ene"y is no$
si"1ly a s$i"&l&s $o a$$ac7. I$ "eans $ha$ a 1e!son o% a di%%e!en$ !ace, o% a di%%e!en$ co""&ni$y, is
1!esen$, and $ha$ $he!e is <a!%a!e going on. I$ has $he sa"e "eaning $o all indiid&als and $ha$
"eaning "ay "edia$e a <hole se!ies o% di%%e!en$ !es1onses.
As I hae said, $he 1!o,le" %!o" 0&nd$>s s$and1oin$ is $o ge$ $his second cha!ac$e! oe! in$o $he
"o!e 1!i"i$ie cone!sa$ion o% ges$&!es, o! cond&c$ <hich is "edia$ed ,y a cone!sa$ion o%
ges$&!es. A "e!e in$elligen$ !es1onse on $he 1a!$ o% $he di%%e!en$ "e",e!s o% a g!o&1 $o a single
s$i"&l&s A$o <ha$ $o $he o,se!e! is a single s$i"&l&sB does no$ ca!!y <i$h i$ any co""&nica$ion. No<
ho< is one $o !each gen&ine lang&ageE 0&nd$ s$a!$s o%% <i$h $he ass&"1$ion $ha$ $he!e a!e
1sychical condi$ions $ha$ ans<e! $o ce!$ain s$i"&li, and an associa$ion ,e$<een $he". Ce!$ain sigh$s,
odo!s, and es1ecially so&nds a!e associa$ed <i$h ce!$ain ideas. I%, <hen a 1e!son &ses a ce!$ain
so&nd, he has $ha$ idea in his o<n "ind, and $he ges$&!e $ha$ he &ses, say a ocal ges$&!e, calls o&$
$he sa"e ges$&!e in $he o$he!, $hen $ha$ ges$&!e in $he o$he! 1e!son <ill call o&$ $he sa"e idea in
hi". Say $he <o!d -ene"y- calls o&$ a hos$ile !es1onse. No<, <hen I say -ene"y- i$ calls o&$ $he
sa"e !es1onse in yo&! "ind $ha$ i$ calls o&$ in "ine. The!e <e <o&ld hae a 1a!$ic&la! sy",ol $ha$
has a co""on "eaning. I% all "e",e!s o% $he g!o&1 <e!e so cons$i$&$ed $ha$ i$ has $his "eaning,
$hen $he!e <o&ld ,e a ,asis %o! co""&nica$ion ,y "eans o% signi%ican$ sy",ols.
The di%%ic&l$y in $his analysis $o <hich I hae ,een !e%e!!ing is $o acco&n$ %o! a 1a!$ic&la! ges$&!e
calling o&$ $he sa"e ges$&!e in ano$he! indiid&al, een i% <e ass&"e $ha$ $his sa"e idea is
associa$ed <i$h $he sa"e ocal ges$&!e in ano$he! indiid&al. Ass&"ing $ha$ $he <o!d -ene"y-
"eans hos$ili$y, ho< can $he si$&a$ion a!ise in <hich one 1e!son says -ene"y,- and $he o$he! 1e!son
says -ene"y- $ooE 0he!e one 1e!son says is ene"y- one indiid&al <ill %igh$ and ano$he! <ill !&n
a<ay. The!e <e hae $<o di%%e!en$ signi%ica$ions ans<e!ing $o $he so&nd. 0ha$ <e <an$ $o ge$ is $he
one s$i"&l&s <hich has a ce!$ain 1sychical con$en$ calling o&$ $he sa"e s$i"&l&s in ano$he! %o!",
and so $he sa"e con$en$. 0e see" $o hae $he ,eginnings o% $ha$ 1!ocess a"ong $he $al7ing ,i!ds.
One s$i"&l&s see"s $o call o&$ $he sa"e s$i"&l&s in $he cond&c$ o% $he o$he! %o!". 0ha$ $he
1sychical acco"1ani"en$ is in $he ,i!ds, o% co&!se, <e canno$ $ell, ,&$ <e can !eco!d $ha$ $hey see"
$o hae no s&ch signi%ica$ion as $hey hae in o&! e=1e!ience. The 1a!!o$ does no$ "ean <ha$ $he
sen$ences "ean $o &s. 0e hae no$ed, ho<ee!, $ha$ $he cana!y>s "elody can ,e $a7en oe! ,y $he
s1a!!o<, and $his see"ingly i"i$a$ie 1!ocess <e "&s$ soon disc&ss in de$ail.
0e a!g&ed $ha$ $he!e is no eidence o% any gene!al $endency on $he 1a!$ o% %o!"s $o i"i$a$e each
o$he!. I% one a$$e"1$s $o s$a$e s&ch a $endency i$ ,!ea7s do<n "echanically. I$ <o&ld "ean $ha$ <e
hae a $endency $o do $he sa"e $hing $ha$ o$he! 1eo1le a!e doing, and also $ha$ $hese $endencies
a!e no$ only in o&! na$&!e, ,&$ also $ha$ $hey a!e a$$ached $o ce!$ain s1eci%ic s$i"&li <hich "ean <ha$
$he o$he! 1eo1le a!e doing. The sigh$ o% one 1e!son doing so"e$hing <o&ld ,e a s$i"&l&s $o ano$he!
1e!son $o do $he sa"e $hing. 0e sho&ld hae $o ass&"e $ha$ <ha$ $he 1e!son is doing is al!eady a
!eac$ion $ha$ is in $he na$&!e o% $he i"i$a$ing indiid&al. I$ <o&ld "ean $ha$ <e hae in o&! na$&!e
al!eady all o% $hese a!io&s ac$ii$ies, and $ha$ $hey a!e called o&$ ,y $he sigh$ o% o$he! 1eo1le doing
$he sa"e $hing. I$ is a 1e!%ec$ly i"1ossi,le ass&"1$ion.
0hen $he 1sychologis$ ca"e $o analy8e i"i$a$ion he !es$!ic$ed i$ $o $he %ield in <hich 1eo1le
ha11ened $o ,e doing $he sa"e $hing. I% one 1e!son is !&nning he "ay ,e said $o a!o&se $he
s$i"&l&s %o! o$he! 1eo1le $o !&n a$ $he sa"e $i"e. 0e do ass&"e $ha$ $he sigh$ o% one ani"al
ac$&ally !&nning is $he s$i"&l&s $o o$he! ani"als $o !&n. Tha$ is e!y i"1o!$an$ %o! $he 1!ese!a$ion o%
ani"als $ha$ go in d!oes. Ca$$le g!a8ing in a 1as$&!e all d!i%$ along $oge$he!. One ani"al le%$ ,y
hi"sel% <ill ,e ne!o&s and <ill no$ g!a8e, ,&$ i% 1&$ <i$h o$he! ani"als i$ is again no!"al. I$ does
"o!e !eadily <ha$ i$ is doing 1!oided i$ is in a g!o&1. The $endency $o d!i%$ $oge$he! is no$ an
i"1ossi,le so!$ o% an ins$inc$, since <e can conceie $ha$ $he "oe"en$ o% ani"als in a ce!$ain
di!ec$ion sho&ld ,e a s$i"&l&s $o o$he! ani"als. Tha$ is a,o&$ all $ha$ $he!e is in $he -he!ding-
ins$inc$, i% !ed&ced do<n $o so"e$hing conc!e$e in $he ac$ion o% $he %o!" i$sel% The ani"al ac$s "o!e
no"inally <hen <i$h o$he!s in $he sa"e g!o&1. :e <ill %eed ,e$$e! $han o$he!<ise. B&$ <hen yo&
co"e $o so"e s1eci%ic ac$ a,o&$ all yo& can %ind is $ha$ $he ani"als do $end $o "oe in $he sa"e
di!ec$ion. This "ay lead $o a s$a"1ede in $he he!d. So"e$hing o% $ha$ so!$ is inoled in $he so?
called -sen$inel.- One ani"al, a li$$le "o!e sensi$ie $han $he o$he!s, li%$s his head and s$a!$s $o !&n
a<ay, and $he o$he! ani"als do $end $o "oe <i$h $he sen$inel %o!". I$ is no$, o% co&!se, i"i$a$ion in
$he sense o% co1ying@ %o! one ani"al is no$ co1ying $he o$he! ani"al. The one ani"al si"1ly $ends $o
!&n <hen $he o$he! does. I% a ca$ is 1&$ in a 1&88le ,o= and $he ca$ does ge$ $o $he 1oin$ <he!e i$
o1ens $he doo! ,y a lee! ac$ion and does $ha$ o%$en eno&gh, i$ <ill s$!i7e $ha$ lee! $he %i!s$ $hing.
No<, i% ano$he! ca$ is 1&$ in, and <he!e i$ can see $he %i!s$ ca$, i$ <ill no$ i"i$a$e i$. The!e is no
eidence $ha$ <ha$ one ani"al does ,eco"es a s$i"&l&s $o $he o$he! ani"al $o do $he sa"e $hing.
The!e is no di!ec$ i"i$a$ie ac$ii$y.
The!e does ho<ee!, see" $o ,e a $endency $o i"i$a$e a"ong "en, and in 1a!$ic&la! $o !e1!od&ce
ocal ges$&!es. 0e %ind $he la$$e! $endency a"ong ,i!ds as <ell as a"ong "en. I% yo& go in$o a
locali$y <he!e $he!e is a 1ec&lia! dialec$ and !e"ain $he!e %o! a leng$h o% $i"e yo& %ind yo&!sel%
s1ea7ing $he sa"e dialec$, and i$ "ay ,e so"e$hing <hich yo& did no$ <an$ $o do. The si"1les$ <ay
o% s$a$ing i$ is $o say $ha$ yo& &nconscio&sly i"i$a$e. The sa"e $hing is also $!&e o% a!io&s o$he!
"anne!is"s. I% yo& $hin7 o% a ce!$ain 1e!son yo& a!e e!y a1$ $o %ind yo&!sel% s1ea7ing as $he o$he!
1e!son s1o7e. Any "anne!is" <hich $he indiid&al has is one <hich yo& %ind yo&!sel% $ending $o
ca!!y o&$ <hen $he 1e!son co"es $o yo&! "ind. Tha$ is <ha$ <e call -i"i$a$ion,- and <ha$ is c&!io&s
is $ha$ $he!e is 1!ac$ically no indica$ion o% s&ch ,ehaio! on $he 1a!$ o% lo<e! %o!"s. Yo& can $each
$he s1a!!o< $o sing as a cana!y ,&$ yo& hae $o 7ee1 $ha$ s1a!!o< cons$an$ly lis$ening $o a cana!y. I$
does no$ $a7e 1lace !eadily. The "oc7ing ,i!d does see" $o $a7e &1 $he calls o% o$he! ,i!ds. I$
see"s $o ,e 1ec&lia!ly endo<ed in $his 1a!$ic&la! <ay. B&$ in gene!al $he $a7ing oe! o% $he
1!ocesses o% o$he!s is no$ na$&!al $o lo<e! %o!"s. I"i$a$ion see"s $o ,elong $o $he h&"an %o!",
<he!e i$ has !eached so"e so!$ o% inde1enden$ conscio&s e=is$ence.
B&$ -I"i$a$ion- gies no sol&$ion %o! $he o!igin o% lang&age. 0e hae $o co"e ,ac7 $o so"e si$&a$ion
o&$ o% <hich <e can !each so"e sy",ol $ha$ <ill hae an iden$ical "eaning, and <e canno$ ge$ i$
o&$ o% a "e!e ins$inc$ o% i"i$a$ion, as s&ch. The!e is no eidence $ha$ $he ges$&!e gene!ally $ends $o
call o&$ $he sa"e ges$&!e in $he o$he! o!ganis".
I"i$a$ion as $he "e!e $endency on $he 1a!$ o% an o!ganis" $o !e1!od&ce <ha$ i$ sees o! hea!s o$he!
o!ganis"s doing is "echanically i"1ossi,le@ one canno$ conceie an o!ganis" as so cons$!&c$ed
$ha$ all $he sigh$s and so&nds <hich !each i$ <o&ld a!o&se in $he o!ganis" $endencies $o !e1!od&ce
<ha$ i$ sees and hea!s in $hose %ields o% e=1e!ience. S&ch an ass&"1$ion is 1ossi,le only in $e!"s o%
an olde! 1sychology. I% one ass&"ed $ha$ $he "ind is "ade &1 o&$ o% ideas, $ha$ $he cha!ac$e! o% o&!
conscio&s e=1e!ience is no$hing ,&$ a se$ o% i"1!essions o% o,9ec$s, and i% one ad9&s$s $o $hese
i"1!essions, so $o s1ea7, a "o$o! $endency, one "igh$ conceie o% $ha$ as ,eing one <hich <o&ld
see7 $o !e1!od&ce <ha$ <as seen and hea!d. B&$ as soon as yo& !ecogni8e in $he o!ganis" a se$ o%
ac$s <hich ca!!y o&$ $he 1!ocesses <hich a!e essen$ial $o $he li%e o% $he %o!", and &nde!$a7e $o 1&$
$he sensi$ie o! senso!y e=1e!ience in$o $ha$ sche"e, $he sensi$ie e=1e!ience, as s$i"&l&s <e <ill
say $o $he !es1onse, canno$ ,e a s$i"&l&s si"1ly $o !e1!od&ce <ha$ is seen and hea!d@ i$ is !a$he! a
s$i"&l&s %o! $he ca!!ying o&$ o% $he o!ganic 1!ocess. The ani"al sees o! s"ells $he %ood and hea!s
$he ene"y, $he 1a!en$ %o!" sees and hea!s $he in%an$ %o!"?$hese a!e all s$i"&li $o $he %o!"s $o ca!!y
$h!o&gh $he 1!ocesses <hich a!e essen$ial $o $he s1ecies $o <hich $hey ,elong. They a!e ac$s <hich
go ,eyond $he o!ganis" $a7en ,y i$sel%, ,&$ $hey ,elong $o coo1e!a$ie 1!ocesses in <hich g!o&1s o%
ani"als ac$ $oge$he!, and $hey a!e $he %&l%ill"en$ o% $he 1!ocesses <hich a!e essen$ial $o $he li%e o%
$he %o!"s. One canno$ %i$ in$o any s&ch sche"e as $ha$ a?1a!$ic&la! i"1&lse o% i"i$a$ion, and i% one
&nde!$a7es $o 1!esen$ $he "echanis" <hich <o&ld "a7e in$elligi,le $ha$ 1!ocess, een $he
in$!icacies o% $he cen$!al ne!o&s sys$e" <o&ld ,e inadeD&a$e. An indiid&al <o&ld ,e in s&ch a
si$&a$ion as one o% (&llie!>s %ig&!es <ho &nde!$oo7 $o sae his ,!ea$h ,y no$ $al7ing, and so ca!!ied
a ,ag%&l o% all $he o,9ec$s a,o&$ <hich he <o&ld <an$ $o $al7. One <o&ld hae $o ca!!y a,o&$ an
eno!"o&s ,ag%&l, so $o s1ea7, o% s&ch 1ossi,le ac$ions i% $hey <e!e $o ,e !e1!esen$ed in $he cen$!al
ne!o&s sys$e". I"i$a$ion, ho<ee!, canno$ ,e $a7en as a 1!i"i$ie !es1onse.
"ndnotes
1. 1)es lois de I6imitation$
9# TH" V$C%& G"ST4*" %() TH" SIG(I3IC%(T S'MB$&
The conce1$ o% i"i$a$ion has ,een &sed e!y <idely in $he %ield o% $he ocal ges$&!e. The!e <e do
see" $o hae a $endency on $he 1a!$ o% ce!$ain o!ganis"s $o !e1!od&ce so&nds <hich a!e hea!d.
:&"an ,eings and $he $al7ing ,i!ds 1!oide ill&s$!a$ions. B&$ een he!e -i"i$a$ion- is ha!dly an
i""edia$e $endency, since i$ $a7es D&i$e a <hile $o ge$ one ,i!d $o !e1!od&ce $he song, o! %o! $he
child $o $a7e oe! $he 1hone$ic ges$&!e o% $he h&"an %o!". The ocal ges$&!e is a s$i"&l&s $o so"e
so!$ o% !es1onse@ i$ is no$ si"1ly a s$i"&l&s $o $he calling o&$ o% $he so&nd <hich $he ani"al hea!s. O%
co&!se, $he ,i!d can ,e 1&$ in$o a si$&a$ion <he!e i$ "ay !each $he "e!e !e1e$i$ion o% $ha$ <hich i$
hea!s. I% <e ass&"e $ha$ one so&nd $ha$ $he ,i!d "a7es calls o&$ ano$he! so&nd, <hen $he ,i!d
hea!s $his %i!s$ so&nd i$ !es1onds ,y $he second. I% one as7ed <hy one no$e ans<e!s $o ano$he!, one
<o&ld hae $o go $o so"e 1!ocess <he!e $he ocal ges$&!e <o&ld hae a di%%e!en$ 1hysiological
signi%icance. An ill&s$!a$ion is $he cooing 1!ocess o% 1igeons. The!e one no$e calls o&$ ano$he! no$e
in $he o$he! %o!". I$ is a cone!sa$ion o% ges$&!es, <he!e a ce!$ain a$$i$&de e=1!essing i$sel% in a
ce!$ain no$e calls o&$ ano$he! a$$i$&de <i$h i$s co!!es1onding no$e. I% $he %o!" is $o call o&$ in i$sel% $he
sa"e no$e $ha$ i$ calls o&$ in $he o$he!, i$ "&s$ ac$ as $he o$he! ac$s, and &se $he no$e $ha$ $he o$he!
"a7es &se o% in o!de! $o !e1!od&ce $he 1a!$ic&la! no$e in D&es$ion. So yo& %ind, i% yo& 1&$ $he
s1a!!o< and $he cana!y $oge$he! in neigh,o!ing cages, <he!e $he call o% one calls o&$ a se!ies o%
no$es in $he o$he!, $ha$ i% $he s1a!!o< %inds i$sel% &$$e!ing a no$e s&ch as a cana!y does, $he ocal
ges$&!e he!e "&s$ ,e "o!e o! less o% $he sa"e $y1e. 0he!e $ha$ si$&a$ion e=is$s, $he s1a!!o< in i$s
o<n 1!ocess o% ocali8a$ion "a7es &se o% s&ch no$es as $hose <hich $he cana!y "a7es &se o%. The
s1a!!o< is in%l&encing no$ only $he cana!y, ,&$ also in hea!ing i$sel% i$ is in%l&encing i$sel%. The no$e
$ha$ i$ is "a7ing &se o%, i% i$ is iden$ical <i$h $he no$e o% $he cana!y, calls o&$ a !es1onse in i$sel% $ha$
$he cana!y>s no$e <o&ld call o&$ in i$sel%. Those a!e $he si$&a$ions $ha$ hae ,eco"e e"1hasi8ed
and "ain$ained <he!e one has <ha$ <e $e!" -i"i$a$ion.- 0e!e $he s1a!!o< is ac$&ally "a7ing &se o%
a 1hone$ic ocal ges$&!e o% $he cana!y $h!o&gh a co""on no$e in $he !e1e!$oi!e o% ,o$h o% $he",
$hen $he s1a!!o< <o&ld ,e $ending $o ,!ing o&$ in i$sel% $he sa"e !es1onse $ha$ <o&ld ,e ,!o&gh$ o&$
,y $he no$e o% $he cana!y. Tha$, $hen <o&ld gie an added <eigh$ in $he e=1e!ience o% $he s1a!!o< $o
$ha$ 1a!$ic&la! !es1onse.
I% $he ocal ges$&!e <hich $he s1a!!o< "a7es is iden$ical <i$h $ha$ <hich i$ hea!s <hen $he cana!y
"a7es &se o% $he sa"e no$e, $hen i$ is seen $ha$ i$s o<n !es1onse <ill ,e in $ha$ case iden$ical <i$h
$he !es1onse $o $he cana!y>s no$e. I$ is $his <hich gies s&ch 1ec&lia! i"1o!$ance $o $he ocal
ges$&!e; i$ is one o% $hose social s$i"&li <hich a%%ec$ $he %o!" $ha$ "a7es i$ in $he sa"e %ashion $ha$ i$
a%%ec$s $he %o!" <hich "ade ,y ano$he!. Tha$ is, <e can hea! o&!seles $al7ing, and $he i"1o!$ o%
<ha$ <e say is $he sa"e $o o&!seles $ha$ i$ is $o o$he!s. I% $he s1a!!o< "a7es &se o% a cana!y>s no$e
i$ is calling o&$ in i$sel% $he !es1onse $ha$ $he cana!y>s no$e calls o&$. In so %a!, $hen , ad $he s1a!!o<
does "a7e &se o% $he sa"e no$e $ha$ $he cana!y "a7es &se o%, i$ <ill e"1hasi8e $he ocal
!es1onses $o $his no$e ,eca&se $hey <ill ,e 1!esen$ no$ only <hen $he cana!y "a7es &se o% i$ ,&$
also <hen $he s1a!!o< "a7es &se o% i$. In s&ch a case i$ is 1!es&11osed $ha$ $he 1a!$ic&la! s$i"&l&s
is 1!esen$ in $he %o!" i$sel%, $ha$ is, $ha$ $he ocal s$i"&l&s <hich calls o&$ $he 1a!$ic&la! no$e <hich is
lea!ned is 1!esen$ in $he !e1e!$oi!e o% $he s1a!!o< as <ell as in $ha$ o% $he cana!y. I% one !ecogni8es
$ha$, $hen one can see $ha$ $hose 1a!$ic&la! no$es ans<e!ing $o $his s$i"&l&s <ill ,e, so $o s1ea7,
<!i$$en in, &nde!lined. They <ill ,eco"e ha,i$&al. 0e a!e s&11o!$ing $ha$ one no$e calls o&$ ano$he!,
a s$i"&l&s calls o&$ a !es1onse. I% $his no$e <hich calls o&$ $his !es1onse is &sed no$ only ,y $he
cana!y ,&$ also ,y $he s1a!!o<, $hen <henee! $he s1a!!o< hea!s $he cana!y i$ "a7es &se o% $ha$
1a!$ic&la! no$e, and i% i$ has $he sa"e no$e in i$s o<n !e1e!$oi!e $hen $he!e is a do&,le $endency $o
,!ing a,o&$ $his 1a!$ic&la! !es1onse, so $ha$ i$ ,eco"es "o!e %!eD&en$ly "ade &se o% and ,eco"es
"o!e de%ini$ely a 1a!$ o% $he singing o% $he s1a!!o< $han o$he!<ise. S&ch a!e $he si$&a$ions in <hich
$he s1a!!o< does $a7e $he !ole o% $he cana!y in so %a! as $he!e a!e ce!$ain no$es $o <hich i$ $ends $o
!eac$ 9&s$ as $he cana!y does. The!e is a do&,le <eigh$, so $o s1ea7, &1on $his 1a!$ic&la! no$e o!
se!ies o% no$es. I$ is in s&ch a %ashion $ha$ <e can &nde!s$and $he lea!ning ,y $he s1a!!o< o% $he
cana!y>s song. One has $o ass&"e a li7e $endency in $he $<o %o!"s i% one is going $o ge$ any
"echanis" %o! i"i$a$ion a$ all.
To ill&s$!a$e $his %&!$he! le$ &s go ,ac7 $o $he cone!sa$ion o% ges$&!es in $he dog?%igh$. The!e $he
s$i"&l&s <hich one dog ge$s %!o" $he o$he! is $o a !es1onse <hich is di%%e!en$ %!o" $he !es1onse o%
$he s$i"&la$ing %o!". One dog is a$$ac7ing $he o$he!, and is !eady $o s1!ing a$ $he o$he! dog>s $h!oa$@
$he !e1ly on $he 1a!$ o% $he second dog is $o change i$s 1osi$ion, 1e!ha1s $o s1!ing a$ $he $h!oa$ o%
$he %i!s$ dog. The!e is a cone!sa$ion o% ges$&!es, a !eci1!ocal shi%$ing o% $he dogs> 1osi$ions and
a$$i$&des. In s&ch a 1!ocess $he!e <o&ld ,e no "echanis" %o! i"i$a$ion. One dog does no$ i"i$a$e
$he o$he!. The second dog ass&"es a di%%e!en$ a$$i$&de $o aoid $he s1!ing o% $he %i!s$ dog. The
s$i"&l&s in $he a$$i$&de o% one dog is no$ $o call o&$ $he !es1onse in i$sel% $ha$ i$ calls o&$ in $he o$he!.
The %i!s$ dog is in%l&enced ,y i$s o<n a$$i$&de, ,&$ i$ is si"1ly ca!!ying o&$ $he 1!ocess o% a 1!e1a!ed
s1!ing, so $ha$ $he in%l&ence on $he dog is si"1ly in !ein%o!cing $he 1!ocess <hich is going on. I$ is
no$ a s$i"&l&s $o $he dog $o $a7e $he a$$i$&de o% $he o$he! dog.
0hen, ho<ee!, one is "a7ing &se o% $he ocal ges$&!e, i% <e ass&"e $ha$ one ocal cle"en$ is a
s$i"&l&s $o a ce!$ain !e1ly, $hen <hen $he ani"al $ha$ "a7es &se o% $ha$ ocal ges$&!e hea!s $he
!es&l$ing so&nd he <ill hae a!o&sed in hi"sel% a$ leas$ a $endency $o !es1ond in $he sa"e <ay as
$he o$he! ani"al !es1onds. I$ "ay ,e a e!y sligh$ $endency?$he lion does no$ a11!ecia,ly %!igh$en
i$sel% ,y i$s !oa!. The !oa! has an e%%ec$ o% %!igh$ening $he ani"al he is a$$ac7ing, and i$ has also $he
cha!ac$e! o% a challenge &nde! ce!$ain condi$ions. B&$ <hen <e co"e $o s&ch ela,o!a$e 1!ocesses
o% ocali8a$ion as $hose o% $he song o% ,i!ds, $he!e one ocal ges$&!e calls o&$ ano$he! ocal ges$&!e.
These, o% co&!se, hae $hei! %&nc$ion in $he in$e!co&!se o% $he ,i!ds, ,&$ $he ges$&!es $he"seles
,eco"e o% 1ec&lia! i"1o!$ance. The ocali8a$ion 1lays a e!y la!ge 1a!$ in s&ch a 1!ocess as
<ooing, and one call $ends $o call o&$ ano$he! no$e. In $he case o% $he lion>s !oa! $he !es1onse is no$
so "&ch a ocal so&nd as i$ is a %ligh$, o!, i% yo& li7e, a %igh$. The !es1onse is no$ 1!i"a!ily a ocal
!es1onse. I$ is !a$he! $he ac$ion o% $he %o!" i$sel%. B&$ in $he song o% ,i!ds, <he!e ocali8a$ion is
ca!!ied o&$ in an ela,o!a$e %ashion, $he s$i"&l&s does de%ini$ely call o&$ a ce!$ain !es1onse so $ha$
$he ,i!d <hen singing is in%l&enced ,y i$s o<n s$i"&l&s $o a !es1onse <hich <ill ,e li7e $ha$ <hich is
1!od&ced in ano$he! %o!". Tha$ !es1onse <hich is 1!od&ced in i$sel%, since i$ is also 1!od&ced ,y $he
in%l&ence o% o$he!s, ge$s $<ice $he e"1hasis $ha$ i$ <o&ld hae i% i$ <e!e 9&s$ called o&$ ,y $he no$e o%
o$he!s. I$ is called o&$ "o!e %!eD&en$ly $han $he !es1onse $o o$he! so&nds. I$ is $his $ha$ gies $he
see"ing eidence o% i"i$a$ion in $he case o% so&nds o! ocal ges$&!es.+,- The s$i"&l&s $ha$ calls o&$
a 1a!$ic&la! so&nd "ay ,e %o&nd no$ only in $he o$he! %o!"s o% $he g!o&1 ,&$ also in $he !e1e!$oi!e o%
$he 1a!$ic&la! ,i!d <hich &ses $he ocal ges$&!e. This s$i"&l&s A calls o&$ $he !es1onse B. No< i% $his
s$i"&l&s A is no$ li7e B, and i% <e ass&"e $ha$ A calls o&$ B, $hen i% A is &sed ,y o$he! %o!"s $hese
%o!"s <ill !es1ond in $he %ashion B. I% $his %o!" also &ses $he ocal ges$&!e A, i$ <ill ,e calling o&$ in
i$sel% $he !es1onse B, so $ha$ $he !es1onse B <ill ,e e"1hasi8ed oe! agains$ o$he! !es1onses
,eca&se i$ is called o&$ no$ only ,y $he ocal ges$&!es o% o$he! %o!"s ,&$ also ,y $he %o!" i$sel%. This
<o&ld nee! $a7e 1lace &nless $he!e <e!e an iden$i$y !e1!esen$ed ,y A, in $his case an iden$i$y o%
s$i"&li.
In $he case o% $he ocal ges$&!e $he %o!" hea!s i$s o<n s$i"&l&s 9&s$ as <hen $his is &sed ,y o$he!
%o!"s, so i$ $ends $o !es1ond also $o i$s o<n s$i"&l&s as i$ !es1onds $o $he s$i"&l&s o% o$he! %o!"s.
Tha$ is, ,i!ds $end $o sing $o $he"seles, ,a,ies $o $al7 $o $he"seles. The so&nds $hey "a7e a!e
s$i"&li $o "a7e o$he! so&nds. 0he!e $he!e is a s1eci%ic so&nd $ha$ calls o&$ a s1eci%ic !es1onse,
$hen i% $his so&nd is "ade ,y o$he! %o!"s i$ calls o&$ $his !es1onse in $he %o!" in D&es$ion. I% $he
s1a!!o< "a7es &se o% $his 1a!$ic&la! so&nd $hen $he !es1onse $o $ha$ so&nd <ill ,e one <hich <ill ,e
hea!d "o!e %!eD&en$ly $han ano$he! !es1onse. In $ha$ <ay $he!e <ill ,e selec$ed o&$ o% $he s1a!!o<>s
!e1e!$oi!e $hose ele"en$s <hich a!e %o&nd in $he song o% $he cana!y, and g!ad&ally s&ch selec$ion
<o&ld ,&ild &1 in $he song o% $he s1a!!o< $hose ele"en$s <hich a!e co""on $o ,o$h, <i$ho&$
ass&"ing a 1a!$ic&la! $endency o% i"i$a$ion. The!e is he!e a selec$ie 1!ocess ,y <hich is 1ic7ed o&$
<ha$ is co""on. -I"i$a$ion- de1ends &1on $he indiid&al in%l&encing hi"sel% as o$he!s in%l&ence
hi", so $ha$ he is &nde! $he in%l&ence no$ only o% $he o$he! ,&$ also o% hi"sel% in so %a! as he &ses
$he sa"e ocal ges$&!e.
The ocal ges$&!e, $hen, has an i"1o!$ance <hich no o$he! ges$&!e has. 0e canno$ see o&!seles
<hen o&! %ace ass&"es a ce!$ain e=1!ession. I% <e hea! o&!seles s1ea7 <e a!e "o!e a1$ $o 1ay
a$$en$ion. One hea!s hi"sel% <hen he is i!!i$a$ed &sing a $one $ha$ is o% an i!!i$a,le D&ali$y, and so
ca$ches hi"sel%. B&$ in $he %acial e=1!ession o% i!!i$a$ion $he s$i"&l&s is no$ one $ha$ calls o&$ an
e=1!ession in $he indiid&al <hich i$ calls o&$ in $he o$he!. One is "o!e a1$ $o ca$ch hi"sel% &1 and
con$!ol hi"sel% in $he ocal ges$&!e $han in $he e=1!ession o% $he co&n$enance.
I$ is only $he ac$o! <ho &ses ,odily e=1!essions as a "eans o% loo7ing as he <an$s o$he!s $o %eel. :e
ge$s a !es1onse <hich !eeals $o hi" ho< he loo7s ,y con$in&ally &sing a "i!!o!. :e !egis$e!s ange!,
he !egis$e!s loe, he !egis$e!s $his, $ha$, o! $he
o$he! a$$i$&de, and he e=a"ines hi"sel% in a glass $o see ho< he does so. 0hen he la$e! "a7es &se
o% $he ges$&!e i$ is 1!esen$ as a "en$al i"age. :e !eali8es $ha$ $ha$ 1a!$ic&la! e=1!ession does call
o&$ %!igh$. I% <e e=cl&de ocal ges$&!es, i$ is only ,y $he &se o% $he "i!!o! $ha$ one co&ld !each $he
1osi$ion <he!e he !es1onds $o his o<n ges$&!es as o$he! 1eo1le !es1ond. B&$ $he ocal ges$&!e is
one <hich does gie one $his ca1aci$y %o! ans<e!ing $o one>s o<n s$i"&l&s as ano$he! <o&ld
ans<e!.
I% $he!e is any $!&$h in $he old a=io" $ha$ $he ,&lly is al<ays $he co<a!d, i$ <ill ,e %o&nd $o !es$ on $he
%ac$ $ha$ one a!o&ses in hi"sel% $ha$ a$$i$&de o% %ea! <hich his ,&llying a$$i$&de a!o&ses in ano$he!, so
$ha$ <hen 1&$ in$o a 1a!$ic&la! si$&a$ion <hich calls his ,l&%%, his o<n a$$i$&de is %o&nd $o ,e $ha$ o%
$he o$he!s. I% one>s o<n a$$i$&de o% giing <ay $o $he ,&llying a$$i$&de o% o$he!s is one $ha$ a!o&ses
$he ,&llying a$$i$&de, he has in $ha$ deg!ee a!o&sed $he a$$i$&de o% ,&llying in hi"sel%. The!e is a
ce!$ain a"o&n$ o% $!&$h in $his <hen <e co"e ,ac7 $o $he e%%ec$ &1on one>s sel% o% $he ges$&!e o%
<hich he "a7es &se. In so %a! as one calls o&$ $he a$$i$&de in hi"sel% $ha$ one calls o&$ in o$he!s, $he
!es1onse is 1ic7ed o&$ and s$!eng$hened. Tha$ is $he only ,asis %o! <ha$ <e call i"i$a$ion. I$ is no$
i"i$a$ion in $he sense o% si"1ly doing <ha$ one sees ano$he! 1e!son doing. The "echanis" is $ha$
o% an indiid&al calling o&$ in hi"sel% $he !es1onse <hich he calls o&$ in ano$he!, conseD&en$ly giing
g!ea$e! <eigh$ $o $hose !es1onses $han $o $he o$he! !es1onses, and g!ad&ally ,&ilding &1 $hose se$s
o% !es1onses in$o a do"inan$ <hole. Tha$ "ay ,e done, as <e say, &nconscio&sly. The s1a!!o<
does no$ 7no< i$ is i"i$a$ing $he cana!y. I$ is 9&s$ a g!ad&al 1ic7ing &1 o% $he no$es <hich a!e
co""on $o ,o$h o% $he". And $ha$ is $!&e <he!ee! $he!e is i"i$a$ion.
So %a! as e=cla"a$o!y so&nds a!e conce!ned Aand $hey <o&ld ans<e! in o&! o<n ocal ges$&!es $o
<ha$ is %o&nd in $hose o% ani"alsB, $he !es1onse $o $hese does no$ en$e! in$o i""edia$e
cone!sa$ion, and $he in%l&ence o% $hese !es1onses on $he indiid&al a!e co"1a!a$iely sligh$. I$
see"s $o ,e di%%ic&l$ $o ,!ing $he" in$o !ela$ionshi1 <i$h signi%ican$ s1eech. 0e a!e no$ conscio&sly
%!igh$ened <hen <e s1ea7 ang!ily $o so"eone else, ,&$ $he "eaning o% <ha$ <e say is al<ays
1!esen$ $o &s <hen <e s1ea7. The !es1onse in $he indiid&al $o an e=cla"a$o!y c!y <hich is o% $he
sa"e so!$ as $ha$ in $he o$he! does no$ 1lay any i"1o!$an$ 1a!$ in $he cond&c$ o% $he %o!". The
!es1onse o% $he lion $o i$s !oa! is o% e!y li$$le i"1o!$ance in $he !es1onse o% $he %o!" i$sel%, ,&$ o&!
!es1onse $o $he "eaning o% <ha$ <e say is cons$an$ly a$$ached $o o&! cone!sa$ion. 0e "&s$ ,e
cons$an$ly !es1onding $o $he ges$&!e <e "a7e i% <e a!e $o ca!!y on s&ccess%&l ocal cone!sa$ion.
The "eaning o% <ha$ <e a!e saying is $he $endency $o !es1ond $o i$. Yo& as7 so"e,ody $o ,!ing a
isi$o! a chai!. Yo& a!o&se $he $endency $o ge$ $he chai! in $he o$he!, ,&$ i% he is slo< $o ac$ yo& ge$
$he chai! yo&!sel%. The !es1onse $o $he ocal ges$&!e is $he doing o% a ce!$ain $hing, and yo& a!o&se
$ha$ sa"e $endency in yo&!sel%. Yo& a!e al<ays !e1lying $o yo&!sel%, 9&s$ as o$he! 1eo1le !e1ly. Yo&
ass&"e $ha$ in so"e deg!ee $he!e "&s$ ,e iden$i$y in $he !e1ly. I$ is ac$ion on a co""on ,asis.
I hae con$!as$ed $<o si$&a$ions $o sho< <ha$ a $ong !oad s1eech o! co""&nica$ion has $o $!ael
%!o" $he si$&a$ion <he!e $he!e is no$hing ,&$ ocal c!ies oe! $o $he si$&a$ion in <hich signi%ican$
sy",ols a!e &$ili8ed. 0ha$ is 1ec&lia! $o $he la$$e! is $ha$ $he indiid&al !es1onds $o his o<n s$i"&l&s
in $he sa"e <ay as o$he! 1eo1le !es1ond. Then $he s$i"&l&s ,eco"es signi%ican$@ $hen one is
saying so"e$hing. As %a! as a 1a!!o$ is conce!ned, i$s -s1eech- "eans no$hing, ,&$ <he!e one
signi%ican$ly says so"e$hing <i$h his o<n ocal 1!ocess he is saying i$ $o hi"sel% as <ell as $o
ee!y,ody else <i$hin !each o% his oice. I$ is only $he ocal ges$&!e $ha$ is %i$$ed %o! $his so!$ o%
co""&nica$ion, ,eca&se i$ is only $he ocal ges$&!e $o <hich one !es1onds o! $ends $o !es1ond as
ano$he! 1e!son $ends $o !es1ond $o i$. I$ is $!&e $ha$ $he lang&age o% $he hands is o% $he sa"e
cha!ac$e!. One sees one>s sel% &sing $he ges$&!es <hich $hose <ho a!e dea% "a7e &se o%. They
in%l&ence one $he sa"e <ay as $hey in%l&ence o$he!s. O% co&!se, $he sa"e is $!&e o% any %o!" o%
sc!i1$. B&$ s&ch sy",ols hae all ,een deelo1ed o&$ o% $he s1eci%ic ocal ges$&!e, %o! $ha$ is $he
,asic ges$&!e <hich does in%l&ence $he indiid&al as i$ in%l&ences o$he!s. 0he!e i$ does no$ ,eco"e
signi%ican$ is in $he ocali8a$ion o% $he $<o ,i!ds.# Nee!$heless, $he sa"e $y1e o% 1!ocess is 1!esen$,
$he s$i"&l&s o% $he one ,i!d $ending $o call o&$ $he !es1onse in ano$he! ,i!d <hich i$ $ends $o call o&$,
ho<ee! sligh$ly, in $he ,i!d i$sel%.
"ndnotes
1. An a$$e"1$ <as "ade ,y Bald<in $o ca!!y ,ac7 i"i$a$ion $o a %&nda"en$al ,iological 1!ocess
? a $endency on $he 1a!$ o% $he o!ganis" $o !eins$a$e a 1leas&!a,le sensa$ion..... In $he
1!ocess o% "as$ica$ion $he e!y 1!ocess o% che<ing !eins$a$es $he s$i"&l&s, ,!ings ,ac7 $he
%lao!. Bald<in <o&ld call $his sel% i"i$a$ion. This 1!ocess, i% i$ $a7es 1lace a$ all, does no$ ,y
any "eans "ee$ $he si$&a$ion <i$h <hich <e a!e dealing A131#B.
#. ISee S&11le"en$a!y Essay III %o! disc&ssion.K
,:# TH$4GHT; C$MM4(IC%TI$(; %() TH" SIG(I3IC%(T S'MB$&
0e hae con$ended $ha$ $he!e is no 1a!$ic&la! %ac&l$y o% i"i$a$ion in $he sense $ha$ $he so&nd o! $he
sigh$ o% ano$he!>s !es1onse is i$sel% a s$i"&l&s $o ca!!y o&$ $he sa"e !eac$ion, ,&$ !a$he! $ha$ i% $he!e
is al!eady 1!esen$ in $he indiid&al an ac$ion li7e $he ac$ion o% ano$he!, $hen $he!e is a si$&a$ion <hich
"a7es i"i$a$ion 1ossi,le. 0ha$ is necessa!y no< $o ca!!y $h!o&gh $ha$ i"i$a$ion is $ha$ $he cond&c$
and $he ges$&!e o% $he indiid&al <hich calls o&$ a !es1onse in $he o$he! sho&ld also $end $o call o&$
$he sa"e !es1onse in hi"sel%. In $he dog?%igh$ $his is no$ 1!esen$; $he a$$i$&de in $he one dog does
no$ $end $o call o&$ $he sa"e a$$i$&de in $he o$he!. In so"e !es1ec$s $ha$ ac$&ally "ay occ&! in $he
case o% $<o ,o=e!s. The "an <ho "a7es a %ein$ is calling o&$ a ce!$ain ,lo< %!o" his o11onen$, and
$ha$ ac$ o% his o<n does hae $ha$ "eaning $o hi", $ha$ is, he has in so"e sense ini$ia$ed $he sa"e
ac$ in hi"sel%. I$ does no$ go clea! $h!o&gh, ,&$ he has s$i!!ed &1 $he cen$e!s in his cen$!al ne!o&s
sys$e" <hich <o&ld lead $o his "a7ing $he sa"e ,lo< $ha$ his o11onen$ is led $o "a7e, so $ha$ he
calls o&$ in hi"sel%, o! $ends $o call o&$, $he sa"e !es1onse <hich he calls o&$ in $he o$he!. The!e
yo& hae $he ,asis %o! so?called i"i$a$ion. S&ch is $he 1!ocess <hich is so <idely !ecogni8ed a$
1!esen$ in "anne!s o% s1eech, o% d!ess, and o% a$$i$&des.
0e a!e "o!e o! less &nconscio&sly seeing o&!seles as o$he!s see &s. 0e a!e &nconscio&sly
add!essing o&!seles as o$he!s add!ess &s@ in $he sa"e <ay as $he s1a!!o< $a7es &1 $he no$e o% $he
cana!y <e 1ic7 &1 $he dialec$s a,o&$ &s. O% co&!se, $he!e "&s$ ,e $hese 1a!$ic&la! !es1onses in o&!
o<n "echanis". 0e a!e calling o&$ in $he o$he! 1e!son so"e$hing <e a!e calling o&$ in o&!seles,
so $ha$ &nconscio&sly <e $a7e oe! $hese a$$i$&des. 0e a!e &nconscio&sly 1&$$ing o&!seles in $he
1lace o% o$he!s and ac$ing as o$he!s ac$. I <an$ si"1ly $o isola$e $he gene!al "echanis" he!e,
,eca&se i$ is o% e!y %&nda"en$al i"1o!$ance in $he deelo1"en$ o% <ha$ <e call sel%?conscio&sness
and $he a11ea!ance o% $he sel%. 0e a!e, es1ecially $h!o&gh $he &se o% $he ocal ges$&!es, con$in&ally
a!o&sing in o&!seles $hose !es1onses <hich <e call o&$ in o$he! 1e!sons, so $ha$ <e a!e $a7ing $he
a$$i$&des o% $he o$he! 1e!sons in$o o&! o<n cond&c$. The c!i$ical i"1o!$ance o% lang&age in $he
deelo1"en$ o% h&"an e=1e!ience lies in $his %ac$ $ha$ $he s$i"&l&s is one $ha$ can !eac$ &1on $he
s1ea7ing indiid&al as i$ !eac$s &1on $he o$he!.
A ,ehaio!is$, s&ch as 0a$son, holds $ha$ all o% o&! $hin7ing is ocali8a$ion. In $hin7ing <e a!e si"1ly
s$a!$ing $o &se ce!$ain <o!ds. Tha$ is in a sense $!&e. :o<ee!, 0a$son does no$ $a7e in$o acco&n$
all $ha$ is inoled he!e, na"ely, $ha$ $hese s$i"&li a!e $he essen$ial ele"en$s in ela,o!a$e social
1!ocesses and ca!!y <i$h $he" $he al&e o% $hose social 1!ocesses. The ocal 1!ocess as s&ch has
$his g!ea$ i"1o!$ance, and i$ is %ai! $o ass&"e $ha$ $he ocal 1!ocess, $oge$he! <i$h $he in$elligence
and $ho&gh$ $ha$ go <i$h i$, is no$ si"1ly a 1laying o% 1a!$ic&la! ocal ele"en$s agains$ each o$he!.
S&ch a ie< neglec$s $he social con$e=$ o% lang&age.+,-
The i"1o!$ance, $hen, o% $he ocal s$i"&l&s lies in $his %ac$ $ha$ $he indiid&al can hea! <ha$ he says
and in hea!ing <ha$ he says is $ending $o !es1ond as $he o$he! 1e!son !es1onds. 0hen <e s1ea7
no< o% $his !es1onse on $he 1a!$ o% $he indiid&al $o $he o$he!s <e co"e ,ac7 $o $he si$&a$ion o%
as7ing so"e 1e!son $o do so"e$hing. 0e o!dina!ily e=1!ess $ha$ ,y saying $ha$ one 7no<s <ha$ he
is as7ing yo& $o do. Ta7e $he ill&s$!a$ion o% as7ing so"eone $o do so"e$hing, and $hen doing i$ one>s
sel%. Pe!ha1s $he 1e!son add!essed does no$ hea! yo& o! ac$s slo<ly, and $hen yo& ca!!y $he ac$ion
o&$ yo&!sel%. Yo& %ind in yo&!sel%, in $his <ay, $he sa"e $endency <hich yo& a!e as7ing yo& $ha$
sa"e !es1onse <hich yo& s$i!!ed &1 in $he o$he! indiid&al. :o< di%%ic&l$ i$ is $o sho< so"eone else
ho< $o do so"e$hing <hich yo& 7no< ho< $o do yo&!sel%G The slo<ness o% $he !es1onse "a7es i$
ha!d $o !es$!ain yo&!sel% %!o" doing <ha$ yo& a!e $eaching. Yo& hae a!o&sed $he sa"e !es1onse in
yo&!sel% as yo& a!o&se in $he o$he! indiid&al.
In see7ing %o! an e=1lana$ion o% $his, <e o!dina!ily ass&"e a ce!$ain g!o&1 o% cen$e!s in $he ne!o&s
sys$e" <hich a!e connec$ed <i$h each o$he!, and <hich e=1!ess $he"seles in $he ac$ion. I% <e $!y
$o %ind in a cen$!al ne!o&s sys$e" so"e$hing $ha$ ans<e!s $o o&! <o!d -chai!,- <ha$ <e sho&ld %ind
<o&ld ,e 1!es&"a,ly si"1ly an o!gani8a$ion o% a <hole g!o&1 o% 1ossi,le !eac$ions so connec$ed
$ha$ i% one s$a!$s in one di!ec$ion one <ill ca!!y o&$ one 1!ocess, i% in ano$he! di!ec$ion one <ill ca!!y
o&$ ano$he! 1!ocess. The chai! is 1!i"a!ily <ha$ one si$s do<n in. I$ is a 1hysical o,9ec$ a$ a
dis$ance. One "ay "oe $o<a!d an o,9ec$ a$ a dis$ance and $hen en$e! &1on $he 1!ocess o% si$$ing
do<n <hen one !eaches i$. The!e is a s$i"&l&s <hich e=ci$es ce!$ain 1a$hs <hich ca&se $he
indiid&al $o go $o<a!d $ha$ o,9ec$ and $o si$ do<n. Those cen$e!s a!e in so"e deg!ee 1hysical.
The!e is, i$ is $o ,e no$ed, an in%l&ence o% $he la$e! ac$ on $he ea!lie! ac$. The la$e! 1!ocess <hich is
$o go on has al!eady ,een ini$ia$ed and $ha$ la$e! 1!ocess has i$s in%l&ence on $he ea!lie! 1!ocess
A$he one $ha$ $a7es 1lace ,e%o!e $his 1!ocess, al!eady ini$ia$ed, can ,e co"1le$edB. No<, s&ch an
o!gani8a$ion o% a g!ea$ g!o&1 o% ne!o&s ele"en$s as <ill lead $o cond&c$ <i$h !e%e!ence $o $he
o,9ec$s a,o&$ &s is <ha$ one <o&ld %ind in $he cen$!al ne!o&s sys$e" ans<e!ing $o <ha$ <e call an
o,9ec$. The co"1lica$ions a!e e!y g!ea$, ,&$ $he cen$!al ne!o&s sys$e" has an al"os$ in%ini$e
n&",e! o% ele"en$s in i$, and $hey can ,e o!gani8ed no$ only in s1a$ial connec$ion <i$h each o$he!,
,&$ also %!o" a $e"1o!al s$and1oin$. In i!$&e o% $his las$ %ac$, o&! cond&c$ is "ade &1 o% a se!ies o%
s$e1s <hich %ollo< each o$he!, and $he la$e! s$e1s "ay ,e al!eady s$a!$ed and in%l&ence $he ea!lie!
ones.+.- The $hing <e a!e going $o do is 1laying ,ac7 on <ha$ <e a!e doing no<. Tha$ o!gani8a$ion
in $he ne&!al ele"en$s in !e%e!ence $o <ha$ <e call a 1hysical o,9ec$ <o&ld ,e <ha$ <e call a
conce1$&al o,9ec$ s$a$ed in $e!"s o% $he cen$!al ne!o&s sys$e".
In !o&gh %ashion i$ is $he ini$ia$ion o% s&ch a se$ o% o!gani8ed se$s o% !es1onses $ha$ ans<e!s $o <ha$
<e call $he idea o! conce1$ o% a $hing. I% one as7ed <ha$ $he idea o% a dog is, and $!ied $o %ind $ha$
idea in $he cen$!al ne!o&s sys$e", one <o&ld %ind a <hole g!o&1 o% !es1onses <hich a!e "o!e o!
less connec$ed $oge$he! ,y de%ini$e 1a$hs so $ha$ <hen one &ses $he $e!" -dog- he does $end $o call
o&$ $his g!o&1 o% !es1onses. A dog is a 1ossi,le 1lay"a$e, a 1ossi,le ene"y, one>s o<n 1!o1e!$y o!
so"e,ody else >s. The!e is a <hole se!ies o% 1ossi,le !es1onses. The!e a!e ce!$ain $y1es o% $hese
!es1onses <hich a!e in all o% &s, and $he!e a!e o$he!s <hich a!y <i$h $he indiid&als, ,&$ $he!e is
al<ays an o!gani8a$ion o% $he !es1onses <hich can ,e called o&$ ,y $he $e!" -dog.- So i% one is
s1ea7ing o% a dog $o ano$he! 1e!son he is a!o&sing in hi"sel% $his se$ o% !es1onses <hich he is
a!o&sing in $he o$he! indiid&al.
I$ is, o% co&!se, $he !ela$ionshi1 o% $his sy",ol, $his ocal ges$&!e, $o s&ch a se$ o% !es1onses in $he
indiid&al hi"sel% as <ell as in $he o$he! $ha$ "a7es o% $ha$ ocal ges$&!e <ha$ I call a signi%ican$
sy",ol. A sy",ol does $end $o call o&$ in $he indiid&al a g!o&1 o% !eac$ions s&ch as i$ calls o&$ in
$he o$he!, ,&$ $he!e is so"e$hing %&!$he! $ha$ is inoled in i$s ,eing a signi%ican$ sy",ol; $his
!es1onse <i$hin one>s sel% $o s&ch a <o!d as - chai!,- o! -dog,- is one <hich is a s$i"&l&s $o $he
indiid&al as <ell as a !es1onse. This is <ha$, o% co&!se, is inoled in <ha$ <e $e!" $he "eaning o%
a $hing, o! i$s signi%icance.+/- 0e o%$en ac$ <i$h !e%e!ence $o o,9ec$s in <ha$ <e call an in$elligen$
%ashion, al$ho&gh <e can ac$ <i$ho&$ $he "eaning o% $he o,9ec$ ,eing 1!esen$ in o&! e=1e!ience.
One can s$a!$ $o d!ess %o! dinne!, as $hey $ell o% $he a,sen$?"inded college 1!o%esso!, and %ind
hi"sel% in his 1a9a"as in ,ed. A ce!$ain 1!ocess o% &nd!essing <as s$a!$ed and ca!!ied o&$
"echanically@ he did no$ !ecogni8e $he "eaning o% <ha$ he <as doing. :e in$ended $o go $o dinne!
and %o&nd he had gone $o ,ed. The "eaning inoled in his ac$ion <as no$ 1!esen$. The s$e1s in
$his case <e!e all in$elligen$ s$e1s <hich con$!olled his cond&c$ <i$h !e%e!ence $o la$e! ac$ion, ,&$ he
did no$ $hin7 a,o&$ <ha$ he <as doing. The la$e! ac$ion <as no$ a s$i"&l&s $o his !es1onse, ,&$ 9&s$
ca!!ied i$sel% o&$ <hen i$ <as once s$a!$ed.
0hen <e s1ea7 o% $he "eaning o% <ha$ <e a!e doing <e a!e "a7ing $he !es1onse i$sel% $ha$ <e a!e
on $he 1oin$ o% ca!!ying o&$ a s$i"&l&s $o o&! ac$ion. I$ ,eco"es a s$i"&l&s $o a la$e! s$age o% ac$ion
<hich is $o $a7e 1lace %!o" $he 1oin$ o% ie< o% $his 1a!$ic&la! !es1onse. In $he case o% $he ,o=e! $he
,lo< $ha$ he is s$a!$ing $o di!ec$ $o<a!d his o11onen$ is $o call o&$ a ce!$ain !es1onse <hich <ill o1en
&1 $he g&a!d o% his o11onen$ so $ha$ he can s$!i7e. The "eaning is a s$i"&l&s %o! $he 1!e1a!a$ion o%
$he !eal ,lo< he e=1ec$s $o delie!. The !es1onse <hich he calls o&$ in hi"sel% A$he g&a!ding
!eac$ionB is $he s$i"&l&s $o hi" $o s$!i7e <he!e an o1ening is gien. This ac$ion <hich he has
ini$ia$ed al!eady in hi"sel% $h&s ,eco"es a s$i"&l&s %o! his la$e! !es1onse. :e 7no<s <ha$ his
o11onen$ is going $o do, since $he g&a!ding "oe"en$ is one <hich is al!eady a!o&sed, and
,eco"es a s$i"&l&s $o s$!i7e <he!e $he o1ening is gien. The "eaning <o&ld no$ hae ,een 1!esen$
in his cond&c$ &nless i$ ,eca"e a s$i"&l&s $o s$!i7e <he!e $he %ao!a,le o1ening a11ea!s.
S&ch is $he di%%e!ence ,e$<een in$elligen$ cond&c$ on $he 1a!$ o% ani"als and <ha$ <e call a
!e%lec$ie indiid&al.+0- 0e say $he ani"al does no$ $hin7. :e does no$ 1&$ hi"sel% in a 1osi$ion %o!
<hich he is !es1onsi,le@ he does no$ 1&$ hi"sel% in $he 1lace o% $he o$he! 1e!son and say, in e%%ec$,
-:e <ill ac$ in s&ch a <ay and I <ill ac$ in $his <ay.- I% $he indiid&al can ac$ in $his <ay, and $he
a$$i$&de <hich he calls o&$ in hi"sel% can ,eco"e a s$i"&l&s $o hi" %o! ano$he! ac$, <e hae
"eaning%&l cond&c$. 0he!e $he !es1onse o% $he o$he! 1e!son is called o&$ and ,eco"es a s$i"&l&s
$o con$!ol his ac$ion, $hen he has $he "eaning o% $he o$he! 1e!son>s ac$ in his o<n e=1e!ience. Tha$
is $he gene!al "echanis" o% <ha$ <e $e!" -$ho&gh$,- %o! in o!de! $ha$ $ho&gh$ "ay e=is$ $he!e "&s$
,e sy",ols, ocal ges$&!es gene!ally, <hich a!o&se in $he indiid&al hi"sel% $he !es1onse <hich he
is calling o&$ in $he o$he!, and s&ch $ha$ %!o" $he 1oin$ o% ie< o% $ha$ !es1onse he is a,le $o di!ec$
his la$e! cond&c$. I$ inoles no$ only co""&nica$ion in $he sense in <hich ,i!ds and ani"als
co""&nica$e <i$h each o$he!, ,&$ also an a!o&sal in $he indiid&al hi"sel% o% $he !es1onse <hich he
is calling o&$ in $he o$he! indiid&al, a $a7ing o% $he !ole o% $he o$he!, a $endency $o ac$ as $he o$he!
1e!son ac$s. One 1a!$ici1a$es in $he sa"e 1!ocess $he o$he! 1e!son is ca!!ying o&$ and con$!ols his
ac$ion <i$h !e%e!ence $o $ha$ 1a!$ici1a$ion. I$ is $ha$ <hich cons$i$&$es $he "eaning o% an o,9ec$,
na"ely, $he co""on !es1onse in one>s sel% as <ell as in $he o$he! 1e!son, <hich ,eco"es, in $&!n,
a s$i"&l&s $o one>s sel%.
I% yo& conceie o% $he "ind as 9&s$ a so!$ o% conscio&s s&,s$ance in <hich $he!e a!e ce!$ain
i"1!essions and s$a$es, and hold $ha$ one o% $hose s$a$es is a &nie!sal, $hen a <o!d ,eco"es
1&!ely a!,i$!a!y?i$ is 9&s$ a sy",ol.+1- Yo& can $hen $a7e <o!ds and 1!ono&nce $he" ,ac7<a!ds, as
child!en do@ $he!e see"s $o ,e a,sol&$e %!eedo" o% a!!ange"en$ and lang&age see"s $o ,e an
en$i!ely "echanical $hing $ha$ lies o&$side o% $he 1!ocess o% in$elligence. I% yo& !ecogni8e $ha$
lang&age is, ho<ee!, 9&s$ a 1a!$ o% a coo1e!a$ie 1!ocess, $ha$ 1a!$ <hich does lead $o an
ad9&s$"en$ $o $he !es1onse o% $he o$he! so $ha$ $he <hole ac$ii$y can go on, $hen lang&age has only
a li"i$ed !ange o% a!,i$!a!iness. I% yo& a!e $al7ing $o ano$he! 1e!son yo& a!e, 1e!ha1s, a,le $o scen$
$he change in his a$$i$&de ,y so"e$hing $ha$ <o&ld no$ s$!i7e a $hi!d 1e!son a$ all. Yo& "ay 7no< his
"anne!is", and $ha$ ,eco"es a ges$&!e $o yo&, a 1a!$ o% $he !es1onse o% $he indiid&al. The!e is a
ce!$ain !ange 1ossi,le <i$hin $he ges$&!e as $o <ha$ is $o se!e as $he sy",ol. 0e "ay say $ha$ a
<hole se$ o% se1a!a$e sy",ols <i$h one "eaning a!e acce1$a,le@ ,&$ $hey al<ays a!e ges$&!es, $ha$
is, $hey a!e al<ays 1a!$s o% $he ac$ o% $he indiid&al <hich !eeal <ha$ he is going $o do $o $he o$he!
1e!son so $ha$ <hen $he 1e!son &$ili8es $he cl&e he calls o&$ in hi"sel% $he a$$i$&de o% $he o$he!.
Lang&age is no$ ee! a!,i$!a!y in $he sense o% si"1ly deno$ing a ,a!e s$a$e o% conscio&sness ,y a
<o!d. 0ha$ 1a!$ic&la! 1a!$ o% one>s ac$ <ill se!e $o di!ec$ coo1e!a$ie ac$ii$y is "o!e o! less
a!,i$!a!y. Di%%e!en$ 1hases o% $he ac$ "ay do i$. 0ha$ see"s &ni"1o!$an$ in i$sel% "ay ,e highly
i"1o!$an$ in !eealing <ha$ $he a$$i$&de is. In $ha$ sense one can s1ea7 o% $he ges$&!e i$sel% as
&ni"1o!$an$, ,&$ i$ is o% g!ea$ i"1o!$ance as $o <ha$ $he ges$&!e is going $o !eeal. This is seen in
$he di%%e!ence ,e$<een $he 1&!ely in$ellec$&al cha!ac$e! o% $he sy",ol and i$s e"o$ional cha!ac$e!. A
1oe$ de1ends &1on $he la$$e!@ %o! hi" lang&age is !ich and %&ll o% al&es <hich <e, 1e!ha1s, &$$e!ly
igno!e. In $!ying $o e=1!ess a "essage in so"e$hing less $han $en <o!ds, <e "e!ely <an$ $o coney
a ce!$ain "eaning, <hile $he 1oe$ is dealing <i$h <ha$ is !eally liing $iss&e, $he e"o$ional $h!o, in
$he e=1!ession i$sel%. The!e is, $hen, a g!ea$ !ange in o&! &se o% lang&age@ ,&$ <ha$ee! 1hase o%
$his !ange is &sed is a 1a!$ o% a social 1!ocess, and i$ is al<ays $ha$ 1a!$ ,y "eans o% <hich <e a%%ec$
o&!seles as <e a%%ec$ o$he!s and "edia$e $he social si$&a$ion $h!o&gh $his &nde!s$anding o% <ha$
<e a!e saying. Tha$ is %&nda"en$al %o! any lang&age@ i% i$ is going $o ,e lang&age one has $o
&nde!s$and <ha$ he is saying, has $o a%%ec$ hi"sel% as he a%%ec$s o$he!s.
"ndnotes
1. (es$&!es, i% ca!!ied ,ac7 $o $he "a$!i= %!o" <hich $hey s1!ing, a!e al<ays %o&nd $o inhe!e in
o! inole a la!ge! social ac$ o% <hich $hey a!e 1hases. In dealing <i$h co""&nica$ion <e
hae %i!s$ $o !ecogni8e i$s ea!lies$ o!igins in $he &nconscio&s cone!sa$ion o% ges$&!es.
Conscio&s co""&nica$ion?conscio&s cone!sa$ion o% ges$&!es?a!ises <hen ges$&!es
,eco"e signs, $ha$ is, <hen $hey co"e $o ca!!y %o! $he indiid&als "a7ing $he" and $he
indiid&als !es1onding $o $he", de%ini$e !neanings o! signi%ica$ions in $e!"s o% $he
s&,seD&en$ ,ehaio! o% $he indiid&als "a7ing $he"@ so $ha$, ,y se!ing as 1!io! indica$ions,
$o $he indiid&als !es1onding $o $he", o% $he s&,seD&en$ ,ehaio! o% $he indiid&als "a7ing
$he", $hey "a7e 1ossi,le $he "&$&al ad9&s$"en$ o% $he a!io&s indiid&al co"1onen$s o% $he
social ac$ $o one ano$he!, and also, ,y calling %o!$h in $he indiid&als "a7ing $he" $he sa"e
!es1onses i"1lici$ly $ha$ $hey call %o!$h e=1lici$ly in $he indiid&als $o <ho" $hey a!e "ade,
$hey !ende! 1ossi,le $he !ise o% sel%conscio&sness in connec$ion <i$h $his "&$&al ad9&s$"en$.
#. ISee Sec$ions 1', 1..K
3. The incl&sion o% $he "a$!i= o! co"1le= o% a$$i$&des and !es1onses cons$i$&$ing any gien
social si$&a$ion o! ac$, <i$hin $he e=1e!ience o% any one o% $he indiid&als i"1lica$ed in $ha$
si$&a$ion o! ac$ A$he incl&sion <i$hin his e=1e!ience o% his a$$i$&des $o<a!d o$he! indiid&als,
o% $hei! !es1onses $o his a$$i$&des $o<a!d $he", o% $hei! a$$i$&des $o<a!d hi", and o% his
!es1onses $o $hese a$$i$&desB is all $ha$ an idea a"o&n$s $o@ o! a$ any !a$e is $he only ,asis
%o! i$s occ&!!ence o! e=is$ence -in $he "ind- o% $he gien indiid&al.
In $he case o% $he &nconscio&s cone!sa$ion o% ges$&!es, o! in $he case o% $he 1!ocess o%
co""&nica$ion ca!!ied on ,y "eans o% i$, none o% $he indiid&als 1a!$ici1a$ing in i$ is
conscio&s o! $he "eaning o% $he cone!sa$ion?$ha$ "eaning does no$ a11ea! in $he
e=1e!ience o% any one o% $he se1a!a$e indiid&als inoled in $he cone!sa$ion o! ca!!ying i$
on@ <he!eas, in $he case o% $he conscio&s cone!sa$ion o% ges$&!es, o! in $he case o% $he
1!ocess o% co""&nica$ion ca!!ied on ,y "eans o% i$, each o% $he indiid&als 1a!$ici1a$ing in i$
is conscio&s o% $he "eaning o% $he cone!sa$ion, 1!ecisely ,eca&se $ha$ "eaning does
a11ea! in his e=1e!ience, and ,eca&se s&ch a11ea!ance is <ha$ conscio&sness o% $ha$
"eaning i"1lies.
4. IFo! $he na$&!e o% ani"al cond&c$ see -Conce!ning Ani"al Pe!ce1$ion,- Psychological
"evie7, JI4 AI 35/B, '2' %%.K
+. M&lle! a$$e"1$s $o 1&$ $he al&es o% $ho&gh$ in$o lang&age@ ,&$ $his a$$e"1$ is %allacio&s,
,eca&se lang&age has $hose al&es only as $he "os$ e%%ec$ie "echanis" o% $ho&gh$ "e!ely
,eca&se i$ ca!!ies $he conscio&s o! signi%ican$ cone!sa$ion o% ges$&!es $o i$s highes$ and
"os$ 1e!%ec$ deelo1"en$. The!e "&s$ ,e so"e so!$ o% an i"1lici$ a$$i$&de A$ha$ is, a
!es1onse <hich is ini$ia$ed <i$ho&$ ,eing %&lly ca!!ied o&$B in $he o!ganis" "a7ing $he
ges$&!e?an a$$i$&de <hich ans<e!s $o $he oe!$ !es1onse $o $he ges$&!e on $he 1a!$ o%
ano$he! indiid&al, and <hich co!!es1onds $o $he a$$i$&de called %o!$h o! a!o&sed in $his o$he!
o!ganis" ,y $he ges$&!e?i% $ho&gh$ is $o deelo1 in $he o!ganis" "a7ing $he ges$&!e. And i$
is $he cen$!al ne!o&s sys$e" <hich 1!oides $he "echanis" %o! s&ch i"1lici$ a$$i$&des o!
!es1onses.
The iden$i%ica$ion o% lang&age <i$h !eason is in one sense an a,s&!di$y, ,&$ in ano$he! sense
i$ is alid. I$ is alid, na"ely, in $he sense $ha$ $he 1!ocess o% lang&age ,!ings $he $o$al social
ac$ in$o $he e=1e!ience o% $he gien indiid&al as hi"sel% inoled in $he ac$, and $h&s "a7es
$he 1!ocess o% !eason 1ossi,le. B&$ $ho&gh $he 1!ocess o% !eason is and "&s$ ,e ca!!ied on
in $e!"s o% $he 1!ocess o% lang&age?in $e!"s, $ha$ is, o% <o!ds ?i$ is no$ si"1ly cons$i$&$ed ,y
$he la$$e!.
,,# M"%(I(G I1K
0e a!e 1a!$ic&la!ly conce!ned <i$h in$elligence on $he h&"an leel, $ha$ is, <i$h $he ad9&s$"en$ $o
one ano$he! o% $he ac$s o% di%%e!en$ h&"an indiid&als <i$hin $he h&"an social 1!ocess@ an
ad9&s$"en$ <hich $a7es 1lace $h!o&gh co""&nica$ion; ,y ges$&!es on $he lo<e! 1lanes o% h&"an
eol&$ion, and ,y signi%ican$ sy",ols Ages$&!es <hich 1ossess "eanings and a!e hence "o!e $han
"e!e s&,s$i$&$e s$i"&liB on $he highe! 1lanes o% h&"an eol&$ion.
The cen$!al %ac$o! in s&ch ad9&s$"en$ is -"eaning.- Meaning a!ises and lies <i$hin $he %ield o% $he
!ela$ion ,e$<een $he ges$&!e o% a gien h&"an o!ganis" and $he s&,seD&en$ ,ehaio! o% $his
o!ganis" as indica$ed $o ano$he! h&"an o!ganis" ,y $ha$ ges$&!e. I% $ha$ ges$&!e does so indica$e
$o ano$he! o!ganis" $he s&,seD&en$ Ao! !es&l$an$B ,ehaio! o% $he gien o!ganis", $hen i$ has
"eaning. In o$he! <o!ds, $he !ela$ionshi1 ,e$<een a gien s$i"&l&s?as a ges$&!e?and $he la$e!
1hases o% $he social ac$ o% <hich i$ is an ea!ly Ai% no$ $he ini$ialB 1hase cons$i$&$es $he %ield <i$hin
<hich "eaning o!igina$es and e=is$s. Meaning is $h&s a deelo1"en$ o% so"e$hing o,9ec$iely $he!e
as a !ela$ion ,e$<een ce!$ain 1hases o% $he social ac$@ i$ is no$ a 1sychical addi$ion $o $ha$ ac$ and i$
is no$ an -idea- as $!adi$ionally conceied. A ges$&!e ,y one o!ganis", $he !es&l$an$ o% $he social ac$
in <hich $he ges$&!e is an ea!ly 1hase, and $he !es1onse o% ano$he! o!ganis" $o $he ges$&!e, a!e $he
!ela$a in a $!i1le o! $h!ee%old !ela$ionshi1 o% ges$&!e $o %i!s$ o!ganis", o% ges$&!e $o second o!ganis",
and o% ges$&!e $o s&,seD&en$ 1hases o% $he gien social ac$@ and $his $h!ee%old !ela$ionshi1
cons$i$&$es $he "a$!i= <i$hin <hich "eaning a!ises, o! <hich deelo1s in$o $he %ield o% "eaning. The
ges$&!e s$ands %o! a ce!$ain !es&l$an$ o% $he social ac$, a !es&l$an$ $o <hich $he!e is a de%ini$e
!es1onse on $he 1a!$ o% $he indiid&als inoled $he!ein@ so $ha$ "eaning is gien o! s$a$ed in $e!"s
o% !es1onse. Meaning is i"1lici$?i% no$ al<ays e=1lici$?in $he !ela$ionshi1 a"ong $he a!io&s 1hases
o% $he social ac$ $o <hich i$ !e%e!s, and o&$ o% <hich i$ deelo1s. And i$s deelo1"en$ $a7es 1lace in
$e!"s o% sy",oli8a$ion a$ $he h&"an eol&$iona!y leel.
0e hae ,een conce!ning o&!seles, in gene!al, <i$h $he social 1!ocess o% e=1e!ience and ,ehaio!
as i$ a11ea!s in $he calling o&$ ,y $he ac$ o% one o!ganis" o% an ad9&s$"en$ $o $ha$ ac$ in $he
!es1onsie ac$ o% ano$he! o!ganis". 0e hae seen $ha$ $he na$&!e o% "eaning is in$i"a$ely
associa$ed <i$h $he social 1!ocess as i$ $h&s a11ea!s, $ha$ "eaning inoles $his $h!ee?%old !ela$ion
a"ong 1hases o% $he social ac$ as $he con$e=$ in <hich i$ a!ises and deelo1s; $his !ela$ion o% $he
ges$&!e o% one o!ganis" $o $he ad9&s$ie !es1onse o% ano$he! o!ganis" Aalso i"1lica$ed in $he gien
ac$B, and $o $he co"1le$ion o% $he gien ac$?? a !ela$ion s&ch $ha$ $he second o!ganis" !es1onds $o
$he ges$&!e o% $he %i!s$ as indica$ing o! !e%e!!ing $o $he co"1le$ion o% $he gien ac$. Fo! e=a"1le, $he
chic7>s !es1onse $o $he cl&c7 o% $he "o$he! hen is a !es1onse $o $he "eaning o% $he cl&c7@ $he cl&c7
!e%e!s $o dange! o! $o %ood, as $he case "ay ,e, and has $his "eaning o! conno$a$ion %o! $he chic7.
The social 1!ocess, as inoling co""&nica$ion, is in a sense !es1onsi,le %o! $he a11ea!ance o%
ne< o,9ec$s in $he %ield o% e=1e!ience o% $he indiid&al o!ganis"s i"1lica$ed in $ha$ 1!ocess. O!ganic
1!ocesses o! !es1onses in a sense cons$i$&$e $he o,9ec$s $o <hich $hey a!e !es1onses@ $ha$ is $o say,
any gien ,iological o!ganis" is in a <ay !es1onsi,le %o! $he e=is$ence Ain $he sense o% $he
"eanings $hey hae %o! i$B o% $he o,9ec$s $o <hich i$ 1hysiologically and che"ically !es1onds. The!e
<o&ld, %o! e=a"1le, ,e no %ood?no edi,le o,9ec$s?i% $he!e <e!e no o!ganis"s <hich co&ld diges$ i$.
And si"ila!ly, $he social 1!ocess in a sense cons$i$&$es $he o,9ec$s $o <hich i$ !es1onds, o! $o <hich
i$ is an ad9&s$"en$. Tha$ is $o say, o,9ec$s a!e cons$i$&$ed in $e!"s o% "eanings <i$hin $he social
1!ocess o% e=1e!ience and ,ehaio! $h!o&gh $he "&$&al ad9&s$"en$ $o one ano$he! o% $he !es1onses
o! ac$ions o% $he a!io&s indiid&al o!ganis"s inoled in $ha$ 1!ocess, an ad9&s$"en$ "ade 1ossi,le
,y "eans o% a co""&nica$ion <hich $a7es $he %o!" o% a cone!sa$ion o% ges$&!es in $he ea!lie!
eol&$iona!y s$ages o% $ha$ 1!ocess, and o% lang&age in i$s la$e! s$ages.
A<a!eness o! conscio&sness is no$ necessa!y $o $he 1!esence o% "eaning in $he 1!ocess o% social
e=1e!ience. A ges$&!e on $he 1a!$ o% one o!ganis" in any gien social ac$ calls o&$ a !es1onse on
$he 1a!$ o% ano$he! o!ganis" <hich is di!ec$ly !ela$ed $o $he ac$ion o% $he %i!s$ o!ganis" and i$s
o&$co"e@ and a ges$&!e is a sy",ol o% $he !es&l$ o% $he gien social ac$ o% one o!ganis" A$he
o!ganis" "a7ing i$B in so %a! as i$ is !es1onded $o ,y ano$he! o!ganis" A$he!e,y also inoled in $ha$
ac$B as indica$ing $ha$ !es&l$. The "echanis" o% "eaning is $h&s 1!esen$ in $he social ac$ ,e%o!e $he
e"e!gence o% conscio&sness o! a<a!eness o% "eaning occ&!s. The ac$ o! ad9&s$ie !es1onse o% $he
second o!ganis" gies $o $he ges$&!e o% $he %i!s$ o!ganis" $he "eaning <hich i$ has.
Sy",oli8a$ion cons$i$&$es o,9ec$s no$ cons$i$&$ed ,e%o!e, o,9ec$s <hich <o&ld no$ e=is$ e=ce1$ %o!
$he con$e=$ o% social !ela$ionshi1s <he!ein sy",oli8a$ion occ&!s. Lang&age does no$ si"1ly
sy",oli8e a si$&a$ion o! o,9ec$ <hich is al!eady $he!e in adance@ i$ "a7es 1ossi,le $he e=is$ence o!
$he a11ea!ance o% $ha$ si$&a$ion o! o,9ec$, %o! i$ is a 1a!$ o% $he "echanis" <he!e,y $ha$ si$&a$ion o!
o,9ec$ is c!ea$ed. The social 1!ocess !ela$es $he !es1onses o% one indiid&al $o $he ges$&!es o%
ano$he!, as $he "eanings o% $he la$$e!, and is $h&s !es1onsi,le %o! $he !ise and e=is$ence o% ne<
o,9ec$s in $he social si$&a$ion, o,9ec$s de1enden$ &1on o! cons$i$&$ed ,y $hese "eanings. Meaning is
$h&s no$ $o ,e conceied, %&nda"en$ally, as a s$a$e o% conscio&sness, o! as a se$ o% o!gani8ed
!ela$ions e=is$ing o! s&,sis$ing "en$ally o&$side $he %ield o% e=1e!ience in$o <hich $hey en$e!@ on $he
con$!a!y, i$ sho&ld ,e conceied o,9ec$iely, as haing i$s e=is$ence en$i!ely <i$hin $his %ield i$sel%.+.-
The !es1onse o% one o!ganis" $o $he ges$&!e o% ano$he! in any gien social ac$ is $he "eaning o%
$ha$ ges$&!e, and also is in a sense !es1onsi,le %o! $he a11ea!ance o! co"ing in$o ,eing o% $he ne<
o,9ec$?o! ne< con$en$ o% an old o,9ec$?$o <hich $ha$ ges$&!e !e%e!s $h!o&gh $he o&$co"e o% $he gien
social ac$ in <hich i$ is an ea!ly 1hase. Fo!, $o !e1ea$, o,9ec$s a!e in a gen&ine sense cons$i$&$ed
<i$hin $he social 1!ocess o% e=1e!ience, ,y $he co""&nica$ion and "&$&al ad9&s$"en$ o% ,ehaio!
a"ong $he indiid&al o!ganis"s <hich a!e inoled in $ha$ 1!ocess and <hich ca!!y i$ on. 9&s$ as in
%encing $he 1a!!y is an in$e!1!e$a$ion o% $he $h!&s$, so, in $he social ac$, $he ad9&s$ie !es1onse o% one
o!ganis" $o $he ges$&!e o% ano$he! is $he in$e!1!e$a$ion o% $ha$ ges$&!e ,y $ha$ o!ganis"?i$ is $he
"eaning o% $ha$ ges$&!e.
A$ $he leel o% sel%?conscio&sness s&ch a ges$&!e ,eco"es a sy",ol, a signi%ican$ sy",ol. B&$ $he
in$e!1!e$a$ion o% ges$&!es is no$, ,asically, a 1!ocess going on in a "ind as s&ch, o! one necessa!ily
inoling a "ind@ i$ is an e=$e!nal, oe!$, 1hysical, o! 1hysiological 1!ocess going on in $he ac$&al
%ield o% social e=1e!ience. Meaning can ,e desc!i,ed, acco&n$ed %o!, o! s$a$ed in $e!"s o% sy",ols
o! lang&age a$ i$s highes$ and "os$ co"1le= s$age o% deelo1"en$ A$he s$age i$ !eaches in h&"an
e=1e!ienceB, ,&$ lang&age si"1ly li%$s o&$ o% $he social 1!ocess a si$&a$ion <hich is logically o!
i"1lici$ly $he!e al!eady. The lang&age sy",ol is si"1ly a signi%ican$ o! conscio&s ges$&!e.
T<o "ain 1oin$s a!e ,eing "ade he!e; A1B $ha$ $he social 1!ocess, $h!o&gh $he co""&nica$ion <hich
i$ "a7es 1ossi,le a"ong $he indiid&als i"1lica$ed in i$, is !es1onsi,le %o! $he a11ea!ance o% a
<hole se$ o% ne< o,9ec$s in na$&!e, <hich e=is$ in !ela$ion $o i$ Ao,9ec$s, na"ely, o% -co""on sense-B@
and A#B $ha$ $he ges$&!e o% one o!ganis" and $he ad9&s$ie !es1onse o% ano$he! o!ganis" $o $ha$
ges$&!e <i$hin any gien social ac$ ,!ing o&$ $he !ela$ionshi1 $ha$ e=is$s ,e$<een $he ges$&!e as $he
,eginning o% $he gien ac$ and $he co"1le$ion o! !es&l$an$ o% $he gien ac$, $o <hich $he ges$&!e
!e%e!s. These a!e $he $<o ,asic and co"1le"en$a!y logical as1ec$s o% $he social 1!ocess.
The !es&l$ o% any gien social ac$ is de%ini$ely se1a!a$ed %!o" $he ges$&!e indica$ing i$ ,y $he
!es1onse o% ano$he! o!ganis" $o $ha$ ges$&!e, a !es1onse <hich 1oin$s $o $he !es&l$ o% $ha$ ac$ as
indica$ed ,y $ha$ ges$&!e. This si$&a$ion is all $he!e ?? is co"1le$ely gien?on $he non?"en$al, non?
conscio&s leel . 1, ,e%o!e $he analysis o% i$ on $he "en$al o! conscio&s leel. De<ey says $ha$
"eaning a!ises $h!o&gh co""&nica$ion.+/- I$ is $o $he con$en$ $o <hich $he social 1!ocess gies !ise
$ha$ $his s$a$e"en$ !e%e!s@ no$ $o ,a!e ideas o! 1!in$ed <o!ds as s&ch, ,&$ $o $he social 1!ocess <hich
has ,een so la!gely !es1onsi,le %o! $he o,9ec$s cons$i$&$ing $he daily eni!on"en$ in <hich <e lie; a
1!ocess in <hich co""&nica$ion 1lays $he "ain 1a!$. Tha$ 1!ocess can gie !ise $o $hese ne<
o,9ec$s in na$&!e only in so %a! as i$ "a7es 1ossi,le co""&nica$ion a"ong $he indiid&al o!ganis"s
inoled in i$. And $he sense in <hich i$ is !es1onsi,le %o! $hei! e=is$ence?indeed %o! $he e=is$ence o%
$he <hole <o!ld o% co""on?sense o,9ec$s?is $he sense in <hich i$ de$e!"ines, condi$ions, and
"a7es 1ossi,le $hei! a,s$!ac$ion %!o" $he $o$al s$!&c$&!e o% een$s, as iden$i$ies <hich a!e !elean$
%o! ee!yday social ,ehaio!@ and in $ha$ sense, o! as haing $ha$ "eaning, $hey a!e e=is$en$ only
!ela$ie $o $ha$ ,ehaio!. In $he sa"e <ay, a$ a la$e!, "o!e adanced s$age o% i$s deelo1"en$,
co""&nica$ion is !es1onsi,le %o! $he e=is$ence o% $he <hole !eal" o% scien$i%ic o,9ec$s as <ell as
iden$i$ies a,s$!ac$ed %!o" $he $o$al s$!&c$&!e o% een$s ,y i!$&e o% $hei! !eleance %o! scien$i%ic
1&!1oses.
The logical s$!&c$&!e o% "eaning, <e hae seen, is $o ,e %o&nd in $he $h!ee%old !ela$ionshi1 o%
ges$&!e $o ad9&s$ie !es1onse and $o $he !es&l$an$ o% $he gien social ac$. *es1onse on $he 1a!$ o%
$he second o!ganis" $o $he ges$&!e o% $he %i!s$ is $he in$e!1!e$a$ion?and ,!ings o&$ $he "eaning?o%
$ha$ ges$&!e, as indica$ing $he !es&l$an$ o% $he social ac$ <hich i$ ini$ia$es, and in <hich ,o$h
o!ganis"s a!e $h&s inoled. This $h!ee%old o! $!iadic !ela$ion ,e$<een ges$&!e, ad9&s$ie !es1onse,
and !es&l$an$ o% $he social ac$ <hich $he ges$&!e ini$ia$es is $he ,asis o% "eaning@ %o! $he e=is$ence o%
"eaning de1ends &1on $he %ac$ $ha$ $he ad9&s$ie !es1onse o% $he second o!ganis" is di!ec$ed
$o<a!d $he !es&l$an$ o% $he gien social ac$ as ini$ia$ed and indica$ed ,y $he ges$&!e o% $he %i!s$
o!ganis". The ,asis o% "eaning is $h&s o,9ec$iely $he!e in social cond&c$, o! in na$&!e in i$s !ela$ion
$o s&ch cond&c$. Meaning is a con$en$ o% an o,9ec$ <hich is de1enden$ &1on $he !ela$ion o% an
o!ganis" o! g!o&1 o% o!ganis"s $o i$. I$ is no$ essen$ially o! 1!i"a!ily a 1sychical con$en$ Aa con$en$
o% "ind o! conscio&snessB, %o! i$ need no$ ,e conscio&s a$ all, and is no$ in %ac$ &n$il signi%ican$
sy",ols a!e eoled in $he 1!ocess o% h&"an social e=1e!ience. Only <hen i$ ,eco"es iden$i%ied
<i$h s&ch sy",ols does "eaning ,eco"e conscio&s. The "eaning o% a ges$&!e on $he 1a!$ o% one
o!ganis" is $he ad9&s$ie !es1onse o% ano$he! o!ganis" $o i$, as indica$ing $he !es&l$an$ o% $he social
ac$ i$ ini$ia$es, $he ad9&s$ie !es1onse o% $he second o!ganis" ,eing i$sel% di!ec$ed $o<a!d o! !ela$ed
$o $he co"1le$ion o% $ha$ ac$. In o$he! <o!ds, "eaning inoles a !e%e!ence o% $he ges$&!e o% one
o!ganis" $o $he !es&l$an$ o% $he social ac$ i$ indica$es o! ini$ia$es, as ad9&s$iely !es1onded $o in $his
!e%e!ence ,y ano$he! o!ganis"@ and $he ad9&s$ie !es1onse o% $he o$he! o!ganis" is $he "eaning o%
$he ges$&!e.
(es$&!es "ay ,e ei$he! conscio&s Asigni%ican$B o! &nconscio&s Anon?signi%ican$B. The cone!sa$ion o%
ges$&!es is no$ signi%ican$ ,elo< $he h&"an leel, ,eca&se i$ is no$ conscio&s, $ha$ is, no$ sel%?
conscio&s A$ho&gh i$ is conscio&s in $he sense o% inoling %eelings o! sensa$ionsB. An ani"al as
o11osed $o a h&"an %o!", in indica$ing so"e$hing $o, o! ,!inging o&$ a "eaning %o!, ano$he! %o!", is
no$ a$ $he sa"e $i"e indica$ing o! ,!inging o&$ $he sa"e $hing o! "eaning $o o! %o! hi"sel%@ %o! he
has no "ind, no $ho&gh$, and hence $he!e is no "eaning he!e in $he signi%ican$ o! sel%?conscio&s
sense. A ges$&!e is no$ signi%ican$ <hen $he !es1onse o% ano$he! o!ganis" $o i$ does no$ indica$e $o
$he o!ganis" "a7ing i$ <ha$ $he o$he! o!ganis" is !es1onding $o.I)K
M&ch s&,$le$y has ,een <as$ed on $he 1!o,le" o% $he "eaning o% "eaning. I$ is no$ necessa!y, in
a$$e"1$ing $o sole $his 1!o,le", $o hae !eco&!se $o 1sychical s$a$es, %o! $he na$&!e o% "eaning, as
<e hae seen, is %o&nd $o ,e i"1lici$ in $he s$!&c$&!e o% $he social ac$, i"1lici$ in $he !ela$ions a"ong
i$s $h!ee ,asic indiid&al co"1onen$s; na"ely, in $he $!iadic !ela$ion o% a ges$&!e o% one indiid&al, a
!es1onse $o $ha$ ges$&!e ,y a second indiid&al, and co"1le$ion o% $he gien social ac$ ini$ia$ed ,y
$he ges$&!e o% $he %i!s$ indiid&al. And $he %ac$ $ha$ $he na$&!e o% "eaning is $h&s %o&nd $o ,e i"1lici$
in $he s$!&c$&!e o% $he social ac$ 1!oides addi$ional e"1hasis &1on $he necessi$y, in social
1sychology, o% s$a!$ing o%% <i$h $he ini$ial ass&"1$ion o% an ongoing social 1!ocess o% e=1e!ience and
,ehaio! in <hich any gien g!o&1 o% h&"an indiid&als is inoled, and &1on <hich $he e=is$ence
and deelo1"en$ o% $hei! "inds, seles, and sel%?conscio&sness de1end.
"ndnotes
1. ISee also -Social Conscio&sness and $he Conscio&sness o% Meaning,- Psychological
Bulletin, 4II A1315B, '3/ %%.@ -The Mechanis" o% Social Conscio&sness,- Journal of
Philosophy, IJ A131#B, )51 %%.K
#. Na$&!e has "eaning and i"1lica$ion ,&$ no$ indica$ion ,y sy",ols. The sy",ol is
dis$ing&isha,le %!o" $he "eaning i$ !e%e!s $o. Meanings a!e in na$&!e, ,&$ sy",ols a!e $he
he!i$age o% "an A13#)B.
3. ISee !#perience and 8ature, cha1. .K
). The!e a!e $<o cha!ac$e!s <hich ,elong $o $ha$ <hich <e $e!" -"eanings,- one is
1a!$ici1a$ion and $he o$he! is co""&nica,ili$y. Meaning can a!ise only in so %a! as so"e
1hase o% $he ac$ <hich $he indiid&al is a!o&sing in $he o$he! can ,e a!o&sed in hi"sel%.
The!e is al<ays $o $his e=$en$ 1a!$ici1a$ion. And $he !es&l$ o% $his 1a!$ici1a$ion is
co""&nica,ili$y, i.e., $he indiid&al can indica$e $o hi"sel% <ha$ he indica$es $o o$he!s >$he!e
is co""&nica$ion <i$ho&$ signi%icance <he!e $he ges$&!e o% $he indiid&al calls o&$ $he
!es1onse in $he o$he! <i$ho&$ calling o&$ o! $ending $o call o&$ $he sa"e !es1onse in $he
indiid&al hi"sel%. Signi%icance %!o" $he s$and1oin$ o% $he o,se!e! "ay ,e said $o ,e
1!esen$ in $he ges$&!e <hich calls o&$ $he a11!o1!ia$e !es1onse in $he o$he! o! o$he!s <i$hin
a coo1e!a$ie ac$, ,&$ i$ does no$ ,eco"e signi%ican$ $o $he indiid&als <ho a!e inoled in
$he ac$ &nless $he $endency $o $he ac$ is a!o&sed <i$hin $he indiid&al <ho "a7es i$, and
&nless $he indiid&al <ho is di!ec$ly a%%ec$ed ,y $he ges$&!e 1&$s hi"sel% in $he a$$i$&de o% $he
indiid&al <ho "a7es $he ges$&!e AMSB.
,.# 4(IV"*S%&IT'
O&! e=1e!ience does !ecogni8e o! %ind $ha$ <hich is $y1ical, and $his is as essen$ial %o! an adeD&a$e
$heo!y o% "eaning as is $he ele"en$ o% 1a!$ic&la!i$y. The!e a!e no$ only %ac$s o% !ed, %o! e=a"1le, ,&$
$he!e is in $he e=1e!ience a !ed <hich is iden$ical so %a! as e=1e!ience has ,een conce!ned <i$h
so"e o$he! !ed. One can isola$e $he !ed 9&s$ as a sensa$ion, and as s&ch i$ is 1assing@ ,&$ in
addi$ion $o $ha$ 1assing cha!ac$e! $he!e is so"e$hing $ha$ <e call &nie!sal, so"e$hing $ha$ gies a
"eaning $o i$. The een$ is a colo!, i$ is !ed, i$ is a ce!$ain 7ind o% !ed?and $ha$ is so"e$hing <hich
does no$ hae a 1assing cha!ac$e! in $he s$a$e"en$ o% colo! i$sel%. I% <e go oe! %!o" 1a!$ic&la!
con$en$s o% $his so!$ $o o$he! o,9ec$s, s&ch as a chai!, a $!ee, a dog, <e %ind $he!e so"e$hing $ha$ is
dis$ing&isha,le %!o" $he 1a!$ic&la! o,9ec$, 1lan$, o! ani"al $ha$ <e hae a,o&$ &s. 0ha$ <e
!ecogni8e in a dog is no$ $he g!o&1 o% sens&o&s ele"en$s, ,&$ !a$he! $he cha!ac$e! o% ,eing a dog,
and &nless <e hae so"e !eason %o! in$e!es$ in $his 1a!$ic&la! dog, so"e 1!o,le" as $o i$s
o<ne!shi1 o! i$s li7elihood $o ,i$e &s, o&! !ela$ionshi1 $o $he ani"al is $o a &nie!sal?i$ is 9&s$ a dog. I%
a 1e!son as7s yo& <ha$ yo& sa< yo& !e1ly $ha$ i$ <as a dog. Yo& <o&ld no$ 7no< $he colo! o% $he
dog@ i$ <as 9&s$ a dog in gene!al $ha$ yo& sa<.
The!e is a "eaning he!e $ha$ is gien in $he e=1e!ience i$sel%, and i$ is $his "eaning o! &nie!sal
cha!ac$e! <i$h <hich a ,ehaio!is$ic 1sychology is s&11osed $o hae di%%ic&l$y in dealing. 0hen
$he!e is a !es1onse $o s&ch an ani"al as a dog $he!e is a !es1onse o% !ecogni$ion as <ell as a
!es1onse $o<a!d an o,9ec$ in $he landsca1e@ and $his !es1onse o% !ecogni$ion is so"e$hing $ha$ is
&nie!sal and no$ 1a!$ic&la!. Can $his %ac$o! ,e s$a$ed in ,ehaio!is$ic $e!"sE 0e a!e no$, o% co&!se,
in$e!es$ed in 1hiloso1hical i"1lica$ions@ <e a!e no$ in$e!es$ed in $he "e$a1hysics o% $he dog@ ,&$ <e
a!e in$e!es$ed in $he !ecogni$ion <hich <o&ld ,elong $o any o$he! ani"al o% $he sa"e so!$. No<, is
$he!e a !es1onse o% s&ch a &nie!sal cha!ac$e! in o&! na$&!e $ha$ i$ can ,e said $o ans<e! $o $his
!ecogni$ion o% <ha$ <e $e!" $he &nie!salE I$ is $he 1ossi,ili$y o% s&ch a ,ehaio!is$ic s$a$e"en$ $ha$ I
endeao! $o s7e$ch.
0ha$ $he cen$!al ne!o&s sys$e" 1!esen$s is no$ si"1ly a se$ o% a&$o"a$is"s, $ha$ is, ce!$ain
inei$a,le !eac$ions $o ce!$ain s1eci%ic s$i"&li, s&ch as $a7ing o&! hand a<ay %!o" a !adia$o! $ha$ is
$o&ched, o! 9&"1ing <hen a lo&d so&nd occ&!s ,ehind &s. The ne!o&s sys$e" 1!oides no$ only $he
"echanis" %o! $ha$ so!$ o% cond&c$ ,&$ also %o! !ecogni8ing an o,9ec$ $o <hich <e a!e going $o
!es1ond@ and $ha$ !ecogni$ion can ,e s$a$ed in $e!"s o% a !es1onse $ha$ "ay ans<e! $o any one o% a
ce!$ain g!o&1 o% s$i"&li. Tha$ is, one has a nail $o d!ie, he !eaches %o! $he ha""e! and %inds i$
gone, and he doe>s no$ s$o1 $o loo7 %o! i$, ,&$ !eaches %o! so"e$hing else he can &se, a ,!ic7 o! a
s$one, any$hing haing $he necessa!y <eigh$ $o gie "o"en$&" $o $he ,lo<. Any$hing $ha$ he can
ge$ hold o% $ha$ <ill se!e $he 1&!1ose <ill ,e a ha""e!. Tha$ so!$ o% !es1onse <hich inoles $he
g!as1ing o% a heay o,9ec$ is a &nie!sal.+,- I% $he o,9ec$ does call o&$ $ha$ !es1onse, no "a$$e! <ha$
i$s 1a!$ic&la! cha!ac$e! "ay ,e, one can say $ha$ i$ has a &nie!sal cha!ac$e!. I$ is so"e$hing $ha$ can
,e !ecogni8ed ,eca&se o% $his cha!ac$e!, no$<i$hs$anding $he a!ia$ions $ha$ a!e inoled in $he
indiid&al ins$ances.
No<, can $he!e ,e in $he cen$!al ne!o&s sys$e" a "echanis" <hich can ,e a!o&sed so $ha$ i$ <ill
gie !ise $o $his !es1onse, ho<ee! a!ied $he condi$ions a!e o$he!<iseE Can $he!e ,e a "echanis"
o% a s&%%icien$ly co"1lica$ed cha!ac$e! $o !e1!esen$ $he o,9ec$s <i$h <hich <e deal?o,9ec$s $ha$ hae
no$ only s1a$ial di"ensions, ,&$ also $e"1o!al di"ensionsE An o,9ec$ s&ch as a "elody, a $&ne, is a
&ni$a!y a%%ai!. 0e hea! $he %i!s$ no$es and <e !es1ond $o i$ as a <hole. The!e is s&ch a &ni$y in $he
lies 1!esen$ed ,y ,iog!a1hies <hich %ollo< a "an %!o" his ,i!$h $o his dea$h, sho<ing all $ha$
,elongs $o $he g!o<$h o% $he indiid&al and $he changes $ha$ $a7e 1lace in his ca!ee!. No<, is $he!e
so"e$hing in $he cen$!al ne!o&s sys$e" $ha$ can ans<e! $o s&ch cha!ac$e!s o% $he o,9ec$, so $ha$
<e can gie a ,ehaio!is$ic acco&n$ o% an o,9ec$ so co"1lica$ed as a "elody o! a li%eE The "e!e
co"1lica$ion does no$ 1!esen$ se!io&s di%%ic&l$y, ,eca&se $he cen$!al ne!o&s sys$e" has an al"os$
in%ini$e n&",e! o% ele"en$s and 1ossi,le co",ina$ions, ,&$ can one %ind a s$!&c$&!e $he!e in $he
cen$!al ne!o&s sys$e" $ha$ <o&ld ans<e! $o a ce!$ain $y1e o% !es1onse <hich !e1!esen$s %o! &s $he
cha!ac$e! o% $he o,9ec$ <hich <e !ecogni8e, as dis$inc$ %!o" $he "e!e sensa$ionsE
*ecogni$ion al<ays i"1lies a so"e$hing $ha$ can ,e discoe!ed in an inde%ini$e n&",e! o% o,9ec$s.
One can only sense a colo! once, in so %a! as -colo!- "eans an i""edia$e !ela$ionshi1 o% $he ligh$
<aes $o $he !e$ina o% a no!"al ne!o&s sys$e". Tha$ e=1e!ience ha11ens and is gone, and canno$
,e !e1ea$ed. B&$ so"e$hing is !ecogni8ed, $he!e is a &nie!sal cha!ac$e! gien in $he e=1e!ience
i$sel% <hich is a$ leas$ ca1a,le o% an inde%ini$e n&",e! o% !e1e$i$ions. I$ is $his <hich has ,een
s&11osed $o ,e ,eyond $he ,ehaio!is$ic e=1lana$ion o! s$a$e"en$. 0ha$ a ,ehaio!is$ic 1sychology
does is $o s$a$e $ha$ cha!ac$e! o% $he e=1e!ience in $e!"s o% $he !es1onse. I$ "ay ,e said $ha$ $he!e
canno$ ,e a &nie!sal !es1onse, ,&$ only a !es1onse $o a 1a!$ic&la! o,9ec$. On $he con$!a!y, in so %a!
as $he !es1onse is one $ha$ can $a7e 1lace <i$h !e%e!ence $o $he ,!ic7, a s$one, a ha""e!, $he!e is a
&nie!sal in $he %o!" o% $he !es1onse $ha$ ans<e!s $o a <hole se$ o% 1a!$ic&la!s, and $he 1a!$ic&la!s
"ay ,e inde%ini$e in n&",e!, 1!oided only $hey hae ce!$ain cha!ac$e!s in !ela$ion $o $he !es1onse.
The !ela$ionshi1 o% $his !es1onse $o an inde%ini$e n&",e! o% s$i"&li is 9&s$ $he !ela$ionshi1 $ha$ is
!e1!esen$ed in <ha$ <e call -!ecogni$ion.- 0hen <e &se $he $e!" -!ecogni$ion- <e "ay "ean no
"o!e $han $ha$ <e 1ic7 &1 an o,9ec$ $ha$ se!es $his 1a!$ic&la! 1&!1ose@ <ha$ <e gene!ally "ean is
$ha$ $he cha!ac$e! o% $he o,9ec$ $ha$ is a s$i"&l&s $o i$s !ecogni$ion is 1!esen$ in o&! e=1e!ience. 0e
can hae, in $his way; so"e$hing $ha$ is &nie!sal as oe! agains$ a!io&s 1a!$ic&la!s. I $hin7 <e can
!ecogni8e in any ha,i$ $ha$ <hich ans<e!s $o di%%e!en$ s$i"&li@ $he !es1onse is &nie!sal and $he
s$i"&l&s is 1a!$ic&la!. As long as $his ele"en$ se!es as a s$i"&l&s, calls o&$ $his !es1onse, one can
say $he 1a!$ic&la! co"es &nde! $his &nie!sal. Tha$ is $he s$a$e"en$ o% $he ,ehaio!is$ic 1sychology
o% $he &nie!sal %o!" as oe! agains$ $he 1a!$ic&la! ins$ance.
The ne=$ 1oin$ is !a$he! a "a$$e! o% deg!ee, ill&s$!a$ed ,y $he "o!e co"1le= o,9ec$s s&ch as a
sy"1hony, o! a li%e, <i$h all $hei! a!ia$ions and ha!"onio&s con$!as$s. 0hen a "&sic c!i$ic
disc&sses s&ch a co"1le= o,9ec$ as a sy"1hony can <e say $ha$ $he!e is so"e$hing in $he cen$!al
ne!o&s sys$e" $ha$ ans<e!s $o $he o,9ec$ <hich $he c!i$ic has ,e%o!e hi"E O! $a7e $he ,iog!a1hy o%
a g!ea$ "an, a Lincoln o! a (lads$one, <he!e $he his$o!ian, say Mo!ley, has ,e%o!e hi" $ha$ en$i!e
li%e <i$h all i$s inde%ini$e n&",e! o% ele"en$s. Can he ,e said $o hae in his cen$!al ne!o&s sys$e"
an o,9ec$ $ha$ ans<e!s $o $ha$ a$$i$&de o% !ecogni8ing (lads$one in all his changes as $he sa"e
(lads$oneE Co&ld one, i% he had $he "echanis" $o do so, 1ic7 o&$ in $he his$o!ian>s ,!ain <ha$
ans<e!s $o (lads$oneE 0ha$ <o&ld i$ ,e, s&11osing $ha$ i$ co&ld ,e doneE I$ <o&ld ce!$ainly no$ ,e
9&s$ a single !es1onse $o $he na"e (lads$one. In so"e <ay i$ "&s$ !e1!esen$ all o% $he connec$ions
<hich $oo7 1lace in his e=1e!ience, all $hose connec$ions <hich <e!e inoled in his cond&c$ in so
%a! as $hei! analog&es $oo7 1lace in (lads$one>s li%e. i$ "&s$ ,e so"e so!$ o% a &ni$y, s&ch a &ni$y $ha$
i% $his <hole is $o&ched a$ any 1oin$ i$ "ay ,!ing o&$ any o$he! ele"en$ in $he his$o!ian>s e=1e!ience
o% (lads$one. I$ "ay $h!o< ligh$ on any 1hase o% his cha!ac$e!@ i$ "ay ,!ing o&$ any o% $he si$&a$ions
in <hich (lads$one %ig&!es. All o% $his "&s$ ,e 1o$en$ially 1!esen$ in s&ch a "a11ing o% (lads$one in
Mo!ley>s cen$!al ne!o&s sys$e". I$ is inde%ini$ely co"1le=, ,&$ $he cen$!al ne!o&s sys$e" is also
inde%ini$ely co"1le=. I$ does no$ !e1!esen$ "e!ely s1a$ial di"ensions ,&$ $e"1o!al di"ensions also.
I$ can !e1!esen$ an ac$ion <hich is delayed, <hich is de1enden$ &1on an ea!lie! !eac$ion@ and $his
la$e! !eac$ion can, in i$s ince1$ion, ,&$ ,e%o!e i$ $a7es 1lace oe!$ly, in%l&ence $he ea!lie! !eac$ion.
0e can conceie, $hen, in $he s$!&c$&!e o% $he cen$!al ne!o&s sys$e" s&ch a $e"1o!al di"ension as
$ha$ o% $he "elody, o! !ecogni$ion o% $he no$es and $hei! dis$ance %!o" each o$he! in $he scale, and
o&! a11!ecia$ion o% $hese as ac$&ally a%%ec$ed ,y $he ,eginning o% o&! !es1onse $o $he la$e! no$es, as
<hen <e a!e e=1ec$ing a ce!$ain so!$ o% an ending. I% <e as7 ho< $ha$ e=1ec$a$ion sho<s i$sel% in o&!
e=1e!ience <e sho&ld hae di%%ic&l$y in de$ailing i$ in $e!"s o% ,ehaio!, ,&$ <e !eali8e $ha$ $his
e=1e!ience is de$e!"ined ,y o&! !eadiness $o !es1ond $o la$e! no$es and $ha$ s&ch !eadiness can ,e
$he!e <i$ho&$ $he no$es ,eing $he"seles 1!esen$. The <ay in <hich <e a!e going $o !es1ond $o a
"a9o! o! "ino! ending does de$e!"ine $he <ay in <hich <e a11!ecia$e $he no$es $ha$ a!e occ&!!ing.
I$ is $ha$ a$$i$&de $ha$ gies $he cha!ac$e! o% o&! a11!ecia$ion o% all e=$ended "&sical co"1osi$ions.
0ha$ is gien a$ $he o&$se$ is de$e!"ined ,y $he a$$i$&de $o <ha$ is $o co"e la$e!. Tha$ is a 1hase o%
o&! e=1e!ience <hich Ca"es has ill&s$!a$ed ,y his disc&ssion o% $he senso!y cha!ac$e! o% s&ch
con9&nc$ions as -and,- -,&$,- -$ho&gh.- I% yo& asse!$ a 1!o1osi$ion and add, -,&$,- yo& de$e!"ine $he
a$$i$&de o% $he hea!e! $o<a!d i$. :e does no$ 7no< <ha$ yo& a!e going $o in$!od&ce, ,&$ he does
7no< $he!e is so"e so!$ o% an e=ce1$ion $o i$. :is 7no<ledge is no$ s$a$ed in !e%lec$ie %o!", ,&$ is
!a$he! an a$$i$&de. The!e is a -,&$- a$$i$&de, an -i%- a$$i$&de, a -$ho&gh- a$$i$&de. I$ is s&ch a$$i$&des
<hich <e ass&"e $o<a!d $he ,eginning o% a "elody, $o<a!d $he !hy$h" inoled in 1oe$!y@ i$ is $hese
a$$i$&des $ha$ gie $he i"1o!$ $o $he s$!&c$&!e o% <ha$ <e a!e dealing <i$h.
The!e a!e ce!$ain a$$i$&des <hich <e ass&"e $o<a!d a !ising col&"n o! $o<a!d i$s s&11o!$s, and <e
only hae $o hae s&gges$ions o% $he o,9ec$ $o call o&$ $hose a$$i$&des. The a!$is$ and $he sc&l1$o!
1lay &1on $hese a$$i$&des 9&s$ as $he "&sician does. Th!o&gh $he indica$ion o% $he s$i"&li each is
a,le $o ,!ing in $he !e%lec$ion o% $he co"1le=i$ies o% a !es1onse. No<, i% one can ,!ing in a n&",e! o%
$hese and ge$ a "&l$i%o!" !e%lec$ion o% all o% $hese a$$i$&des in$o ha!"ony, he calls o&$ an aes$he$ic
!es1onse <hich <e conside! ,ea&$i%&l. I$ is $he ha!"oni8ing o% $hese co"1le=i$ies o% !es1onse $ha$
cons$i$&$es $he ,ea&$y o% $he o,9ec$. The!e a!e di%%e!en$ s$i"&li calling o&$ an inde%ini$e n&",e! o%
!es1onses and $he na$&!es o% $hese a!e !e%lec$ed ,ac7 in$o o&! i""edia$e e=1e!ience, and ,!o&gh$
in$o ha!"onio&s !ela$ionshi1 <i$h each o$he!. The la$e! s$ages o% $he e=1e!ience i$sel% can ,e
1!esen$ in $he i""edia$e e=1e!ience <hich in%l&ences $he". (ien a s&%%icien$ly co"1lica$ed cen$!al
ne!o&s sys$e", <e can $hen %ind an inde%ini$e n&",e! o% !es1onses, and $hese !es1onses can ,e
no$ only i""edia$e ,&$ delayed, and as delayed can ,e al!eady in%l&encing 1!esen$ cond&c$.
0e can $h&s %ind, in so"e sense, in $he cen$!al ne!o&s sys$e" <ha$ <o&ld ans<e! $o co"1le=
o,9ec$s, <i$h $hei! so"e<ha$ ag&e and inde%ini$e "eaning, as $hey lie in o&! ac$&al e=1e!ience ??
o,9ec$s co"1le= no$ only s1a$ially ,&$ also $e"1o!ally. 0hen <e !es1ond $o any 1hase o% $hese
o,9ec$s all $he o$he! al&es a!e $he!e !eady $o 1lay in$o i$, and gie i$ i$s in$ellec$&al and e"o$ional
con$en$. I see no !eason <hy one sho&ld no$ %ind, $hen, in $he o!gani8a$ion o% $he a$$i$&de as
1!esen$ed in $he cen$!al ne!o&s sys$e", <ha$ i$ is <e !e%e! $o as $he "eaning o% $he o,9ec$, $ha$
<hich is &nie!sal. The ans<e!ing o% $he !es1onse $o an inde%ini$e n&",e! o% s$i"&li <hich a!y %!o"
each o$he! is so"e$hing $ha$ gies &s $he !ela$ion o% $he &nie!sal $o $he 1a!$ic&la!, and $he
co"1le=i$y o% $he o,9ec$ "ay ,e as inde%ini$ely g!ea$ as a!e $he ele"en$s in $he cen$!al ne!o&s
sys$e" $ha$ !e1!esen$ 1ossi,le $e"1o!al and s1a$ial co",ina$ions o% o&! o<n cond&c$. 0e can
s1ea7, $hen, legi$i"a$ely o% a ce!$ain so!$ o% !es1onse <hich a Mo!ley has $o a (lads$one, a
!es1onse $ha$ can %ind i$s e=1!ession in $he cen$!al ne!o&s sys$e", $a7ing in$o acco&n$ all o% i$s
co"1le=i$ies.
ISo %a! <e hae s$!essed $he &nie!sali$y o! gene!ali$y o% $he !es1onse as s$anding oe! agains$ $he
1a!$ic&la!i$y o% $he s$i"&l&s <hich eo7es i$. I no< <ish $o call a$$en$ion $o $he social di"ension o%
&nie!sali$y.K
Thin7ing $a7es 1lace in $e!"s o% &nie!sals, and a &nie!sal is an en$i$y $ha$ is dis$ing&isha,le %!o"
$he o,9ec$ ,y "eans o% <hich <e $hin7 i$. 0hen <e $hin7 o% a s1ade <e a!e no$ con%ined in o&!
$ho&gh$ $o any 1a!$ic&la! s1ade. No< i% <e $hin7 o% $he &nie!sal s1ade $he!e "&s$ ,e so"e$hing $ha$
<e $hin7 a,o&$, and $ha$ is con%essedly no$ gien in $he 1a!$ic&la! occ&!!ence <hich is $he occasion
o% $he $ho&gh$. The $ho&gh$ $!anscends all $he occ&!!ences. M&s$ <e ass&"e a !eal" o% s&ch
en$i$ies, essences o! s&,sis$en$s, $o acco&n$ %o! o&! $hin7ingE Tha$ is gene!ally ass&"ed ,y "ode!n
!ealis$s. De<ey>s ans<e! see"s $o ,e $ha$ <e hae isola$ed ,y o&! a,s$!ac$ing a$$en$ion ce!$ain
%ea$&!es o% s1ades <hich a!e i!!elean$ $o $he 1a!$ic&la! di%%e!en$ s1ades, $ho&gh $hey hae $hei!
e=is$ence o! ,eing in $hese 1a!$ic&la! s1ades. These cha!ac$e!s <hich <ill occ&! in any s1ade $ha$ is
a s1ade a!e $he!e%o!e i!!elean$ $o any one o% $he". 0e "ay go %a!$he! and say $ha$ $hese
cha!ac$e!s a!e i!!elean$ $o $he occ&!!ence o% $he s1ades $ha$ a!ise and a!e <o!n o&$. In o$he! <o!ds,
$hey a!e i!!elean$ $o $i"e, and "ay ,e called e$e!nal o,9ec$s o! en$i$ies. B&$, says De<ey, $his
i!!eleancy o% $hese cha!ac$e!s $o $i"e in o&! $ho&gh$ does no$ a,s$!ac$ $hei! ,eing %!o" $he
1a!$ic&la! s1ades. . . . . De<ey D&i$e ag!ees <i$h $he !ealis$s a%o!esaid $ha$ $he "eaning is no$
lodged in $he <o!d i$sel%, $ha$ is, he is no$ a no"inalis$. :e insis$s, ho<ee!, $ha$ $he "eaning
!esides in $he s1ade as a cha!ac$e! <hich has a!isen $h!o&gh $he social na$&!e o% $hin7ing. I s&11ose
<e can say in c&!!en$ $e!"inology $ha$ "eanings hae e"e!ged in social e=1e!ience, 9&s$ as colo!s
e"e!ged in $he e=1e!ience o% o!ganis"s <i$h $he a11a!a$&s o% ision.+.-
Meaning as s&ch, i.e., $he o,9ec$ o% $ho&gh$, a!ises in e=1e!ience $h!o&gh $he indiid&al s$i"&la$ing
hi"sel% $o $a7e $he a$$i$&de o% $he o$he! in his !eac$ion $o<a!d $he o,9ec$. Meaning is $ha$ <hich can
,e indica$ed $o o$he!s <hile i$ is ,y $he sa"e 1!ocess indica$ed $o $he indica$ing indiid&al. In so %a!
as $he indiid&al indica$es i$ $o hi"sel% in $he !ole o% $he o$he!, he is occ&1ying his 1e!s1ec$ie, and
as he is indica$ing i$ $o $he o$he! %!o" his o<n 1e!s1ec$ie, and as $ha$ <hich is so indica$ed is
iden$ical, i$ "&s$ ,e $ha$ <hich can ,e in di%%e!en$ 1e!s1ec$ies. I$ "&s$ $he!e%o!e ,e a &nie!sal, a$
leas$ in $he iden$i$y <hich ,elongs $o $he di%%e!en$ 1e!s1ec$ies <hich a!e o!gani8ed in $he single
1e!s1ec$ie, and in so %a! as $he 1!inci1le o% o!gani8a$ion is one <hich ad"i$s o% o$he! 1e!s1ec$ies
$han $hose ac$&ally 1!esen$, $he &nie!sali$y "ay ,e logically inde%ini$ely e=$ended. I$s &nie!sali$y in
cond&c$, ho<ee!, a"o&n$s only $o $he i!!eleance o% $he di%%e!ences o% $he di%%e!en$ 1e!s1ec$ies $o
$he cha!ac$e!s <hich a!e indica$ed ,y $he signi%ican$ sy",ols in &se, i.e., $he ges$&!es <hich
indica$e $o $he indiid&al <ho &ses $he" <ha$ $hey indica$e $o $he o$he!s, %o! <ho" $hey se!e as
a11!o1!ia$e s$i"&li in $he coo1e!a$ie 1!ocess.+/-
The signi%ican$ ges$&!e o! sy",ol al<ays 1!es&11oses %o! i$s signi%icance $he social 1!ocess o%
e=1e!ience and ,ehaio! in <hich i$ a!ises@ o!, as $he logicians say, a &nie!se o% disco&!se is
al<ays i"1lied as $he con$e=$ in $e!"s o% <hich, o! as $he %ield <i$hin <hich, signi%ican$ ges$&!es o!
sy",ols do in %ac$ hae signi%icance. This &nie!se o% disco&!se is cons$i$&$ed ,y a g!o&1 o%
indiid&als ca!!ying on and 1a!$ici1a$ing in a co""on social 1!ocess o% e=1e!ience+0- and ,ehaio!,
<i$hin <hich $hese ges$&!es o! sy",ols hae $he sa"e o! co""on "eanings %o! all "e",e!s o% $ha$
g!o&1, <he$he! $hey "a7e $he" o! add!ess $he" $o o$he! indiid&als, o! <he$he! $hey oe!$ly
!es1ond $o $he" as "ade o! add!essed $o $he" ,y o$he! indiid&als. A &nie!se o% disco&!se is
si"1ly a sys$e" o% co""on o! social "eanings.+1-
The e!y &nie!sali$y and i"1e!sonali$y o% $ho&gh$ and !eason is %!o" $he ,ehaio!is$ic s$and1oin$
$he !es&l$ o% $he gien indiid&al $a7ing $he a$$i$&des o% o$he!s $o<a!d hi"sel%, and o% his %inally
c!ys$alli8ing all $hese 1a!$ic&la! a$$i$&des in$o a single a$$i$&de o! s$and1oin$ <hich "ay ,e called $ha$
o% $he -gene!ali8ed o$he!.-
Al$e!na$ie <ays o% ac$ing &nde! an inde%ini$e n&",e! o% di%%e!en$ 1a!$ic&la! condi$ions o! in an
inde%ini$e n&",e! o% di%%e!en$ 1ossi,le si$&a$ions ? <ays <hich a!e "o!e o! less iden$ical %o! an
inde%ini$e n&",e! o% no!"al indiid&als? a!e all $ha$ &nie!sals Aho<ee! $!ea$ed in logic o!
"e$a1hysicsB !eally a"o&n$ $o@ $hey a!e "eaningless a1a!$ %!o" $he social ac$s in <hich $hey a!e
i"1lica$ed and %!o" <hich $hey de!ie $hei! signi%icance.+2-
"ndnotes
1. A,s$!ac$ion and &nie!sals a!e d&e $o con%lic$ and inhi,i$ion; a <all is so"e$hing $o ,e
aoided and so"e$hing $o ,e 9&"1ed, and <hile ,o$h i$ is "en$al, a conce1$. Lang&age
"a7es i$ 1ossi,le $o hold on $o $hese "en$al o,9ec$s. A,s$!ac$ions e=is$ %o! lo<e! ani"als ,&$
$hey canno$ hold $he" A13#)B.
2. IThis 1a!ag!a1h is selec$ed %!o" a "an&sc!i1$, -The Philoso1hy o% Cohn De<ey,.- To ,e
1&,lished in $he 13'. International Journal of !thicsK
'. IPa!ag!a1h selec$ed %!o" MS.K
). A co""on <o!ld e=is$s .... only in so %a! as $he!e is a co""on Ag!o&1B e=1e!ience AMS.B
+. O&! socalled la<s o% $ho&gh$ a!e $he a,s$!ac$ions o% social in$e!co&!se. O&! <hole 1!ocess o%
a,s$!ac$ $ho&gh$, $echniD&e and "e$hod is essen$ially social A131#B.
The o!gani8a$ion o% $he social ac$ ans<e!s $o <ha$ <e call $he &nie!sal. F&nc$ionally i$ is $he
&nie!sal A13'5B.
.. All $he end&!ing !ela$ions hae ,een s&,9ec$ $o !eision. The!e !e"ain $he logical cons$an$s,
and $he ded&c$ions %!o" logical i"1lica$ions. To $he sa"e ca$ego!y ,elong $he so?called
&nie!sals o! conce1$s. They a!e $he ele"en$s and s$!&c$&!e o% a &nie!se o% disco&!se. In so
%a! as in social cond&c$ <i$h o$he!s and <i$h o&!seles <e indica$e $he cha!ac$e!s $ha$
end&!e in $he 1e!s1ec$ie o% $he g!o&1 $o <hich <e ,elong and o&$ o% <hich <e a!ise, <e a!e
indica$ing $ha$ <hich !ela$ie $o o&! cond&c$ is &nchanged, $o <hich, in o$he! <o!ds, 1assage
is i!!elean$. A "e$a1hysics <hich li%$s $hese logical ele"en$s o&$ o% $hei! e=1e!ien$ial ha,i$a$
and endo<s $he" <i$h a s&,sis$en$ial ,eing oe!loo7s $he %ac$ $ha$ $he i!!eleance $o
1assage is s$!ic$ly !ela$ie $o $he si$&a$ion in cond&c$ <i$hin <hich $he !e%lec$ion a!ises, $ha$
<hile <e can %ind in di%%e!en$ si$&a$ions a "e$hod o% cone!sa$ion and so o% $ho&gh$ <hich
1!oes i!!elean$ $o $he di%%e!ences in $he si$&a$ions, and so 1!oides a "e$hod o% $!ansla$ion
%!o" one 1e!s1ec$ie $o ano$he!, $his i!!eleance ,elongs only $o $he <ide! cha!ac$e! <hich
$he 1!o,le" in !e%lec$ion ass&"es, and nee! $!anscends $he social cond&c$ <i$hin <hich $he
"e$hod a!ises AMS.B.
,/# TH" (%T4*" $3 *"3&"CTIV" I(T"&&IG"(C"
In $he $y1e o% $e"1o!a!y inhi,i$ion o% ac$ion <hich signi%ies $hin7ing, o! in <hich !e%lec$ion a!ises, <e
hae 1!esen$ed in $he e=1e!ience o% $he indiid&al, $en$a$iely and in adance and %o! his selec$ion
a"ong $he", $he di%%e!en$ 1ossi,ili$ies o! al$e!na$ies o% %&$&!e ac$ion o1en $o hi" <i$hin $he gien
social si$&a$ion ?? $he di%%e!en$ o! al$e!na$ie <ays o% co"1le$ing $he gien social ac$ <he!ein he is
i"1lica$ed, o! <hich he has al!eady ini$ia$ed. *e%lec$ion o! !e%lec$ie ,ehaio! a!ises only &nde! $he
condi$ions o% sel%?conscio&sness, and "a7es 1ossi,le $he 1&!1osie con$!ol and o!gani8a$ion ,y $he
indiid&al o!ganis" o% i$s cond&c$ <i$h !e%e!ence $o i$s social and 1hysical eni!on"en$, i.e., <i$h
!e%e!ence $o $he a!io&s social and 1hysical si$&a$ions in <hich i$ ,eco"es inoled and $o <hich i$
!eac$s. The o!gani8a$ion o% $he sel% is si"1ly $he o!gani8a$ion, ,y $he indiid&al o!ganis", o% $he se$
o% a$$i$&des $o<a!d i$s social eni!on"en$?and $o<a!d i$sel% %!o" $he s$and1oin$ o% $ha$ eni!on"en$,
o! as a %&nc$ioning ele"en$ in $he 1!ocess o% social e=1e!ience and ,ehaio! cons$i$&$ing $ha$
eni!on"en$?<hich i$ is a,le $o $a7e. I$ is essen$ial $ha$ s&ch !e%lec$ie in$elligence ,e deal$ <i$h %!o"
$he 1oin$ o% ie< o% social ,ehaio!is".
I said a "o"en$ ago $ha$ $he!e is so"e$hing inoled in o&! s$a$e"en$ o% $he "eaning o% an o,9ec$
<hich is "o!e $han $he "e!e !es1onse, ho<ee! co"1le= $ha$ "ay ,e. 0e "ay !es1ond $o a
"&sical 1h!ase and $he!e "ay ,e no$hing in $he e=1e!ience ,eyond $he !es1onse@ <e "ay no$ ,e
a,le $o say <hy <e !es1ond o! <ha$ i$ is <e !es1ond $o. O&! a$$i$&de "ay si"1ly ,e $ha$ <e li7e
so"e "&sic and do no$ li7e o$he! "&sic. Mos$ o% o&! !ecogni$ions a!e o% $his so!$. 0e 1ic7 o&$ $he
,oo7 <e <an$ ,&$ co&ld no$ say <ha$ $he cha!ac$e! o% $he ,oo7 is. 0e 1!o,a,ly co&ld gie a "o!e
de$ailed acco&n$ o% $he co&n$enance o% a "an <e "ee$ %o! $he %i!s$ $i"e $han o% o&! "os$ in$i"a$e
%!iends. 0i$h o&! %!iends <e a!e !eady $o s$a!$ o&! cone!sa$ion $he "o"en$ $hey a!e $he!e@ <e do
no$ hae $o "a7e s&!e <ho $hey a!e. B&$ i% <e $!y $o 1ic7 o&$ a "an <ho has ,een desc!i,ed $o &s
<e na!!o<ly e=a"ine $he 1e!son $o "a7e s&!e he ans<e!s $o $he acco&n$ $ha$ is gien $o &s. 0i$h a
1e!son <i$h <ho" <e a!e %a"ilia! <e ca!!y on o&! cone!sa$ion <i$ho&$ $hin7ing o% $hese $hings.
Mos$ o% o&! 1!ocesses o% !ecogni$ion do no$ inole $his iden$i%ica$ion o% $he cha!ac$e!s <hich ena,le
&s $o iden$i%y $he o,9ec$s. 0e "ay hae $o desc!i,e a 1e!son and <e %ind <e canno$ do i$?<e 7no<
hi" $oo <ell. 0e "ay hae $o 1ic7 $hose de$ails o&$, and $hen i% <e a!e $a7ing a c!i$ical a$$i$&de <e
hae $o %ind o&$ <ha$ i$ is in $he o,9ec$ $ha$ calls o&$ $his co"1le= !es1onse. 0hen <e a!e doing $ha$
<e a!e ge$$ing a s$a$e"en$ o% <ha$ $he na$&!e o% $he o,9ec$ is, o! i% yo& li7e, i$s "eaning. 0e hae $o
indica$e $o o&!seles <ha$ i$ is $ha$ calls o&$ $his 1a!$ic&la! !es1onse. 0e !ecogni8e a 1e!son, say,
,eca&se o% $he cha!ac$e! o% his 1hysiD&e. I% one sho&ld co"e in$o $he !oo" g!ea$ly changed ,y a
long a$$ac7 o% sic7ness, o! ,y e=1os&!e $o $he $!o1ical s&n, one>s %!iends <o&ld no$ ,e a,le $o
!ecogni8e hi" i""edia$ely. The!e a!e ce!$ain ele"en$s <hich ena,le &s $o !ecogni8e a %!iend. 0e
"ay hae $o 1ic7 o&$ $he cha!ac$e!s <hich "a7e !ecogni$ion s&ccess%&l, $o indica$e $hose cha!ac$e!s
$o so"e,ody o! $o o&!seles. 0e "ay hae $o de$e!"ine <ha$ $he s$i"&li a!e $ha$ call o&$ a
!es1onse o% $his co"1le= cha!ac$e!. Tha$ is o%$en a e!y di%%ic&l$ $hing $o do, as is eidenced ,y
"&sical c!i$icis". A <hole a&dience "ay ,e s<e1$ a<ay ,y a co"1osi$ion and 1e!ha1s no$ a 1e!son
$he!e <ill ,e a,le $o s$a$e <ha$ i$ is in $he 1!od&c$ion $ha$ calls o&$ $his 1a!$ic&la! !es1onse, o! $o $ell
<ha$ $he a!io&s !eac$ions a!e in $hese indiid&als. I$ is an &n&s&al gi%$ <hich can analy8e $ha$ so!$
o% an o,9ec$ and 1ic7 o&$ <ha$ $he s$i"&l&s is %o! so co"1le= an ac$ion.
0ha$ I <an$ $o call a$$en$ion $o is $he 1!ocess ,y <hich $he!e is an indica$ion o% $hose cha!ac$e!s
<hich do call o&$ $he !es1onse. Ani"als o% a $y1e lo<e! $han "an !es1ond $o ce!$ain cha!ac$e!s <i$h
a nice$y $ha$ is ,eyond h&"an ca1aci$y, s&ch as odo! in $he case o% a dog. B&$ i$ <o&ld ,e ,eyond
$he ca1aci$y o% a dog $o indica$e $o ano$he! dog <ha$ $he odo! <as. Ano$he! dog co&ld no$ ,e sen$
o&$ ,y $he %i!s$ dog $o 1ic7 o&$ $his odo!. A "an "ay $ell ho< $o iden$i%y ano$he! "an. :e can indica$e
<ha$ $he cha!ac$e!s a!e $ha$ <ill ,!ing a,o&$ a ce!$ain !es1onse. Tha$ a,ili$y a,sol&$ely dis$ing&ishes
$he in$elligence o% s&ch a !e%lec$ie ,eing as "an %!o" $ha$ o% $he lo<e! ani"als, ho<ee! in$elligen$
$hey "ay ,e. 0e gene!ally say $ha$ "an is a !a$ional ani"al and lo<e! ani"als a!e no$. 0ha$ I
<an$ed $o sho<, a$ leas$ in $e!"s o% ,ehaio!is$ic 1sychology, is $ha$ <ha$ <e hae in "ind in $his
dis$inc$ion is $he indica$ion o% $hose cha!ac$e!s <hich lead $o $he so!$ o% !es1onse <hich <e gie $o
an o,9ec$. Poin$ing o&$ $he cha!ac$e!s <hich lead $o $he !es1onse is 1!ecisely $ha$ <hich
dis$ing&ishes a de$ec$ie o%%ice $ha$ sends o&$ a "an, %!o" a ,loodho&nd <hich !&ns do<n a "an.
:e!e a!e $<o $y1es o% in$elligence, each one s1eciali8ed@ $he de$ec$ie co&ld no$ do <ha$ $he
,loodho&nd does and $he ,loodho&nd co&ld no$ do <ha$ $he de$ec$ie does. No<, $he in$elligence o%
$he de$ec$ie oe! agains$ $he in$elligence o% $he ,loodho&nd lies in $his ca1aci$y $o indica$e <ha$ $he
1a!$ic&la! cha!ac$e!s a!e <hich <ill call o&$ his !es1onse o% $a7ing $he "an.+,-
S&ch <o&ld ,e a ,ehaio!is$>s acco&n$ o% <ha$ is inoled in !eason. 0hen yo& a!e !easoning yo&
a!e indica$ing $o yo&!sel% $he cha!ac$e!s $ha$ call o&$ ce!$ain !es1onses?and $ha$ is all yo& a!e doing.
I% yo& hae $he angle and a side yo& can de$e!"ine $he a!ea o% a $!iangle@ gien ce!$ain cha!ac$e!s
$he!e a!e ce!$ain !es1onses indica$ed. The!e a!e o$he! 1!ocesses, no$ e=ac$ly !a$ional, o&$ o% <hich
yo& can ,&ild &1 ne< !es1onses %!o" old ones. Yo& "ay 1ic7 o&$ !es1onses <hich a!e $he!e in
o$he! !eac$ions and 1&$ $he" $oge$he!. A ,oo7 o% di!ec$ions "ay 1!oide a se$ o% s$i"&li <hich lead
$o a ce!$ain se$ o% !es1onses, and yo& 1ic7 $he" o&$ o% yo&! o$he! co"1le= !es1onses, 1e!ha1s as
$hey hae no$ ,een 1ic7ed o&$ ,e%o!e. 0hen yo& <!i$e on a $y1e<!i$e! yo& "ay ,e ins$!&c$ed as $o
$he <ay in <hich $o &se i$. Yo& can ,&ild &1 a %ai!ly good $echniD&e $o s$a!$ <i$h, ,&$ een $ha$ is a
1!ocess <hich s$ill inoles $he indica$ion o% $he s$i"&li $o call o&$ $he a!io&s !es1onses. Yo& &ni$e
s$i"&li <hich hae no$ ,een &ni$ed in $he 1as$, and $hen $hese s$i"&li $a7e <i$h $he" $he co"1o&nd
!es1onses. I$ "ay ,e a c!&de !es1onse a$ %i!s$, and "&s$ ,e %!eed %!o" $he !es1onses had in $he
1as$. The <ay in <hich yo& !eac$ $o<a!d $he do&,ling o% le$$e!s <hen yo& <!i$e is di%%e!en$ %!o" $he
<ay yo& !eac$ in <!i$ing $he le$$e!s on a $y1e<!i$e!. Yo& "a7e "is$a7es ,eca&se $he !es1onses yo&
&$ili8e hae ,een di%%e!en$, hae ,een connec$ed <i$h a <hole se$ o% o$he! !es1onses. A d!a<ing
$eache! <ill so"e$i"es hae 1&1ils d!a< <i$h $he le%$ hand !a$he! $han $he !igh$, ,eca&se $he ha,i$s
o% $he !igh$ hand a!e e!y di%%ic&l$ $o ge$ !id o%. This is <ha$ yo& a!e doing <hen yo& ac$ in a !a$ional
%ashion; yo& a!e indica$ing $o yo&!sel% <ha$ $he s$i"&li a!e $ha$ <ill call o&$ a co"1le= !es1onse, and
,y $he o!de! o% $he s$i"&li yo& a!e de$e!"ining <ha$ $he <hole o% $he !es1onse <ill ,e. No<, $o ,e
a,le $o indica$e $hose s$i"&li $o o$he! 1e!sons o! $o yo&!sel% is <ha$ <e call !a$ional cond&c$ as
dis$inc$ %!o" $he &n!easoning in$elligence o% $he lo<e! ani"als, and %!o" a good deal o% o&! o<n
cond&c$.
Man is dis$ing&ished ,y $ha$ 1o<e! o% analysis o% $he %ield o% s$i"&la$ion <hich ena,les hi" $o 1ic7
o&$ one s$i"&l&s !a$he! $han ano$he! and so $o hold on $o $he !es1onse $ha$ ,elongs $o $ha$ s$i"&l&s,
1ic7ing i$ o&$ %!o" o$he!s, and !eco",ining i$ <i$h o$he!s. Yo& canno$ ge$ a loc7 $o <o!7. Yo& no$ice
ce!$ain ele"en$s, each o% <hich ,!ings o&$ a ce!$ain so!$ o% !es1onse@ and <ha$ yo& a!e doing is
holding on $o $hese 1!ocesses o% !es1onse ,y giing a$$en$ion $o $he s$i"&li. Man can co",ine no$
only $he !es1onses al!eady $he!e, <hich is $he $hing an ani"al lo<e! $han "an can do, ,&$ $he
h&"an indiid&al can ge$ in$o his ac$ii$ies and ,!ea7 $he" &1, giing a$$en$ion $o s1eci%ic ele"en$s,
holding $he !es1onses $ha$ ans<e! $o $hese 1a!$ic&la! s$i"&li, and $hen co",ining $he" $o ,&ild &1
ano$he! ac$. Tha$ is <ha$ <e "ean ,y lea!ning o! ,y $eaching a 1e!son $o do a $hing. Yo& indica$e $o
hi" ce!$ain s1eci%ic 1hases o! cha!ac$e!s o% $he o,9ec$ <hich call o&$ ce!$ain so!$s o% !es1onses. 0e
s$a$e $ha$ gene!ally ,y saying conscio&sness acco"1anies only $he senso!y 1!ocess and no$ $he
"o$o! 1!ocess. 0e can di!ec$ly con$!ol $he senso!y ,&$ no$ $he "o$o! 1!ocesses@ <e can gie o&!
a$$en$ion $o a 1a!$ic&la! ele"en$ in $he %ield and ,y giing s&ch a$$en$ion and so holding on $o $he
s$i"&l&s <e can ge$ con$!ol o% $he !es1onse. Tha$ is $he <ay <e ge$ con$!ol o% o&! ac$ion@ <e do no$
di!ec$ly con$!ol o&! !es1onse $h!o&gh $he "o$o! 1a$hs $he"seles.
The!e is no ca1aci$y in $he lo<e! %o!"s $o gie a$$en$ion $o so"e analy8ed ele"en$ in $he %ield o%
s$i"&la$ion <hich <o&ld ena,le $he" $o con$!ol $he !es1onse. B&$ one can say $o a 1e!son -Loo7 a$
$his, 9&s$ see $his $hing- and he can %as$en his a$$en$ion on $he s1eci%ic o,9ec$. :e can di!ec$ a$$en$ion
and so isola$e $he 1a!$ic&la! !es1onse $ha$ ans<e!s $o i$. Tha$ is $he <ay in <hich <e ,!ea7 &1 o&!
co"1le= ac$ii$ies and $he!e,y "a7e lea!ning 1ossi,le. 0ha$ $a7es 1lace is an analysis o% $he
1!ocess ,y giing a$$en$ion $o $he s1eci%ic s$i"&li $ha$ call o&$ a 1a!$ic&la! ac$, and $his analysis
"a7es 1ossi,le a !econs$!&c$ion o% $he ac$. An ani"al "a7es co",ina$ions, as <e say, only ,y $!ial
and e!!o!, and $he co",ina$ion $ha$ is s&ccess%&l si"1ly "ain$ains i$sel%.
The ges$&!e as <o!7ed o&$ in $he cond&c$ o% $he h&"an g!o&1 se!es de%ini$ely $o indica$e 9&s$ $hese
ele"en$s and $h&s $o ,!ing $he" <i$hin $he %ield o% ol&n$a!y a$$en$ion. The!e is, o% co&!se, a
%&nda"en$al li7eness ,e$<een ol&n$a!y a$$en$ion and inol&n$a!y a$$en$ion. A ,!igh$ ligh$, a 1ec&lia!
odo!, "ay ,e so"e$hing <hich $a7es co"1le$e con$!ol o% $he o!ganis" and in so %a! inhi,i$s o$he!
ac$ii$y. A ol&n$a!y ac$ion, ho<ee!, is de1enden$ &1on $he indica$ion o% a ce!$ain cha!ac$e!,
1oin$ing i$ o&$, holding on $o i$, and so holding on $o $he !es1onse $ha$ ,elongs $o i$. Tha$ so!$ o% an
analysis is essen$ial $o <ha$ <e call h&"an in$elligence, and i$ is "ade 1ossi,le ,y lang&age.
The 1sychology o% a$$en$ion o&s$ed $he 1sychology o% associa$ion. An inde%ini$e n&",e! o%
associa$ions <e!e %o&nd <hich lie in o&! e=1e!ience <i$h !e%e!ence $o any$hing $ha$ co"es ,e%o!e
&s, ,&$ associa$ional 1sychology nee! e=1lained <hy one associa$ion !a$he! $han ano$he! <as $he
do"inan$ one. I$ laid do<n !&les $ha$ i% a ce!$ain associa$ion had ,een in$ense, !ecen$, and %!eD&en$
i$ <o&ld ,e do"inan$, ,&$ o%$en $he!e a!e in %ac$ si$&a$ions in <hich <ha$ see"s $o ,e $he <ea7es$
ele"en$ in $he si$&a$ion occ&1ies $he "ind. I$ <as no$ &n$il $he 1sychologis$ $oo7 &1 $he analysis o%
a$$en$ion $ha$ he <as a,le $o deal <i$h s&ch si$&a$ions, and $o !eali8e $ha$ ol&n$a!y a$$en$ion is
de1enden$ &1on indica$ion o% so"e cha!ac$e! in $he %ield o% s$i"&la$ion. S&ch indica$ion "a7es
1ossi,le $he isola$ion and !eco",ina$ion o% !es1onses.
In $he case o% $he ocal ges$&!e $he!e is a $endency $o call o&$ $he !es1onse in one %o!" $ha$ is called
o&$ in $he o$he!, so $ha$ $he child 1lays $he 1a!$ o% 1a!en$, o% $eache!, o! 1!eache!. The ges$&!e &nde!
$hose condi$ions calls o&$ ce!$ain !es1onses in $he indiid&al <hich i$ calls o&$ in $he o$he! 1e!son,
and ca!!ying i$ o&$ in $he indiid&al isola$es $ha$ 1a!$ic&la! cha!ac$e! o% $he s$i"&l&s. The !es1onse o%
$he o$he! is $he!e in $he indiid&al isola$ing $he s$i"&l&s. I% one calls o&$ D&ic7ly $o a 1e!son in
dange!, he hi"sel% is in $he a$$i$&de o% 9&"1ing a<ay, $ho&gh $he ac$ is no$ 1e!%o!"ed. :e is no$ in
dange!, ,&$ he has $hose 1a!$ic&la! ele"en$s o% $he !es1onse in hi"sel%, and <e s1ea7 o% $he" as
"eanings. S$a$ed in $e!"s o% $he cen$!al ne!o&s sys$e", $his "eans $ha$ he has s$i!!ed &1 i$s &11e!
$!ac$s <hich <o&ld lead $o $he ac$&al 9&"1ing a<ay. A 1e!son 1ic7s o&$ $he di%%e!en$ !es1onses
inoled in esca1e <hen he en$e!s $he $hea$e! and no$ices $he signs on $he 1!og!a" ca&$ioning hi"
$o choose $he nea!es$ e=i$ in case o% %i!e. :e has all $he di%%e!en$ !es1onses, so $o s1ea7, lis$ed
,e%o!e hi", and he 1!e1a!es <ha$ he is going $o do ,y 1ic7ing o&$ $he di%%e!en$ ele"en$s and 1&$$ing
$he" $oge$he! in $he <ay !eD&i!ed. The e%%iciency enginee! co"es in $o 1ic7 o&$ $his, $ha$, o! $he
o$he! $hing, and chooses $he o!de! in <hich $hey sho&ld ,e ca!!ied o&$. One is doing $he sa"e
hi"sel% in so %a! as he is sel%?conscio&s. 0he!e <e hae $o de$e!"ine <ha$ <ill ,e $he o!de! o% a se$
o% !es1onses, <e a!e 1&$$ing $he" $oge$he! in a ce!$ain %ashion, and <e can do $his ,eca&se <e can
indica$e $he o!de! o% $he s$i"&li <hich a!e going $o ac$ &1on &s. Tha$ is <ha$ is inoled in $he
h&"an in$elligence as dis$ing&ished %!o" $he in$elligence $y1e o% $he lo<e! %o!"s. 0e canno$ $ell an
ele1han$ $ha$ he is $o $a7e hold o% $he o$he! ele1han$>s $ail@ $he s$i"&l&s <ill no$ indica$e $he sa"e
$hing $o $he ele1han$ as $o o&!seles. 0e can c!ea$e a si$&a$ion <hich is a s$i"&l&s $o $he ele1han$
,&$ <e canno$ ge$ $he ele1han$ $o indica$e $o i$sel% <ha$ $his s$i"&l&s is so $ha$ he has $he !es1onse
$o i$ in his o<n sys$e".
The ges$&!e 1!oides a 1!ocess ,y "eans o% <hich one does a!o&se in hi"sel% $he !eac$ion $ha$
"igh$ ,e a!o&sed in ano$he!, and $his is no$ a 1a!$ o% his i""edia$e !eac$ion in so %a! as his
i""edia$e 1hysical eni!on"en$ is conce!ned. 0hen <e $ell a 1e!son $o do so"e$hing $he !es1onse
<e hae is no$ $he doing o% $he ac$&al $hing, ,&$ $he ,eginning o% i$. Co""&nica$ion gies $o &s $hose
ele"en$s o% !es1onse <hich can ,e held in $he "en$al %ield. 0e do no$ ca!!y $he" o&$, ,&$ $hey a!e
$he!e cons$i$&$ing $he "eanings o% $hese o,9ec$s <hich <e indica$e. Lang&age is a 1!ocess o%
indica$ing ce!$ain s$i"&li and changing $he !es1onse $o $he" in $he sys$e" o% ,ehaio!. Lang&age as
a social 1!ocess has "ade i$ 1ossi,le %o! &s $o 1ic7 o&$ !es1onses and hold $he" in $he o!ganis" o%
$he indiid&al, so $ha$ $hey a!e $he!e in !ela$ion $o $ha$ <hich <e indica$e. The ac$&al ges$&!e is,
<i$hin li"i$s, a!,i$!a!y. 0he$he! one 1oin$s <i$h his %inge!, o! 1oin$s <i$h $he glance o% $he eye, o!
"o$ion o% $he head, o! $he a$$i$&de o% $he ,ody, o! ,y "eans o% a ocal ges$&!e in one lang&age o!
ano$he!, is indi%%e!en$, 1!oided i$ does call o&$ $he !es1onse $ha$ ,elongs $o $ha$ $hing <hich is
indica$ed. Tha$ is $he essen$ial 1a!$ o% lang&age. The ges$&!e "&s$ ,e one $ha$ calls o&$ $he
!es1onse in $he indiid&al, o! $ends $o call o&$ $he !es1onse in $he indiid&al, <hich i$s &$ili8a$ion <ill
,!ing o&$ in ano$he!>s !es1onse. S&ch is $he "a$e!ial <i$h <hich $he "ind <o!7s. :o<ee! sligh$,
$he!e "&s$ ,e so"e so!$ o% ges$&!e. To hae $he !es1onse isola$ed <i$ho&$ an indica$ion o% a
s$i"&l&s is al"os$ a con$!adic$ion in $e!"s. I hae ,een $!ying $o 1oin$ o&$ <ha$ $his 1!ocess o%
co""&nica$ion does in $he <ay o% 1!oiding &s <i$h $he "a$e!ial $ha$ e=is$s in o&! "ind. I$ does $his
,y %&!nishing $hose ges$&!es <hich in a%%ec$ing &s as $hey a%%ec$ o$he!s call o&$ $he a$$i$&de <hich $he
o$he! $a7es, and $ha$ <e $a7e in so %a! as <e ass&"e his !Mle. 0e ge$ $he a$$i$&de, $he "eaning,
<i$hin $he %ield o% o&! o<n con$!ol, and $ha$ con$!ol consis$s in co",ining all $hese a!io&s 1ossi,le
!es1onses $o %&!nish $he ne<ly cons$!&c$ed ac$ de"anded ,y $he 1!o,le". In s&ch a <ay <e can
s$a$e !a$ional cond&c$ in $e!"s o% a ,ehaio!is$ic 1sychology.
I <ish $o add one %&!$he! %ac$o! $o o&! acco&n$; $he !ela$ion o% $he $e"1o!al cha!ac$e! o% $he ne!o&s
sys$e" $o %o!esigh$ and choice .+.-
The cen$!al ne!o&s sys$e" "a7es 1ossi,le $he i"1lici$ ini$ia$ion o% a n&",e! o% 1ossi,le al$e!na$ie
!es1onses <i$h !e%e!ence $o any gien o,9ec$ o! o,9ec$s %o! $he co"1le$ion o% any al!eady ini$ia$ed
ac$, in adance o% $he ac$&al co"1le$ion o% $ha$ ac$@ and $h&s "a7es 1ossi,le $he e=e!cise o%
in$elligen$ o! !e%lec$ie choice in $he acce1$ance o% $ha$ one a"ong $hese 1ossi,le al$e!na$ie
!es1onses <hich is $o ,e ca!!ied in$o oe!$ e%%ec$.+/-
:&"an in$elligence, ,y "eans o% $he 1hysiological "echanis" o% $he h&"an cen$!al ne!o&s
sys$e", deli,e!a$ely selec$s one %!o" a"ong $he see!al al$e!na$ie !es1onses <hich a!e 1ossi,le in
$he gien 1!o,le"a$ic eni!on"en$al si$&a$ion@ and i% $he gien !es1onse <hich i$ selec$s is co"1le=?
i.e., is a se$ o! chain o! g!o&1 o! s&ccession o% si"1le !es1onses?i$ can o!gani8e $his se$ o! chain o%
si"1le !es1onses in s&ch a <ay as $o "a7e 1ossi,le $he "os$ adeD&a$e and ha!"onio&s sol&$ion ,y
$he indiid&al o% $he gien eni!on"en$al 1!o,le".
I$ is $he en$!ance o% $he al$e!na$ie 1ossi,ili$ies o% %&$&!e !es1onse in$o $he de$e!"ina$ion o% 1!esen$
cond&c$ in any gien eni!on"en$al si$&a$ion, and $hei! o1e!a$ion, $h!o&gh $he "echanis" o% $he
cen$!al ne!o&s sys$e", as 1a!$ o% $he %ac$o!s o! condi$ions de$e!"ining 1!esen$ ,ehaio!, <hich
decisiely con$!as$s in$elligen$ cond&c$ o! ,ehaio! <i$h !e%le=, ins$inc$ie, and ha,i$&al cond&c$ o!
,ehaio!??delayed !eac$ion <i$h i""edia$e !eac$ion. Tha$ <hich $a7es 1lace in 1!esen$ o!ganic
,ehaio! is al<ays in so"e sense an e"e!gen$ %!o" $he 1as$, and nee! co&ld hae ,een 1!ecisely
1!edic$ed in adance?nee! co&ld hae ,een 1!edic$ed on $he ,asis o% a 7no<ledge, ho<ee!
co"1le$e, o% $he 1as$, and o% $he condi$ions in $he 1as$ <hich a!e !elean$ $o i$s e"e!gence@ and in
$he case o% o!ganic ,ehaio! <hich is in$elligen$ly con$!olled, $his ele"en$ o% s1on$anei$y is
es1ecially 1!o"inen$ ,y i!$&e o% $he 1!esen$ in%l&ence e=e!cised oe! s&ch ,ehaio! ,y $he 1ossi,le
%&$&!e !es&l$s o! conseD&ences <hich i$ "ay hae. O&! ideas o% o! a,o&$ %&$&!e cond&c$ a!e o&!
$endencies $o ac$ in see!al al$e!na$ie <ays in $he 1!esence o% a gien eni!on"en$al si$&a$ion?
$endencies o! a$$i$&des <hich can a11ea!, o! ,e i"1lici$ly a!o&sed, in $he s$!&c$&!e o% $he cen$!al
ne!o&s sys$e" in adance o% $he oe!$ !es1onse o! !eac$ion $o $ha$ si$&a$ion, and <hich $h&s can
en$e! as de$e!"ining %ac$o!s in$o $he con$!ol o! selec$ion o% $his oe!$ !es1onse. Ideas, as dis$inc$
%!o" ac$s, o! as %ailing $o iss&e in oe!$ ,ehaio!, a!e si"1ly <ha$ <e do no$ do@ $hey a!e 1ossi,ili$ies
o% oe!$ !es1onses <hich <e $es$ o&$ i"1lici$ly in $he cen$!al ne!o&s sys$e" and $hen !e9ec$ in %ao!
o% $hose <hich <e do in %ac$ ac$ &1on o! ca!!y in$o e%%ec$. The 1!ocess o% in$elligen$ cond&c$ is
essen$ially a 1!ocess o% selec$ion %!o" a"ong a!io&s al$e!na$ies@ In$elligence is la!gely a "a$$e! o%
selec$ii$y.
Delayed !eac$ion is necessa!y $o in$elligen$ cond&c$. The o!gani8a$ion, i"1lici$ $es$ing, and %inal
selec$ion ,y $he indiid&al o% his oe!$ !es1onses o! !eac$ions $o $he social si$&a$ions <hich con%!on$
hi" and <hich 1!esen$ hi" <i$h 1!o,le"s o% ad9&s$"en$, <o&ld ,e i"1ossi,le i% his oe!$ !es1onses
o! !eac$ions co&ld no$ in s&ch si$&a$ions ,e delayed &n$il $his 1!ocess o% o!gani8ing, i"1lici$ly $es$ing,
and %inally selec$ing is ca!!ied o&$@ $ha$ is, <o&ld ,e i"1ossi,le i% so"e oe!$ !es1onse o! o$he! $o
$he gien eni!on"en$al s$i"&li had $o ,e i""edia$e. 0i$ho&$ delayed !eac$ion, o! e=ce1$ in $e!"s o%
i$, no conscio&s o! in$elligen$ con$!ol oe! ,ehaio! co&ld ,e e=e!cised@ %o! i$ is $h!o&gh $his 1!ocess
o% selec$ie !eac$ion?<hich can ,e selec$ie only ,eca&se i$ is delayed?$ha$ in$elligence o1e!a$es in
$he de$e!"ina$ion o% ,ehaio!. Indeed, i$ is $his 1!ocess <hich cons$i$&$es in$elligence. The cen$!al
ne!o&s sys$e" 1!oides no$ only $he necessa!y 1hysiological "echanis" %o! $his 1!ocess, ,&$ also
$he necessa!y 1hysiological condi$ion o% delayed !eac$ion <hich $his 1!ocess 1!es&11oses.
In$elligence is essen$ially $he a,ili$y $o sole $he 1!o,le"s o% 1!esen$ ,ehaio! in $e!"s o% i$s 1ossi,le
%&$&!e conseD&ences as i"1lica$ed on $he ,asis o% 1as$ e=1e!ience?$he a,ili$y, $ha$ is, $o sole $he
1!o,le"s o% 1!esen$ ,ehaio! in $he ligh$ o%, o! ,y !e%e!ence $o, ,o$h $he 1as$ and $he %&$&!e@ i$
inoles ,o$h "e"o!y and %o!esigh$. And $he 1!ocess o% e=e!cising in$elligence is $he 1!ocess o%
delaying, o!gani8ing, and selec$ing a !es1onse o! !eac$ion $o $he s$i"&li o% $he gien eni!on"en$al
si$&a$ion. The 1!ocess is "ade 1ossi,le ,y $he "echanis" o% $he cen$!al ne!o&s sys$e", <hich
1e!"i$s $he indiid&al>s $a7ing o% $he a$$i$&de o% $he o$he! $o<a!d hi"sel%, and $h&s ,eco"ing an
o,9ec$ $o hi"sel%. This is $he "os$ e%%ec$ie "eans o% ad9&s$"en$ $o $he social eni!on"en$, and
indeed $o $he eni!on"en$ in gene!al, $ha$ $he indiid&al has a$ his dis1osal.
An a$$i$&de o% any so!$ !e1!esen$s $he ,eginning, o! 1o$en$ial ini$ia$ion, o% so"e co"1osi$e ac$ o!
o$he!, a social ac$ in <hich, along <i$h o$he! indiid&als, $he indiid&al $a7ing $he gien a$$i$&de is
inoled o! i"1lica$ed. The $!adi$ional s&11osi$ion has ,een $ha$ $he 1&!1osie ele"en$ in ,ehaio!
"&s$ &l$i"a$ely ,e an idea, a conscio&s "o$ie, and hence "&s$ i"1ly o! de1end &1on $he 1!esence
o% a "ind. B&$ $he s$&dy o% $he na$&!e o% $he cen$!al ne!o&s sys$e" sho<s $ha$ in $he %o!" o%
1hysiological a$$i$&des Ae=1!essed in s1eci%ic 1hysiological se$sB di%%e!en$ 1ossi,le co"1le$ions $o
$he gien ac$ a!e $he!e in adance o% i$s ac$&al co"1le$ion, and $ha$ $h!o&gh $he" $he ea!lie! 1a!$s o%
$he gien ac$ a!e a%%ec$ed o! in%l&enced Ain 1!esen$ cond&c$B ,y i$s la$e! 1hases@ so $ha$ $he
1&!1osie ele"en$ in ,ehaio! has a 1hysiological sea$, a ,ehaio!is$ic ,asis, and is no$
%&nda"en$ally no! necessa!ily conscio&s o! 1sychical.
"ndnotes
1. In$elligence and 7no<ledge a!e inside $he 1!ocess o% cond&c$. Thin7ing is an ela,o!a$e
1!ocess o% .... 1!esen$ing $he <o!ld so ?$ha$ i$ <ill ,e %ao!a,le %o! cond&c$, so $ha$ $he ends
o% $he li%e o% $he %o!" "ay ,e !eached AMSB.
Thin7ing is 1oin$ing o&$ ? $o $hin7 a,o&$ a $hing is $o 1oin$ i$ o&$ ,e%o!e ac$ing A13#)B.
#. ISee also Sec$ion 1..B
'. I$ is an adan$age $o hae $hese !es1onses !eady ,e%o!e <e ge$ $o $he o,9ec$. I% o&! <o!ld
<e!e !igh$ on $o1 o% &s, in con$ac$ <i$h &s, <e <o&ld hae no $i"e %o! deli,e!a$ion. The!e
<o&ld ,e only one <ay o% !es1onding $o $ha$ <o!ld.
Th!o&gh his dis$ance o!gans and his ca1aci$y %o! delayed !es1onses $he indiid&al lies in
$he %&$&!e <i$h $he 1ossi,ili$y o% 1lanning his li%e <i$h !e%e!ence $o $ha$ %&$&!e A13'1B.
,0# B"H%VI$*ISM; 7%TS$(ISM; %() *"3&"CTI$(
I hae ,een disc&ssing $he 1ossi,ili$y o% ,!inging $he conce1$ o! idea in$o $he !ange o% ,ehaio!is$ic
$!ea$"en$, endeao!ing in $his <ay $o !eliee ,ehaio!is" as 1!esen$ed ,y 0a$son o% <ha$ see"s $o
,e an inadeD&acy. In ca!!ying ,ac7 $he $hin7ing 1!ocess $o $he $al7ing 1!ocess, 0a$son see"s $o
iden$i%y $ho&gh$ si"1ly <i$h $he <o!d, <i$h $he sy",ol, <i$h $he ocal ges$&!e. :e does $his ,y
"eans o% $he $!ans%e!ence o% a !e%le= %!o" one s$i"&l&s $o ano$he!?condi$ioned !e%le= is $he
$echnical $e!" %o! $he 1!ocess. The 1sychologis$ isola$es a se$ o% !e%le=es <hich ans<e! $o ce!$ain
s1eci%ic s$i"&li, and $hen allo<s $hese !e%le=es e=1!ession &nde! di%%e!en$ condi$ions so $ha$ $he
s$i"&l&s i$sel% is acco"1anied ,y o$he! s$i"&li. :e %inds $ha$ $hese !e%le=es can $hen ,e ,!o&gh$
a,o&$ ,y $he ne< s$i"&l&s een in $he a,sence o% $ha$ <hich has ,een 1!eio&sly $he necessa!y
s$i"&l&s. The $y1ical ill&s$!a$ion is $ha$ o% a child ,eco"ing a%!aid o% a <hi$e !a$ ,eca&se i$ <as
1!esen$ed $o hi" see!al $i"es a$ $he "o"en$ a$ <hich a lo&d so&nd <as "ade ,ehind hi". The
lo&d noise occasions %!igh$. The 1!esence o% $he <hi$e !a$ condi$ions $his !eac$ion o% %!igh$ so $ha$ $he
child ,eco"es a%!aid o% $he <hi$e !a$. The %ea! !eac$ions a!e $hen called o&$ ,y $he <hi$e !a$ een
<hen no so&nd is "ade.<,=
The condi$ioned !e%le= o% $he o,9ec$ie 1sychologis$s is also &sed ,y 0a$son $o e=1lain $he 1!ocess
o% $hin7ing. On $his ie< <e &$ili8e ocal ges$&!es in connec$ion <i$h $hings, and $he!e,y condi$ion
o&! !e%le=es $o $he $hings in $e!"s o% $he ocal 1!ocess. I% <e hae a $endency $o si$ do<n <hen $he
chai! is $he!e, <e condi$ion $his !e%le= ,y $he <o!d -chai!.- O!iginally $he chai! is a s$i"&l&s $ha$ se$s
%!ee $his ac$ o% si$$ing, and ,y ,eing condi$ioned $he child "ay co"e $o $he 1oin$ o% se$$ing %!ee $he
ac$ ,y $he &se o% $he <o!d. No 1a!$ic&la! li"i$ can ,e se$ &1 $o s&ch a 1!ocess. The lang&age
1!ocess is 1ec&lia!ly ada1$ed $o s&ch a condi$ioning o% !e%le=es. 0e hae an inde%ini$e n&",e! o%
!es1onses $o o,9ec$s a,o&$ &s. I% <e can condi$ion $hese !es1onses ,y $he ocal ges$&!e so $ha$
<henee! a ce!$ain !eac$ion is ca!!ied o&$ <e a$ $he sa"e $i"e &$ili8e ce!$ain 1hone$ic ele"en$s,
$hen <e can !each $he 1oin$ a$ <hich $he !es1onse <ill ,e called o&$ <henee! $his ocal ges$&!e
a!ises. Thin7ing <o&ld $hen ,e no$hing ,&$ $he &se o% $hese a!io&s ocal ele"en$s $oge$he! <i$h $he
!es1onses <hich $hey call o&$. Psychologis$s <o&ld no$ need $o loo7 %o! any$hing "o!e ela,o!a$e in
$he $hin7ing 1!ocess $han $he "e!e condi$ioning o% !e%le=es ,y ocal ges$&!es.
F!o" $he 1oin$ o% ie< o% $he analysis o% $he e=1e!ience inoled $his acco&n$ see"s e!y
inadeD&a$e. Fo! ce!$ain $y1es o% e=1e!ience i$ "ay 1e!ha1s ,e s&%%icien$. A $!ained ,ody o% $!oo1s
e=hi,i$s a se$ o% condi$ioned !e%le=es. A ce!$ain %o!"a$ion is ,!o&gh$ a,o&$ ,y "eans o% ce!$ain
o!de!s. I$s s&ccess lies in an a&$o"a$ic !es1onse <hen $hese o!de!s a!e gien. The!e, o% co&!se,
one has ac$ion <i$ho&$ $ho&gh$. I% $he soldie! $hin7s &nde! $he ci!c&"s$ances he e!y li7ely <ill no$
ac$@ his ac$ion is de1enden$ in a ce!$ain sense on $he a,sence o% $ho&gh$. The!e "&s$ ,e ela,o!a$e
$hin7ing done so"e<he!e, ,&$ a%$e! $ha$ has ,een done ,y $he o%%ice!s highe! &1, $hen $he 1!ocess
"&s$ ,eco"e a&$o"a$ic. 0ha$ <e !ecogni8e is $ha$ $his s$a$e"en$ does no$ do 9&s$ice $o $he $hin7ing
$ha$ has $o ,e done highe! &1. I$ is $!&e $ha$ $he 1eo1le ,elo< ca!!y o&$ $he 1!ocess <i$ho&$ $hin7ing.
No< i% $he $hin7ing is done highe! &1 &nde! $he sa"e condi$ions $he ,ehaio!is$ eiden$ly %alls $o
,!ing in$o acco&n$ <ha$ is 1ec&lia! $o 1lanning. So"e$hing e!y de%ini$e goes on $he!e <hich canno$
,e s$a$ed in $e!"s o% condi$ioned !e%le=es.
The &n$hin7ing cond&c$ o% $he soldie! in ca!!ying o&$ $he o!de!, so $ha$ $he "e!e giing o% $he o!de!
inoles i$s e=ec&$ion, is cha!ac$e!is$ic o% $he $y1e o% cond&c$ in lo<e! ani"als. 0e &se $his
"echanis" $o e=1lain $he ela,o!a$e ins$inc$s o% ce!$ain o!ganis"s. One se$ o% !es1onses %ollo<s
ano$he!@ $he co"1le$ion o% one s$e1 ,!ings $he %o!" in$o con$ac$ <i$h ce!$ain s$i"&li <hich se$
ano$he! %!ee, and so on. (!ea$ ela,o!a$ions o% $his 1!ocess a!e %o&nd, es1ecially in $he an$s. Tha$
$ho&gh$ <hich ,elongs $o $he h&"an co""&ni$y is 1!es&"a,ly a,sen$ in $hese co""&ni$ies. The
<as1 $ha$ s$o!es $he 1a!aly8ed s1ide! as %ood %o! la!ae $ha$ i$ nee! <ill see and <i$h <hich i$ nee!
has co"e in$o con$ac$, is no$ ac$ing in $e!"s o% conscio&s %o!esigh$. The h&"an co""&ni$y $ha$
s$o!es a<ay %ood in cold s$o!age, and h&"an co""&ni$y $ha$ s$o!es a<ay la$e! "a7es &se o% i$, is
doing in a ce!$ain sense $he sa"e $hing $ha$ $he <as1 is doing, ,&$ $he i"1o!$an$ dis$inc$ion is $ha$
$he ac$ion is no< conscio&sly 1&!1osie. The indiid&al a!!anging %o! $he cold s$o!age is ac$&ally
1!esen$ing $o hi"sel% a si$&a$ion $ha$ is going $o a!ise, and de$e!"ining his "e$hods o% 1!ese!a$ion
<i$h !e%e!ence $o %&$&!e &ses.
The s$a$e"en$ <hich 0a$son gies o% $he condi$ioning o% !e%le=es does no$ ,!ing in $hese 1a!$s o%
e=1e!ience. S&ch a $!ea$"en$ has ,een e=1e!i"en$ally a11lied only in s&ch e=1e!iences as $hose o%
$he in%an$. 0a$son is $!ying $o <o!7 o&$ a si"1le "echanis" <hich can ,e <idely a11lied <i$ho&$
$a7ing in$o conside!a$ion all $he co"1lica$ions inoled in $ha$ a11lica$ion. idea $o %ind i$s <ides$
a11lica$ion and $hen "ee$ $he s1eci%ic di%%ic&l$ies la$e!. No<, is i$ 1ossi,le $o !ecas$ o&! s$a$e"en$ o%
,ehaio!is$ic 1sychology $ha$ i$ can do "o!e 9&s$ice $o <ha$ <e o!dina!ily $e!" a conscio&sness o%
<ha$ <e a!e doingE I hae ,een s&gges$ing $ha$ <e co&ld a$ leas$ gie a 1ic$&!e in $he cen$!al
ne!o&s sys$e" o% <ha$ ans<e!s $o an idea. Tha$ see"s $o ,e <ha$ is le%$ o&$ o% 0a$son>s
s$a$e"en$. :e si"1ly a$$aches a se$ o% !es1onses $o ce!$ain s$i"&li and sho<s $ha$ $he "echanis"
o% $he o!ganis" is a,le $o change $hose s$i"&li, s&,s$i$&$e one s$i"&l&s %o! ano$he! s$i"&l&s@ ,&$ $he
ideas $ha$ acco"1lish s&ch a 1!ocess a!e no$ acco&n$ed %o! si"1ly ,y $his s&,s$i$&$ion.
In $he ill&s$!a$ion I gae o% o%%e!ing a chai! and as7ing a 1e!son $o si$ do<n, $he as7ing "ay $a7e $he
1lace o% $he 1a!$ic&la! 1e!ce1$ion o% $he chai!. One "ay ,e occ&1ied en$i!ely <i$h so"e$hing else,
and $hen $he s$i"&l&s is no$ $he s$i"&l&s o1e!a$ie in $he o!iginal !e%le=@ one "igh$ co"e in and si$
do<n <i$ho&$ 1aying a$$en$ion $o $he chai!. B&$ s&ch s&,s$i$&$ion does no$ gie $o &s $he 1ic$&!e o%
$he "echanis" <hich in so"e sense ans<e!s $o $he chai!, o! $he idea o% <ha$ $he 1e!son is as7ing
hi" $o do. 0ha$ I s&gges$ed <as $ha$ <e hae s&ch a "echanis" in $he cen$!al ne!o&s sys$e" $ha$
ans<e!s $o $hese ela,o!a$e !eac$ions, and $ha$ $he s$i"&li <hich call $hese o&$ "ay se$ &1 a 1!ocess
$he!e <hich is no$ %&lly ca!!ied o&$. 0e do no$ ac$&ally si$ do<n <hen a 1e!son as7s &s $o, ye$ $he
1!ocess is in so"e sense ini$ia$ed@ <e a!e !eady $o si$ do<n ,&$ <e do no$. 0e 1!e1a!e %o! a ce!$ain
1!ocess ,y $hin7ing a,o&$ i$, "a11ing o&$ a ca"1aign o% cond&c$, and $hen <e a!e !eady $o ca!!y o&$
$he di%%e!en$ s$e1s. The "o$o! i"1&lses <hich a!e al!eady $he!e hae s$i!!ed &1 $hose di%%e!en$
1a$hs, and $he !eac$ions "ay $a7e 1lace "o!e !eadily and "o!e sec&!ely. This is 1a!$ic&la!ly $!&e o%
$he !ela$ion o% di%%e!en$ ac$s $o ano$he!. 0e can a$$ach one P!ocess o% !es1onse $o ano$he! and <e
can ,&ild &1 %!o" $he lo<e! ins$inc$ie %o!" <ha$ is called a gene!al !e%le= in o&! o<n cond&c$. No<
$ha$ can ,e, in so"e sense, indica$ed ,y $he s$!&c$&!e o% $he ne!o&s sys$e". 0e can conceie o%
!eac$ions a!ising <i$h $hei! di%%e!en$ !es1onses $o $hese o,9ec$s, $o <ha$, in o$he! <o!ds, <e call $he
"eanings o% $hese o,9ec$s. The "eaning o% a chai! is si$$ing do<n in i$, $he "eaning o% $he ha""e!
is $o d!ie a nail?and $hese !es1onses can ,e inne!a$ed een $ho&gh no$ ca!!ied o&$. The
inne!a$ion o% $hese 1!ocesses in $he cen$!al ne!o&s sys$e" is 1e!ha1s necessa!y %o! <ha$ <e call
"eaning.
I$ "ay ,e as7ed a$ $his 1oin$ <he$he! $he ac$&al ne!o&s e=ci$e"en$ in a ce!$ain a!ea o! oe! ce!$ain
1a$hs, is a legi$i"a$e s&,s$i$&$e %o! <ha$ <e call $he idea. 0e co"e &1 agains$ $he 1a!allelis$ic
e=1lana$ion o% $he see"ing di%%e!ence ,e$<een ideas and ,odily s$a$es, ,e$<een $ha$ <hich <e call
1sychical and $he 1hysical s$a$e"en$ in $e!"s o% ne&!oses. I$ "ay ,e co"1lained o% $he ,ehaio!is$ic
1sychology $ha$ i$ se$s &1 a n&",e! o% "echanis"s, ,&$ s$ill leaes <ha$ <e $e!" conscio&sness o&$
o% 1lay. I$ "ay ,e said $ha$ s&ch a connec$ion o% di%%e!en$ 1!ocesses as I hae ,een desc!i,ing, s&ch
an o!gani8a$ion o% di%%e!en$ !es1onses in $he cen$!al ne!o&s sys$e", is a%$e! all no$ di%%e!en$ %!o"
<ha$ 0a$son !e%e!!ed $o. :e, $oo, has a <hole se$ o% !eac$ions $ha$ ans<e! $o $he chai!, and he
condi$ions $he !es1onse ,y $he ocal ges$&!e, -chai!.- I$ "ay ,e %el$ $ha$ $ha$ is all <e hae done.
And ye$, as I hae said, <e !ecogni8e $he!e is so"e$hing "o!e $o conscio&sness $han s&ch a
condi$ioned !es1onse. The a&$o"a$ic !es1onse <hich $he soldie! gies is di%%e!en$ %!o" $he cond&c$
<hich inoles $ho&gh$ In !ega!d $o i$, and a conscio&sness o% <ha$ <e a!e doing.
The ,ehaio!is$ic 1sychology has $!ied $o ge$ !id o% $he "o!e o! less "e$a1hysical co"1lica$ions
inoled in $he se$$ing?&1 o% $he 1sychical oe! agains$ $he <o!ld, "ind oe! agains$ ,ody,
conscio&sness oe! agains$ "a$$e!. Tha$ <as %el$ $o lead in$o a ,lind alley. S&ch a 1a!allelis" had
1!oed al&a,le, ,&$ a%$e! i$ had ,een &$ili8ed in $he analysis o% <ha$ goes on in $he cen$!al ne!o&s
sys$e" i$ si"1ly led in$o a ,lind alley. The o11osi$ion o% $he ,ehaio!is$ $o in$!os1ec$ion is 9&s$i%ied. I$
is no$ a %!&i$%&l &nde!$a7ing %!o" $he 1oin$ o% ie< o% 1sychological s$&dy. I$ "ay ,e illegi$i"a$e %o!
0a$son si"1ly $o <i1e i$ o&$, and $o say $ha$ all <e a!e doing is lis$ening $o $he <o!ds <e a!e
s&,9ec$iely 1!ono&ncing@ $ha$ ce!$ainly is an en$i!ely inadeD&a$e <ay o% dealing <i$h <ha$ <e $e!"
in$!os1ec$ion. Ye$ i$ is $!&e $ha$ in$!os1ec$ion as a "eans o% dealing <i$h 1heno"ena <i$h <hich
1sychology "&s$ conce!n i$sel% is 1!e$$y ho1eless. 0ha$ $he ,ehaio!is$ is occ&1ied <i$h, <ha$ <e
hae $o co"e ,ac7 $o, is $he ac$&al !eac$ion i$sel%, and i$ is only in so %a! as <e can $!ansla$e $he
con$en$ o% in$!os1ec$ion oe! in$o !es1onse $ha$ <e can ge$ any sa$is%ac$o!y 1sychological doc$!ine. I$
is no$ necessa!y %o! 1sychology $o ge$ in$o "e$a1hysical D&es$ions, ,&$ i$ is o% i"1o!$ance $ha$ i$
sho&ld $!y $o ge$ hold o% $he !es1onse $ha$ is &sed in $he 1sychological analysis i$sel%.
0ha$ I <an$ $o insis$ &1on is $ha$ $he 1!ocess, ,y "eans o% <hich $hese !es1onses $ha$ a!e $he ideas
o! "eanings ,eco"e associa$ed <i$h a ce!$ain ocal ges$&!e, lies in $he ac$ii$y o% $he o!ganis",
<hile in $he case o% $he dog, $he child, $he soldie!, $his 1!ocess $a7es 1lace, as i$ <e!e, o&$side o% $he
o!ganis". The soldie! is $!ained $h!o&gh a <hole se$ o% eol&$ions. :e does no$ 7no< <hy $his
1a!$ic&la! se$ is gien $o hi" o! $he &ses $o <hich i$ <ill ,e 1&$@ he is 9&s$ 1&$ $h!o&gh his d!ill, as an
ani"al is $!ained in a ci!c&s. The child is si"ila!ly e=1osed $o e=1e!i"en$s <i$ho&$ any $hin7ing on
his 1a!$. 0ha$ $hin7ing 1!o1e! "eans is $ha$ $his 1!ocess o% associa$ing chai! as o,9ec$ <i$h $he <o!d
-chai!- is a 1!ocess $ha$ h&"an ,eings in socie$y ca!!y o&$, and $hen in$e!nali8e. S&ch ,ehaio!
ce!$ainly has $o ,e conside!ed 9&s$ as "&ch as condi$ioned ,ehaio! <hich $a7es 1lace e=$e!nally,
and sho&ld ,e conside!ed s$ill "o!e, ,eca&se i$ is as$ly "o!e i"1o!$an$ $ha$ <e sho&ld &nde!s$and
$he 1!ocess o% $hin7ing $han $he 1!od&c$ o% i$.
No<, <he!e does $his $ho&gh$ 1!ocess i$sel% $a7e 1laceE I% yo& li7e, I a" he!e sides$e11ing $he
D&es$ion as $o 9&s$ <ha$ conscio&sness is, o! $he D&es$ion <he$he! <ha$ is going on in $he a!ea o%
$he ,!ain is $o ,e iden$i%ied <i$h conscio&sness. Tha$ is a D&es$ion <hich is no$ 1sychological. 0ha$ I
a" as7ing is, <he!e does $his 1!ocess, ,y "eans o% <hich, in 0a$son>s sense, all o% o&! !e%le=es o!
!eac$ions a!e condi$ioned, $a7e 1lace@ Fo! $his 1!ocess is one <hich $a7es 1lace in cond&c$ and
canno$ ,e e=1lained ,y $he condi$ioned !e%le=es <hich !es&l$ %!o" i$. Yo& can e=1lain $he child>s %ea!
o% $he <hi$e !a$ ,y condi$ioning i$s !e%le=es, ,&$ yo& canno$ e=1lain $he cond&c$ o% M!. 0a$son in
condi$ioning $ha$ s$a$ed !e%le= ,y "eans o% a se$ o% condi$ioned !e%le=es, &nless yo& se$ &1 a s&1e!?
0a$son $o condi$ion his !e%le=es. Tha$ 1!ocess o% condi$ioning !e%le=es has $o ,e $a7en in$o cond&c$
i$sel%, no$ in $he "e$a1hysical sense o% se$$ing &1 a "ind in a s1i!i$&al %ashion <hich ac$s on $he
,ody, ,&$ as an ac$&al 1!ocess <i$h <hich $he ,ehaio!is$ic 1sychology can deal. The "e$a1hysical
1!o,le"s s$ill !e"ain, ,&$ $he 1sychologis$ has $o ,e a,le $o s$a$e $his e!y 1!ocess o% condi$ioning
!e%le=es as i$ $a7es 1lace in cond&c$ i$sel%.
0e can %ind 1a!$ o% $he necessa!y "echanis" o% s&ch cond&c$ in $he cen$!al ne!o&s sys$e". 0e
can iden$i%y so"e o% $he !e%le=es, s&ch as $ha$ o% $he 7nee 9e!7, and %ollo< $he s$i"&l&s %!o" $he
!e%le= &1 $o $he cen$!al ne!o&s sys$e" and ,ac7 again. Mos$ o% $he !e%le=es <e canno$ %ollo< o&$ in
de$ail. 0i$h s&ch s&i$a,le ele"en$s <e can ca!!y o&$ $he analogy, and 1!esen$ $o o&!seles $he
ela,o!a$e o!gani8a$ion $o <hich I hae !e%e!!ed, and <hich ans<e!s $o $he o,9ec$s a,o&$ &s and $he
"o!e co"1le= o,9ec$s s&ch as a sy"1hony o! a ,iog!a1hy. The D&es$ion no< is <he$he! $he "e!e
e=ci$e"en$ o% $he se$ o% $hese g!o&1s o% !es1onses is <ha$ <e "ean ,y an idea. 0hen <e $!y $o
&nde!$a7e $o ca!!y oe!, $!ansla$e, s&ch an idea in $e!"s o% ,ehaio!, ins$ead o% s$o11ing <i$h a ,i$ o%
conscio&sness, can <e $a7e $ha$ idea oe! in$o cond&c$, and a$ leas$ e=1!ess in cond&c$ 9&s$ <ha$
<e "ean ,y saying $ha$ <e hae an ideaE I$ "ay ,e si"1le! $o ass&"e $ha$ each one o% &s has a
li$$le ,i$ o% conscio&sness s$o!ed a<ay and $ha$ i"1!essions a!e "ade on conscio&sness, and as a
!es&l$ o% $he idea, conscio&sness in so"e &ne=1lained <ay se$s &1 $he !es1onse in $he sys$e"
i$sel%. B&$ <ha$ "&s$ ,e as7ed o% ,ehaio!is" is <he$he! i$ can s$a$e in ,ehaio!is$ic $e!"s <ha$ is
"ean$ ,y haing an idea, o! ge$$ing a conce1$.
I hae 9&s$ said $ha$ 0a$son>s s$a$e"en$ o% $he "e!e condi$ioning o% $he !e%le=, $he se$$ing o%% o% a
ce!$ain se$ o% !es1onses <hen $he <o!d is &sed, does no$ see" $o ans<e! $o $his 1!ocess o% ge$$ing
an idea. I$ does ans<e! $o $he !es&l$ o% haing an idea, %o! haing !eached $he idea, $hen one s$a!$s
o%% $o acco"1lish i$, and <e ass&"e $ha$ $he 1!ocess %ollo<s. The ge$$ing o% an idea is e!y di%%e!en$
%!o" $he !es&l$ o% haing an idea, %o! $he %o!"e! inoles $he se$$ing?&1 o! condi$ioning o% !e%le=es,
<hich canno$, $he"seles, ,e &sed $o e=1lain $he 1!ocess. No<, &nde! <ha$ condi$ions does $his
$a7e 1laceE Can <e indica$e $hese condi$ions in $e!"s o% ,ehaio!E 0e can s$a$e in ,ehaio!is$ic
$e!"s <ha$ $he !es&l$ <ill ,e, ,&$ can <e s$a$e in $e!"s o% ,ehaio!is" $he 1!ocess o% ge$$ing and
haing ideasE
The 1!ocess o% ge$$ing an idea is, in $he case o% $he in%an$, a 1!ocess o% in$e!co&!se <i$h $hose a,o&$
hi", a social 1!ocess. :e can ,a$$le on ,y hi"sel% <i$ho&$ ge$$ing any idea o% <ha$ he is doing.
The!e is no "echanis" in his $al7ing $o hi"sel% %o! condi$ioning any !e%le= ,y "eans o% ocal
ges$&!es, ,&$ in his in$e!co&!se <i$h o$he! indiid&als he can so condi$ion $he", and $ha$ $a7es 1lace
also in $he cond&c$ o% lo<e! ani"als. 0e can $each a dog $o do ce!$ain $hings in ans<e! $o 1a!$ic&la!
<o!ds. 0e condi$ion his !e%le=es ,y "eans o% ce!$ain ocal ges$&!es. In $he sa"e <ay a child ge$s
$o !e%e! $o a chai! ,y $he <o!d -chai!.- B&$ $he ani"al does no$ hae an idea o% <ha$ he is going $o
do, and i% <e s$o11ed <i$h $he child he!e <e co&ld no$ a$$!i,&$e $o hi" any idea. 0ha$ is inoled in
$he giing o% an idea is <ha$ canno$ ,e s$a$ed in $e!"s o% $his condi$ioning o% a !e%le=. I hae
s&gges$ed $ha$ inoled in s&ch giing is $he %ac$ $ha$ $he s$i"&l&s no$ only calls o&$ $he !es1onse,
,&$ $ha$ $he indiid&al <ho !eceies $he !es1onse also hi"sel% &ses $ha$ s$i"&l&s, $ha$ ocal ges$&!e,
and calls o&$ $ha$ !es1onse in hi"sel%. S&ch is, a$ leas$, $he ,eginning o% $ha$ <hich %ollo<s. I$ is $he
%&!$he! co"1lica$ion $ha$ <e do no$ %ind in $he cond&c$ o% $he dog. The dog only s$ands on i$s hind
legs and <al7s <hen <e &se a 1a!$ic&la! <o!d, ,&$ $he dog canno$ gie $o hi"sel% $ha$ s$i"&l&s
<hich so"e,ody else gies $o hi". :e can !es1ond $o i$ ,&$ he canno$ hi"sel% $a7e a hand, so $o
s1ea7, in condi$ioning his o<n !e%le=es@ his !e%le=es can ,e condi$ioned ,y ano$he! ,&$ he canno$ do
i$ hi"sel%. No<, i$ is cha!ac$e!is$ic o% signi%ican$ s1eech $ha$ 9&s$ $his 1!ocess o% sel%?condi$ioning is
going on all $he $i"e.
The!e a!e, o% co&!se, ce!$ain 1hases o% o&! s1eech <hich do no$ co"e <i$hin $he !ange o% <ha$ <e
$e!" sel%?conscio&sness. The!e a!e changes <hich hae $a7en 1lace in $he s1eech o% 1eo1le
$h!o&gh long cen$&!ies?changes <hich none o% $he indiid&als <e!e a<a!e o% a$ all. B&$ <hen <e
s1ea7 o% signi%ican$ s1eech <e al<ays i"1ly $ha$ $he indiid&al $ha$ hea!s a <o!d does in so"e
sense &se $ha$ <o!d <i$h !e%e!ence $o hi"sel%. Tha$ is <ha$ <e call a 1e!sonal &nde!s$anding o%
<ha$ is said. :e is no$ only !eady $o !es1ond, ,&$ he also &ses $he sa"e s$i"&l&s $ha$ he hea!s, and
is $ending $o !es1ond $o i$ in $&!n. Tha$ is $!&e o% a 1e!son <ho "a7es &se o% signi%ican$ s1eech $o
ano$he!. :e 7no<s and &nde!s$ands <ha$ he is as7ing $he o$he! 1e!son $o do, and in so"e sense is
ini$ing in hi"sel% $he !es1onse $o ca!!y o&$ $he 1!ocess. The 1!ocess o% add!essing ano$he! 1e!son
is a 1!ocess o% add!essing hi"sel% as <ell, and o% calling o&$ $he !es1onse he calls o&$ in ano$he!@
and $he 1e!son <ho is add!essed, in so %a! as he is conscio&s o% <ha$ he is doing, does hi"sel% $end
$o "a7e &se o% $he sa"e ocal ges$&!e and so $o call o&$ in hi"sel% $he !es1onse <hich $he o$he!
calls o&$ N a$ leas$ $o ca!!y on $he social 1!ocess <hich inoles $ha$ cond&c$. This is dis$inc$ %!o"
$he ac$ion o% $he soldie!@ %o! in signi%ican$ s1eech $he 1e!son hi"sel% &nde!s$ands <ha$ he is as7ed
$o do, and consen$s $o ca!!y o&$ so"e$hing he "a7es hi"sel% a 1a!$ o%. I% one gies $o ano$he!
di!ec$ions as $o ho< $o 1!oceed $o a ce!$ain s$!ee$ he hi"sel% !eceies all o% $hese de$ailed
di!ec$ions. :e is iden$i%ying hi"sel% <i$h $he o$he! indiid&al. The hea!e! is no$ si"1ly "oing a$ an
o!de!, ,&$ is giing $o hi"sel% $he sa"e di!ec$ions $ha$ $he o$he! 1e!son gies $o hi". Tha$, in
,ehaio!is$ic $e!"s, is <ha$ <e "ean ,y $he 1e!son ,eing conscio&s o% so"e$hing. I$ is ce!$ainly
al<ays i"1lied $ha$ $he indiid&al does $end $o ca!!y o&$ $he sa"e 1!ocess as $he 1e!son add!essed@
he gies $o hi"sel% $he sa"e s$i"&l&s, and so $a7es 1a!$ in $he sa"e 1!ocess. In so %a! as he is
condi$ioning his o<n !e%le=es, $ha$ 1!ocess en$e!s in$o his o<n e=1e!ience.
I $hin7 i$ is i"1o!$an$ $o !ecogni8e $ha$ o&! ,ehaio!is$ic 1sychology in dealing <i$h h&"an
in$elligence "&s$ 1!esen$ $he si$&a$ion <hich I hae 9&s$ desc!i,ed, <he!e a 1e!son 7no<s $he
"eaning o% <ha$ is said $o hi". I% $he indiid&al does hi"sel% "a7e &se o% so"e$hing ans<e!ing $o
$he sa"e ges$&!e he o,se!es, saying i$ oe! again $o hi"sel%, 1&$$ing hi"sel% in $he !ole o% $he
1e!son <ho is s1ea7ing $o hi", $hen he has $he "eaning o% <ha$ he hea!s, he has $he idea; $he
"eaning has ,eco"e his. I$ is $ha$ so!$ o% a si$&a$ion <hich see"s $o ,e inoled in <ha$ <e $e!"
"ind, as s&ch; $his social 1!ocess, in <hich one indiid&al a%%ec$s o$he! indiid&als, is ca!!ied oe!
in$o $he e=1e!ience o% $he indiid&als $ha$ a!e so a%%ec$ed.+.- The indiid&al $a7es $his a$$i$&de no$
si"1ly as a "a$$e! o% !e1e$i$ion, ,&$ as 1a!$ o% $he ela,o!a$e social !eac$ion <hich is going on. I$ is
$he necessi$y o% s$a$ing $ha$ 1!ocess in $e!"s o% ,ehaio! $ha$ is inoled in an adeD&a$e
,ehaio!is$ic s$a$e"en$, as oe! agains$ a "e!e acco&n$ o% $he condi$ioned !e%le=.
"ndnotes
1. The child>s %ea! o% $he da!7 "ay hae a!isen o&$ o% his ,eing a<a7ened ,y lo&d $h&nde!, so
$ha$ he is %!igh$ened in $he da!7ness. This has no$ ,een 1!oen ,&$ i$ is a 1ossi,le
in$e!1!e$a$ion in $e!"s o% condi$ioning.
#. ISee Sec$ions 1., #).K
,1# B"H%VI$*ISM %() PS'CH$&$GIC%& P%*%&&"&ISM
Behaio!is" "igh$ see" $o !each <ha$ co&ld ,e called a 1a!allelis" in !ela$ion $o $he ne&!oses and
1sychoses, $ha$ is, in $he !ela$ionshi1 o% <ha$ is $a7ing 1lace in $he cen$!al ne!o&s sys$e" $o $he
e=1e!ience $ha$ 1a!allels $his, o! ans<e!s $o i$. I$ "igh$ ,e a!g&ed, %o! ins$ance, $ha$ $he!e is an
e=ci$e"en$ in $he !e$ina d&e $o $he dis$&!,ance $a7ing 1lace o&$side, and $ha$ only <hen s&ch
e=ci$e"en$ !eaches a ce!$ain 1oin$ in $he cen$!al ne!o&s sys$e" does a sensa$ion o% colo!, o! an
e=1e!ience o% a colo!ed o,9ec$, a11ea!. 0e ,eliee $ha$ <e see $he o,9ec$ a$ $he 1oin$ a$ <hich $his
dis$&!,ance $a7es 1lace o&$side. Tha$ is, <e see, say, an elec$!ic ligh$. B&$ <e a!e $old $ha$ ligh$
!e1!esen$s 1hysical changes $ha$ a!e going on a$ eno!"o&s !a$es, and $ha$ a!e in so"e %ashion
$!ans%e!!ed ,y $he ligh$ <aes $o $he !e$ina and $hen $o $he cen$!al ne!o&s sys$e", so $ha$ <e see
$he ligh$ a$ $he 1oin$ a$ <hich <e ass&"e $hese i,!a$ions $a7e 1lace. O% co&!se, $his $!ans"ission
inoles so"e $i"e, and d&!ing $he co&!se o% $his ac$ion a 1hysical change in $he o,9ec$ "ay $a7e
1lace. The!e is no$ only $ha$ 1ossi,ili$y o% e!!o! in 1e!ce1$ion, ,&$ <e "ay ,e "is$a7en een in $he
o,9ec$ <hich <e see ,e%o!e &s, since $he ligh$ is $e"1o!ally la$e! $han $he dis$&!,ance <hich i$ see"s
$o !eeal. The ligh$ has a %ini$e eloci$y, and $he 1!ocess $ha$ goes on ,e$<een $he !e$ina and $he
1oin$ in $he cen$!al ne!o&s sys$e" is a "&ch longe! 1!ocess $han $ha$ o% $he ligh$. The si$&a$ion is
s$!e$ched o&$ %o! &s conenien$ly ,y $he ill&s$!a$ion o% $he ligh$ o% $he s$a!s. 0e see ligh$ $ha$ le%$ $he
s&n so"e eigh$ "in&$es ago@ $he s&n $ha$ <e see is eigh$ "in&$es old ?and $he!e a!e s$a!s $ha$ a!e
so %a! a<ay %!o" &s $ha$ $hey cons&"e "any ligh$?yea!s in !eaching &s. Th&s, o&! 1e!ce1$ions hae
condi$ions <hich <e loca$e in $he cen$!al ne!o&s sys$e" a$ a ce!$ain "o"en$@ i% any$hing in$e!%e!es
<i$h $he ne!o&s 1!ocess, $hen $his 1a!$ic&la! e=1e!ience does no$ a!ise. In so"e s&ch <ay <e ge$
$he s$a$e"en$ o% <ha$ lies ,ac7 o% $he 1a!allelis$ic acco&n$?, i% <e !ela$e <ha$ $a7es 1lace a$ $ha$
1oin$ as a ne&!osis $o <ha$ $a7es 1lace in o&! e=1e!ience <e hae see"ingly $<o en$i!ely di%%e!en$
$hings. The dis$&!,ance in $he cen$!al ne!o&s sys$e" is an elec$!ical o! che"ical o! "echanical
1!ocess going on in $he ne!o&s ele"en$s, <he!eas $ha$ <hich <e see is a colo!ed ligh$, and $he
"os$ <e can say is $ha$ $he one is see"ingly 1a!allel $o $he o$he!, since <e canno$ say $ha$ $he $<o
a!e iden$ical.
No< ,ehaio!is$ic 1sychology, ins$ead o% se$$ing &1 $hese een$s in $he cen$!al ne!o&s sys$e" as a
ca&sal se!ies <hich is a$ leas$ condi$ional $o $he senso!y e=1e!ience, $a7es $he en$i!e !es1onse $o
$he eni!on"en$ as $ha$ <hich ans<e!s $o $he colo!ed o,9ec$ <e see, in $his case $he ligh$. I$ does
no$ loca$e $he e=1e!ience a$ any 1oin$ in $he ne!o&s sys$e"@ i$ does no$ 1&$ i$, in $he $e!"s o% M!.
*&ssell, inside o% a head. *&ssell "a7es $he e=1e!ience $he e%%ec$ o% <ha$ ha11ens a$ $ha$ 1oin$
<he!e a ca&sal 1!ocess $a7es 1lace in $he head. :e 1oin$s o&$ $ha$, %!o" his o<n 1oin$ o% ie<, $he
head inside o% <hich yo& can 1lace $his e=1e!ience e=is$s e"1i!ically only in $he heads o% o$he!
1eo1le. The 1hysiologis$ e=1lains $o yo& <he!e $his e=ci$e"en$ is $a7ing 1lace. :e sees $he head he
is de"ons$!a$ing $o yo& and he sees <ha$ is inside o% $he head in i"agina$ion, ,&$, on $his acco&n$,
$ha$ <hich he sees "&s$ ,e inside o% his o<n head. The <ay in <hich *&ssell ge$s o&$ o% $his "ess
is ,y saying $ha$ $he head <hich he is !e%e!!ing $o is no$ $he head <e see, ,&$ $he head <hich is
i"1lied in 1hysiological analysis. 0ell, ins$ead o% ass&"ing $ha$ $he e=1e!ienced <o!ld as s&ch is
inside o% a head, loca$ed a$ $ha$ 1oin$ a$ <hich ce!$ain ne!o&s dis$&!,ances a!e going on, <ha$ $he
,ehaio!is$ does is $o !ela$e $he <o!ld o% e=1e!ience $o $he <hole ac$ o% $he o!ganis". I$ is $!&e, as
<e hae 9&s$ said, $ha$ $his e=1e!ienced <o!ld does no$ a11ea! e=ce1$ <hen $he a!io&s e=ci$e"en$s
!each ce!$ain 1oin$s in $he cen$!al ne!o&s sys$e"@ i$ is also $!&e $ha$ i% yo& c&$ o%% any o% $hose
channels yo& <i1e o&$ so "&ch o% $ha$ <o!ld. 0ha$ $he ,ehaio!is$ does, o! o&gh$ $o do, is $o $a7e
$he co"1le$e ac$, $he <hole 1!ocess o% cond&c$, as $he &ni$ in his acco&n$. In doing $ha$ he has $o
$a7e in$o acco&n$ no$ si"1ly $he ne!o&s sys$e" ,&$ also $he !es$ o% $he o!ganis", %o! $he ne!o&s
sys$e" is only a s1eciali8ed 1a!$ o% $he en$i!e o!ganis".
Conscio&sness as s$&%%, as e=1e!ience, %!o" $he s$and1oin$ o% ,ehaio!is$ic o! dyna"ic 1sychology,
is si"1ly $he eni!on"en$ o% $he h&"an indiid&al o! social g!o&1 in so %a! as cons$i$&$ed ,y o!
de1enden$ &1on o! e=is$en$ially !ela$ie $o $ha$ indiid&al o! social g!o&1. AAno$he! signi%ica$ion o%
$he $e!" - conscio&sness- a!ises in connec$ion <i$h !e%lec$ie in$elligence, and s$ill ano$he! in
connec$ion <i$h $he 1!ia$e o! s&,9ec$ie as1ec$s o% e=1e!ience as con$!as$ed <i$h $he co""on o!
social as1ec$s.B
O&! <hole e=1e!ien$ial <o!ld?na$&!e as <e e=1e!ience i$?is ,asically !ela$ed $o $he social 1!ocess o%
,ehaio!, a 1!ocess in <hich ac$s a!e ini$ia$ed ,y ges$&!es $ha$ %&nc$ion as s&ch ,eca&se $hey in $&!n
call %o!$h ad9&s$ie !es1onses %!o" o$he! o!ganis"s, as indica$ing o! haing !e%e!ence $o $he
co"1le$ion o! !es&l$an$ o% $he ac$s $hey ini$ia$e. Tha$ is $o say, $he con$en$ o% $he o,9ec$ie <o!ld, as
<e e=1e!ience i$, is in la!ge "eas&!e cons$i$&$ed $h!o&gh $he !ela$ions o% $he social 1!ocess $o i$, and
1a!$ic&la!ly $h!o&gh $he $!iadic !ela$ion o% "eaning, <hich is c!ea$ed <i$hin $ha$ 1!ocess. The <hole
con$en$ o% "ind and o% na$&!e, in so %a! as i$ $a7es on $he cha!ac$e! o% "eaning, is de1enden$ &1on
$his $!iadic !ela$ion <i$hin $he social 1!ocess and a"ong $he co"1onen$ 1hases o% $he social ac$,
<hich $he e=is$ence o% "eaning 1!es&11oses.
Conscio&sness o! e=1e!ience as $h&s e=1lained o! acco&n$ed %o! in $e!"s o% $he social 1!ocess
canno$, ho<ee!, ,e loca$ed in $he ,!ain?no$ only ,eca&se s&ch loca$ion o% i$ i"1lies a s1a$ial
conce1$ion o% "ind Aa conce1$ion <hich is a$ leas$ &n<a!!an$ed as an &nc!i$ically acce1$ed
ass&"1$ionB, ,&$ also ,eca&se s&ch loca$ion leads $o *&ssell>s 1hysiological soli1sis", and $o $he
ins&1e!a,le di%%ic&l$ies o% in$e!ac$ionis". Conscio&sness is %&nc$ional, no$ s&,s$an$ie@ and in ei$he!
o% $he "ain senses o% $he $e!" i$ "&s$ ,e loca$ed in $he o,9ec$ie <o!ld !a$he! $han in $he ,!ain?i$
,elongs $o, o! is a cha!ac$e!is$ic o%, $he eni!on"en$ in <hich <e %ind o&!seles. 0ha$ is loca$ed,
<ha$ does $a7e 1lace, in $he ,!ain, ho<ee!, is $he 1hysiological 1!ocess <he!e,y <e lose and
!egain conscio&sness; a 1!ocess <hich is so"e<ha$ analogo&s $o $ha$ o% 1&lling do<n and !aising a
<indo< shade.
No<, as <e no$iced ea!lie!, i% <e <an$ $o con$!ol $he 1!ocess o% e=1e!ience o! conscio&sness <e
"ay go ,ac7 $o $he a!io&s 1!ocesses in $he ,ody, es1ecially $he cen$!al ne!o&s sys$e". 0hen <e
a!e se$$ing &1 a 1a!allelis" <ha$ <e a!e $!ying $o do is $o s$a$e $hose ele"en$s in $he <o!ld <hich
ena,le &s $o con$!ol $he 1!ocesses o% e=1e!ience. Pa!allelis" lies ,e$<een $he 1oin$ a$ <hich
cond&c$ $a7es 1lace and $he e=1e!ien$ial !eac$ion, and <e "&s$ de$e!"ine $hose ele"en$s <hich <ill
ena,le &s $o con$!ol $he !eac$ion i$sel%. As a !&le, <e con$!ol $his !eac$ion ,y "eans o% o,9ec$s
o&$side o% $he o!ganis" !a$he! $han ,y di!ec$ing a$$en$ion $o $he o!ganis" i$sel%. I% <e <an$ ,e$$e!
ligh$ <e 1&$ in a highe! 1o<e!ed ,&l,. O&! con$!ol, as a !&le, consis$s in a !eac$ion on $he o,9ec$s
$he"seles, and %!o" $ha$ 1oin$ o% ie< $he 1a!allelis" is ,e$<een $he o,9ec$ and $he 1e!ce1$,
,e$<een $he elec$!ic ligh$ and isi,ili$y. Tha$ is $he so!$ o% 1a!allelis" $ha$ $he o!dina!y indiid&al
es$a,lishes@ ,y se$$ing &1 a 1a!allelis" ,e$<een $he $hings a,o&$ hi" and his e=1e!ience, he 1ic7s
o&$ $hose cha!ac$e!s o% $he $hing <hich <ill ena,le hi" $o con$!ol $he e=1e!ience. :is e=1e!ience is
$ha$ o% 7ee1ing hi"sel% seeing $hings <hich hel1 hi", and conseD&en$ly he 1ic7s o&$ in $he o,9ec$s
$hose cha!ac$e!s <hich <ill e=1!ess $he"seles in $ha$ so!$ o% e=1e!ience@ ,&$ i% $he $!o&,le he has is
d&e $o so"e dis$&!,ance in his cen$!al ne!o&s sys$e", $hen he <ill hae $o go ,ac7 $o i$. In $his
case $he 1a!allelis" <ill ,e ,e$<een his e=1e!ience and $he e=ci$e"en$s in $he cen$!al ne!o&s
sys$e". I% he %inds $ha$ he is no$ seeing <ell he "ay discoe! so"e $!o&,le <i$h $he o1$ic ne!e, and
$he 1a!allelis" is $hen ,e$<een his ision and $he %&nc$ioning o% $he o1$ic ne!e. I% he is in$e!es$ed in
ce!$ain "en$al i"ages he has, he goes ,ac7 $o e=1e!iences <hich hae a%%ec$ed $he cen$!al ne!o&s
sys$e" in $he 1as$. Ce!$ain o% $he e%%ec$s on $he cen$!al ne!o&s sys$e" o% s&ch e=1e!iences a!e s$ill
1!esen$, so $ha$ i% he is se$$ing &1 a 1a!allelis" he <ill %ind $ha$ i$ lies ,e$<een $ha$ 1as$ een$ and
$he 1!esen$ condi$ion o% his cen$!al ne!o&s sys$e". S&ch a !ela$ionshi1 ,eco"es a "a$$e! o% g!ea$
i"1o!$ance in o&! <hole 1e!ce1$ion. The $!aces o% 1as$ e=1e!ience a!e con$in&ally 1laying in &1on
o&! 1e!ceied <o!ld. No<, $o ge$ hold o% $ha$ in $he o!ganis" <hich ans<e!s $o $his s$age o% o&!
cond&c$, $o o&! !e"e",e!ing, $o o&! in$elligen$ly !es1onding $o $he 1!esen$ in $e!"s o% $he 1as$, <e
se$ &1 a 1a!allelis" ,e$<een <ha$ is going on in $he cen$!al ne!o&s sys$e" and i""edia$e
e=1e!ience. O&! "e"o!y is de1enden$ &1on $he condi$ion o% ce!$ain $!ac$s in o&! head, and $hese
condi$ions hae $o ,e 1ic7ed o&$ $o ge$ con$!ol o% 1!ocesses o% $ha$ so!$.
This $y1e o% co!!ela$ion is inc!easingly no$icea,le <hen <e go %!o" $he i"ages as s&ch oe! $o $he
$hin7ing 1!ocess. The in$elligence $ha$ is inoled in 1e!ce1$ion is ela,o!a$ed eno!"o&sly in <ha$ <e
call -$ho&gh$.- One 1e!ceies an o,9ec$ in $e!"s o% his !es1onse $o i$. I% yo& no$ice yo&! cond&c$ yo&
%ind %!eD&en$ly $ha$ yo& a!e $&!ning yo&! head $o one side $o see so"e$hing ,eca&se o% ligh$ !ays
<hich hae !eached $he 1e!i1he!y o% $he !e$ina. Yo& $&!n yo&! head $o see <ha$ i$ <as. Yo& co"e $o
&se $he $e!" -a<a!e o% so"e$hing $he!e.- 0e "ay hae $he i"1!ession $ha$ so"eone is loo7ing a$
&s o&$ o% a c!o<d and %ind o&!seles $&!ning o&! head $o see <ho is loo7ing a$ &s, and o&! $endency
$o $&!n !eeals $o &s $he %ac$ $ha$ $he!e a!e !ays %!o" o$he! 1eo1le>s eyes. I$ is $!&e o% all o% o&!
e=1e!ience $ha$ i$ is $he !es1onse $ha$ in$e!1!e$s $o &s <ha$ co"es $o &s in $he s$i"&l&s, and i$ is
s&ch a$$en$ion <hich "a7es $he 1e!ce1$ o&$ o% <ha$ <e call -sensa$ion.- The in$e!1!e$a$ion o% $he
!es1onse is <ha$ gies $he con$en$ $o i$. O&! $hin7ing is si"1ly an ela,o!a$ion o% $ha$ in$e!1!e$a$ion in
$e!"s o% o&! o<n !es1onse. The so&nd is so"e$hing $ha$ leads $o a 9&"1ing?a<ay@ $he ligh$ is
so"e$hing <e a!e $o loo7 a$. 0hen $he dange! is so"e$hing $ha$ is 1e!ha1s a long <ay o%%, $he
dange! o% loss o% %&nds $h!o&gh a ,ad ines$"en$, $he dange! $o so"e o% o&! o!gans on acco&n$ o%
in9&!y, $he in$e!1!e$a$ion is one <hich inoles a e!y ela,o!a$e 1!ocess o% $hin7ing. Ins$ead o% si"1ly
9&"1ing aside, <e can change o&! die$, $a7e "o!e e=e!cise, o! change o&! ines$"en$s. This
1!ocess o% $hin7ing, <hich is $he ela,o!a$ion o% o&! !es1onses $o $he s$i"&l&s, is a 1!ocess <hich
also necessa!ily goes on in $he o!ganis". Ye$ i$ is a "is$a7e $o ass&"e $ha$ all $ha$ <e call $ho&gh$
can ,e loca$ed in $he o!ganis" o! can ,e 1&$ inside o% $he head. The goodness o! ,adness o% $he
ines$"en$ is in $he ines$"en$, and $he al&a,le o! dange!o&s cha!ac$e! o% %ood is in $he %ood, no$
in o&! heads. The !ela$ionshi1 ,e$<een $hese and $he o!ganis" de1ends &1on $he so!$ o% !es1onse
<e a!e going $o "a7e, and $ha$ is a !ela$ionshi1 <hich is "a11ed o&$ in $he cen$!al ne!o&s sys$e".
The <ay in <hich <e a!e going $o !es1ond is %o&nd $he!e, and in $he 1ossi,le connec$ions $he!e
"&s$ ,e connec$ions o% 1as$ e=1e!iences <i$h 1!esen$ !es1onses in o!de! $ha$ $he!e "ay ,e $ho&gh$.
0e connec$ &1 a <hole se$ o% $hings o&$side, es1ecially $hose <hich a!e 1as$, <i$h o&! 1!esen$
condi$ion in o!de! $ha$ <e "ay in$elligen$ly "ee$ so"e dis$an$ dange!. In $he case o% an ines$"en$
o! o!ganic $!o&,le $he dange! is a long <ay o%%, ,&$ s$ill <e hae $o !eac$ $o i$ in $he <ay o% aoiding
$he dange!. And $he 1!ocess is one <hich inoles an ela,o!a$e connec$ion <hich has $o ,e %o&nd in
$he cen$!al ne!o&s sys$e", es1ecially in so %a! as i$ !e1!esen$s $he 1as$. So, $hen, <e se$ &1 <ha$ is
$a7ing 1lace in $he cen$!al ne!o&s sys$e" as $ha$ <hich is 1a!allel $o <ha$ lies in e=1e!ience. I%
called &1on $o "a7e any change in $he cen$!al ne!o&s sys$e", so %a! as $ha$ co&ld ,e e%%ec$ed
&nde! 1!esen$ 7no<ledge, <e "igh$ assis$ <ha$ goes on in $he 1!ocesses o% $he cen$!al ne!o&s
sys$e". 0e sho&ld hae $o a11ly o&! s&11osed !e"edies $o $he cen$!al ne!o&s sys$e" i$sel%, <hile
in $he 1!eio&s cases <e sho&ld hae ,een changing o&! o,9ec$s <hich a%%ec$ $he cen$!al ne!o&s
sys$e". The!e is e!y li$$le <e can do di!ec$ly a$ $he 1!esen$ $i"e, ,&$ <e can conceie o% s&ch a
!es1onse as <o&ld ena,le &s $o a%%ec$ o&! "e"o!y and $o a%%ec$ o&! $ho&gh$. 0e do, o% co&!se, $!y
$o selec$ $he $i"e o% $he day and condi$ions <hen o&! heads a!e clea! i% <e hae a di%%ic&l$ 1iece o%
<o!7 $o do. Tha$ is an indi!ec$ <ay o% a$$e"1$ing $o ge$ %ao!a,le coo1e!a$ion o% $he ne!o&s
ele"en$s in $he ,!ain $o do a ce!$ain a"o&n$ o% $hin7ing. I$ is $he sa"e so!$ o% 1a!allelis" <hich lies
,e$<een $he ligh$ing sys$e"s in o&! ho&ses and $he e=1e!ience <e hae o% isi,ili$y. In one case <e
hae $o a$$end $o condi$ions o&$side and in $he o$he! $o condi$ions inside $he cen$!al ne!o&s sys$e"
in o!de! $o con$!ol o&! !es1onses. The!e is no 1a!allelis" in gene!al ,e$<een $he <o!ld and $he
,!ain. 0ha$ a ,ehaio!is$ic 1sychology is $!ying $o do is $o %ind $ha$ in $he !es1onses, in o&! <hole
g!o&1 o% !es1onses, <hich ans<e!s $o $hose condi$ions in $he <o!ld <hich <e <an$ $o change, $o
i"1!oe, in o!de! $ha$ o&! cond&c$ "ay ,e s&ccess%&l.
The 1as$ $ha$ is in o&! 1!esen$ e=1e!ience is $he!e ,eca&se o% $he cen$!al ne!o&s sys$e" in !ela$ion
$o $he !es$ o% $he o!ganis". I% one has acD&i!ed a ce!$ain %acili$y in 1laying $he iolin, $ha$ 1as$
e=1e!ience is !egis$e!ed in $he ne!es and "&scles $he"seles, ,&$ "ainly in connec$ions %o&nd in
$he cen$!al ne!o&s sys$e", in $he <hole se$ o% 1a$hs $he!e <hich a!e 7e1$ o1en so $ha$ <hen $he
s$i"&l&s co"es in $he!e is !eleased a co"1le= se$ o% ela,o!a$e !es1onses. O&! 1as$ s$ays <i$h &s in
$e!"s o% $hose changes <hich hae !es&l$ed %!o" o&! e=1e!ience and <hich a!e in so"e sense
!egis$e!ed $he!e. The 1ec&lia! in$elligence o% $he h&"an %o!" lies in $his ela,o!a$e con$!ol gained
$h!o&gh $he 1as$. The h&"an ani"al>s 1as$ is cons$an$ly 1!esen$ in $he %acili$y <i$h <hich he ac$s,
,&$ $o say $ha$ $ha$ 1as$ is si"1ly loca$ed in $he cen$!al ne!o&s sys$e" is no$ a co!!ec$ s$a$e"en$. I$
is $!&e s&ch a "echanis" "&s$ ,e 1!esen$ in o!de! $ha$ $he 1as$ "ay a11ea! in o&! e=1e!ience, ,&$
$his is 1a!$ o% $he condi$ions, no$ $he only condi$ion. I% yo& !ecogni8e so"e,ody i$ "&s$ ,e $h!o&gh
$he %ac$ $ha$ yo& hae seen $ha$ indiid&al in $he 1as$, and <hen yo& see hi" again $he!e a!e $hose
$endencies $o !eac$ as yo& hae in $he 1as$, ,&$ $he indiid&al "&s$ ,e $he!e, o! so"e,ody li7e hi",
in o!de! $ha$ $his "ay $a7e 1lace. The 1as$ "&s$ ,e %o&nd in $he 1!esen$ <o!ld.+,- F!o" $he
s$and1oin$ o% ,ehaio!is$ic 1sychology <e 1ic7 o&$ $he cen$!al ne!o&s sys$e" only ,eca&se i$ is $ha$
<hich is $he i""edia$e "echanis" $h!o&gh <hich o&! o!ganis" o1e!a$es in ,!inging $he 1as$ $o
,ea! on $he 1!esen$. I% <e <an$ $o &nde!s$and $he <ay in <hich an o!ganis" !es1onds $o a ce!$ain
si$&a$ion <hich has a 1as$, <e hae $o ge$ in$o $he e%%ec$s o% $he 1as$ ac$ions on $ha$ o!ganis" <hich
hae ,een le%$ in $he cen$!al ne!o&s sys$e". The!e is no D&es$ion a,o&$ $ha$ %ac$. These e%%ec$s
acco!dingly ,eco"e 1ec&lia!ly i"1o!$an$, ,&$ $he -1a!allelis"- is no di%%e!en$ %o! a ,ehaio!is$ic
1sychology %!o" $he 1a!allelis" $ha$ lies ,e$<een $he <a!"$h in $he ho&se and $he hea$ing
a11a!a$&s ins$alled $he!e.
"ndnotes
1. IFo! $he i"1lied $heo!y o% $he 1as$, see *he Philosophy o% the Present, 11. 1?'1.K
,2# MI() %() TH" S'MB$&
I hae a$$e"1$ed $o 1oin$ o&$ $ha$ $he "eanings o% $hings, o&! ideas o% $he", ans<e! $o $he s$!&c$&!e
o% $he o!ganis" in i$s cond&c$ <i$h !e%e!ence $o $hings. The s$!&c$&!e <hich "a7es $his 1ossi,le <as
%o&nd 1!i"a!ily in $he cen$!al ne!o&s sys$e". One o% $he 1ec&lia!i$ies o% $his sys$e" is $ha$ i$ has, in
a sense, a $e"1o!al di"ension ; $he $hings <e a!e going $o do can ,e a!!anged in a $e"1o!al o!de!
so $ha$ $he la$e! 1!ocesses can in $hei! ince1$ion ,e 1!esen$ de$e!"ining $he ea!lie! 1!ocesses@ <ha$
<e a!e going $o do can de$e!"ine o&! i""edia$e a11!oach $o $he o,9ec$.
The "echanis" o% $he cen$!al ne!o&s sys$e" ena,les &s $o hae no< 1!esen$, in $e!"s o% a$$i$&des
o! i"1lici$ !es1onses, $he al$e!na$ie 1ossi,le oe!$ co"1le$ions o% any gien ac$ in <hich <e a!e
inoled@ and $his %ac$ "&s$ ,e !eali8ed and !ecogni8ed, in i!$&e o% $he o,io&s con$!ol <hich la$e!
1hases o% any gien ac$ e=e!$ oe! i$s ea!lie! 1hases. Mo!e s1eci%ically, $he cen$!al ne!o&s sys$e"
1!oides a "echanis" o% i"1lici$ !es1onse <hich ena,les $he indiid&al $o $es$ o&$ i"1lici$ly $he
a!io&s 1ossi,le co"1le$ions o% an al!eady ini$ia$ed ac$ in adance o% $he ac$&al co"1le$ion o% $he
ac$?and $h&s $o choose %o! hi"sel%, on $he ,asis o% $his $es$ing, $he one <hich i$ is "os$ desi!a,le $o
1e!%o!" e=1lici$ly o! ca!!y in$o oe!$ e%%ec$. The cen$!al ne!o&s sys$e", in sho!$, ena,les $he
indiid&al $o e=e!cise conscio&s con$!ol oe! his ,ehaio!. I$ is $he 1ossi,ili$y o% delayed !es1onse
<hich 1!inci1ally di%%e!en$ia$es !e%lec$ie cond&c$ %!o" non?!e%lec$ie cond&c$ in <hich $he !es1onse
is al<ays i""edia$e. The highe! cen$e!s o% $he cen$!al ne!o&s sys$e" a!e inoled in $he %o!"e!
$y1e o% ,ehaio! ,y "a7ing 1ossi,le $he in$e!1osi$ion, ,e$<een s$i"&l&s and !es1onse in $he si"1le
s$i"&l&s?!es1onse a!c, o% a 1!ocess o% selec$ing one o! ano$he! o% a <hole se$ o% 1ossi,le !es1onses
and co",ina$ions o% !es1onses $o $he gien s$i"&l&s.
Men$al 1!ocesses $a7e 1lace in $his %ield o% a$$i$&des as e=1!essed ,y $he cen$!al ne!o&s sys$e"@
and $his %ield is hence $he %ield o% ideas; $he %ield o% $he con$!ol o% 1!esen$ ,ehaio! in $e!"s o% i$s
%&$&!e conseD&ences, o! in $e!"s o% %&$&!e ,ehaio!@ $he %ield o% $ha$ $y1e o% in$elligen$ cond&c$ <hich
is 1ec&lia!ly cha!ac$e!is$ic o% $he highe! %o!"s o% li%e, and es1ecially o% h&"an ,eings. The a!io&s
a$$i$&des e=1!essi,le $h!o&gh $he cen$!al ne!o&s sys$e" can ,e o!gani8ed in$o di%%e!en$ $y1es o%
s&,seD&en$ ac$s@ and $he delayed !eac$ions o! !es1onses $h&s "ade 1ossi,le ,y $he cen$!al ne!o&s
sys$e" a!e $he dis$inc$ie %ea$&!e o% "en$ally con$!olled o! in$elligen$ ,ehaio!.+,-
0ha$ is $he "ind as s&ch, i% <e a!e $o $hin7 in ,ehaio!is$ic $e!"sE Mind, o% co&!se, is a e!y
a",ig&o&s $e!", and I <an$ $o aoid a",ig&i$ies. 0ha$ I s&gges$ed as cha!ac$e!is$ic o% $he "ind is
$he !e%lec$ie in$elligence o% $he h&"an ani"al <hich can ,e dis$ing&ished %!o" $he in$elligence o%
lo<e! %o!"s. I% <e sho&ld $!y $o !ega!d !eason as a s1eci%ic %ac&l$y <hich deals <i$h $ha$ <hich is
&nie!sal <e sho&ld %ind !es1onses in lo<e! %o!"s <hich a!e &nie!sal. 0e can also 1oin$ o&$ $ha$
$hei! cond&c$ is 1&!1osie, and $ha$ $y1es o% cond&c$ <hich do no$ lead &1 $o ce!$ain ends a!e
eli"ina$ed. This <o&ld see" $o ans<e! $o <ha$ <e $e!" -"ind- <hen <e $al7 a,o&$ $he ani"al "ind,
,&$ <ha$ <e !e%e! $o as !e%lec$ie in$elligence <e gene!ally !ecogni8e as ,elonging only $o $he h&"an
o!ganis". The nonh&"an ani"al ac$s <i$h !e%e!ence $o a %&$&!e in $he sense $ha$ i$ has i"1&lses
<hich a!e see7ing e=1!ession $ha$ can only ,e sa$is%ied in la$e! e=1e!ience, and ho<ee! $his is $o
,e e=1lained, $his la$e! e=1e!ience does de$e!"ine <ha$ $he 1!esen$ e=1e!ience shall ,e. I% one
acce1$s a Da!<inian e=1lana$ion he says $ha$ only $hose %o!"s s&!ie <hose cond&c$ has a ce!$ain
!ela$ionshi1 $o a s1eci%ic %&$&!e, s&ch as ,elongs $o $he eni!on"en$ o% $he s1eci%ic %o!". The %o!"s
<hose cond&c$ does ins&!e $he %&$&!e <ill na$&!ally s&!ie. In s&ch a s$a$e"en$, indi!ec$ly a$ leas$,
one is "a7ing $he %&$&!e de$e!"ine $he cond&c$ o% $he %o!" $h!o&gh $he s$!&c$&!e o% $hings as $hey
no< e=is$ as a !es&l$ o% 1as$ ha11enings.
0hen, on $he o$he! hand, <e s1ea7 o% !e%lec$ie cond&c$ <e e!y de%ini$ely !e%e! $o $he 1!esence o%
$he %&$&!e in $e!"s o% ideas. The in$elligen$ "an as dis$ing&ished %!o" $he in$elligen$ ani"al 1!esen$s
$o hi"sel% <ha$ is going $o ha11en. The ani"al "ay ac$ in s&ch a <ay as $o ins&!e i$s %ood
$o"o!!o<. A sD&i!!el hides n&$s, ,&$ <e do no$ hold $ha$ $he sD&i!!el has a 1ic$&!e o% <ha$ is going $o
ha11en. The yo&ng sD&i!!el is ,o!n in $he s&""e! $i"e, and has no di!ec$ions %!o" o$he! %o!"s, ,&$
i$ <ill s$a!$ o%% hiding n&$s as <ell as $he olde! ones. S&ch ac$ion sho<s $ha$ e=1e!ience co&ld no$
di!ec$ $he ac$ii$y o% $he s1eci%ic %o!". The 1!oiden$ "an, ho<ee!, does de%ini$ely 1&!s&e a ce!$ain
co&!se, 1ic$&!es a ce!$ain si$&a$ion, and di!ec$s his o<n cond&c$ <i$h !e%e!ence $o i$. The sD&i!!el
%ollo<s ce!$ain ,lind i"1&lses, and $he ca!!ying?o&$ o% i$s i"1&lses leads $o $he sa"e !es&l$ $ha$ $he
s$o!ing o% g!ain does %o! $he 1!oiden$ "an. I$ is $his 1ic$&!e, ho<ee!, o% <ha$ $he %&$&!e is $o ,e as
de$e!"ining o&! 1!esen$ cond&c$ $ha$ is $he cha!ac$e!is$ic o% h&"an in$elligence ?$he %&$&!e as
1!esen$ in $e!"s o% ideas.
0hen <e 1!esen$ s&ch a 1ic$&!e i$ is in $e!"s o% o&! !eac$ions, in $e!"s o% <ha$ <e a!e going $o do.
The!e is so"e so!$ o% a 1!o,le" ,e%o!e &s, and o&! s$a$e"en$ o% $he 1!o,le" is in $e!"s o% a %&$&!e
si$&a$ion <hich <ill ena,le &s $o "ee$ i$ ,y o&! 1!esen$ !eac$ions. Tha$ so!$ o% $hin7ing cha!ac$e!i8es
$he h&"an %o!" and <e hae endeao!ed $o isola$e i$s "echanis". 0ha$ is essen$ial $o $his
"echanis" is a <ay o% indica$ing cha!ac$e!s o% $hings <hich con$!ol !es1onses, and <hich hae
a!io&s al&es $o $he %o!" i$sel%, so $ha$ s&ch cha!ac$e!s <ill engage $he a$$en$ion o% $he o!ganis"
and ,!ing a,o&$ a desi!ed !es&l$. The odo! o% $he ic$i" engages $he a$$en$ion o% $he ,eas$ o% 1!ey,
and ,y a$$en$ion $o $ha$ odo! he does sa$is%y his h&nge! and ins&!e his %&$&!e. 0ha$ is $he di%%e!ence
,e$<een s&ch a si$&a$ion and $he cond&c$ o% $he "an <ho ac$s, as <e say, !a$ionallyE The
%&nda"en$al di%%e!ence is $ha$ $he la$$e! indiid&al in so"e <ay indica$es $his cha!ac$e!, <ha$ee! i$
"ay ,e, $o ano$he! 1e!son and $o hi"sel%@ and $he sy",oli8a$ion o% i$ ,y "eans o% $his indica$ie
ges$&!e is <ha$ cons$i$&$es $he "echanis" $ha$ gies $he i"1le"en$s, a$ leas$, %o! in$elligen$
cond&c$. Th&s, one 1oin$s $o a ce!$ain %oo$1!in$, and says $ha$ i$ "eans ,ea!. No< $o iden$i%y $ha$ so!$
o% a $!ace ,y "eans o% so"e sy",ol so $ha$ i$ can ,e &$ili8ed ,y $he di%%e!en$ "e",e!s o% $he g!o&1,
,&$ 1a!$ic&la!ly ,y $he indiid&al hi"sel% la$e!, is $he cha!ac$e!is$ic $hing a,o&$ h&"an in$elligence. To
,e a,le $o iden$i%y -$his as leading $o $ha$,- and $o ge$ so"e so!$ o% a ges$&!e, ocal o! o$he!<ise,
<hich can ,e &sed $o indica$e $he i"1lica$ion $o o$he!s and $o hi"sel% so as $o "a7e 1ossi,le $he
con$!ol o% cond&c$ <i$h !e%e!ence $o i$, is $he dis$inc$ie $hing in h&"an in$elligence <hich is no$
%o&nd in ani"al in$elligence.
0ha$ s&ch sy",ols do is $o 1ic7 o&$ 1a!$ic&la! cha!ac$e!is$ics o% $he si$&a$ion so $ha$ $he !es1onse $o
$he" can ,e 1!esen$ in $he e=1e!ience o% $he indiid&al. 0e "ay say $hey a!e 1!esen$ in ideal %o!",
as in a $endency $o !&n a<ay, in a sin7ing o% $he s$o"ach <hen <e co"e on $he %!esh %oo$1!in$s o% a
,ea!. The indica$ion $ha$ $his is a ,ea! calls o&$ $he !es1onse o% aoiding $he ,ea!, o! i% one is on a
,ea! h&n$, i$ indica$es $he %&!$he! 1!og!ess o% $he h&n$. One ge$s $he !es1onse in$o e=1e!ience ,e%o!e
$ha$ !es1onse is oe!$ly ca!!ied o&$ $h!o&gh indica$ing and e"1hasi8ing $he s$i"&l&s $ha$ ins$iga$es
i$. 0hen $his sy",ol is &$ili8ed %o! $he $hing i$sel% one is, in 0a$son>s $e!"s, condi$ioning a !e%le=.
The sigh$ o% $he ,ea! <o&ld lead one $o !&n a<ay, $he %oo$1!in$ condi$ioned $ha$ !e%le=, and $he <o!d
-,ea!- s1o7en ,y one>s sel% o! a %!iend can also condi$ion $he !e%le=, so $ha$ $he sign co"es $o s$and
%o! $he $hing so %a! as ac$ion is conce!ned.
0ha$ I hae ,een $!ying $o ,!ing o&$ is $he di%%e!ence ,e$<een $he %o!egoing $y1e o% cond&c$ and $he
$y1e <hich I hae ill&s$!a$ed ,y $he e=1e!i"en$ on $he ,a,y <i$h $he <hi$e !a$ and $he noise ,ehind
i$s head. In $he la$$e! si$&a$ion $he!e is a condi$ioning o% $he !e%le= in <hich $he!e is no holding a1a!$
o% $he di%%e!en$ ele"en$s. B&$ <hen $he!e is a condi$ioning o% $he !e%le= <hich inoles $he <o!d
-,ea!,- o! $he sigh$ o% $he %oo$1!in$, $he!e is in $he e=1e!ience o% $he indiid&al $he se1a!a$ion o% $he
s$i"&l&s and $he !es1onse. :e!e $he sy",ol "eans ,ea!, and $ha$ in $&!n "eans ge$$ing o&$ o% $he
<ay, o! %&!$he!ing $he h&n$. 6nde! $hose ci!c&"s$ances $he 1e!son <ho s$&",les on $he %oo$1!in$s o%
$he ,ea! is no$ a%!aid o% $he %oo$1!in$s?he is a%!aid o% $he ,ea!. The %oo$1!in$ "eans a ,ea!. The child
is a%!aid o% $he !a$, so $ha$ $he !es1onse o% %ea! is $o $he sigh$ o% $he <hi$e !a$@ $he "an is no$ a%!aid o%
$he %oo$1!in$, ,&$ o% $he ,ea!. The %oo$1!in$ and $he sy",ol <hich !e%e!s $o $he ,ea! in so"e sense
"ay ,e said $o condi$ion o! se$ o%% $he !es1onse, ,&$ $he ,ea! and no$ $he sign is $he o,9ec$ o% $he
%ea!. The isola$ion o% $he sy",ol, as s&ch, ena,les one $o hold on $o $hese gien cha!ac$e!s and $o
isola$e $he" in $hei! !ela$ionshi1 $o $he o,9ec$, and conseD&en$ly in $hei! !ela$ion $o $he !es1onse. I$ is
$ha$, I $hin7, <hich cha!ac$e!i8es o&! h&"an in$elligence $o a 1ec&lia! deg!ee. 0e hae a se$ o%
sy",ols ,y "eans o% <hich <e indica$e ce!$ain cha!ac$e!s, and in indica$ing $hose cha!ac$e!s hold
$he" a1a!$ %!o" $hei! i""edia$e eni!on"en$, and 7ee1 si"1ly one !ela$ionshi1 clea!. 0e isola$e
$he %oo$1!in$ o% $he ,ea! and 7ee1 only $ha$ !ela$ionshi1 $o $he ani"al $ha$ "ade i$. 0e a!e !eac$ing
$o $ha$, no$hing else. One holds on $o i$ as an indica$ion o% $he ,ea! and o% $he al&e $ha$ o,9ec$ has
in e=1e!ience as so"e$hing $o ,e aoided o! $o ,e h&n$ed. The a,ili$y $o isola$e $hese i"1o!$an$
cha!ac$e!s in $hei! !ela$ionshi1 $o $he o,9ec$ and $o $he !es1onse <hich ,elongs $o $he o,9ec$ is, I
$hin7, <ha$ <e gene!ally "ean <hen <e s1ea7 o% a h&"an ,eing $hin7ing a $hing o&$, o! haing a
"ind. S&ch a,ili$y "a7es $he <o!ld?<ide di%%e!ence ,e$<een $he condi$ioning o% !e%le=es in $he case
o% $he <hi$e !a$ and $he h&"an 1!ocess o% $hin7ing ,y "eans o% sy",ols.+.-
0ha$ is $he!e in cond&c$ $ha$ "a7es $his leel o% e=1e!ience 1ossi,le, $his selec$ion o% ce!$ain
cha!ac$e!s <i$h $hei! !ela$ionshi1 $o o$he! cha!ac$e!s and $o $he !es1onses <hich $hese call o&$E My
o<n ans<e!, i$ is clea!, is in $e!"s o% s&ch a se$ o% sy",ols as a!ise in o&! social cond&c$, in $he
cone!sa$ion o% ges$&!es?in a <o!d, in $e!"s o% lang&age. 0hen <e ge$ in$o cond&c$ $hese sy",ols
<hich indica$e ce!$ain cha!ac$e!s and $hei! !ela$ionshi1 $o $hings and $o !es1onses, $hey ena,le &s $o
1ic7 o&$ $hese cha!ac$e!s and hold $he" in so %a! as $hey de$e!"ine o&! cond&c$.
A "an <al7ing ac!oss co&n$!y co"es &1on a chas" <hich he canno$ 9&"1. :e <an$s $o go ahead
,&$ $he chas" 1!een$s $his $endency %!o" ,eing ca!!ied o&$. In $ha$ 7ind o% a si$&a$ion $he!e a!ises a
sensi$ii$y $o all so!$s o% cha!ac$e!s <hich he has no$ no$iced ,e%o!e. 0hen he s$o1s, "ind, <e say,
is %!eed. :e does no$ si"1ly loo7 %o! $he indica$ion o% $he 1a$h going ahead. The dog and $he "an
<o&ld ,o$h $!y $o %ind a 1oin$ <he!e $hey co&ld c!oss. B&$ <ha$ $he "an co&ld do $ha$ $he dog co&ld
no$ <o&ld ,e $o no$e $ha$ $he sides o% $he chas" see" $o ,e a11!oaching each o$he! in one
di!ec$ion. :e 1ic7s o&$ $he ,es$ 1laces $o $!y, and $ha$ a11!oach <hich he indica$es $o hi"sel%
de$e!"ines $he <ay in <hich he is going $o go. I% $he dog sa< a$ a dis$ance a na!!o< 1lace he <o&ld
!&n $o i$, ,&$ 1!o,a,ly he <o&ld no$ ,e a%%ec$ed ,y $he g!ad&al a11!oach <hich $he h&"an indiid&al
sy",olically co&ld indica$e $o hi"sel%.
The h&"an indiid&al <o&ld see o$he! o,9ec$s a,o&$ hi", and hae o$he! i"ages a11ea! in his
e=1e!ience. :e sees a $!ee <hich "igh$ se!e as a ,!idge ac!oss $he s1ace ahead o% hi". :e "igh$
$!y a!io&s so!$s o% 1ossi,le ac$ions <hich <o&ld ,e s&gges$ed $o hi" in s&ch a si$&a$ion, and
1!esen$ $he" $o hi"sel% ,y "eans o% $he sy",ols he &ses. :e has no$ si"1ly condi$ioned ce!$ain
!es1onses ,y ce!$ain s$i"&li. I% he had, he <o&ld ,e ,o&nd $o $hose. 0ha$ he does do ,y "eans o%
$hese sy",ols is $o, indica$e ce!$ain cha!ac$e!s <hich a!e 1!esen$, so $ha$ he can hae $hese
!es1onses $he!e all !eady $o go o%%. :e loo7s do<n $he chas" and $hin7s he sees $he edges d!a<ing
$oge$he!, and he "ay !&n $o<a!d $ha$ 1oin$. O! he "ay s$o1 and as7 i% $he!e is no$ so"e o$he! <ay in
<hich he can has$en his c!ossing. 0ha$ s$o1s hi" is a a!ie$y o% o$he! $hings he "ay do. :e no$es
all $he 1ossi,ili$ies o% ge$$ing ac!oss. :e can hold on $o $he" ,y "eans o% sy",ols, and !ela$e $he"
$o each o$he! so $ha$ he can ge$ a %inal ac$ion. The ,eginning o% $he ac$ is $he!e in his e=1e!ience.
:e al!eady has a $endency $o go in a ce!$ain di!ec$ion and <ha$ he <o&ld do is al!eady $he!e
de$e!"ining hi". And no$ only is $ha$ de$e!"ina$ion $he!e in his a$$i$&de ,&$ he has $ha$ <hich is
1ic7ed o&$ ,y "eans o% $he $e!" -$ha$ is na!!o<, I can 9&"1 i$.- :e is !eady $o 9&"1, and $ha$ !e%le= is
!eady $o de$e!"ine <ha$ he is doing. These sy",ols, ins$ead o% ,eing a "e!e condi$ioning o%
!e%le=es, a!e <ays o% 1ic7ing o&$ $he s$i"&li so $ha$ $he a!io&s !es1onses can o!gani8e $he"seles
in$o a %o!" o% ac$ion.+/-
The si$&a$ion in <hich one see7s condi$ioning !es1onses is, I $hin7, as %a! as e%%ec$ie in$elligence is
conce!ned, al<ays 1!esen$ in $he %o!" o% a 1!o,le". 0hen a "an is 9&s$ going ahead he see7s $he
indica$ions o% $he 1a$h ,&$ he does i$ &nconscio&sly. :e 9&s$ sees $he 1a$h ahead o% hi"@ he is no$
a<a!e o% loo7ing %o! i$ &nde! $hose condi$ions. B&$ <hen he !eaches $he chas", $his on<a!d
"oe"en$ is s$o11ed ,y $he e!y 1!ocess o% d!a<ing ,ac7 %!o" $he chas". Tha$ con%lic$, so $o
s1ea7, se$s hi" %!ee $o see a <hole se$ o% o$he! $hings. No<, $he so!$ o% $hings he <ill see <ill ,e $he
cha!ac$e!s <hich !e1!esen$ a!io&s 1ossi,ili$ies o% ac$ion &nde! $he ci!c&"s$ances. The "an holds
on $o $hese di%%e!en$ 1ossi,ili$ies o% !es1onse in $e!"s o% $he di%%e!en$ s$i"&li <hich 1!esen$
$he"seles, and i$ is his a,ili$y $o hold $he" $he!e $ha$ cons$i$&$es his "ind.
0e hae no eidence o% s&ch a si$&a$ion in $he case o% $he lo<e! ani"als, as is "ade %ai!ly clea! ,y
$he %ac$ $ha$ <e do no$ %ind in any ani"al ,ehaio! $ha$ <e can <o!7 o&$ in de$ail any sy",ol, any
"e$hod o% co""&nica$ion, any$hing $ha$ <ill ans<e! $o $hese di%%e!en$ !es1onses so $ha$ $hey can all
,e held $he!e in $he e=1e!ience o% $he indiid&al. I$ is $ha$ <hich di%%e!en$ia$es $he ac$ion o% $he
!e%lec$iely in$elligen$ ,eing %!o" $he cond&c$ o% $he lo<e! %o!"s@ and $he "echanis" $ha$ "a7es $ha$
1ossi,le is lang&age. 0e hae $o !ecogni8e $ha$ lang&age is a 1a!$ o% cond&c$. Mind inoles,
ho<ee!, a !ela$ionshi1 $o $he cha!ac$e!s o% $hings. Those cha!ac$e!s a!e in $he $hings, and <hile $he
s$i"&li call o&$ $he !es1onse <hich is in one sense 1!esen$ in $he o!ganis", $he !es1onses a!e $o
$hings o&$ $he!e. The <hole 1!ocess is no$ a "en$al 1!od&c$ and yo& canno$ 1&$ i$ inside o% $he ,!ain.
Men$ali$y is $ha$ !ela$ionshi1 o% $he o!ganis" $o $he si$&a$ion <hich is "edia$ed ,y se$s o% sy",ols.
"ndnotes
1. In conside!ing $he !ole o! %&nc$ion o% $he cen$!al ne!o&s sys$e"?i"1o!$an$ $ho&gh i$ is?in
in$elligen$ h&"an ,ehaio!, <e "&s$ nee!$heless 7ee1 in "ind $he %ac$ $ha$ s&ch ,ehaio! is
essen$ially and %&nda"en$ally social@ $ha$ i$ inoles and 1!es&11oses an ee!going social
li%e?1!ocess@ and $ha$ $he &ni$y o% $his ongoing social 1!ocess ?? o! o% any one o% i$s
co"1onen$ ac$s?is i!!ed&ci,le, and in 1a!$ic&la! canno$ ,e adeD&a$ely analy8ed si"1ly in$o a
n&",e! o% disc!e$e ne!e ele"en$s. This %ac$ "&s$ ,e !ecogni8ed ,y $he social 1sychologis$.
These disc!e$e ne!e ele"en$s lie <i$hin $he &ni$y o% $his ongoing social 1!ocess, o! <i$hin
$he &ni$y o% any one o% $he social ac$s in <hich $his 1!ocess is e=1!essed o! e",odied, and
$he analysis <hich isola$es $he"?$he analysis o% <hich $hey a!e $he !es&l$s o! end?1!od&c$s ??
does no$ and canno$ des$!oy $ha$ &ni$y.
#. The "eanings o% $hings o! o,9ec$s a!e ac$&al inhe!en$ 1!o1e!$ies o! D&ali$ies o% $he", $he
loc&s o% any gien "eaning is in $he $hing <hich, as <e say, -has i$.- 0e !e%e! $o $he
"eaning o% a $hing <hen <e "a7e &se o% $he sy",ol. Sy",ols s$and %o! $he "eanings o%
$hose $hings o! o,9ec$s <hich hae "eanings@ $hey a!e gien 1o!$ions o% e=1e!ience <hich
1oin$ $o, indica$e, o! !e1!esen$ o$he! 1o!$ions o% e=1e!ience no$ di!ec$ly 1!esen$ o! gien a$
$he $i"e <hen, and in $he si$&a$ion in <hich, any one o% $he" is $h&s 1!esen$ Ao! is
i""edia$ely e=1e!iencedB. The sy",ol is $h&s "o!e $han a "e!e s&,s$i$&$e s$i"&l&s ?? "o!e
$han a "e!e s$i"&l&s %o! a condi$ioned !es1onse o! !e%le=. Fo! $he condi$ioned !e%le=?$he
!es1onse $o a "e!e s&,s$i$&$e s$i"&l&s ?? does no$ o! need no$ inole conscio&sness@
<he!eas $he !es1onse $o a sy",ol does and "&s$ inole conscio&sness. Condi$ioned
!e%le=es 1l&s conscio&sness o% $he a$$i$&des and "eanings $hey inole a!e <ha$ cons$i$&$e
lang&age, and hence lay $he ,asis, o! co"1!ise $he "echanis" %o!, $ho&gh$ and in$elligen$
cond&c$. lang&age is $he "eans <he!e,y indiid&als can indica$e $o one ano$he! <ha$ $hei!
!es1onses $o o,9ec$s <ill ,e, and hence <ha$ $he "eanings o% o,9ec$s a!e@ i$ is no$ a "e!e
sys$e" o% condi$ioned !e%le=es. *a$ional cond&c$ al<ays inoles a !e%le=ie !e%e!ence $o
sel%, $ha$ is, an indica$ion $o $he indiid&al o% $he signi%icances <hich his ac$ions o! ges$&!es
hae %o! o$he! indiid&als. And $he e=1e!ien$ial o! ,ehaio!is$ic ,asis %o! s&ch cond&c$?$he
ne&!o?1hysiological "echanis" o% $hin7ing?is $o ,e %o&nd, as <e hae seen, in $he cen$!al
ne!o&s sys$e".
'. The !e%lec$ie ac$ consis$s in a !econs$!&c$ion o% $he 1e!ce1$&al %ield so $ha$ i$ ,eco"es
1ossi,le %o! i"1&lses <hich <e!e in con%lic$ $o inhi,i$ ac$ion no longe!. This "ay $a7e 1lace
,y s&ch a $e"1o!al !ead9&s$"en$ $ha$ one o% $he con%lic$ing i"1&lses %inds a la$e!
e=1!ession. In $his case $he!e has en$e!ed in$o $he 1e!ce1$&al %ield o$he! i"1&lses <hich
1os$1one $he e=1!ession o% $ha$ <hich had inhi,i$ed ac$ion. Th&s, $he <id$h o% $he di$ch
inhi,i$s $he i"1&lse $o 9&"1. The!e en$e!s in$o $he 1e!ce1$&al %ield $he i"age o% a na!!o<e!
s$!e$ch and $he i"1&lse $o go ahead %inds i$s 1lace in a co",ina$ion o% i"1&lses, incl&ding
$ha$ o% "oe"en$ $o<a!d $he na!!o<e! s$!e$ch.
The !econs$!&c$ion "ay $a7e 1lace $h!o&gh $he a11ea!ance o% o$he! senso!y cha!ac$e!s in
$he %ield igno!ed ,e%o!e. A ,oa!d long eno&gh $o ,!idge $he di$ch is !ecogni8ed. Beca&se $he
indiid&al has al!eady $he co"1le= o% i"1&lses <hich lead $o li%$ing i$ and 1lacing i$ ac!oss
$he di$ch i$ ,eco"es a 1a!$ o% $he o!gani8ed g!o&1 o% i"1&lses $ha$ ca!!y $he "an along
$o<a!d his des$ina$ion. In nei$he! case <o&ld he ,e !eady $o !es1ond $o $he s$i"&l&s Ain $he
one case $he i"age o% $he na!!o<e! s$!e$ch o% $he di$ch, in $he o$he! $he sigh$ o% $he ,oa!dB i%
he had no$ !eac$ions in his na$&!e ans<e!ing $o $hese o,9ec$s, no! <o&ld $hese $endencies $o
!es1onse sensi$i8e hi" $o $hei! s$i"&li i% $hey <e!e no$ %!eed %!o" %i!"ly o!gani8ed ha,i$s. I$ is
$his %!eedo", $hen, $ha$ is $he 1!e!eD&isi$e o% !e%lec$ion, and i$ is o&! social sel% !e%lec$ie
cond&c$ $ha$ gies $his %!eedo" $o h&"an indiid&als in $hei! g!o&1 li%e AMSB.
,6# TH" *"&%TI$( $3 MI() T$ *"SP$(S" %() "(VI*$(M"(T
0e hae seen $ha$ "en$al 1!ocesses hae $o do <i$h $he "eanings o% $hings, and $ha$ $hese
"eanings can ,e s$a$ed in $e!"s o% highly o!gani8ed a$$i$&des o% $he indiid&al. These a$$i$&des
inole no$ only si$&a$ions in <hich $he ele"en$s a!e si"&l$aneo&s, ,&$ also ones <hich inole
o$he! $e"1o!al !ela$ionshi1s, i.e., $he ad9&s$"en$ o% $he 1!esen$ !es1onse $o la$e! !es1onses <hich
a!e in so"e sense al!eady ini$ia$ed. S&ch an o!gani8a$ion o% a$$i$&des <i$h !e%e!ence $o <ha$ <e
$e!" o,9ec$s is <ha$ cons$i$&$es %o! &s $he "eanings o% $hings. These "eanings in logical
$e!"inology a!e conside!ed as &nie!salsB and $his &nie!sali$y, <e hae seen a$$aches in a ce!$ain
sense $o a ha,i$&al !es1onse in con$!as$ $o $he 1a!$ic&la! s$i"&li <hich elici$ $his !es1onse. The
&nie!sali$y is !e%lec$ed in ,ehaio!is$ic $e!"s in $he iden$i$y o% $he !es1onse, al$ho&gh $he s$i"&li $ha$
call o&$ $his !es1onse a!e all di%%e!en$. 0e can $h!o< $his s$a$e"en$ in$o a logical %o!" and say $ha$
$he !es1onse is &nie!sal <hile $he s$i"&li a!e 1a!$ic&la!s <hich a!e ,!o&gh$ &nde! s&ch a &nie!sal.
These !ela$ions o% a$$i$&des $o each o$he! $h!o< ligh$ &1on $he !ela$ion o% a -s&,s$ance- $o i$s
a$$!i,&$es. 0e s1ea7 o% a ho&se as, in a ce!$ain sense, a s&,s$ance $o <hich $he a$$!i,&$e o% colo!
"ay ,e a11lied. The colo! is an acciden$ <hich inhe!es in a ce!$ain s&,s$ance, as s&ch. This
!ela$ionshi1 o% $he inhe!ence o% a ce!$ain cha!ac$e! in a ce!$ain s&,s$ance is a !ela$ionshi1 o% a
s1eci%ic !es1onse, s&ch as $ha$ o% o!na"en$ing o,9ec$s a,o&$ &s, $o $he g!o&1 o% ac$ions inoled in
d<elling in a ho&se. The ho&se "&s$ 1!o$ec$ &s, i$ "&s$ 1!oide %o! &s <hen <e a!e aslee1 and
<hen <e a!e a<a7e, i$ "&s$ ca!!y $he !eD&isi$es o% a %a"ily li%e?$hese a!e essen$ials $ha$ s$and %o! a
se$ o% !es1onses in <hich one inei$a,ly i"1lies $he o$he!. The!e a!e o$he! !es1onses, ho<ee!, $ha$
a!y. 0e can sa$is%y no$ si"1ly o&! $as$e, ,&$ also o&! <hi"s in $he o!na"en$s <e &se. Those a!e
no$ essen$ial. The!e a!e ce!$ain !es1onses $ha$ a!y, <he!eas $he!e is a ce!$ain ,ody o% "o!e o! less
s$anda!di8ed !es1onses $ha$ !e"ain &nchanged. The o!gani8ed se$s o% !es1onses ans<e! $o $he
"eanings o% $hings, ans<e! $o $he" in $hei! &nie!sali$y, $ha$ is, in $he ha,i$&al !es1onse $ha$ is
called o&$ ,y a g!ea$ a!ie$y o% s$i"&li. They ans<e! $o $hings in $hei! logical !ela$ionshi1s.
I hae !e%e!!ed 9&s$ no< $o $he !ela$ionshi1 o% $he s&,s$ance as !e%lec$ed in $he ,ody o% ha,i$s, $o $he
a!ied !es1onses ans<e!ing $o $he a$$!i,&$es. In $he !ela$ionshi1 o% ca&se and e%%ec$ $he!e is $he
!ela$ion o% $he !es1onses $o each o$he! in $he sense o% de1endence, inoling $he ad9&s$"en$ o% $he
s$e1s $o ,e $a7en <i$h !e%e!ence $o $he $hing $o ,e ca!!ied o&$. The a!!ange"en$ <hich "ay a11ea!
a$ one $i"e in $e!"s o% "eans and end a11ea!s a$ ano$he! $i"e in $e!"s o% ca&se and e%%ec$. 0e
hae he!e a !ela$ionshi1 o% de1endence o% one !es1onse on ano$he!, a necessa!y !ela$ion $ha$ lies
inside o% a la!ge! sys$e".+,- I$ de1ends &1on <ha$ <e a!e going $o do <he$he! <e selec$ $his "eans
o! ano$he! one, one ca&sal se!ies o! ano$he!. O&! ha,i$s a!e so ad9&s$ed $ha$ i% <e decide $o $a7e a
9o&!ney, %o! ins$ance, <e hae a ,ody o% !ela$ed ha,i$s $ha$ ,egin $o o1e!a$e?1ac7ing o&! ,ags,
ge$$ing o&! !ail!oad $ic7e$s, d!a<ing o&$ "oney %o! &se, selec$ing ,oo7s $o !ead on $he 9o&!ney, and
so on. The!e a!e a <hole se$ o% o!gani8ed !es1onses <hich a$ once s$a!$ $o go o%% in $hei! 1!o1e!
!ela$ionshi1 $o each o$he! <hen a 1e!son "a7es &1 his "ind $ha$ he <ill $a7e a 9o&!ney. The!e "&s$
,e s&ch an o!gani8a$ion in o&! ha,i$s in o!de! $ha$ "an "ay hae $he so!$ o% in$elligence <hich he in
%ac$ has.
0e hae, $hen, in $he ,ehaio!is$ic s$a$e"en$, a 1lace %o! $ha$ <hich is s&11osed $o ,e $he 1ec&lia!
con$en$ o% "ind, $ha$ is, $he "eanings o% $hings. I hae !e%e!!ed $o $hese %ac$o!s as a$$i$&des. The!e
is, o% co&!se, $ha$ in $he <o!ld <hich ans<e!s $o $he g!o&1 o% a$$i$&des. 0e a!e he!e aoiding logical
and "e$a1hysical 1!o,le"s, 9&s$ as "ode!n 1sychology does. 0ha$ $his 1sychology is see7ing $o do
is $o ge$ Con$!ol@ i$ is no$ see7ing $o se$$le "e$a1hysical D&es$ions. No<, %!o" $he 1oin$ o% ie< o%
,ehaio!is$ic 1sychology, <e can s$a$e in $e!"s o% a$$i$&des <ha$ <e call $he "eanings o% $hings@ $he
o!gani8ed a$$i$&de o% $he indiid&al is $ha$ <hich $he 1sychologis$ ge$s hold o% in $his si$&a$ion. I$ is a$
leas$ as legi$i"a$e %o! hi" $o s$a$e "eaning in $e!"s o% a$$i$&des as i$ <as %o! an ea!lie! 1sychologis$
$o s$a$e i$ in $e!"s o% a s$a$ic conce1$ $ha$ had i$s 1lace in $he "ind.
0ha$ I hae 1oin$ed o&$ is $ha$ in $he cen$!al ne!o&s sys$e" one can %ind, o! a$ leas$ 9&s$i%ia,ly
ass&"e, 9&s$ s&ch co"1le=i$ies o% !es1onses, o! $he "echanis" o% 9&s$ s&ch co"1le=i$ies o%
!es1onse, as <e hae ,een disc&ssing. I% <e s1ea7 o% a 1e!son going $h!o&gh $he s$e1s $o <hich I
hae !e%e!!ed, in 1!e1a!ing %o! a 9o&!ney, <e hae $o ass&"e $ha$ no$ only a!e $he ne!o&s ele"en$s
essen$ial $o $he s$e1s, ,&$ $ha$ $he !ela$ion o% $hose !es1onses in $he cen$!al ne!o&s sys$e" is o% a
s&ch so!$ $ha$ i% $he 1e!son ca!!ies o&$ one !es1onse he is inei$a,ly !eady $o %ind $he s$i"&l&s <hich
<ill se$ %!ee ano$he! !ela$ed !es1onse. The!e "&s$ ,e an o!gani8a$ion in $he cen$!al ne!o&s sys$e"
in $he <ay o% i$s ele"en$s, i$s ne&!ons, %o! all $he co",ina$ions <hich can 1ossi,ly en$e! in$o a "ind
and %o! 9&s$ s&ch a !ela$ionshi1 o% !es1onses <hich a!e in$e!de1enden$ &1on each o$he!. So"e o%
$hese hae ,een iden$i%ied in $he 1hysiological s$&dy o% $he ne!o&s sys$e", <hile o$he!s hae $o ,e
ass&"ed on $he ,asis o% s&ch s$&dy. As I hae said ,e%o!e, i$ is no$ $he s1eci%ic 1hysiological
1!ocess <hich is going on inside o% $he ne&!ons $ha$ as s&ch is s&11osed $o ans<e! $o "eaning.
Ea!lie! 1hysiological 1sychologis$s had s1o7en o% a s1eci%ic 1sychical 1!ocess, ,&$ $he!e is no$hing
in $he "echanical, elec$!ical, and 1hysical ac$ii$y $ha$ goes on in $he ne!e <hich ans<e!s $o <ha$
<e $e!" an idea. 0ha$ is going on in $he ne!e in a 1a!$ic&la! si$&a$ion is $he inne!a$ion o% a ce!$ain
!es1onse <hich "eans $his, $ha$, and $he o$he! $hing, and he!e is <he!e $he s1eci%ici$y o% a ce!$ain
ne!o&s o!gani8a$ion is %o&nd. I$ is in $he cen$!al ne!o&s sys$e" $ha$ o!gani8a$ion $a7es 1lace. In a
ce!$ain sense yo& can say $ha$ i$ is in $he enginee!>s o%%ice $ha$ $he o!gani8a$ion o% $he conce!n is
ca!!ied o&$. B&$ <ha$ is %o&nd $he!e in $he ,l&e?1!in$s and ,ody o% s$a$is$ics is no$ $he ac$&al
1!od&c$ion $ha$ is going on in $he %ac$o!y, een $ho&gh $ha$ o%%ice does o!gani8e and coo!dina$e
$hose a!io&s ,!anches o% $he conce!n. In $he sa"e <ay $he cen$!al ne!o&s sys$e" coo!dina$es all
$he a!io&s 1!ocesses $ha$ $he ,ody ca!!ies o&$. I% $he!e is any$hing in $he o!ganis" as a 1&!ely
1hysiological "echanis" <hich ans<e!s $o <ha$ <e call e=1e!ience, <hen $ha$ is o!dina!ily $e!"ed
conscio&s, i$ is $he $o$al o!ganic 1!ocess %o! <hich $hese ne!o&s ele"en$s s$and. These 1!ocesses
a!e, as <e hae seen, a$$i$&des o% !es1onse, ad9&s$"en$s o% $he o!ganis" $o a co"1le=
eni!on"en$, a$$i$&des <hich sensi$i8e $he %o!" $o $he s$i"&li <hich <ill se$ $he !es1onse %!ee.
The 1oin$ I <an$ $o e"1hasi8e is $he <ay $ha$ $hese a$$i$&des de$e!"ine $he eni!on"en$. The!e is
an o!gani8ed se$ o% !es1onses <hich %i!s$ send o%% ce!$ain $eleg!a"s, $hen selec$ $he "eans o%
$!ans1o!$a$ion, $hen send &s $o $he ,an7 $o ge$ "oney, and $hen see $o i$ $ha$ <e ge$ so"e$hing $o
!ead on $he $!ain. As <e adance %!o" one se$ o% !es1onses $o ano$he! <e %ind o&!seles 1ic7ing o&$
$he eni!on"en$ <hich ans<e!s $o $his ne=$ se$ o% !es1onses. To %inish one !es1onse is $o 1&$
o&!seles in a 1osi$ion <he!e <e see o$he! $hings. The a11ea!ance o% $he !e$inal ele"en$s has gien
$he <o!ld colo!@ $he deelo1"en$ o% $he o!gans in $he ea! has gien $he <o!ld so&nd. 0e 1ic7 o&$ an
o!gani8ed eni!on"en$ in !ela$ionshi1 $o o&! !es1onse, so $ha$ $hese a$$i$&des, as s&ch, no$ only
!e1!esen$ o&! o!gani8ed !es1onses ,&$ $hey also !e1!esen$ <ha$ e=is$s %o! &s in $he <o!ld@ $he
1a!$ic&la! 1hase o% !eali$y $ha$ is $he!e %o! &s is 1ic7ed o&$ %o! &s ,y o&! !es1onse. 0e can !ecogni8e
$ha$ i$ is $he sensi$i8ing o% $he o!ganis" $o $he s$i"&li <hich <ill se$ %!ee i$s !es1onses $ha$ is
!es1onsi,le %o! one>s liing in $his so!$ o% an eni!on"en$ !a$he! $han in ano$he!. 0e see $hings in
$hei! $e"1o!al !ela$ionshi1 <hich ans<e! $o $he $e"1o!al o!gani8a$ion <hich is %o&nd in $he cen$!al
ne!o&s sys$e". 0e see $hings as dis$an$ %!o" &s no$ only s1a$ially ,&$ $e"1o!ally@ <hen <e do $his
<e can do $ha$. O&! <o!ld is de%ini$ely "a11ed o&$ %o! &s ,y $he !es1onses <hich a!e going $o $a7e
1lace.+.-
I$ is a di%%ic&l$ "a$$e! $o s$a$e 9&s$ <ha$ <e "ean ,y diiding &1 a ce!$ain si$&a$ion ,e$<een $he
o!ganis" and i$s eni!on"en$. Ce!$ain o,9ec$s co"e $o e=is$ %o! &s ,eca&se o% $he cha!ac$e! o% $he
o!ganis". Ta7e $he case o% %ood. I% an ani"al $ha$ can diges$ g!ass, s&ch as an o=, co"es in$o $he
<o!ld, $hen g!ass ,eco"es %ood. Tha$ o,9ec$ did no$ e=is$ ,e%o!e, $ha$ is, g!ass as %ood. The aden$
o% $he o= ,!ings in a ne< o,9ec$. In $ha$ sense, o!ganis"s a!e !es1onsi,le %o! $he a11ea!ance o%
<hole se$s o% o,9ec$s $ha$ did no$ e=is$ ,e%o!e.+/- The dis$!i,&$ion o% "eaning $o $he o!ganis" and
$he eni!on"en$ has i$s e=1!ession in $he o!ganis" as <ell as in $he $hing, and $ha$ e=1!ession is no$
a "a$$e! o% 1sychical o! "en$al condi$ions. The!e is an e=1!ession o% $he !eac$ion o% $he o!gani8ed
!es1onse o% $he o!ganis" $o $he eni!on"en$, and $ha$ !eac$ion is no$ si"1ly a de$e!"ina$ion o% $he
o!ganis" ,y $he eni!on"en$, since $he o!ganis" de$e!"ines $he eni!on"en$ as %&lly as $he
eni!on"en$ de$e!"ines $he o!gans. The o!ganic !eac$ion is !es1onsi,le %o! $he a11ea!ance o% a
<hole se$ o% o,9ec$s <hich did no$ e=is$ ,e%o!e.
The!e is a de%ini$e and necessa!y s$!&c$&!e o! gestalt o% sensi$ii$y <i$hin $he o!ganis", <hich
de$e!"ines selec$iely and !ela$iely $he cha!ac$e! o% $he e=$e!nal o,9ec$ i$ 1e!ceies. 0ha$ <e $e!"
conscio&sness needs $o ,e ,!o&gh$ inside 9&s$ $his !ela$ion ,e$<een an o!ganis" and i$s
eni!on"en$. O&! cons$!&c$ie selec$ion o% an eni!on"en$?colo!s, e"o$ional al&es, and $he li7e?in
$e!"s o% o&! 1hysiological sensi$ii$ies, is essen$ially <ha$ <e "ean ,y conscio&sness. This
conscio&sness <e hae $ended his$o!ically $o loca$e in $he "ind o! in $he ,!ain. The eye and !ela$ed
1!ocesses endo< o,9ec$s <i$h colo! in e=ac$ly $he sa"e sense $ha$ an o= endo<s g!ass <i$h $he
cha!ac$e! o% %ood, $ha$ is, no$ in $he sense o% 1!o9ec$ing sensa$ions in$o o,9ec$s, ,&$ !a$he! o% 1&$$ing
i$sel% in$o a !ela$ion <i$h $he o,9ec$ <hich "a7es $he a11ea!ance and e=is$ence o% $he colo! 1ossi,le,
as a D&ali$y o% $he o,9ec$. Colo!s inhe!e in o,9ec$s only ,y i!$&e o% $hei! !ela$ions $o gien 1e!ci1ien$
o!ganis"s. The 1hysiological o! senso!y s$!&c$&!e o% $he 1e!ci1ien$ o!ganis" de$e!"ines $he
e=1e!ienced con$en$ o% $he o,9ec$.
The o!ganis", $hen, is in a sense !es1onsi,le %o! i$s eni!on"en$. And since o!ganis" and
eni!on"en$ de$e!"ine each o$he! and a!e "&$&ally de1enden$ %o! $hei! e=is$ence, i$ %ollo<s $ha$ $he
li%e?1!ocess, $o ,e adeD&a$ely &nde!s$ood, "&s$ ,e conside!ed in $e!"s o% $hei! in$e!!ela$ions.
The social eni!on"en$ is endo<ed <i$h "eanings in $e!"s o% $he 1!ocess o% social ac$ii$y@ i$ is an
o!gani8a$ion o% o,9ec$ie !ela$ions <hich a!ises in !ela$ion $o a g!o&1 o% o!ganis"s engaged in s&ch
ac$ii$y, in 1!ocesses o% social e=1e!ience and ,ehaio!. Ce!$ain cha!ac$e!s o% $he e=$e!nal <o!ld a!e
1ossessed ,y i$ only <i$h !e%e!ence $o o! in !ela$ion $o an in$e!ac$ing social g!o&1 o% indiid&al
o!ganis"s@ 9&s$ as o$he! cha!ac$e!s o% i$ a!e 1ossessed ,y i$ only <i$h !e%e!ence $o o! in !ela$ion $o
indiid&al o!ganis"s $he"seles. The !ela$ion o% $he social 1!ocess o% ,ehaio! ?? o! $he !ela$ion o%
$he social o!ganis"?$o $he social eni!on"en$ is analogo&s $o $he !ela$ion o% $he 1!ocesses o%
indiid&al ,iological ac$ii$y?o! $he !ela$ion o% $he indiid&al o!ganis"?$o $he 1hysical?,iological
eni!on"en$.+0-
The 1a!allelis" I hae ,een !e%e!!ing $o is $he 1a!allelis" o% $he se$ o% $he o!ganis" and $he o,9ec$s
ans<e!ing $o i$. In $he o= $he!e is h&nge!, and also $he sigh$ and odo! <hich ,!ing in $he %ood. The
<hole 1!ocess is no$ %o&nd si"1ly in $he s$o"ach, ,&$ in all $he ac$ii$ies o% g!a8ing, che<ing $he
c&d, and so on. This 1!ocess is one <hich is in$i"a$ely !ela$ed $o $he so?called %ood <hich e=is$s o&$
$he!e. The o!ganis" se$s &1 a ,ac$e!iological la,o!a$o!y, s&ch as $he o= ca!!ies a!o&nd $o $a7e ca!e
o% $he g!ass <hich $hen ,eco"es %ood. 0i$hin $ha$ 1a!allelis" <ha$ <e $e!" $he "eaning o% $he
o,9ec$ is %o&nd, s1eci%ically, in $he o!gani8ed a$$i$&de o% !es1onse on $he 1a!$ o% $he o!ganis" $o $he
cha!ac$e!s and $he $hings. The "eanings a!e $he!e, and $he "ind is occ&1ied <i$h $hese "eanings.
The o!gani8ed s$i"&li ans<e! $o $he o!gani8ed !es1onses.
I$ is $he o!gani8a$ion o% $he di%%e!en$ !es1onses $o each o$he! in $hei! !ela$ionshi1 $o $he s$i"&li $hey
a!e se$$ing %!ee $ha$ is $he 1ec&lia! s&,9ec$ "a$$e! o% 1sychology in dealing <i$h <ha$ <e $e!" -"ind.-
0e gene!ally con%ine $he $e!" -"en$al,- and so -"ind,- $o $he h&"an o!ganis", ,eca&se $he!e <e
%ind $ha$ ,ody o% sy",ols $ha$ ena,les &s $o isola$e $hese cha!ac$e!s, $hese "eanings. 0e $!y $o
dis$ing&ish $he "eaning o% a ho&se %!o" $he s$one, $he ce"en$, $he ,!ic7s $ha$ "a7e i$ &1 as a
1hysical o,9ec$, and in doing so <e a!e !e%e!!ing $o $he &se o% i$. Tha$ is <ha$ "a7es $he ho&se a
"en$al a%%ai!.+1- 0e a!e isola$ing, i% yo& li7e, $he ,&ilding "a$e!ials %!o" $he s$and1oin$ o% $he
1hysicis$ and $he a!chi$ec$. The!e a!e a!io&s s$and1oin$s %!o" <hich one can loo7 a$ a ho&se. The
,&!!o< in <hich so"e ani"al lies is in one sense $he ho&se o% $he ani"al, ,&$ <hen $he h&"an
,eing lies in a ho&se i$ $a7es on <ha$ <e $e!" a "en$al cha!ac$e! %o! hi" <hich i$ 1!es&"a,ly has
no$ %o! $he "ole $ha$ lies in $he ,&!!o<. The h&"an indiid&al has $he a,ili$y $o 1ic7 o&$ $he
ele"en$s in a ho&se <hich ans<e! $o his !es1onses so $ha$ he can con$!ol $he". :e !eads $he
ade!$ise"en$ o% a ne< %o!" o% a ,oile! and can $hen hae "o!e <a!"$h, hae a "o!e co"%o!$a,le
d!essing?!oo" $han ,e%o!e. Man is a,le $o con$!ol $he 1!ocess %!o" $he s$and1oin$ o% his o<n
!es1onses. :e ge$s "eanings and so con$!ols his !es1onses. ?:is a,ili$y $o 1ic7 $hose o&$ is <ha$
"a7es $he ho&se a "en$al a%%ai!. The "ole, $oo, has $o %ind his %ood, "ee$ his ene"ies, and aoid
$he", ,&$ <e do no$ ass&"e $ha$ $he "ole is a,le $o indica$e $o hi"sel% $he 1ec&lia! adan$ages o%
his ,&!!o< oe! agains$ ano$he! one. :is ho&se has no "en$al cha!ac$e!is$ics. Men$ali$y !esides in
$he a,ili$y o% $he o!ganis" $o indica$e $ha$ in $he eni!on"en$ <hich ans<e!s $o his !es1onses, so
$ha$ he can con$!ol $hose !es1onses in a!io&s <ays. Tha$, %!o" $he 1oin$ o% ie< o% ,ehaio!is$ic
1sychology, is <ha$ "en$ali$y consis$s in. The!e a!e in $he "ole and o$he! ani"als co"1le=
ele"en$s o% ,ehaio! !ela$ed $o $he eni!on"en$, ,&$ $he h&"an ani"al is a,le $o indica$e $o i$sel%
and $o o$he!s <ha$ $he cha!ac$e!s a!e in $he eni!on"en$ <hich call o&$ $hese co"1le=, highly
o!gani8ed !es1onses, and ,y s&ch indica$ion is a,le $o con$!ol $he !es1onses. The h&"an ani"al
has $he a,ili$y oe! and a,oe $he ad9&s$"en$ <hich ,elongs $o $he lo<e! ani"al $o 1ic7 o&$ and
isola$e $he s$i"&l&s. The ,iologis$ !ecogni8es $ha$ %ood has ce!$ain al&es, and <hile $he h&"an
ani"al !es1onds $o $hese al&es as o$he! ani"als do, i$ can also indica$e ce!$ain cha!ac$e!s in $he
%ood <hich "ean ce!$ain $hings in his diges$ie !es1onses $o $hese %oods. Men$ali$y consis$s in
indica$ing $hese al&es $o o$he!s and $o one>s sel% so $ha$ one can con$!ol one>s !es1onses.
Men$ali$y on o&! a11!oach si"1ly co"es in <hen $he o!ganis" is a,le $o 1oin$ o&$ "eanings $o
o$he!s and $o hi"sel%. This is $he 1oin$ a$ <hich "ind a11ea!s, o! i% yo& li7e, e"e!ges. 0ha$ <e
need $o !ecogni8e is $ha$ <e a!e dealing <i$h $he !ela$ionshi1 o% $he o!ganis" $o $he eni!on"en$
selec$ed ,y i$s o<n sensi$ii$y. The 1sychologis$ is in$e!es$ed in $he "echanis" <hich $he h&"an
s1ecies has eoled $o ge$ con$!ol oe! $hese !ela$ionshi1s. The !ela$ionshi1s hae ,een $he!e
,e%o!e $he indica$ions a!e "ade, ,&$ $he o!ganis" has no$ in i$s o<n cond&c$ con$!olled $ha$
!ela$ionshi1. I$ o!iginally has no "echanis" ,y "eans o% <hich i$ can con$!ol i$. The h&"an ani"al,
ho<ee!, has <o!7ed o&$ a "echanis" o% lang&age co""&nica$ion ,y "eans o% <hich i$ can ge$
$his con$!ol. No<, i$ is eiden$ $ha$ "&ch o% $ha$ "echanis" does no$ lie in $he cen$!al ne!o&s
sys$e", ,&$ in $he !ela$ion o% $hings $o $he o!ganis". The a,ili$y $o 1ic7 $hese "eanings o&$ and $o
indica$e $he" $o o$he!s and $o $he o!ganis" is an a,ili$y <hich gies 1ec&lia! 1o<e! $o $he h&"an
indiid&al. The con$!ol has ,een "ade 1ossi,le ,y lang&age. I$ is $ha$ "echanis" o% con$!ol oe!
"eaning in $his sense <hich has, I say, cons$i$&$ed <ha$ <e $e!" -"ind.- The "en$al 1!ocesses do
no$, ho<ee!, lie in <o!ds any "o!e $han $he in$elligence o% $he o!ganis" lies in $he ele"en$s o% $he
cen$!al ne!o&s sys$e". Bo$h a!e 1a!$ o% a 1!ocess $ha$ is going on ,e$<een o!ganis" and
eni!on"en$. The sy",ols se!e $hei! 1a!$ in $his 1!ocess, and i$ is $ha$ <hich "a7es
co""&nica$ion so i"1o!$an$. O&$ o% lang&age e"e!ges $he %ield o% "ind.
I$ is a,s&!d $o loo7 a$ $he "ind si"1ly %!o" $he s$and1oin$ o% $he indiid&al h&"an o!ganis"@ %o!,
al$ho&gh i$ has i$s %oc&s $he!e, i$ is essen$ially a social 1heno"enon@ een i$s ,iological %&nc$ions a!e
1!i"a!ily social. The s&,9ec$ie e=1e!ience o% $he indiid&al "&s$ ,e ,!o&gh$ in$o !ela$ion <i$h $he
na$&!al, socio,iological ac$ii$ies o% $he ,!ain in o!de! $o !ende! an acce1$a,le acco&n$ o% "ind
1ossi,le a$ all@ and $his can ,e done only i% $he social na$&!e o% "ind is !ecogni8ed. The "eage!ness
o% indiid&al e=1e!ience in isola$ion %!o" $he 1!ocesses o% social e=1e!ience ??in isola$ion %!o" i$s
social eni!on"en$?sho&ld, "o!eoe!, ,e a11a!en$. 0e "&s$ !ega!d "ind, $hen, as a!ising and
deelo1ing <i$hin $he social 1!ocess, <i$hin $he e"1i!ical "a$!i= o% social in$e!ac$ions. 0e "&s$, $ha$
is, ge$ an inne! indiid&al e=1e!ience %!o" $he s$and1oin$ o% social ac$s <hich incl&de $he
e=1e!iences o% se1a!a$e indiid&als in a social con$e=$ <he!ein $hose indiid&als in$e!ac$. The
1!ocesses o% e=1e!ience <hich $he h&"an ,!ain "a7es 1ossi,le a!e "ade 1ossi,le only %o! a g!o&1
o% in$e!ac$ing indiid&als; only %o! indiid&al o!ganis"s <hich a!e "e",e!s o% a socie$y@ no$ %o! $he
indiid&al o!ganis" in isola$ion %!o" o$he! indiid&al o!ganis"s.

Mind a!ises in $he social 1!ocess only <hen $ha$ 1!ocess as a <hole en$e!s in$o, o! is 1!esen$ in, $he
e=1e!ience o% any one o% $he gien indiid&als inoled in $ha$ 1!ocess. 0hen $his occ&!s $he
indiid&al ,eco"es sel%?conscio&s and has a "ind@ he ,eco"es a<a!e o% his !ela$ions $o $ha$
1!ocess as a <hole, and $o $he o$he! indiid&als 1a!$ici1a$ing in i$ <i$h hi"@ he ,eco"es a<a!e o%
$ha$ 1!ocess as "odi%ied ,y $he !eac$ions and in$e!ac$ions o% $he indiid&als?incl&ding hi"sel%?<ho
a!e ca!!ying i$ on. The eol&$iona!y a11ea!ance o% "ind o! in$elligence $a7es 1lace <hen $he <hole
social 1!ocess o% e=1e!ience and ,ehaio! is ,!o&gh$ <i$hin $he e=1e!ience o% any one o% $he
se1a!a$e indiid&als i"1lica$ed $he!ein, and <hen $he indiid&al>s ad9&s$"en$ $o $he 1!ocess is
"odi%ied and !e%ined ,y $he a<a!eness o! conscio&sness <hich he $h&s has o% i$. I$ is ,y "eans o%
!e%le=ieness?$he $&!ning?,ac7 o% $he e=1e!ience o% $he indiid&al &1on hi"sel%?$ha$ $he <hole social
1!ocess is $h&s ,!o&gh$ in$o $he e=1e!ience o% $he indiid&als inoled in i$@ i$ is ,y s&ch "eans,
<hich ena,le $he indiid&al $o $a7e $he a$$i$&de o% $he o$he! $o<a!d hi"sel%, $ha$ $he indiid&al is a,le
conscio&sly $o ad9&s$ hi"sel% $o $ha$ 1!ocess, and $o "odi%y $he !es&l$an$ o% $ha$ 1!ocess in any gien
social ac$ in $e!"s o% his ad9&s$"en$ $o i$. *e%le=ieness, $hen, is $he essen$ial condi$ion, <i$hin $he
social 1!ocess, %o! $he deelo1"en$ o% "ind.
"ndnotes
1. *e1!esen$a$ion inoles !ela$ion o% ea!lie! $o la$e! ac$s. This !ela$ion o% !es1onses gies
i"1lica$ion A13#)B.
#. The s$!&c$&!e o% $he eni!on"en$ is a "a11ing o&$ o% o!ganic !es1onses $o na$&!e@ any
eni!on"en$, <he$he! social o! indiid&al, is a "a11ing o&$ o% $he logical s$!&c$&!e o% $he ac$
$o <hich i$ ans<e!s, an ac$ see7ing oe!$ e=1!ession.
'. I$ is o,9ec$iona,le $o s1ea7 o% $he %ood?1!ocess in $he ani"al as cons$i$&$ing $he %ood?o,9ec$.
They a!e ce!$ainly !ela$ie $o each o$he! AMSB.
). A social o!ganis"?$ha$ is, a social g!o&1 o% indiid&al o!ganis"s ?? cons$i$&$es o! c!ea$es i$s
o<n s1ecial eni!on"en$ o% o,9ec$s 9&s$ as, and in $he sa"e sense as, an indiid&al
o!ganis" cons$i$&$es o! c!ea$es i$s o<n s1ecial eni!on"en$ o% o,9ec$s A<hich, ho<ee!, is
"&ch "o!e !&di"en$a!y $han $he eni!on"en$ cons$!&c$ed ,y a social o!ganis"B.
+. Na$&!e?$he e=$e!nal <o!ld?is o,9ec$iely $he!e, in o11osi$ion $o o&! e=1e!ience o% i$, o! in
o11osi$ion $o $he indiid&al $hin7e! hi"sel%. Al$ho&gh e=$e!nal o,9ec$s a!e $he!e inde1enden$
o% $he e=1e!iencing indiid&al, nee!$heless $hey 1ossess ce!$ain cha!ac$e!is$ics ,y i!$&e o%
$hei! !ela$ions $o his e=1e!iencing o! $o his "ind, <hich $hey <o&ld no$ 1ossess o$he!<ise o!
a1a!$ %!o" $hose !ela$ions. These cha!ac$e!is$ics a!e $hei! "eanings %o! hi", o! in gene!al,
%o! &s. The dis$inc$ion ,e$<een 1hysical o,9ec$s o! 1hysical !eali$y and $he "en$al o! sel%?
conscio&s e=1e!ience o% $hose o,9ec$s o! $ha$ !eali$y?$he dis$inc$ion ,e$<een e=$e!nal and
in$e!nal e=1e!ience?lies in $he %ac$ $ha$ $he la$$e! is conce!ned <i$h o! cons$i$&$ed ,y
"eanings. E=1e!ienced o,9ec$s hae de%ini$e "eanings %o! $he indiid&als $hin7ing a,o&$
$he".
,8# TH" S"&3 %() TH" $*G%(ISM
In o&! s$a$e"en$ o% $he deelo1"en$ o% in$elligence <e hae al!eady s&gges$ed $ha$ $he lang&age
1!ocess is essen$ial %o! $he deelo1"en$ o% $he sel%. The sel% has a cha!ac$e! <hich is di%%e!en$ %!o"
$ha$ o% $he 1hysiological o!ganis" 1!o1e!. The sel% is so"e$hing <hich has a deelo1"en$@ i$ is no$
ini$ially $he!e, a$ ,i!$h, ,&$ a!ises in $he 1!ocess o% social e=1e!ience and ac$ii$y, $ha$ is, deelo1s in
$he gien indiid&al as a !es&l$ o% his !ela$ions $o $ha$ 1!ocess as a <hole and $o o$he! indiid&als
<i$hin $ha$ 1!ocess. The in$elligence o% $he lo<e! %o!"s o% ani"al li%e, li7e a g!ea$ deal o% h&"an
in$elligence, does no$ inole a sel%. In o&! ha,i$&al ac$ions, %o! e=a"1le, in o&! "oing a,o&$ in a
<o!ld $ha$ is si"1ly $he!e and $o <hich <e a!e so ad9&s$ed $ha$ no $hin7ing is inoled, $he!e is a
ce!$ain a"o&n$ o% sens&o&s e=1e!ience s&ch as 1e!sons hae <hen $hey a!e 9&s$ <a7ing &1, a ,a!e
$he!eness o% $he <o!ld. S&ch cha!ac$e!s a,o&$ &s "ay e=is$ in e=1e!ience <i$ho&$ $a7ing $hei! 1lace
in !ela$ionshi1 $o $he sel%. One "&s$, o% co&!se, &nde! $hose condi$ions, dis$ing&ish ,e$<een $he
e=1e!ience $ha$ i""edia$ely $a7es 1lace and o&! o<n o!gani8a$ion o% i$ in$o $he e=1e!ience o% $he
sel%. One says &1on analysis $ha$ a ce!$ain i$e" had i$s 1lace in his e=1e!ience, in $he e=1e!ience o%
his sel%. 0e do inei$a,ly $end a$ a ce!$ain leel o% so1his$ica$ion $o o!gani8e all e=1e!ience in$o $ha$
o% a sel%. 0e do so in$i"a$ely iden$i%y o&! e=1e!iences, es1ecially o&! a%%ec$ie e=1e!iences, <i$h $he
sel% $ha$ i$ $a7es a "o"en$>s a,s$!ac$ion $o !eali8e $ha$ 1ain and 1leas&!e can ,e $he!e <i$ho&$ ,eing
$he e=1e!ience o% $he sel%. Si"ila!ly, <e no!"ally o!gani8e o&! "e"o!ies &1on $he s$!ing o% o&! sel%.
I% <e da$e $hings <e al<ays da$e $he" %!o" $he 1oin$ o% ie< o% o&! 1as$ e=1e!iences. 0e %!eD&en$ly
hae "e"o!ies $ha$ <e canno$ da$e, $ha$ <e canno$ 1lace. A 1ic$&!e co"es ,e%o!e &s s&ddenly and
<e a!e a$ a loss $o e=1lain <hen $ha$ e=1e!ience o!iginally $oo7 1lace. 0e !e"e",e! 1e!%ec$ly
dis$inc$ly $he 1ic$&!e, ,&$ <e do no$ hae i$ de%ini$ely 1laced, and &n$il <e can 1lace i$ in $e!"s o% o&!
1as$ e=1e!ience <e a!e no$ sa$is%ied. Nee!$heless, I $hin7 i$ is o,io&s <hen one co"es $o conside!
i$ $ha$ $he sel% is no$ necessa!ily inoled in $he li%e o% $he o!ganis", no! inoled in <ha$ <e $e!" o&!
sens&o&s e=1e!ience, $ha$ is, e=1e!ience in a <o!ld a,o&$ &s %o! <hich <e hae ha,i$&al !eac$ions.
0e can dis$ing&ish e!y de%ini$ely ,e$<een $he sel% and $he ,ody. The ,ody can ,e $he!e and can
o1e!a$e in a e!y in$elligen$ %ashion <i$ho&$ $he!e ,eing a sel% inoled in $he e=1e!ience. The sel%
has $he cha!ac$e!is$ic $ha$ i$ is an o,9ec$ $o i$sel%, and $ha$ cha!ac$e!is$ic dis$ing&ishes i$ %!o" o$he!
o,9ec$s and %!o" $he ,ody. I$ is 1e!%ec$ly $!&e $ha$ $he eye can see $he %oo$, ,&$ i$ does no$ see $he
,ody as a <hole. 0e canno$ see o&! ,ac7s@ <e can %eel ce!$ain 1o!$ions o% $he", i% <e a!e agile, ,&$
<e canno$ ge$ an e=1e!ience o% o&! <hole ,ody. The!e a!e, o% co&!se, e=1e!iences <hich a!e
so"e<ha$ ag&e and di%%ic&l$ o% loca$ion, ,&$ $he ,odily e=1e!iences a!e %o! &s o!gani8ed a,o&$ a
sel%. The %oo$ and hand ,elong $o $he sel%. 0e can see o&! %ee$, es1ecially i% <e loo7 a$ $he" %!o"
$he <!ong end o% an o1e!a glass, as s$!ange $hings <hich <e hae di%%ic&l$y in !ecogni8ing as o&!
o<n. The 1a!$s o% $he ,ody a!e D&i$e dis$ing&isha,le %!o" $he sel%. 0e can lose 1a!$s o% $he ,ody
<i$ho&$ any se!io&s inasion o% $he sel%. The "e!e a,ili$y $o e=1e!ience di%%e!en$ 1a!$s o% $he ,ody is
no$ di%%e!en$ %!o" $he e=1e!ience o% a $a,le. The $a,le 1!esen$s a di%%e!en$ %eel %!o" <ha$ $he hand
does <hen one hand %eels ano$he!, ,&$ i$ is an e=1e!ience o% so"e$hing <i$h <hich <e co"e
de%ini$ely in$o con$ac$. The ,ody does no$ e=1e!ience i$sel% as a <hole, in $he sense in <hich $he sel%
in so"e <ay en$e!s in$o $he e=1e!ience o% $he sel%.
I$ is $he cha!ac$e!is$ic o% $he sel% as an o,9ec$ $o i$sel% $ha$ I <an$ $o ,!ing o&$. This cha!ac$e!is$ic is
!e1!esen$ed in $he <o!d -sel%,- <hich is a !e%le=ie, and indica$es $ha$ <hich can ,e ,o$h s&,9ec$ and
o,9ec$. This $y1e o% o,9ec$ is essen$ially di%%e!en$ %!o" o$he! o,9ec$s, and in $he 1as$ i$ has ,een
dis$ing&ished as conscio&s, a $e!" <hich Indica$es an e=1e!ience <i$h, an e=1e!ience o%, one>s sel%.
I$ <as ass&"ed $ha$ conscio&sness in so"e <ay ca!!ied $his ca1aci$y o% ,eing an o,9ec$ $o i$sel%. In
giing a ,ehaio!is$ic s$a$e"en$ o% conscio&sness <e hae $o loo7 %o! so"e so!$ o% e=1e!ience in
<hich $he 1hysical o!ganis" can ,eco"e an o,9ec$ $o i$sel%.+,-
0hen one is !&nning $o ge$ a<ay %!o" so"eone <ho is chasing hi", he is en$i!ely occ&1ied in $his
ac$ion, and his e=1e!ience "ay ,e s<allo<ed &1 in $he o,9ec$s a,o&$ hi", so $ha$ he has a$ $he $i"e
,eing, no conscio&sness o% sel% a$ all. 0e "&s$ ,e, o% co&!se, e!y co"1le$ely occ&1ied $o hae $ha$
$a7e 1lace, ,&$ <e can, I $hin7, !ecogni8e $ha$ so!$ o% a 1ossi,le e=1e!ience in <hich $he sel% does
no$ en$e!. 0e can, 1e!ha1s, ge$ so"e ligh$ on $ha$ si$&a$ion $h!o&gh $hose e=1e!iences in <hich in
e!y in$ense ac$ion $he!e a11ea! in $he e=1e!ience o% $he indiid&al, ,ac7 o% $his in$ense ac$ion,
"e"o!ies and an$ici1a$ions. Tols$oi as an o%%ice! in $he <a! gies an acco&n$ o% haing 1ic$&!es o%
his 1as$ e=1e!ience in $he "ids$ o% his "os$ in$ense ac$ion. The!e a!e also $he 1ic$&!es $ha$ %lash in$o
a 1e!son>s "ind <hen he is d!o<ning. In s&ch ins$ances $he!e is a con$!as$ ,e$<een an e=1e!ience
$ha$ is a,sol&$ely <o&nd &1 in o&$side ac$ii$y in <hich $he sel% as an o,9ec$ does no$ en$e!, and an
ac$ii$y o% "e"o!y and i"agina$ion in <hich $he sel% is $he 1!inci1al o,9ec$. The sel% is $hen en$i!ely
dis$ing&isha,le %!o" an o!ganis" $ha$ is s&!!o&nded ,y $hings and ac$s <i$h !e%e!ence $o $hings,
incl&ding 1a!$s o% i$s o<n ,ody. These la$$e! "ay ,e o,9ec$s li7e o$he! o,9ec$s, ,&$ $hey a!e 9&s$
o,9ec$s o&$ $he!e in $he %ield, and $hey do no$ inole a sel% $ha$ is an o,9ec$ $o $he o!ganis". This is,
I $hin7, %!eD&en$ly oe!loo7ed. I$ is $ha$ %ac$ <hich "a7es o&! an$h!o1o"o!1hic !econs$!&c$ions o%
ani"al li%e so %allacio&s. :o< can an indiid&al ge$ o&$side hi"sel% Ae=1e!ien$iallyB in s&ch a <ay as
$o ,eco"e an o,9ec$ $o hi"sel%E This is $he essen$ial 1sychological 1!o,le" o% sel%hood o! o% sel%?
conscio&sness@ and i$s sol&$ion is $o ,e %o&nd ,y !e%e!!ing $o $he 1!ocess o% social cond&c$ o! ac$ii$y
in <hich $he gien 1e!son o! indiid&al is i"1lica$ed. The a11a!a$&s o% !eason <o&ld no$ ,e
co"1le$e &nless i$ s<e1$ i$sel% in$o i$s o<n analysis o% $he %ield o% e=1e!ience@ o! &nless $he indiid&al
,!o&gh$ hi"sel% in$o $he sa"e e=1e!ien$ial %ield as $ha$ o% $he o$he! indiid&al seles in !ela$ion $o
<ho" he ac$s in any gien social si$&a$ion. *eason canno$ ,eco"e i"1e!sonal &nless i$ $a7es an
o,9ec$ie, non?a%%ec$ie a$$i$&de $o<a!d i$sel%@ o$he!<ise <e hae 9&s$ conscio&sness, no$ sel%?
conscio&sness. And i$ is necessa!y $o !a$ional cond&c$ $ha$ $he indiid&al sho&ld $h&s $a7e an
o,9ec$ie, i"1e!sonal a$$i$&de $o<a!d hi"sel%, $ha$ he sho&ld ,eco"e an o,9ec$ $o hi"sel%. Fo! $he
indiid&al o!ganis" is o,io&sly an essen$ial and i"1o!$an$ %ac$ o! cons$i$&en$ ele"en$ o% $he
e"1i!ical si$&a$ion in <hich i$ ac$s@ and <i$ho&$ $a7ing o,9ec$ie acco&n$ o% i$sel% as s&ch, i$ canno$
ac$ in$elligen$ly, o! !a$ionally.
The indiid&al e=1e!iences hi"sel% as s&ch, no$ di!ec$ly, ,&$ only indi!ec$ly, %!o" $he 1a!$ic&la!
s$and1oin$s o% o$he! indiid&al "e",e!s o% $he sa"e social g!o&1, o! %!o" $he gene!ali8ed
s$and1oin$ o% $he social g!o&1 as a <hole $o <hich he ,elongs. Fo! he en$e!s his o<n e=1e!ience as
a sel% o! indiid&al, no$ di!ec$ly o! i""edia$ely, no$ ,y ,eco"ing a s&,9ec$ $o hi"sel%, ,&$ only in so
%a! as he %i!s$ ,eco"es an o,9ec$ $o hi"sel% 9&s$ as o$he! indiid&als a!e o,9ec$s $o hi" o! in his
e=1e!ience@ and he ,eco"es an o,9ec$ $o hi"sel% only ,y $a7ing $he a$$i$&des o% o$he! indiid&als
$o<a!d hi"sel% <i$hin a social eni!on"en$ o! con$e=$ o% e=1e!ience and ,ehaio! in <hich ,o$h he
and $hey a!e inoled.
The i"1o!$ance o% <ha$ <e $e!" -co""&nica$ion- lies in $he %ac$ $ha$ i$ 1!oides a %o!" o% ,ehaio!
in <hich $he o!ganis" o! $he indiid&al "ay ,eco"e an o,9ec$ $o hi"sel%. I$ is $ha$ so!$ o%
co""&nica$ion <hich <e hae ,een disc&ssing ?no$ co""&nica$ion in $he sense o% $he cl&c7 o% $he
hen $o $he chic7ens, o! $he ,a!7 o% a <ol% $o $he 1ac7, o! $he lo<ing o% a co<, ,&$ co""&nica$ion in
$he sense o% signi%ican$ sy",ols, co""&nica$ion <hich is di!ec$ed no$ only $o o$he!s ,&$ also $o $he
indiid&al hi"sel%. So %a! as $ha$ $y1e o% co""&nica$ion is a 1a!$ o% ,ehaio! i$ a$ leas$ in$!od&ces a
sel%. O% co&!se, one "ay hea! <i$ho&$ lis$ening@ one "ay see $hings $ha$ he does no$ !eali8e@ do
$hings $ha$ he is no$ !eally a<a!e o%. B&$ i$ is <he!e one does !es1ond $o $ha$ <hich he add!esses $o
ano$he! and <he!e $ha$ !es1onse o% his o<n ,eco"es a 1a!$ o% his cond&c$, <he!e he no$ only hea!s
hi"sel% ,&$ !es1onds $o hi"sel%, $al7s and !e1lies $o hi"sel% as $!&ly as $he o$he! 1e!son !e1lies $o
hi", $ha$ <e hae ,ehaio! in <hich $he indiid&als ,eco"e o,9ec$s $o $he"seles.
S&ch a sel% is no$, I <o&ld say, 1!i"a!ily $he 1hysiological o!ganis". The 1hysiological o!ganis" is
essen$ial $o i$, +.- ,&$ <e a!e a$ leas$ a,le $o $hin7 o% a sel% <i$ho&$ i$. Pe!sons <ho ,eliee in
i""o!$ali$y, o! ,eliee in ghos$s, o! in $he 1ossi,ili$y o% $he sel% leaing $he ,ody, ass&"e a sel%
<hich is D&i$e dis$ing&isha,le %!o" $he ,ody. :o< s&ccess%&lly $hey can hold $hese conce1$ions is
an o1en D&es$ion, ,&$ <e do, as a %ac$, se1a!a$e $he sel% and $he o!ganis". I$ is %ai! $o say $ha$ $he
,eginning o% $he sel% as an o,9ec$, so %a! as <e can see, is $o ,e %o&nd in $he e=1e!iences o% 1eo1le
$ha$ lead $o $he conce1$ion o% a -do&,le.- P!i"i$ie 1eo1le ass&"e $ha$ $he!e is a do&,le, loca$ed
1!es&"a,ly in $he dia1h!ag", $ha$ leaes $he ,ody $e"1o!a!ily in slee1 and co"1le$ely in dea$h. I$
can ,e en$iced o&$ o% $he ,ody o% one>s ene"y and 1e!ha1s 7illed. I$ is !e1!esen$ed in in%ancy ,y $he
i"agina!y 1lay"a$es <hich child!en se$ &1, and $h!o&gh <hich $hey co"e $o con$!ol $hei!
e=1e!iences in $hei! 1lay.
The sel%, as $ha$ <hich can ,e an o,9ec$ $o i$sel%, is essen$ially a social s$!&c$&!e, and i$ a!ises in
social e=1e!ience. A%$e! a sel% has a!isen, i$ in a ce!$ain sense 1!oides %o! i$sel% i$s social
e=1e!iences, and so <e can conceie o% an a,sol&$ely soli$a!y sel%. B&$ i$ is i"1ossi,le $o conceie
o% a sel% a!ising o&$side o% social e=1e!ience. 0hen i$ has a!isen <e can $hin7 o% a 1e!son in soli$a!y
con%ine"en$ %o! $he !es$ o% his li%e, ,&$ <ho s$ill has hi"sel% as a co"1anion, and is a,le $o $hin7 and
$o cone!se <i$h hi"sel% as he had co""&nica$ed <i$h o$he!s. Tha$ 1!ocess $o <hich I hae 9&s$
!e%e!!ed, o% !es1onding $o one>s sel% as ano$he! !es1onds $o i$, $a7ing 1a!$ in one>s o<n cone!sa$ion
<i$h o$he!s, ,eing a<a!e o% <ha$ one is saying and &sing $ha$ a<a!eness o% <ha$ one is saying $o
de$e!"ine <ha$ one is going $o say $he!ea%$e!?$ha$ is a 1!ocess <i$h <hich <e a!e all %a"ilia!. 0e
a!e con$in&ally %ollo<ing &1 o&! o<n add!ess $o o$he! 1e!sons ,y an &nde!s$anding o% <ha$ <e a!e
saying, and &sing $ha$ &nde!s$anding in $he di!ec$ion o% o&! con$in&ed s1eech. 0e a!e %inding o&$
<ha$ <e a!e going $o say, <ha$ <e a!e going $o do, ,y saying and doing, and in $he 1!ocess <e a!e
con$in&ally con$!olling $he 1!ocess i$sel%. In $he cone!sa$ion o% ges$&!es <ha$ <e say calls o&$ a
ce!$ain !es1onse in ano$he! and $ha$ in $&!n changes o&! o<n ac$ion, so $ha$ <e shi%$ %!o" <ha$ <e
s$a!$ed $o do ,eca&se o% $he !e1ly $he o$he! "a7es. The cone!sa$ion o% ges$&!es is $he ,eginning o%
co""&nica$ion. The indiid&al co"es $o ca!!y on a cone!sa$ion o% ges$&!es <i$h hi"sel%. :e says
so"e$hing, and $ha$ calls o&$ a ce!$ain !e1ly in hi"sel% <hich "a7es hi" change <ha$ he <as going
$o say. One s$a!$s $o say so"e$hing, <e <ill 1!es&"e an &n1leasan$ so"e$hing, ,&$ <hen he s$a!$s
$o say i$ he !eali8es i$ is c!&el. The e%%ec$ on hi"sel% o% <ha$ he is saying chec7s hi"@ $he!e is he!e a
cone!sa$ion o% ges$&!es ,e$<een $he indiid&al and hi"sel%. 0e "ean ,y signi%ican$ s1eech $ha$
$he ac$ion is one $ha$ a%%ec$s $he indiid&al hi"sel%, and $ha$ $he e%%ec$ &1on $he indiid&al hi"sel% is
1a!$ o% $he in$elligen$ ca!!ying?o&$ o% $he cone!sa$ion <i$h o$he!s. No< <e, so $o s1ea7, a"1&$a$e
$ha$ social 1hase and dis1ense <i$h i$ %o! $he $i"e ,eing, so $ha$ one is $al7ing $o one>s sel% as one
<o&ld $al7 $o ano$he! 1e!son.+/-
This 1!ocess o% a,s$!ac$ion canno$ ,e ca!!ied on inde%ini$ely. One inei$a,ly see7s an a&dience, has
$o 1o&! hi"sel% o&$ $o so"e,ody. In !e%lec$ie in$elligence one $hin7s $o ac$, and $o ac$ solely so $ha$
$his ac$ion !e"ains a 1a!$ o% a social 1!ocess. Thin7ing ,eco"es 1!e1a!a$o!y $o social ac$ion. The
e!y 1!ocess o% $hin7ing is, o% co&!se, si"1ly an inne! cone!sa$ion $ha$ goes on, ,&$ i$ is a
cone!sa$ion o% ges$&!es <hich in i$s co"1le$ion i"1lies $he e=1!ession o% $ha$ <hich one $hin7s $o
an a&dience. One se1a!a$es $he signi%icance o% <ha$ he is saying $o o$he!s %!o" $he ac$&al s1eech
and ge$s i$ !eady ,e%o!e saying i$. :e $hin7s i$ o&$, and 1e!ha1s <!i$es i$ in $he %o!" o% a ,oo7@ ,&$ i$
is s$ill a 1a!$ o% social in$e!co&!se in <hich one is add!essing o$he! 1e!sons and a$ $he sa"e $i"e
add!essing one>s sel%, and in <hich one con$!ols $he add!ess $o o$he! 1e!sons ,y $he !es1onse
"ade $o one>s o<n ges$&!e. Tha$ $he 1e!son sho&ld ,e !es1onding $o hi"sel% is necessa!y $o $he
sel%, and i$ is $his so!$ o% social cond&c$ <hich 1!oides ,ehaio! <i$hin <hich $ha$ sel% a11ea!s. I
7no< o% no o$he! %o!" o% ,ehaio! $han $he ling&is$ic in <hich $he indiid&al is an o,9ec$ $o hi"sel%,
and, so %a! as I can see, $he indiid&al is no$ a sel% in $he !e%le=ie sense &nless he is an o,9ec$ $o
hi"sel%. I$ is $his %ac$ $ha$ gies a c!i$ical i"1o!$ance $o co""&nica$ion, since $his is a $y1e o%
,ehaio! in <hich $he indiid&al does so !es1ond $o hi"sel%.
0e !eali8e in ee!yday cond&c$ and e=1e!ience $ha$ an indiid&al does no$ "ean a g!ea$ deal o%
<ha$ he is doing and saying. 0e %!eD&en$ly say $ha$ s&ch an indiid&al is no$ hi"sel%. 0e co"e
a<ay %!o" an in$e!ie< <i$h a !eali8a$ion $ha$ <e hae le%$ o&$ i"1o!$an$ $hings, $ha$ $he!e a!e 1a!$s
o% $he sel% $ha$ did no$ ge$ in$o <ha$ <as said. 0ha$ de$e!"ines $he a"o&n$ o% $he sel% $ha$ ge$s in$o
co""&nica$ion is $he social e=1e!ience i$sel%. O% co&!se, a good deal o% $he sel% does no$ need $o
ge$ e=1!ession. 0e ca!!y on a <hole se!ies o% di%%e!en$ !ela$ionshi1s $o di%%e!en$ 1eo1le. 0e a!e one
$hing $o one "an and ano$he! $hing $o ano$he!. The!e a!e 1a!$s o% $he sel% <hich e=is$ only %o! $he
sel% in !ela$ionshi1 $o i$sel%. 0e diide o&!seles &1 in all so!$s o% di%%e!en$ seles <i$h !e%e!ence $o
o&! acD&ain$ances. 0e disc&ss 1oli$ics <i$h one and !eligion <i$h ano$he!. The!e a!e all so!$s o%
di%%e!en$ seles ans<e!ing $o all so!$s o% di%%e!en$ social !eac$ions. I$ is $he social 1!ocess i$sel% $ha$ is
!es1onsi,le %o! $he a11ea!ance o% $he sel%@ i$ is no$ $he!e as a sel% a1a!$ %!o" $his $y1e o% e=1e!ience.
A "&l$i1le 1e!sonali$y is in a ce!$ain sense no!"al, as I hae 9&s$ 1oin$ed o&$. The!e is &s&ally an
o!gani8a$ion o% $he <hole sel% <i$h !e%e!ence $o $he co""&ni$y $o <hich <e ,elong, and $he si$&a$ion
in <hich <e %ind o&!seles. 0ha$ $he socie$y is, <he$he! <e a!e liing <i$h 1eo1le o% $he 1!esen$,
1eo1le o% o&! o<n i"agina$ions, 1eo1le o% $he 1as$, a!ies, o% co&!se, <i$h di%%e!en$ indiid&als.
No!"ally, <i$hin $he so!$ o% co""&ni$y as a <hole $o <hich <e ,elong, $he!e is a &ni%ied sel%, ,&$ $ha$
"ay ,e ,!o7en &1. To a 1e!son <ho is so"e<ha$ &ns$a,le ne!o&sly and in <ho" $he!e is a line o%
cleaage, ce!$ain ac$ii$ies ,eco"e i"1ossi,le, and $ha$ se$ o% ac$ii$ies "ay se1a!a$e and eole
ano$he! sel%. T<o se1a!a$e -Me>s- and -I>s,- $<o di%%e!en$ seles, !es&l$, and $ha$ is $he condi$ion
&nde! <hich $he!e is a $endency $o ,!ea7 &1 $he 1e!sonali$y. The!e is an acco&n$ o% a 1!o%esso! o%
ed&ca$ion <ho disa11ea!ed, <as los$ $o $he co""&ni$y, and la$e! $&!ned &1 in a logging ca"1 in $he
0es$. :e %!eed hi"sel% o% his occ&1a$ion and $&!ned $o $he <oods <he!e he %el$, i% yo& li7e, "o!e a$
ho"e. The 1a$hological side o% i$ <as $he %o!ge$$ing, $he leaing o&$ o% $he !es$ o% $he sel%. This !es&l$
inoled ge$$ing !id o% ce!$ain ,odily "e"o!ies <hich <o&ld iden$i%y $he indiid&al $o hi"sel%. 0e
o%$en !ecogni8e $he lines o% cleaage $ha$ !&n $h!o&gh &s. 0e <o&ld ,e glad $o %o!ge$ ce!$ain $hings,
ge$ !id o% $hings $he sel% is ,o&nd &1 <i$h in 1as$ e=1e!iences. 0ha$ <e hae he!e is a si$&a$ion in
<hich $he!e can ,e di%%e!en$ seles, and i$ is de1enden$ &1on $he se$ o% social !eac$ions $ha$ is
inoled as $o <hich sel% <e a!e going $o ,e. I% <e can %o!ge$ ee!y$hing inoled in one se$ o%
ac$ii$ies, o,io&sly <e !elinD&ish $ha$ 1a!$ o% $he sel%. Ta7e a 1e!son <ho is &ns$a,le, ge$ hi"
occ&1ied ,y s1eech, and a$ $he sa"e $i"e ge$ his eye on so"e$hing yo& a!e <!i$ing so $ha$ he is
ca!!ying on $<o se1a!a$e lines o% co""&nica$ion, and i% yo& go a,o&$ i$ in $he !igh$ <ay yo& can ge$
$hose $<o c&!!en$s going so $ha$ $hey do no$ !&n in$o each o$he!. Yo& can ge$ $<o en$i!ely di%%e!en$
se$s o% ac$ii$ies going on. Yo& can ,!ing a,o&$ in $ha$ <ay $he dissocia$ion o% a 1e!son>s sel%. I$ is a
1!ocess o% se$$ing &1 $<o so!$s o% co""&nica$ion <hich se1a!a$e $he ,ehaio! o% $he indiid&al. Fo!
one indiid&al i$ is $his $hing said and hea!d, and %o! $he o$he! indiid&al $he!e e=is$s only $ha$ <hich
he sees <!i$$en. Yo& "&s$, o% co&!se, 7ee1 one e=1e!ience o&$ o% $he %ield o% $he o$he!.
Dissocia$ions a!e a1$ $o $a7e 1lace <hen an een$ leads $o e"o$ional &1heaals. Tha$ <hich is
se1a!a$ed goes on in i$s o<n <ay.
The &ni$y and s$!&c$&!e o% $he co"1le$e sel% !e%lec$s $he &ni$y and s$!&c$&!e o% $he social 1!ocess as
a <hole@ and each o% $he ele"en$a!y seles o% <hich i$ is co"1osed !e%lec$s $he &ni$y and s$!&c$&!e
o% one o% $he a!io&s as1ec$s o% $ha$ 1!ocess in <hich $he indiid&al is i"1lica$ed. In o$he! <o!ds, $he
a!io&s ele"en$a!y seles <hich cons$i$&$e, o! a!e o!gani8ed in$o, a co"1le$e sel% a!e $he a!io&s
as1ec$s o% $he s$!&c$&!e o% $ha$ co"1le$e sel% ans<e!ing $o $he a!io&s as1ec$s o% $he s$!&c$&!e o% $he
social 1!ocess as a <hole@ $he s$!&c$&!e o% $he co"1le$e sel% is $h&s a !e%lec$ion o% $he co"1le$e
social 1!ocess. The o!gani8a$ion and &ni%ica$ion o% a social g!o&1 is iden$ical <i$h $he o!gani8a$ion
and &ni%ica$ion o% any one o% $he seles a!ising <i$hin $he social 1!ocess in <hich $ha$ g!o&1 is
engaged, o! <hich i$ is ca!!ying on.+0-
The 1heno"enon o% dissocia$ion o% 1e!sonali$y is ca&sed ,y a ,!ea7ing &1 o% $he co"1le$e, &ni$a!y
sel% in$o $he co"1onen$ seles o% <hich i$ is co"1osed, and <hich !es1ec$iely co!!es1ond $o
di%%e!en$ as1ec$s o% $he social 1!ocess in <hich $he 1e!son is inoled, and <i$hin <hich his
co"1le$e o! &ni$a!y sel% has a!isen@ $hese as1ec$s ,eing $he di%%e!en$ social g!o&1s $o <hich he
,elongs <i$hin $ha$ 1!ocess.
"ndnotes
1. Man>s ,ehaio! is s&ch in his social g!o&1 $ha$ he is a,le $o ,eco"e an o,9ec$ $o hi"sel%, a
%ac$ <hich cons$i$&$es hi" a "o!e adanced 1!od&c$ o% eol&$iona!y deelo1"en$ $han a!e
$he lo<e! ani"als. F&nda"en$ally i$ is $his social %ac$?and no$ his alleged 1ossession o% a
so&l o! "ind <i$h <hich he, as an indiid&al, has ,een "ys$e!io&sly and s&1e!na$&!ally
endo<ed, and <i$h <hich $he lo<e! ani"als hae no$ ,een endo<ed?$ha$ di%%e!en$ia$es hi"
%!o" $he".
2. aB All social in$e!!ela$ions and in$e!ac$ions a!e !oo$ed in a ce!$ain co""on socio?
1hysiological endo<"en$ o% ee!y indiid&al inoled in $he". These 1hysiological ,ases o%
social ,ehaio!?<hich hae $hei! &l$i"a$e sca$ o! loc&s in $he lo<e! 1a!$ o% $he indiid&al>s
cen$!al ne!o&s sys$e"?a!e $he ,ases o% s&ch ,ehaio!, 1!ecisely ,eca&se $hey in
$he"seles a!e also social@ $ha$ is, ,eca&se $hey consis$ in d!ies o! ins$inc$s o! ,ehaio!
$endencies, on $he 1a!$ o% $he gien indiid&al, <hich he canno$ ca!!y o&$ o! gie oe!$
e=1!ession and sa$is%ac$ion $o <i$ho&$ $he coo1e!a$ie aid o% one o! "o!e o$he! indiid&als.
The 1hysiological 1!ocesses o% ,ehaio! o% <hich $hey a!e $he "echanis"s a!e 1!ocesses
<hich necessa!ily inole "o!e $han one indiid&al, 1!ocesses in <hich o$he! indiid&als
,esides $he gien indiid&al a!e 1e!%o!ce i"1lica$ed. E=a"1les o% $he %&nda"en$al social
!ela$ions $o <hich $hese 1hysiological ,ases o% social ,ehaio! gie !ise a!e $hose ,e$<een
$he se=es Ae=1!essing $he !e1!od&c$ie ins$inc$B, ,e$<een 1a!en$ and child Ae=1!essing $he
1a!en$al ins$inc$B, and ,e$<een neigh,o!s Ae=1!essing $he g!ega!io&s ins$inc$B. These
!ela$iely si"1le and !&di"en$a!y 1hysiological "echanis"s o! $endencies o% indiid&al
h&"an ,ehaio!, ,esides cons$i$&$ing $he 1hysiological ,ases o% all h&"an social ,ehaio!,
a!e also $he %&nda"en$al ,iological "a$e!ials o% h&"an na$&!e@ so $ha$ <hen <e !e%e! $o
h&"an na$&!e, <e a!e !e%e!!ing $o so"e$hing <hich is essen$ially social.
(5Se=&ally and 1a!en$ally, as <ell as in i$s a$$ac7s and de%enses, $he ac$ii$ies o% $he
1hysiological o!ganis" a!e social in $ha$ $he ac$s ,eg&n <i$hin $he o!ganis" !eD&i!e $hei!
co"1le$ion in $he ac$ions o% o$he!s......... B&$ <hile $he 1a$$e!n o% $he indiid&al ac$ "ay ,e
said $o ,e in $hese cases social, i$ is only so in so %a! as $he o!ganis" see7s %o! $he s$i"&li in
$he a$$i$&des and cha!ac$e!s o% o$he! %o!"s %o! $he co"1le$ion o% i$s o<n !es1onses, and ,y
i$s ,ehaio! $ends $o "ain$ain $he o$he! as a 1a!$ o% i$s o<n eni!on"en$. The ac$&al
,ehaio! o% $he o$he! o! $he o$he!s is no$ ini$ia$ed in $he indiid&al %o!" as a 1a!$ o% i$s o<n
1a$$e!n o% ,ehaio! AMSB.
'. I$ is gene!ally !ecogni8ed $ha$ $he s1eci%ically social e=1!essions o% in$elligence, o! $he
e=e!cise o% <ha$ is o%$en called -social in$elligence,- de1end &1on $he gien indiid&al>s
a,ili$y $o $a7e $he !oles o%, o! -1&$ hi"sel% in $he 1lace o%,- $he o$he! indiid&als i"1lica$ed
<i$h hi" in gien social si$&a$ions@ and &1on his conseD&en$ sensi$ii$y $o $hei! a$$i$&des
$o<a!d hi"sel% and $o<a!d one ano$he!. These s1eci%ically social e=1!essions o% in$elligence,
o% co&!se, acD&i!e &niD&e signi%icance in $e!"s o% o&! ie< $ha$ $he <hole na$&!e o%
in$elligence is social $o $he e!y co!e?$ha$ $his 1&$$ing o% one>s sel% in $he 1laces o% o$he!s, $his
$a7ing ,y one>s sel% o% $hei! !oles o! a$$i$&des, is no$ "e!ely one o% $he a!io&s as1ec$s o!
e=1!essions o% in$elligence o! o% in$elligen$ ,ehaio!, ,&$ is $he e!y essence o% i$s cha!ac$e!.
S1ea!"an>s -J %ac$o!- in in$elligence ? $he &n7no<n %ac$o! <hich, acco!ding $o hi",
in$elligence con$ains?is si"1ly Ai% o&! social $heo!y o% in$elligence is co!!ec$B $his a,ili$y o% $he
in$elligen$ indiid&al $o $a7e $he a$$i$&de o% $he o$he!, o! $he a$$i$&des o% o$he!s, $h&s !eali8ing
$he signi%ica$ions o! g!as1ing $he "eanings o% $he sy",ols o! ges$&!es in $e!"s o% <hich
$hin7ing 1!oceeds@ and $h&s ,eing a,le $o ca!!y on <i$h hi"sel% $he in$e!nal cone!sa$ion <i$h
$hese sy",ols o! ges$&!es <hich $hin7ing inoles.
). The &ni$y o% $he "ind is no$ iden$ical <i$h $he &ni$y o% $he sel%. The &ni$y o% $he sel% is
cons$i$&$ed ,y $he &ni$y o% $he en$i!e !ela$ional 1a$$e!n o% social ,ehaio! and e=1e!ience in
<hich $he indiid&al is i"1lica$ed, and <hich is !e%lec$ed in $he s$!&c$&!e o% $he sel%@ ,&$ "any
o% $he as1ec$s o! %ea$&!es o% $his en$i!e 1a$$e!n do no$ en$e! in$o conscio&sness, so $ha$ $he
&ni$y o% $he "ind is in a sense an a,s$!ac$ion %!o" $he "o!e incl&sie &ni$y o% $he sel%.
,9# TH" B%C>G*$4() $3 TH" G"("SIS $3 TH" S"&3
The 1!o,le" no< 1!esen$s i$sel% as $o ho<, in de$ail, a sel% a!ises. 0e hae $o no$e so"e$hing o% $he
,ac7g!o&nd o% i$s genesis. Fi!s$ o% all $he!e is $he cone!sa$ion o% ges$&!es ,e$<een ani"als
inoling so"e so!$ o% coo1e!a$ie ac$ii$y. The!e $he ,eginning o% $he ac$ o% one is a s$i"&l&s $o $he
o$he! $o !es1ond in a ce!$ain <ay, <hile $he ,eginning o% $his !es1onse ,eco"es again a s$i"&l&s $o
$he %i!s$ $o ad9&s$ his ac$ion $o $he onco"ing !es1onse. S&ch is $he 1!e1a!a$ion %o! $he co"1le$ed ac$,
and &l$i"a$ely i$ leads &1 $o $he cond&c$ <hich is $he o&$co"e o% $his 1!e1a!a$ion. The cone!sa$ion
o% ges$&!es, ho<ee!, does no$ ca!!y <i$h i$ $he !e%e!ence o% $he indiid&al, $he ani"al, $he o!ganis",
$o i$sel%. I$ is no$ ac$ing in a %ashion <hich calls %o! a !es1onse %!o" $he %o!" i$sel%, al$ho&gh i$ is
cond&c$ <i$h !e%e!ence $o $he cond&c$ o% o$he!s. 0e hae seen, ho<ee!, $ha$ $he!e a!e ce!$ain
ges$&!es $ha$ do a%%ec$ $he o!ganis" as $hey a%%ec$ o$he! o!ganis"s and "ay, $he!e%o!e, a!o&se in
$he o!ganis" !es1onses o% $he sa"e cha!ac$e! as a!o&sed in $he o$he!. :e!e, $hen, <e hae a
si$&a$ion in <hich $he indiid&al "ay a$ leas$ a!o&se !es1onses in hi"sel% and !e1ly $o $hese
!es1onses, $he condi$ion ,eing $ha$ $he social s$i"&li hae an e%%ec$ on $he indiid&al <hich is li7e
$ha$ <hich $hey hae on $he o$he!. Tha$, %o! e=a"1le, is <ha$ is i"1lied in lang&age@ o$he!<ise
lang&age as signi%ican$ sy",ol <o&ld disa11ea!, since $he indiid&al <o&ld no$ ge$ $he "eaning o%
$ha$ <hich he says.
The 1ec&lia! cha!ac$e! 1ossessed ,y o&! h&"an social eni!on"en$ ,elongs $o i$ ,y i!$&e o% $he
1ec&lia! cha!ac$e! o% h&"an social ac$ii$y@ and $ha$ cha!ac$e!, as <e hae seen, is $o ,e %o&nd in
$he 1!ocess o% co""&nica$ion, and "o!e 1a!$ic&la!ly in $he $!iadic !ela$ion on <hich $he e=is$ence o%
"eaning is ,ased; $he !ela$ion o% $he ges$&!e o% one o!ganis" $o $he ad9&s$ie !es1onse "ade $o i$
,y ano$he! o!ganis", in i$s indica$ie ca1aci$y as 1oin$ing $o $he co"1le$ion o! !es&l$an$ o% $he ac$ i$
ini$ia$es A$he "eaning o% $he ges$&!e ,eing $h&s $he !es1onse O% $he second o!ganis" $o i$ as s&ch,
o! as a ges$&!eB. 0ha$, as i$ <e!e, $a7es $he ges$&!e o&$ o% $he social ac$ and isola$es i$ as s&ch?
<ha$ "a7es i$ so"e$hing "o!e $han 9&s$ an ea!ly 1hase o% an indiid&al ac$?is $he !es1onse o%
ano$he! o!ganis", o! o% o$he! o!ganis"s, $o i$. S&ch a !es1onse is i$s "eaning, o! gies i$ i$s
"eaning. The social si$&a$ion and 1!ocess o% ,ehaio! a!e he!e 1!es&11osed ,y $he ac$s o% $he
indiid&al o!ganis"s i"1lica$ed $he!ein. The ges$&!e a!ises as a se1a!a,le ele"en$ in $he social ac$,
,y i!$&e o% $he %ac$ $ha$ i$ is selec$ed o&$ ,y $he sensi$ii$ies o% o$he! o!ganis"s $o i$@ i$ does no$ e=is$
as a ges$&!e "e!ely in $he e=1e!ience o% $he single indiid&al. The "eaning o% a ges$&!e ,y one
o!ganis", $o !e1ea$, is %o&nd in $he !es1onse o% ano$he! o!ganis" $o <ha$ <o&ld ,e $he co"1le$ion
o% $he ac$ o% $he %i!s$ o!ganis" <hich $ha$ ges$&!e ini$ia$es and indica$es.
0e so"e$i"es s1ea7 as i% a 1e!son co&ld ,&ild &1 an en$i!e a!g&"en$ in his "ind, and $hen 1&$ i$
in$o <o!ds $o coney i$ $o so"eone else. Ac$&ally, o&! $hin7ing al<ays $a7es 1lace ,y "eans o%
so"e so!$ o% sy",ols. I$ is 1ossi,le $ha$ one co&ld hae $he "eaning o% -chai!- in his e=1e!ience
<i$ho&$ $he!e ,eing a sy",ol, ,&$ <e <o&ld no$ ,e $hin7ing a,o&$ i$ in $ha$ case. 0e "ay si$ do<n in
a chai! <i$ho&$ $hin7ing a,o&$ <ha$ <e a!e doing, $ha$ is, $he a11!oach $o $he chai! is 1!es&"a,ly
al!eady a!o&sed in o&! e=1e!ience, so $ha$ $he "eaning is $he!e. B&$ i% one is $hin7ing a,o&$ $he
chai! he "&s$ hae so"e so!$ o% a sy",ol %o! i$. I$ "ay ,e $he %o!" o% $he chai!, i$ "ay ,e $he a$$i$&de
$ha$ so"e,ody else $a7es in si$$ing do<n, ,&$ i$ is "o!e a1$ $o ,e so"e lang&age sy",ol $ha$
a!o&ses $his !es1onse. In a $ho&gh$ 1!ocess $he!e has $o ,e so"e so!$ o% a sy",ol $ha$ can !e%e! $o
$his "eaning, $ha$ is, $end $o call o&$ $his !es1onse, and also se!e $his 1&!1ose %o! o$he! 1e!sons as
<ell. I$ <o&ld no$ ,e a $ho&gh$ 1!ocess i% $ha$ <e!e no$ $he case.
O&! sy",ols a!e all &nie!sal. +,- Yo& canno$ say any$hing $ha$ is a,sol&$ely 1a!$ic&la!@ any$hing yo&
say $ha$ has any "eaning a$ all is &nie!sal. Yo& a!e saying so"e$hing $ha$ calls o&$ a s1eci%ic
!es1onse in any,ody else 1!oided $ha$ $he sy",ol e=is$s %o! hi" in his e=1e!ience as i$ does %o!
yo&. The!e is $he lang&age o% s1eech and $he lang&age o% hands, and $he!e "ay ,e $he lang&age o%
$he e=1!ession o% $he co&n$enance. One can !egis$e! g!ie% o! 9oy and call o&$ ce!$ain !es1onses.
The!e a!e 1!i"i$ie 1eo1le <ho can ca!!y on ela,o!a$e cone!sa$ions 9&s$ ,y e=1!essions o% $he
co&n$enance. Een in $hese cases $he 1e!son <ho co""&nica$es is a%%ec$ed ,y $ha$ e=1!ession 9&s$
as he e=1ec$s so"e,ody else $o ,e a%%ec$ed. Thin7ing al<ays i"1lies a sy",ol <hich <ill call o&$
$he sa"e !es1onse in ano$he! $ha$ i$ calls o&$ in $he $hin7e!. S&ch a sy",ol is a &nie!sal o%
disco&!se@ i$ is &nie!sal in i$s cha!ac$e!. 0e al<ays ass&"e $ha$ $he sy",ol <e &se is one <hich
<ill call o&$ in $he o$he! 1e!son $he sa"e !es1onse, 1!oided i$ is a 1a!$ o% his "echanis" o%
cond&c$. A 1e!son <ho is saying so"e$hing is saying $o hi"sel% <ha$ he says $o o$he!s@ o$he!<ise
he does no$ 7no< <ha$ he is $al7ing a,o&$.
The!e is, o% co&!se, a g!ea$ deal in one>s cone!sa$ion <i$h o$he!s $ha$ does no$ a!o&se in one>s sel%
$he sa"e !es1onse i$ a!o&ses in o$he!s. Tha$ is 1a!$ic&la!ly $!&e in $he case o% e"o$ional a$$i$&des.
One $!ies $o ,&lly so"e,ody else@ he is no$ $!ying $o ,&lly hi"sel%. The!e is, %&!$he!, a <hole se$ o%
al&es gien in s1eech <hich a!e no$ o% a sy",olic cha!ac$e!. The ac$o! is conscio&s o% $hese
al&es@ $ha$ is, i% he ass&"es a ce!$ain a$$i$&de he is, as <e say, a<a!e $ha$ $his a$$i$&de !e1!esen$s
g!ie%. I% i$ does he is a,le $o !es1ond $o his o<n ges$&!e in so"e sense as his a&dience does. I$ is
no$ a na$&!al si$&a$ion@ one is no$ an ac$o! all o% $he $i"e. 0e do a$ $i"es ac$ and conside! 9&s$ <ha$
$he e%%ec$ o% o&! a$$i$&de is going $o ,e, and <e "ay deli,e!a$ely &se a ce!$ain $one o% oice $o ,!ing
a,o&$ a ce!$ain !es&l$. S&ch a $one a!o&ses $he sa"e !es1onse in o&!seles $ha$ <e <an$ $o a!o&se
in so"e,ody else. B&$ a e!y la!ge 1a!$ o% <ha$ goes on in s1eech has no$ $his sy",olic s$a$&s.
I$ is $he $as7 no$ only o% $he ac$o! ,&$ o% $he a!$is$ as <ell $o %ind $he so!$ o% e=1!ession $ha$ <ill a!o&se
in o$he!s <ha$ is going on in hi"sel%. The ly!ic 1oe$ has an e=1e!ience o% ,ea&$y <i$h an e"o$ional
$h!ill $o i$, and as an a!$is$ &sing <o!ds he is see7ing %o! $hose <o!ds <hich <ill ans<e! $o his
e"o$ional a$$i$&de, and <hich <ill call o&$ in o$he!s $he a$$i$&de he hi"sel% has. :e can only $es$ his
!es&l$s in hi"sel% ,y seeing <he$he! $hese <o!ds do call o&$ in hi" $he !es1onse he <an$s $o call o&$
in o$he!s. :e is in so"e<ha$ $he sa"e 1osi$ion as $ha$ o% $he ac$o!. The %i!s$ di!ec$ and i""edia$e
e=1e!ience is no$ in $he %o!" o% co""&nica$ion. 0e hae an in$e!es$ing ligh$ on $his %!o" s&ch a
1oe$ as 0o!ds<o!$h, <ho <as e!y "&ch in$e!es$ed in $he $echniD&e o% $he 1oe$>s e=1!ession@ and
he has $old &s in his 1!e%aces and also in his o<n 1oe$!y ho< his 1oe"s, as 1oe"s, a!ose and
&ni%o!"ly $he e=1e!ience i$sel% <as no$ $he i""edia$e s$i"&l&s $o $he 1oe$ic e=1!ession. A 1e!iod o%
$en yea!s "igh$ lie ,e$<een $he o!iginal e=1e!ience and $he e=1!ession o% i$. This 1!ocess o% %inding
$he e=1!ession in lang&age <hich <ill call o&$ $he e"o$ion once had is "o!e easily acco"1lished
<hen one is dealing <i$h $he "e"o!y o% i$ $han <hen one is in $he "ids$ o% $he $!ance?li7e
e=1e!iences $h!o&gh <hich 0o!ds<o!$h 1assed in his con$ac$ <i$h na$&!e. One has $o e=1e!i"en$
and see ho< $he e=1!ession $ha$ is gien does ans<e! $o $he !es1onses <hich a!e no< had in $he
%ain$e! "e"o!ies o% e=1e!ience. So"eone once said $ha$ he had e!y g!ea$ di%%ic&l$y in <!i$ing
1oe$!y@ he had 1len$y o% ideas ,&$ co&ld no$ ge$ $he lang&age he needed. :e <as !igh$ly $old $ha$
1oe$!y <as <!i$$en in <o!ds, no$ in ideas.
A g!ea$ deal o% o&! s1eech is no$ o% $his gen&inely aes$he$ic cha!ac$e!@ in "os$ o% i$ <e do no$
deli,e!a$ely %eel $he e"o$ions <hich <e a!o&se. 0e do no$ no!"ally &se lang&age s$i"&li $o call o&$
in o&!seles $he e"o$ional !es1onse <hich <e a!e calling o&$ in o$he!s. One does, o% co&!se, hae
sy"1a$hy in e"o$ional si$&a$ions@ ,&$ <ha$ one is see7ing %o! $he!e is so"e$hing <hich is, a%$e! all,
$ha$ in $he o$he! <hich s&11o!$s $he indiid&al in his o<n e=1e!ience. In $he case o% $he 1oe$ and
ac$o!, $he s$i"&l&s calls o&$ in $he a!$is$ $ha$ <hich i$ calls o&$ in $he o$he!, ,&$ $his is no$ $he na$&!al
%&nc$ion o% lang&age@ <e do no$ ass&"e $ha$ $he 1e!son <ho is ang!y is calling o&$ $he %ea! in
hi"sel% $ha$ he is calling o&$ in so"eone else. The e"o$ional 1a!$ o% o&! ac$ does no$ di!ec$ly call o&$
in &s $he !es1onse i$ calls o&$ in $he o$he!. I% a 1e!son is hos$ile $he a$$i$&de o% $he o$he! $ha$ he is
in$e!es$ed in, an a$$i$&de <hich %lo<s na$&!ally %!o" his ange!ed $ones, is no$ one $ha$ he de%ini$ely
!ecogni8es in hi"sel%. 0e a!e no$ %!igh$ened ,y a $one <hich <e "ay &se $o %!igh$en so"e,ody
else. On $he e"o$ional side, <hich is a e!y la!ge 1a!$ o% $he ocal ges$&!e, <e do no$ call o&$ in
o&!seles in any s&ch deg!ee $he !es1onse <e call o&$ in o$he!s as <e do in $he case o% signi%ican$
s1eech. :e!e <e sho&ld call o&$ in o&!seles $he $y1e o% !es1onse <e a!e calling o&$ in o$he!s@ <e
"&s$ 7no< <ha$ <e a!e saying, and $he a$$i$&de o% $he o$he! <hich <e a!o&se in o&!seles sho&ld
con$!ol <ha$ <e do say. *a$ionali$y "eans $ha$ $he $y1e o% $he !es1onse <hich <e call o&$ in o$he!s
sho&ld ,e so called o&$ in o&!seles, and $ha$ $his !es1onse sho&ld in $&!n $a7e i$s 1lace in
de$e!"ining <ha$ %&!$he! $hing <e a!e going $o say and do.
0ha$ is essen$ial $o co""&nica$ion is $ha$ $he sy",ol sho&ld a!o&se in one>s sel% <ha$ i$ a!o&ses in
$he o$he! indiid&al. I$ "&s$ hae $ha$ so!$ o% &nie!sali$y $o any 1e!son <ho %inds hi"sel% in $he
sa"e si$&a$ion. The!e is a 1ossi,ili$y o% lang&age <henee! a s$i"&l&s can a%%ec$ $he indiid&al as i$
a%%ec$s $he o$he!. 0i$h a ,lind 1e!son s&ch as :elen Lelle!, i$ is a con$ac$ e=1e!ience $ha$ co&ld ,e
gien $o ano$he! as i$ is gien $o he!sel%. I$ is o&$ o% $ha$ so!$ o% lang&age $ha$ $he "ind o% :elen
Lelle! <as ,&il$ &1. As she has !ecogni8ed, i$ <as no$ &n$il she co&ld ge$ in$o co""&nica$ion <i$h
o$he! 1e!sons $h!o&gh sy",ols <hich co&ld a!o&se in he!sel% $he !es1onses $hey a!o&se in o$he!
1eo1le $ha$ she co&ld ge$ <ha$ <e $e!" a "en$al con$en$, o! a sel%.
Ano$he! se$ o% ,ac7g!o&nd %ac$o!s in $he genesis o% $he sel% is !e1!esen$ed in $he ac$ii$ies o% 1lay
and $he ga"e.
A"ong 1!i"i$ie 1eo1le, as I hae said, $he necessi$y o% dis$ing&ishing $he sel% and $he o!ganis"
<as !ecogni8ed in <ha$ <e $e!" $he -do&,le-; $he indiid&al has a $hing?li7e sel% $ha$ is a%%ec$ed ,y
$he indiid&al as i$ a%%ec$s o$he! 1eo1le and <hich is dis$ing&ished %!o" $he i""edia$e o!ganis" in
$ha$ i$ can leae $he ,ody and co"e ,ac7 $o i$. This is $he ,asis %o! $he conce1$ o% $he so&l as a
se1a!a$e en$i$y.
0e %ind in child!en so"e$hing $ha$ ans<e!s $o $his do&,le, na"ely, $he inisi,le, i"agina!y
co"1anions <hich a good "any child!en 1!od&ce in $hei! o<n e=1e!ience. They o!gani8e in $his <ay
$he !es1onses <hich $hey call o&$ in o$he! 1e!sons and call o&$ also in $he"seles. O% co&!se, $his
1laying <i$h an i"agina!y co"1anion is only a 1ec&lia!ly in$e!es$ing 1hase o% o!dina!y 1lay. Play in
$his sense, es1ecially $he s$age <hich 1!ecedes $he o!gani8ed ga"es, is a 1lay a$ so"e$hing. A
child 1lays a$ ,eing a "o$he!, a$ ,eing a $eache!, a$ ,eing a 1olice"an@ $ha$ is, i$ is $a7ing di%%e!en$
!oles, as <e say. 0e hae so"e$hing $ha$ s&gges$s $his in <ha$ <e call $he 1lay o% ani"als; a ca$
<ill 1lay <i$h he! 7i$$ens, and dogs 1lay <i$h each o$he!. T<o dogs 1laying <i$h each o$he! <ill a$$ac7
and de%end, in a 1!ocess <hich i% ca!!ied $h!o&gh <o&ld a"o&n$ $o an ac$&al %igh$. The!e is a
co",ina$ion o% !es1onses <hich chec7s $he de1$h o% $he ,i$e. B&$ <e do no$ hae in s&ch a si$&a$ion
$he dogs $a7ing a de%ini$e !Mle in $he sense $ha$ a child deli,e!a$ely $a7es $he !ole o% ano$he!. This
$endency on $he 1a!$ o% $he child!en is <ha$ <e a!e <o!7ing <i$h in $he 7inde!ga!$en <he!e $he !Mles
<hich $he child!en ass&"e a!e "ade $he ,asis %o! $!aining. 0hen a child does ass&"e a !ole he has
in hi"sel% $he s$i"&li <hich call o&$ $ha$ 1a!$ic&la! !es1onse o! g!o&1 o% !es1onses. :e "ay, o%
co&!se, !&n a<ay <hen he is chased, as $he dog does, o! he "ay $&!n a!o&nd and s$!i7e ,ac7 9&s$
as $he dog does in his 1lay. B&$ $ha$ is no$ $he sa"e as 1laying a$ so"e$hing. Child!en ge$ $oge$he!
$o -1lay Indian.- This "eans $ha$ $he child has a ce!$ain se$ o% s$i"&li <hich call o&$ in i$sel% $he
!es1onses $ha$ $hey <o&ld call o&$ in o$he!s, and <hich ans<e! $o an Indian. In $he 1lay 1e!iod $he
child &$ili8es his o<n !es1onses $o $hese s$i"&li <hich he "a7es &se o% in ,&ilding a sel%. The
!es1onse <hich he has a $endency $o "a7e $o $hese s$i"&li o!gani8es $he". :e 1lays $ha$ he is, %o!
ins$ance, o%%e!ing hi"sel% so"e$hing, and he ,&ys i$@ he gies a le$$e! $o hi"sel% and $a7es i$ a<ay@
he add!esses hi"sel% as a 1a!en$, as a $eache!@ he a!!es$s hi"sel% as a 1olice"an. :e has a se$ o%
s$i"&li <hich call o&$ in hi"sel% $he so!$ o% !es1onses $hey call o&$ in o$he!s. :e $a7es $his g!o&1 o%
!es1onses and o!gani8es $he" in$o a ce!$ain <hole. S&ch is $he si"1les$ %o!" o% ,eing ano$he! $o
one>s sel%. I$ inoles a $e"1o!al si$&a$ion. The child says so"e$hing in one cha!ac$e! and !es1onds
in ano$he! cha!ac$e!, and $hen his !es1onding in ano$he! cha!ac$e! is a s$i"&l&s $o hi"sel% in $he %i!s$
cha!ac$e!, and so $he cone!sa$ion goes on. A ce!$ain o!gani8ed s$!&c$&!e a!ises in hi" and in his
o$he! <hich !e1lies $o i$, and $hese ca!!y on $he cone!sa$ion o% ges$&!es ,e$<een $he"seles.
I% <e con$!as$ 1lay <i$h $he si$&a$ion in an o!gani8ed ga"e, <e no$e $he essen$ial di%%e!ence $ha$ $he
child <ho 1lays in a ga"e "&s$ ,e !eady $o $a7e $he a$$i$&de o% ee!yone else inoled in $ha$ ga"e,
and $ha$ $hese di%%e!en$ !Mles "&s$ hae a de%ini$e !ela$ionshi1 $o each o$he!. Ta7ing a e!y si"1le
ga"e s&ch as hide?and?see7, ee!yone <i$h $he e=ce1$ion o% $he one <ho is hiding is a 1e!son <ho
is h&n$ing. A child does no$ !eD&i!e "o!e $han $he 1e!son <ho is h&n$ed and $he one <ho is h&n$ing.
I% a child is 1laying in $he %i!s$ sense he 9&s$ goes on 1laying, ,&$ $he!e is no ,asic o!gani8a$ion
gained. In $ha$ ea!ly s$age he 1asses %!o" one !Mle $o ano$he! 9&s$ as a <hi" $a7es hi". B&$ in a
ga"e <he!e a n&",e! o% indiid&als a!e inoled, $hen $he child $a7ing one !ole "&s$ ,e !eady $o
$a7e $he !Mle o% ee!yone else. I% he ge$s in a ,all nine he "&s$ hae $he !es1onses o% each 1osi$ion
inoled in his o<n 1osi$ion. :e "&s$ 7no< <ha$ ee!yone else is going $o do in o!de! $o ca!!y o&$
his o<n 1lay. :e has $o $a7e all o% $hese !oles. They do no$ all hae $o ,e 1!esen$ in conscio&sness
a$ $he sa"e $i"e, ,&$ a$ so"e "o"en$s he has $o hae $h!ee o! %o&! indiid&als 1!esen$ in his o<n
a$$i$&de, s&ch as $he one <ho is going $o $h!o< $he ,all, $he one <ho is going $o ca$ch i$, and so on.
These !es1onses "&s$ ,e, in so"e deg!ee, 1!esen$ in his o<n "a7e?&1. In $he ga"e, $hen, $he!e is
a se$ o% !es1onses o% s&ch o$he!s so o!gani8ed $ha$ $he a$$i$&de o% one calls o&$ $he a11!o1!ia$e
a$$i$&des o% $he o$he!.
This o!gani8a$ion is 1&$ in $he %o!" o% $he !&les o% $he ga"e. Child!en $a7e a g!ea$ in$e!es$ in !&les.
They "a7e !&les on $he s1o$ in o!de! $o hel1 $he"seles o&$ o% di%%ic&l$ies. Pa!$ o% $he en9oy"en$ o%
$he ga"e is $o ge$ $hese !&les. No<, $he !&les a!e $he se$ o% !es1onses <hich a 1a!$ic&la! a$$i$&de
calls o&$. Yo& can de"and a ce!$ain !es1onse in o$he!s i% yo& $a7e a ce!$ain a$$i$&de. These
!es1onses a!e all in yo&!sel% as <ell. The!e yo& ge$ an o!gani8ed se$ o% s&ch !es1onses as $ha$ $o
<hich I hae !e%e!!ed, <hich is so"e$hing "o!e ela,o!a$e $han $he !Mles %o&nd in 1lay. :e!e $he!e is
9&s$ a se$ o% !es1onses $ha$ %ollo< on each o$he! inde%ini$ely. A$ s&ch a s$age <e s1ea7 o% a child as
no$ ye$ haing a %&lly deelo1ed sel%. The child !es1onds in a %ai!ly in$elligen$ %ashion $o $he
i""edia$e s$i"&li $ha$ co"e $o hi", ,&$ $hey a!e no$ o!gani8ed. :e does no$ o!gani8e his li%e as <e
<o&ld li7e $o hae hi" do, na"ely, as a <hole. The!e is 9&s$ a se$ o% !es1onses o% $he $y1e o% 1lay.
The child !eac$s $o a ce!$ain s$i"&l&s, and $he !eac$ion is in hi"sel% $ha$ is called o&$ in o$he!s, ,&$
he is no$ a <hole sel%. In his ga"e he has $o hae an o!gani8a$ion o% $hese !Mles@ o$he!<ise he
canno$ 1lay $he ga"e. The ga"e !e1!esen$s $he 1assage in $he li%e o% $he child %!o" $a7ing $he !Mle
o% o$he!s in 1lay $o $he o!gani8ed 1a!$ $ha$ is essen$ial $o sel%?conscio&sness in $he %&ll sense o% $he
$e!".
"ndnotes
1. Thin7ing 1!oceeds in $e!"s o% o! ,y "eans o% &nie!sals. A &nie!sal "ay ,e in$e!1!e$ed
,ehaio!is$ically as si"1ly $he social ac$ as a <hole, inoling $he o!gani8a$ion and
in$e!!ela$ion o% $he a$$i$&des o% all $he indiid&als i"1lica$ed in $he ac$, as con$!olling $hei!
oe!$ !es1onses. This o!gani8a$ion o% $he di%%e!en$ indiid&al a$$i$&des and in$e!ac$ions in a
gien social ac$, <i$h !e%e!ence $o $hei! in$e!!ela$ions as !eali8ed ,y $he indiid&als
$he"seles, is <ha$ <e "ean ,y a &nie!sal@ and i$ de$e!"ines <ha$ $he ac$&al oe!$
!es1onses o% $he indiid&als inoled in $he gien social ac$ <ill ,e, <he$he! $ha$ ac$ ,e
conce!ned <i$h a conc!e$e 1!o9ec$ o% so"e so!$ As&ch as $he !ela$ion o% 1hysical and social
"eans $o ends desi!edB o! <i$h so"e 1&!ely a,s$!ac$ disc&ssion, say $he $heo!y o% !ela$ii$y
o! $he Pla$onic ideas.
.:# P&%'; TH" G%M"; %() TH" G"("*%&I?") $TH"*
0e <e!e s1ea7ing o% $he social condi$ions &nde! <hich $he sel% a!ises as an o,9ec$. In addi$ion $o
lang&age <e %o&nd $<o ill&s$!a$ions, one in 1lay and $he o$he! in $he ga"e, and I <ish $o s&""a!i8e
and e=1and "y acco&n$ on $hese 1oin$s. I hae s1o7en o% $hese %!o" $he 1oin$ o% ie< o% child!en.
0e can, o% co&!se, !e%e! also $o $he a$$i$&des o% "o!e 1!i"i$ie 1eo1le o&$ o% <hich o&! ciili8a$ion
has a!isen. A s$!i7ing ill&s$!a$ion o% 1lay as dis$inc$ %!o" $he ga"e is %o&nd in $he "y$hs and a!io&s
o% $he 1lays <hich 1!i"i$ie 1eo1le ca!!y o&$, es1ecially in !eligio&s 1agean$s. The 1&!e 1lay a$$i$&de
<hich <e %ind in $he case o% li$$le child!en "ay no$ ,e %o&nd he!e, since $he 1a!$ici1an$s a!e ad&l$s,
and &ndo&,$edly $he !ela$ionshi1 o% $hese 1lay 1!ocesses $o $ha$ <hich $hey in$e!1!e$ is "o!e o! less
in $he "inds o% een $he "os$ 1!i"i$ie 1eo1le. In $he 1!ocess o% in$e!1!e$a$ion o% s&ch !i$&als, $he!e
is an o!gani8a$ion o% 1lay <hich 1e!ha1s "igh$ ,e co"1a!ed $o $ha$ <hich is $a7ing 1lace in $he
7inde!ga!$en in dealing <i$h $he 1lays o% li$$le child!en, <he!e $hese a!e "ade in$o a se$ $ha$ <ill hae
a de%ini$e s$!&c$&!e o! !ela$ionshi1. A$ leas$ so"e$hing o% $he sa"e so!$ is %o&nd in $he 1lay o%
1!i"i$ie 1eo1le. This $y1e o% ac$ii$y ,elongs, o% co&!se, no$ $o $he ee!yday li%e o% $he 1eo1le in
$hei! dealing <i$h $he o,9ec$s a,o&$ $he"?$he!e <e hae a "o!e o! less de%ini$ely deelo1ed sel%?
conscio&sness ?? ,&$ in $hei! a$$i$&des $o<a!d $he %o!ces a,o&$ $he", $he na$&!e &1on <hich $hey
de1end@ in $hei! a$$i$&de $o<a!d $his na$&!e <hich is ag&e and &nce!$ain, $he!e <e hae a "&ch
"o!e 1!i"i$ie !es1onse@ and $ha$ !es1onse %inds i$s e=1!ession in $a7ing $he !Mle o% $he o$he!,
1laying a$ $he e=1!ession o% $hei! gods and $hei! he!oes, going $h!o&gh ce!$ain !i$es <hich a!e $he
!e1!esen$a$ion o% <ha$ $hese indiid&als a!e s&11osed $o ,e doing. The 1!ocess is one <hich
deelo1s, $o ,e s&!e, in$o a "o!e o! less de%ini$e $echniD&e and is con$!olled@ and ye$ <e can say
$ha$ i$ has a!isen o&$ o% si$&a$ions si"ila! $o $hose in <hich li$$le child!en 1lay a$ ,eing a 1a!en$, a$
,eing a $eache!?ag&e 1e!sonali$ies $ha$ a!e a,o&$ $he" and <hich a%%ec$ $he" and on <hich $hey
de1end. These a!e 1e!sonali$ies <hich $hey $a7e, !Mles $hey 1lay, and in so %a! con$!ol $he
deelo1"en$ o% $hei! o<n 1e!sonali$y. This o&$co"e is 9&s$ <ha$ $he 7inde!ga!$en <o!7s $o<a!d. I$
$a7es $he cha!ac$e!s o% $hese a!io&s ag&e ,eings and ge$s $he" in$o s&ch an o!gani8ed social
!ela$ionshi1 $o each. o$he! $ha$ $hey ,&ild &1 $he cha!ac$e! o% $he li$$le child.+,- The e!y in$!od&c$ion
o% o!gani8a$ion %!o" o&$side s&11oses a lac7 o% o!gani8a$ion a$ $his 1e!iod in $he child>s e=1e!ience.
Oe! agains$ s&ch a si$&a$ion o% $he li$$le child and 1!i"i$ie 1eo1le, <e hae $he ga"e as s&ch.
The %&nda"en$al di%%e!ence ,e$<een $he ga"e and 1lay is $ha$ in $he la$$e! $he child "&s$ hae $he
a$$i$&de o% all $he o$he!s inoled in $ha$ ga"e. The a$$i$&des o% $he o$he! 1laye!s <hich $he
1a!$ici1an$ ass&"es o!gani8e in$o a so!$ o% &ni$, and i$ is $ha$ o!gani8a$ion <hich con$!ols $he
!es1onse o% $he indiid&al. The ill&s$!a$ion &sed <as o% a 1e!son 1laying ,ase,all. Each one o% his
o<n ac$s is de$e!"ined ,y his ass&"1$ion o% $he ac$ion o% $he o$he!s <ho a!e 1laying $he ga"e.
0ha$ he does is con$!olled ,y his ,eing ee!yone else on $ha$ $ea", a$ leas$ in so %a! as $hose
a$$i$&des a%%ec$ his o<n 1a!$ic&la! !es1onse. 0e ge$ $hen an -o$he!- <hich is an o!gani8a$ion o% $he
a$$i$&des o% $hose inoled in $he sa"e 1!ocess.
The o!gani8ed co""&ni$y o! social g!o&1 <hich gies $o $he indiid&al his &ni$y o% sel% "ay ,e
called -$he gene!ali8ed> o$he!.- The a$$i$&de o% $he gene!ali8ed o$he! is $he a$$i$&de o% $he <hole
co""&ni$y.+.- Th&s, %o! e=a"1le, in $he case o% s&ch a social g!o&1 as a ,all $ea", $he $ea" is $he
gene!ali8ed o$he! in so %a! as i$ en$e!s?as an o!gani8ed 1!ocess o! social ac$ii$y in$o $he e=1e!ience
o% any one o% $he indiid&al "e",e!s o% i$.
I% $he gien h&"an indiid&al is $o deelo1 a sel% in $he %&lles$ sense, i$ is no$ s&%%icien$ %o! hi"
"e!ely $o $a7e $he a$$i$&des o% o$he! h&"an indiid&als $o<a!d hi"sel% and $o<a!d one ano$he!
<i$hin $he h&"an social 1!ocess, and $o ,!ing $ha$ social 1!ocess as a <hole in$o his indiid&al
e=1e!ience "e!ely in $hese $e!"s; he "&s$ also, in $he sa"e <ay $ha$ he $a7es $he a$$i$&des o% o$he!
indiid&als $o<a!d hi"sel% and $o<a!d one ano$he!, $a7e $hei! a$$i$&des $o<a!d $he a!io&s 1hases o!
as1ec$s o% $he co""on social ac$ii$y o! se$ o% social &nde!$a7ings in <hich, as "e",e!s o% an
o!gani8ed socie$y o! social g!o&1, $hey a!e all engaged@ and he "&s$ $hen, ,y gene!ali8ing $hese
indiid&al a$$i$&des o% $ha$ o!gani8ed socie$y o! social g!o&1 i$sel%, as a <hole, ac$ $o<a!d di%%e!en$
social 1!o9ec$s <hich a$ any gien $i"e i$ is ca!!ying o&$, o! $o<a!d $he a!io&s la!ge! 1hases o% $he
gene!al social 1!ocess <hich cons$i$&$es i$s li%e and o% <hich $hese 1!o9ec$s a!e s1eci%ic
"ani%es$a$ions. This ge$$ing o% $he ,!oad ac$ii$ies o% any gien social <hole o! o!gani8ed socie$y as
s&ch <i$hin $he e=1e!ien$ial %ield o% any one o% $he indiid&als inoled o! incl&ded in $ha$ <hole is, in
o$he! <o!ds, $he essen$ial ,asis and 1!e!eD&isi$e o% $he %&lles$ deelo1"en$ o% $ha$ indiid&al>s sel%;
only in so %a! as he $a7es $he a$$i$&des o% $he o!gani8ed social g!o&1 $o <hich he ,elongs $o<a!d $he
o!gani8ed, coo1e!a$ie social ac$ii$y o! se$ o% s&ch ac$ii$ies in <hich $ha$ g!o&1 as s&ch is
engaged, does he deelo1 a co"1le$e sel% o! 1ossess $he so!$ o% co"1le$e sel% he has deelo1ed.
And on $he o$he! hand, $he co"1le= coo1e!a$ie 1!ocesses and ac$ii$ies and ins$i$&$ional
%&nc$ionings o% o!gani8ed h&"an socie$y a!e also 1ossi,le only in so %a! as ee!y indiid&al inoled
in $he" o! ,elonging $o $ha$ socie$y can $a7e $he gene!al a$$i$&des o% all o$he! s&ch indiid&als <i$h
!e%e!ence $o $hese 1!ocesses and ac$ii$ies and ins$i$&$ional %&nc$ionings, and $o $he o!gani8ed social
<hole o% e=1e!ien$ial !ela$ions and in$e!ac$ions $he!e,y cons$i$&$ed?and can di!ec$ his o<n ,ehaio!
acco!dingly.
I$ is in $he %o!" o% $he gene!ali8ed o$he! $ha$ $he social 1!ocess in%l&ences $he ,ehaio! o% $he
indiid&als inoled in i$ and ca!!ying i$ on, i.e., $ha$ $he co""&ni$y e=e!cises con$!ol oe! $he
cond&c$ o% i$s indiid&al "e",e!s@ %o! i$ is in $his %o!" $ha$ $he social 1!ocess o! co""&ni$y en$e!s
as a de$e!"ining %ac$o! in$o $he indiid&al>s $hin7ing. In a,s$!ac$ $ho&gh$ $he indiid&al $a7es $he,
a$$i$&de o% $he gene!ali8ed o$he!+/- $o<a!d hi"sel%, <i$ho&$ !e%e!ence $o i$s e=1!ession in any
1a!$ic&la! o$he! indiid&als@ and in conc!e$e $ho&gh$ he $a7es $ha$ a$$i$&de in so %a! as i$ is e=1!essed
in $he a$$i$&des $o<a!d his ,ehaio! o% $hose o$he! indiid&als <i$h <ho" he is inoled in $he gien
social si$&a$ion o! ac$, B&$ only ,y $a7ing $he a$$i$&de o% $he gene!ali8ed o$he! $o<a!d hi"sel%, in one
o! ano$he! o% $hese <ays, can he $hin7 a$ all@ %o! only $h&s can $hin7ing ?o! $he in$e!nali8ed
cone!sa$ion o% ges$&!es <hich cons$i$&$es $hin7ing?occ&!. And only $h!o&gh $he $a7ing ,y indiid&als
o% $he a$$i$&de o! a$$i$&des o% $he gene!ali8ed o$he! $o<a!d $he"seles is $he e=is$ence o% a &nie!se
o% disco&!se, as $ha$ sys$e" o% co""on o! social "eanings <hich $hin7ing 1!es&11oses a$ i$s
con$e=$, !ende!ed 1ossi,le.
The sel%?conscio&s h&"an indiid&al, $hen, $a7es o! ass&"es $he o!gani8ed social a$$i$&des o% $he
gien social g!o&1 o! co""&ni$y Ao! o% so"e one sec$ion $he!eo% $o <hich he ,elongs, $o<a!d $he
social 1!o,le"s o% a!io&s 7inds <hich con%!on$ $ha$ g!o&1 o! co""&ni$y a$ any gien $i"e, and
<hich a!ise in connec$ion <i$h $he co!!es1ondingly di%%e!en$ social 1!o9ec$s o! o!gani8ed coo1e!a$ie
en$e!1!ises in <hich $ha$ g!o&1 o! co""&ni$y as s&ch is engaged@ and as an indiid&al 1a!$ici1an$ in
$hese social 1!o9ec$s o! coo1e!a$ie en$e!1!ises, he goe!ns his o<n cond&c$ acco!dingly. In 1oli$ics,
%o! e=a"1le, $he indiid&al iden$i%ies hi"sel% <i$h an en$i!e 1oli$ical 1a!$y and $a7es $he o!gani8ed
a$$i$&des o% $ha$ en$i!e 1a!$y $o<a!d $he !es$ o% $he gien social co""&ni$y and $o<a!d $he 1!o,le"s
<hich con%!on$ $he 1a!$y <i$hin $he gien social si$&a$ion@ and he conseD&en$ly !eac$s o! !es1onds in
$e!"s o% $he o!gani8ed a$$i$&des o% $he 1a!$y as a <hole. :e $h&s en$e!s in$o a s1ecial se$ o% social
!ela$ions <i$h all $he o$he! indiid&als <ho ,elong $o $ha$ 1oli$ical 1a!$y@ and in $he sa"e <ay he
en$e!s in$o a!io&s o$he! s1ecial se$s o% social !ela$ions, <i$h a!io&s o$he! classes o% indiid&als
!es1ec$iely, $he indiid&als o% each o% $hese classes ,eing $he o$he! "e",e!s o% so"e one o% $he
1a!$ic&la! o!gani8ed s&,g!o&1s Ade$e!"ined in socially %&nc$ional $e!"sB o% <hich he hi"sel% is a
"e",e! <i$hin $he en$i!e gien socie$y o! social co""&ni$y. In $he "os$ highly deelo1ed,
o!gani8ed, and co"1lica$ed h&"an social co""&ni$ies?$hose eoled ,y ciili8ed "an?$hese
a!io&s socially %&nc$ional classes o! s&,g!o&1s o% indiid&als $o <hich any gien indiid&al ,elongs
Aand <i$h $he o$he! indiid&al "e",e!s o% <hich he $h&s en$e!s in$o a s1ecial se$ o% social !ela$ionsB
a!e o% $<o 7inds. So"e o% $he" a!e conc!e$e social classes o! s&,g!o&1s, s&ch as 1oli$ical 1a!$ies,
cl&,s, co!1o!a$ions, <hich a!e all ac$&ally %&nc$ional social &ni$s, in $e!"s o% <hich $hei! indiid&al
"e",e!s a!e di!ec$ly !ela$ed $o one ano$he!. The o$he!s a!e a,s$!ac$ social classes o! s&,g!o&1s,
s&ch as $he class o% de,$o!s and $he class o% c!edi$o!s, in $e!"s o% <hich $hei! indiid&al "e",e!s
a!e !ela$ed $o one ano$he! only "o!e o! less indi!ec$ly, and <hich only "o!e o! less indi!ec$ly
%&nc$ion as social &ni$s, ,&$ <hich a%%o!d o! !e1!esen$ &nli"i$ed 1ossi,ili$ies %o! $he <idening and
!a"i%ying and en!iching o% $he social !ela$ions a"ong all $he indiid&al "e",e!s o% $he gien socie$y
as an o!gani8ed and &ni%ied <hole. The gien indiid&al>s "e",e!shi1 in see!al o% $hese a,s$!ac$
social classes o! s&,g!o&1s "a7es 1ossi,le his en$!ance in$o de%ini$e social !ela$ions Aho<ee!
indi!ec$B <i$h an al"os$ in%ini$e n&",e! o% o$he! indiid&als <ho also ,elong $o o! a!e incl&ded <i$hin
one o! ano$he! o% $hese a,s$!ac$ social classes o! s&,g!o&1s c&$$ing ac!oss %&nc$ional lines o%
de"a!ca$ion <hich diide di%%e!en$ h&"an social co""&ni$ies %!o" one ano$he!, and incl&ding
indiid&al "e",e!s %!o" see!al Ain so"e cases %!o" allB s&ch co""&ni$ies. O% $hese a,s$!ac$
social classes o! s&,g!o&1s o% h&"an indiid&als $he one <hich is "os$ incl&sie and e=$ensie is,
o% co&!se, $he one de%ined ,y $he logical &nie!se o% disco&!se Ao! sys$e" o% &nie!sally signi%ican$
sy",olsB de$e!"ined ,y $he 1a!$ici1a$ion and co""&nica$ie in$e!ac$ion o% indiid&als@ %o! o% all s&ch
classes o! s&,g!o&1s, i$ is $he one <hich clai"s $he la!ges$ n&",e! o% indiid&al "e",e!s, and
<hich ena,les $he la!ges$ conceia,le n&",e! o% h&"an indiid&als $o en$e! in$o so"e so!$ o% social
!ela$ion, ho<ee! indi!ec$ o! a,s$!ac$ i$ "ay ,e, <i$h one ano$he! ?? a !ela$ion a!ising %!o" $he
&nie!sal %&nc$ioning o% ges$&!es as signi%ican$ sy",ols in $he gene!al h&"an social 1!ocess o%
co""&nica$ion.
I hae 1oin$ed o&$, $hen, $ha$ $he!e a!e $<o gene!al s$ages in $he %&ll deelo1"en$ o% $he sel%. A$ $he
%i!s$ o% $hese s$ages, $he indiid&al>s sel% is cons$i$&$ed si"1ly ,y an o!gani8a$ion o% $he 1a!$ic&la!
a$$i$&des o% o$he! indiid&als $o<a!d hi"sel% and $o<a!d one ano$he! in $he s1eci%ic social ac$s in
<hich he 1a!$ici1a$es <i$h $he". B&$ a$ $he second s$age in $he %&ll deelo1"en$ o% $he indiid&al>s
sel% $ha$ sel% is cons$i$&$ed no$ only ,y an o!gani8a$ion o% $hese 1a!$ic&la! indiid&al a$$i$&des, ,&$
also ,y an o!gani8a$ion o% $he social a$$i$&des o% $he gene!ali8ed o$he! o! $he social g!o&1 as a <hole
$o <hich he ,elongs. These social o! g!o&1 a$$i$&des a!e ,!o&gh$ <i$hin $he indiid&al>s %ield o% di!ec$
e=1e!ience, and a!e incl&ded as ele"en$s in $he s$!&c$&!e o! cons$i$&$ion o% his sel%, in $he sa"e <ay
$ha$ $he a$$i$&des o% 1a!$ic&la! o$he! indiid&als a!e@ and $he indiid&al a!!ies a$ $he", o! s&cceeds in
$a7ing $he", ,y "eans o% %&!$he! o!gani8ing, and $hen gene!ali8ing, $he a$$i$&des o% 1a!$ic&la! o$he!
indiid&als in $e!"s o% $hei! o!gani8ed social ,ea!ings and i"1lica$ions. So $he sel% !eaches i$s %&ll
deelo1"en$ ,y o!gani8ing $hese indiid&al a$$i$&des o% o$he!s in$o $he o!gani8ed social o! g!o&1
a$$i$&des, and ,y $h&s ,eco"ing an indiid&al !e%lec$ion o% $he gene!al sys$e"a$ic 1a$$e!n o% social o!
g!o&1 ,ehaio! in <hich i$ and $he o$he!s a!e all inoled?a 1a$$e!n <hich en$e!s as a <hole in$o $he
indiid&al>s e=1e!ience in $e!"s o% $hese o!gani8ed g!o&1 a$$i$&des <hich, $h!o&gh $he "echanis" o%
his cen$!al ne!o&s sys$e", he $a7es $o<a!d hi"sel%, 9&s$ as he $a7es $he indiid&al a$$i$&des o%
o$he!s.
The ga"e has a logic, so $ha$ s&ch an o!gani8a$ion o% $he sel% is !ende!ed 1ossi,le; $he!e is a
de%ini$e end $o ,e o,$ained@ $he ac$ions o% $he di%%e!en$ indiid&als a!e all !ela$ed $o each o$he! <i$h
!e%e!ence $o $ha$ end so $ha$ $hey do no$ con%lic$@ one is no$ in con%lic$ <i$h hi"sel% in $he a$$i$&de o%
ano$he! "an on $he $ea". I% one has $he a$$i$&de o% $he 1e!son $h!o<ing $he ,all he can also hae
$he !es1onse o% ca$ching $he ,all. The $<o a!e !ela$ed so $ha$ $hey %&!$he! $he 1&!1ose o% $he ga"e
i$sel%. They a!e in$e!!ela$ed in a &ni$a!y, o!ganic %ashion. The!e is a de%ini$e &ni$y, $hen, <hich is
in$!od&ced in$o $he o!gani8a$ion o% o$he! seles <hen <e !each s&ch a s$age as $ha$ o% $he ga"e, as
oe! agains$ $he si$&a$ion o% 1lay <he!e $he!e is a si"1le s&ccession o% one !Mle a%$e! ano$he!, a
si$&a$ion <hich is, o% co&!se, cha!ac$e!is$ic o% $he child>s o<n 1e!sonali$y. The child is one $hing a$
one $i"e and ano$he! a$ ano$he!, and <ha$ he is a$ one "o"en$ does no$ de$e!"ine <ha$ he is a$
ano$he!. Tha$ is ,o$h $he cha!" o% childhood as <ell as i$s inadeD&acy. Yo& canno$ co&n$ on $he
child@ yo& canno$ ass&"e $ha$ all $he $hings he does a!e going $o de$e!"ine <ha$ he <ill do a$ any
"o"en$. :e is no$ o!gani8ed in$o a <hole. The child has no de%ini$e cha!ac$e!, no de%ini$e
1e!sonali$y.
The ga"e is $hen an ill&s$!a$ion o% $he si$&a$ion o&$ o% <hich an o!gani8ed 1e!sonali$y a!ises. In so
%a! as $he child does $a7e $he a$$i$&de o% $he o$he! and allo<s $ha$ a$$i$&de o% $he o$he! $o de$e!"ine
$he $hing he is going $o do <i$h !e%e!ence $o a co""on end, he is ,eco"ing an o!ganic "e",e! o%
socie$y. :e is $a7ing oe! $he "o!ale o% $ha$ socie$y and is ,eco"ing an essen$ial "e",e! o% i$. :e
,elongs $o i$ in so %a! as he does allo< $he a$$i$&de o% $he o$he! $ha$ he $a7es $o con$!ol his o<n
i""edia$e e=1!ession. 0ha$ is inoled he!e is so"e so!$ o% an o!gani8ed 1!ocess. Tha$ <hich is
e=1!essed in $e!"s o% $he ga"e is, o% co&!se, ,eing con$in&ally e=1!essed in $he social li%e o% $he
child, ,&$ $his <ide! 1!ocess goes ,eyond $he i""edia$e e=1e!ience o% $he child hi"sel%. The
i"1o!$ance o% $he ga"e is $ha$ i$ lies en$i!ely inside o% $he child>s o<n e=1e!ience, and $he
i"1o!$ance o% o&! "ode!n $y1e o% ed&ca$ion is $ha$ i$ is ,!o&gh$ as %a! as 1ossi,le <i$hin $his !eal".
The di%%e!en$ a$$i$&des $ha$ a child ass&"es a!e so o!gani8ed $ha$ $hey e=e!cise a de%ini$e con$!ol
oe! his !es1onse, as $he a$$i$&des in a ga"e con$!ol his o<n i""edia$e !es1onse. In $he ga"e <e
ge$ an o!gani8ed o$he!, a gene!ali8ed o$he!, <hich is %o&nd in $he na$&!e o% $he child i$sel%, and Ands
i$s e=1!ession in $he i""edia$e? e=1e!ience o% $he child. And i$ is $ha$ o!gani8ed ac$ii$y in $he child>s
o<n na$&!e con$!olling $he 1a!$ic&la! !es1onse <hich gies &ni$y, and <hich ,&ilds &1 his o<n sel%.
0ha$ goes on in $he ga"e goes on in $he li%e o% $he child all $he $i"e. :e is con$in&ally $a7ing $he
a$$i$&des o% $hose a,o&$ hi", es1ecially $he !oles o% $hose <ho in so"e sense con$!ol hi" and on
<ho" he de1ends. :e ge$s $he %&nc$ion o% $he 1!ocess in an a,s$!ac$ so!$ o% a <ay a$ %i!s$. I$ goes
oe! %!o" $he 1lay in$o $he ga"e in a !eal sense. :e has $o 1lay $he ga"e. The "o!ale o% $he ga"e
$a7es hold o% $he child "o!e $han $he la!ge! "o!ale o% $he <hole co""&ni$y. The child 1asses in$o
$he ga"e and $he ga"e e=1!esses a social si$&a$ion in <hich he can co"1le$ely en$e!@ i$s "o!ale
"ay hae a g!ea$e! hold on hi" $han $ha$ o% $he %a"ily $o <hich he ,elongs o! $he co""&ni$y in
<hich he lies. The!e a!e all so!$s o% social o!gani8a$ions, so"e o% <hich a!e %ai!ly las$ing, so"e
$e"1o!a!y, in$o <hich $he child is en$e!ing, and he is 1laying a so!$ o% social ga"e in $he". I$ is a
1e!iod in <hich he li7es -$o ,elong,- and he ge$s in$o o!gani8a$ions <hich co"e in$o e=is$ence and
1ass o&$ o% e=is$ence. :e ,eco"es a so"e$hing <hich can %&nc$ion in $he o!gani8ed <hole, and
$h&s $ends $o de$e!"ine hi"sel% in his !ela$ionshi1 <i$h $he g!o&1 $o <hich he ,elongs. Tha$ 1!ocess
is one <hich is a s$!i7ing s$age in $he deelo1"en$ o% $he child>s "o!ale. I$ cons$i$&$es hi" a sel%?
conscio&s "e",e! o% $he co""&ni$y $o <hich he ,elongs.
S&ch is $he 1!ocess ,y <hich a 1e!sonali$y a!ises. I hae s1o7en o% $his as a 1!ocess in <hich a
child $a7es $he !ole o% $he o$he!, and said $ha$ i$ $a7es 1lace essen$ially $h!o&gh $he &se o% lang&age.
Lang&age is 1!edo"inan$ly ,ased on $he ocal ges$&!e ,y "eans o% <hich coo1e!a$ie ac$ii$ies in a
co""&ni$y a!e ca!!ied o&$. Lang&age in i$s signi%ican$ sense is $ha$ ocal ges$&!e <hich $ends $o
a!o&se in $he indiid&al $he a$$i$&de <hich i$ a!o&ses in o$he!s, and i$ is $his 1e!%ec$ing o% $he sel% ,y
$he ges$&!e <hich "edia$es $he social ac$ii$ies $ha$ gies !ise $o $he 1!ocess o% $a7ing $he !Mle o% $he
o$he!. The la$$e! 1h!ase is a li$$le &n%o!$&na$e ,eca&se i$ s&gges$s an ac$o!>s a$$i$&de <hich is ac$&ally
"o!e so1his$ica$ed $han $ha$ <hich is inoled in o&! o<n e=1e!ience. To $his deg!ee i$ does no$
co!!ec$ly desc!i,e $ha$ <hich I hae in "ind. 0e see $he 1!ocess "os$ de%ini$ely in a 1!i"i$ie %o!"
in $hose si$&a$ions <he!e $he child>s 1lay $a7es di%%e!en$ !Mles. :e!e $he e!y %ac$ $ha$ he is !eady $o
1ay o&$ "oney, %o! ins$ance, a!o&ses $he a$$i$&de o% $he 1e!son <ho !eceies "oney@ $he e!y
1!ocess is calling o&$ in hi" $he co!!es1onding ac$ii$ies o% $he o$he! 1e!son inoled. The indiid&al
s$i"&la$es hi"sel% $o $he !es1onse <hich he is calling o&$ in $he o$he! 1e!son, and $hen ac$s in so"e
deg!ee in !es1onse $o $ha$ si$&a$ion. In 1lay $he child does de%ini$ely ac$ o&$ $he !Mle <hich he hi"sel%
has a!o&sed in hi"sel%. I$ is $ha$ <hich gies, as I hae said, a de%ini$e con$en$ in $he indiid&al
<hich ans<e!s $o $he s$i"&l&s $ha$ a%%ec$s hi" as i$ a%%ec$s so"e,ody else. The con$en$ o% $he o$he!
$ha$ en$e!s in$o one 1e!sonali$y is $he !es1onse in $he indiid&al <hich his ges$&!e calls o&$ in $he
o$he!.
0e "ay ill&s$!a$e o&! ,asic conce1$ ,y a !e%e!ence $o $he no$ion o% 1!o1e!$y. I% <e say -This is "y
1!o1e!$y, I shall con$!ol i$,- $ha$ a%%i!"a$ion calls o&$ a ce!$ain se$ o% !es1onses <hich "&s$ ,e $he
sa"e in any co""&ni$y in <hich 1!o1e!$y e=is$s. I$ inoles an o!gani8ed a$$i$&de <i$h !e%e!ence $o
1!o1e!$y <hich is co""on $o all $he "e",e!s o% $he co""&ni$y. One "&s$ hae a de%ini$e a$$i$&de
o% con$!ol o% his o<n 1!o1e!$y and !es1ec$ %o! $he 1!o1e!$y o% o$he!s. Those a$$i$&des Aas o!gani8ed
se$s o% !es1onsesB "&s$ ,e $he!e on $he 1a!$ o% all, so $ha$ <hen one says s&ch a $hing he calls o&$
in hi"sel% $he !es1onse o% $he o$he!s. :e is calling o&$ $he !es1onse o% <ha$ I hae called a
gene!ali8ed o$he!. Tha$ <hich "a7es socie$y 1ossi,le is s&ch co""on !es1onses, s&ch o!gani8ed
a$$i$&des, <i$h !e%e!ence $o <ha$ <e $e!" 1!o1e!$y, $he c&l$s o% !eligion, $he 1!ocess o% ed&ca$ion,
and $he !ela$ions o% $he %a"ily. O% co&!se, $he <ide! $he socie$y $he "o!e de%ini$ely &nie!sal $hese
o,9ec$s "&s$ ,e. In any case $he!e "&s$ ,e a de%ini$e se$ o% !es1onses, <hich <e "ay s1ea7 o% as
a,s$!ac$, and <hich can ,elong $o a e!y la!ge g!o&1. P!o1e!$y is in i$sel% a e!y a,s$!ac$ conce1$. I$
is $ha$ <hich $he indiid&al hi"sel% can con$!ol and no,ody else can con$!ol. The a$$i$&de is di%%e!en$
%!o" $ha$ o% a dog $o<a!d a ,one. A dog <ill %igh$ any o$he! dog $!ying $o $a7e $he ,one. The dog is
no$ $a7ing $he a$$i$&de o% $he o$he! dog. A "an <ho says -This is "y 1!o1e!$y- is $a7ing an a$$i$&de o%
$he o$he! 1e!son. The "an is a11ealing $o his !igh$s ,eca&se he is a,le $o $a7e $he a$$i$&de <hich
ee!y,ody else in $he g!o&1 has <i$h !e%e!ence $o 1!o1e!$y, $h&s a!o&sing in hi"sel% $he a$$i$&de o%
o$he!s.
0ha$ goes $o "a7e &1 $he o!gani8ed sel% is $he o!gani8a$ion o% $he a$$i$&des <hich a!e co""on $o
$he g!o&1. A 1e!son is a 1e!sonali$y ,eca&se he ,elongs $o a co""&ni$y, ,eca&se he $a7es oe! $he
ins$i$&$ions o% $ha$ co""&ni$y in$o his o<n cond&c$. :e $a7es i$s lang&age as a "edi&" ,y <hich he
ge$s his 1e!sonali$y, and $hen $h!o&gh a 1!ocess o% $a7ing $he di%%e!en$ !oles $ha$ all $he o$he!s
%&!nish he co"es $o ge$ $he a$$i$&de o% $he "e",e!s o% $he co""&ni$y. S&ch, in a ce!$ain sense, is
$he s$!&c$&!e o% a "an>s 1e!sonali$y. The!e a!e ce!$ain co""on !es1onses <hich each indiid&al has
$o<a!d ce!$ain co""on $hings, and in so %a! as $hose co""on !es1onses a!e a<a7ened in $he
indiid&al <hen he is a%%ec$ing o$he! 1e!sons he a!o&ses his o<n sel%. The s$!&c$&!e, $hen, on <hich
$he sel% is ,&il$ is $his !es1onse <hich is co""on $o all, %o! one has $o ,e a "e",e! o% a co""&ni$y
$o ,e a sel%. S&ch !es1onses a!e a,s$!ac$ a$$i$&des, ,&$ $hey cons$i$&$e 9&s$ <ha$ <e $e!" a "an>s
cha!ac$e!. They gie hi" <ha$ <e $e!" his 1!inci1les, $he ac7no<ledged a$$i$&des o% all "e",e!s o%
$he co""&ni$y $o<a!d <ha$ a!e $he al&es o% $ha$ co""&ni$y. :e is 1&$$ing hi"sel% in $he 1lace o%
$he gene!ali8ed o$he!, <hich !e1!esen$s $he o!gani8ed !es1onses o% all $he "e",e!s o% $he g!o&1. I$
is $ha$ <hich g&ides cond&c$ con$!olled ,y 1!inci1les, and a 1e!son <ho has s&ch an o!gani8ed
g!o&1 o% !es1onses is a "an <ho" <e say has cha!ac$e!, in $he "o!al sense.
I$ is a s$!&c$&!e o% a$$i$&des, $hen, <hich goes $o "a7e &1 a sel%, as dis$inc$ %!o" a g!o&1 o% ha,i$s.
0e all o% &s hae, %o! e=a"1le, ce!$ain g!o&1s o% ha,i$s, s&ch as, $he 1a!$ic&la! in$ona$ions <hich a
1e!son &ses in his s1eech. This is a se$ o% ha,i$s o% ocal e=1!ession <hich one has ,&$ <hich one
does no$ 7no< a,o&$. The se$s o% ha,i$s <hich <e hae o% $ha$ so!$ "ean no$hing $o &s@ <e do no$
hea! $he in$ona$ions o% o&! s1eech $ha$ o$he!s hea! &nless <e a!e 1aying 1a!$ic&la! a$$en$ion $o
$he". The ha,i$s o% e"o$ional e=1!ession <hich ,elong $o o&! s1eech a!e o% $he sa"e so!$. 0e "ay
7no< $ha$ <e hae e=1!essed o&!seles in a 9oyo&s %ashion ,&$ $he de$ailed 1!ocess is one <hich
does no$ co"e ,ac7 $o o&! conscio&s seles. The!e a!e <hole ,&ndles o% s&ch ha,i$s <hich do no$
en$e! in$o a conscio&s sel%, ,&$ <hich hel1 $o "a7e &1 <ha$ is $e!"ed $he &nconscio&s sel%.
A%$e! all, <ha$ <e "ean ,y sel%?conscio&sness is an a<a7ening in o&!seles o% $he g!o&1 o% a$$i$&des
<hich <e a!e a!o&sing in o$he!s, es1ecially <hen i$ is an i"1o!$an$ se$ o% !es1onses <hich go $o
"a7e &1 $he "e",e!s o% $he co""&ni$y. I$ is &n%o!$&na$e $o %&se o! "i= &1 conscio&sness, as <e
o!dina!ily &se $ha$ $e!", and sel%?conscio&sness. Conscio&sness, as %!eD&en$ly &sed, si"1ly has
!e%e!ence $o $he %ield o% e=1e!ience, ,&$ sel%?conscio&sness !e%e!s $o $he a,ili$y $o call o&$ in
o&!seles a se$ o% de%ini$e !es1onses <hich ,elong $o $he o$he!s o% $he g!o&1. Conscio&sness and
sel%?conscio&sness a!e no$ on $he sa"e leel. A "an alone has, %o!$&na$ely o! &n%o!$&na$ely, access
$o his o<n $oo$hache, ,&$ $ha$ is no$ <ha$ <e "ean ,y sel%?conscio&sness.
I hae so %a! e"1hasi8ed <ha$ I hae called $he s$!&c$&!es &1on <hich $he sel% is cons$!&c$ed, $he
%!a"e<o!7 o% $he sel%, as i$ <e!e. O% co&!se <e a!e no$ only <ha$ is co""on $o all; each one o% $he
seles is di%%e!en$ %!o" ee!yone else@ ,&$ $he!e has $o ,e s&ch a co""on s$!&c$&!e as I hae
s7e$ched in o!de! $ha$ <e "ay ,e "e",e!s o% a co""&ni$y a$ all. 0e canno$ ,e o&!seles &nless
<e a!e also "e",e!s in <ho" $he!e is a co""&ni$y o% a$$i$&des <hich con$!ol $he a$$i$&des o% all.
0e canno$ hae !igh$s &nless <e hae co""on a$$i$&des. Tha$ <hich <e hae acD&i!ed as sel%?
conscio&s 1e!sons "a7es &s s&ch "e",e!s o% socie$y and gies &s seles. Seles can only e=is$ in
de%ini$e !ela$ionshi1s $o o$he! seles. No ha!d?and?%as$ line can ,e d!a<n ,e$<een o&! o<n seles
and $he seles o% o$he!s, since o&! o<n seles e=is$ and en$e! as s&ch in$o o&! e=1e!ience only in so
%a! as $he seles o% o$he!s e=is$ and en$e! as s&ch in$o o&! e=1e!ience also. The indiid&al
1ossesses a sel% only in !ela$ion $o $he seles o% $he o$he! "e",e!s o% his social g!o&1@ and $he
s$!&c$&!e o% his sel% e=1!esses o! !e%lec$s $he gene!al ,ehaio! 1a$$e!n o% $his social g!o&1 $o <hich
he ,elongs, 9&s$ as does $he s$!&c$&!e o% $he sel% o% ee!y o$he! indiid&al ,elonging $o $his social
g!o&1.
"ndnotes
1. I-The *ela$ion o% Play $o Ed&ca$ion,- 'niversity of Chicago "ecord, I A123.?3/B, 1)5 %%.K
#. I$ is 1ossi,le %o! inani"a$e o,9ec$s, no less $han %o! o$he! h&"an o!ganis"s, $o %o!" 1a!$s o%
$he gene!ali8ed and o!gani8ed?$he co"1le$ely sociali8ed ?? o$he! %o! any gien h&"an
indiid&al, in so %a! as he !es1onds $o s&ch o,9ec$s socially o! in a social %ashion A,y "eans
o% $he "echanis" o% $ho&gh$, $he in$e!nali8ed cone!sa$ion o% ges$&!esB. Any $hing?any
o,9ec$ o! se$ o% o,9ec$s, <he$he! ani"a$e o! inani"a$e, h&"an o! ani"al, o! "e!ely 1hysical
?? $o<a!d <hich he ac$s, o! $o <hich he !es1onds, socially, is an ele"en$ in <ha$ %o! hi" is
$he gene!ali8ed o$he!@ ,y $a7ing $he a$$i$&des o% <hich $o<a!d hi"sel% he ,eco"es conscio&s
o% hi"sel% as an o,9ec$ o! indiid&al, and $h&s deelo1s a sel% o! 1e!sonali$y. Th&s, %o!
e=a"1le, $he c&l$, in i$s 1!i"i$ie %o!", is "e!ely $he social e",odi"en$ o% $he !ela$ion
,e$<een $he gien social g!o&1 o! co""&ni$y and i$s 1hysical eni!on"en$?an o!gani8ed
social "eans, ado1$ed ,y $he indiid&al "e",e!s o% $ha$ g!o&1 o! co""&ni$y, o% en$e!ing
in$o social !ela$ions <i$h $ha$ eni!on"en$, o! Ain a senseB o% ca!!ying on cone!sa$ions <i$h
i$@ and in $his <ay $ha$ eni!on"en$ ,eco"es 1a!$ o% $he $o$al gene!ali8ed o$he! %o! each o%
$he indiid&al "e",e!s o% $he gien social g!o&1 o! co""&ni$y.
'. 0e hae said $ha$ $he in$e!nal cone!sa$ion o% $he indiid&al <i$h hi"sel% in $e!"s o% <o!ds
o! signi%ican$ ges$&!es ? $he cone!sa$ion o% <hich cons$i$&$es $he 1!ocess o! ac$ii$y o%
$hin7ing ? is ca!!ied on ,y $he indiid&al %!o" $he s$and1oin$ o% $he -gene!ali8ed o$he!.- And
$he "o!e a,s$!ac$ $ha$ cone!sa$ion is, $he "o!e a,s$!ac$ $hin7ing ha11ens $o ,e, $he %&!$he!
!e"oed is $he gene!ali8ed o$he! %!o" any connec$ion <i$h 1a!$ic&la! indiid&als. I$ is
es1ecially in a,s$!ac$ $hin7ing, $ha$ is $o say, $ha$ $he cone!sa$ion inoled is ca!!ied on ,y
$he indiid&al <i$h $he gene!ali8ed o$he!, !a$he! $han <i$h any 1a!$ic&la! indiid&als. Th&s i$
is, %o! e=a"1le, $ha$ a,s$!ac$ conce1$s a!e conce1$s s$a$ed in $e!"s o% $he a$$i$&des o% $he
en$i!e social g!o&1 o! co""&ni$y@ $hey a!e s$a$ed on $he ,asis o% $he indiid&al>s
conscio&sness o% $he a$$i$&des o% $he gene!ali8ed o$he! $o<a!d $he", as a !es&l$ o% his $a7ing
$hese a$$i$&des o% $he gene!ali8ed o$he! and $hen !es1onding $o $he". And $h&s i$ is also $ha$
a,s$!ac$ 1!o1osi$ions a!e s$a$ed in a %o!" <hich anyone ? any o$he! in$elligen$ indiid&al??<ill
acce1$.
.,# TH" S"&3 %() TH" S4B@"CTIV"
The 1!ocess o&$ o% <hich $he sel% a!ises is a social 1!ocess <hich i"1lies in$e!ac$ion o% indiid&als in
$he g!o&1, i"1lies $he 1!ee=is$ence o% $he g!o&1.+,- I$ i"1lies also ce!$ain co?o1e!a$ie ac$ii$ies in
<hich $he di%%e!en$ "e",e!s o% $he g!o&1 a!e inoled. I$ i"1lies, %&!$he!, $ha$ o&$ o% $his 1!ocess
$he!e "ay in $&!n deelo1 a "o!e ela,o!a$e o!gani8a$ion $han $ha$ o&$ o% <hich $he sel% has a!isen,
and $ha$ $he seles "ay ,e $he o!gans, $he essen$ial 1a!$s a$ leas$, o% $his "o!e ela,o!a$e social
o!gani8a$ion <i$hin <hich $hese seles a!ise and e=is$. Th&s, $he!e is a social 1!ocess o&$ o% <hich
seles a!ise and <i$hin <hich %&!$he! di%%e!en$ia$ion, %&!$he! eol&$ion, %&!$he! o!gani8a$ion, $a7e
1lace.
I$ has ,een $he $endency o% 1sychology $o deal <i$h $he sel% as a "o!e o! less isola$ed and
inde1enden$ ele"en$, a so!$ o% en$i$y $ha$ co&ld conceia,ly e=is$ ,y i$sel%. I$ is 1ossi,le $ha$ $he!e
"igh$ ,e a single sel% in $he &nie!se i% <e s$a!$ o%% ,y iden$i%ying $he sel% <i$h a ce!$ain %eeling?
conscio&sness. I% <e s1ea7 o% $his %eeling as o,9ec$ie, $hen <e can $hin7 o% $ha$ sel% as e=is$ing ,y
i$sel%. 0e can $hin7 o% a se1a!a$e 1hysical ,ody e=is$ing ,y i$sel%, <e can ass&"e $ha$ i$ has $hese
%eelings o! conscio&s s$a$es in D&es$ion, and so <e can se$ &1 $ha$ so!$ o% a sel% in $ho&gh$ as
e=is$ing si"1ly ,y i$sel%.
Then $he!e is ano$he! &se o% -conscio&sness- <i$h <hich <e hae ,een 1a!$ic&la!ly occ&1ied,
deno$ing $ha$ <hich <e $e!" $hin7ing o! !e%lec$ie in$elligence, a &se o% conscio&sness <hich al<ays
has, i"1lici$ly a$ leas$, $he !e%e!ence $o an -I- in i$. This &se o% conscio&sness has no necessa!y
connec$ion <i$h $he o$he!@ i$ is an en$i!ely di%%e!en$ conce1$ion. One &sage has $o do <i$h a ce!$ain
"echanis", a ce!$ain <ay in <hich an o!ganis" ac$s. I% an o!ganis" is endo<ed <i$h sense o!gans
$hen $he!e a!e o,9ec$s in i$s eni!on"en$, and a"ong $hose o,9ec$s <ill ,e 1a!$s o% i$s o<n ,ody.+.- I$
is $!&e $ha$ i% $he o!ganis" did no$ hae a !e$ina and a cen$!al ne!o&s sys$e" $he!e <o&ld no$ ,e
any o,9ec$s o% ision. Fo! s&ch o,9ec$s $o e=is$ $he!e hae $o ,e ce!$ain 1hysiological condi$ions, ,&$
$hese o,9ec$s a!e no$ in $he"seles necessa!ily !ela$ed $o a sel%. 0hen <e !each a sel% <e !each a
ce!$ain so!$ o% cond&c$, a ce!$ain $y1e o% social 1!ocess <hich inoles $he in$e!ac$ion o% di%%e!en$
indiid&als and ye$ i"1lies indiid&als engaged in so"e so!$ o% coo1e!a$ie ac$ii$y. In $ha$ 1!ocess a
sel%, as s&ch, can a!ise.
0e <an$ $o dis$ing&ish $he sel% as a ce!$ain so!$ o% s$!&c$&!al 1!ocess in $he cond&c$ o% $he %o!", %!o"
<ha$ <e $e!" conscio&sness o% o,9ec$s $ha$ a!e e=1e!ienced. The $<o hae no necessa!y
!ela$ionshi1. The aching $oo$h is a e!y i"1o!$an$ ele"en$. 0e hae $o 1ay a$$en$ion $o i$. I$ is
iden$i%ied in a ce!$ain sense <i$h $he sel% in o!de! $ha$ <e "ay con$!ol $ha$ so!$ o% e=1e!ience.
Occasionally <e hae e=1e!iences <hich <e say ,elong $o $he a$"os1he!e. The <hole <o!ld see"s
$o ,e de1!essed, $he s7y is da!7, $he <ea$he! is &n1leasan$, al&es $ha$ <e a!e in$e!es$ed in a!e
sin7ing. 0e do no$ necessa!ily iden$i%y s&ch a si$&a$ion <i$h $he sel%@ <e si"1ly %eel a ce!$ain
a$"os1he!e a,o&$ &s. 0e co"e $o !e"e",e! $ha$ <e a!e s&,9ec$ $o s&ch so!$s o% de1!ession, and
%ind $ha$ 7ind o% an e=1e!ience in o&! 1as$. And $hen <e ge$ so"e so!$ o% !elie%, <e $a7e as1i!in, o!
<e $a7e a !es$, and $he !es&l$ is $ha$ $he <o!ld changes i$s cha!ac$e!. The!e a!e o$he! e=1e!iences
<hich <e "ay a$ all $i"es iden$i%y <i$h seles. 0e can dis$ing&ish, I $hin7, e!y clea!ly ,e$<een
ce!$ain $y1es o% e=1e!ience, <hich <e call s&,9ec$ie ,eca&se <e alone hae access $o $he", and
$ha$ e=1e!ience <hich <e call !e%lec$ie.
I$ is $!&e $ha$ !e%lec$ion $a7en ,y i$sel% is so"e$hing $o <hich <e alone hae access. One $hin7s o&$
his o<n de"ons$!a$ion o% a 1!o1osi$ion, <e <ill say in E&clid, and $he $hin7ing is so"e$hing $ha$
$a7es 1lace <i$hin his o<n cond&c$. Fo! $he $i"e ,eing i$ is a de"ons$!a$ion <hich e=is$s only in his
$ho&gh$. Then he 1&,lishes i$ and i$ ,eco"es co""on 1!o1e!$y. Fo! $he $i"e ,eing i$ <as
accessi,le only $o hi". The!e a!e o$he! con$en$s o% $his so!$, s&ch as "e"o!y i"ages and $he 1lay
o% $he i"agina$ion, <hich a!e accessi,le only $o $he indiid&al. The!e is a co""on cha!ac$e! $ha$
,elongs $o $hese $y1es o% o,9ec$s <hich <e gene!ally iden$i%y <i$h conscio&sness and $his 1!ocess
<hich <e call $ha$ o% $hin7ing, in $ha$ ,o$h a!e, a$ leas$ in ce!$ain 1hases, accessi,le only $o $he
indiid&al. B&$, as I hae said $he $<o se$s o% 1heno"ena s$and on en$i!ely di%%e!en$ leels. This
co""on %ea$&!e o% accessi,ili$y does no$ necessa!ily gie $he" $he sa"e "e$a1hysical s$a$&s. I do
no$ no< <an$ $o disc&ss "e$a1hysical 1!o,le"s, ,&$ I do <an$ $o insis$ $ha$ $he sel% has a so!$ o%
s$!&c$&!e $ha$ a!ises in social cond&c$ $ha$ is en$i!ely dis$ing&isha,le %!o" $his so?called s&,9ec$ie
e=1e!ience o% $hese 1a!$ic&la! se$s o% o,9ec$s $o <hich $he o!ganis" alone has access?$he co""on
cha!ac$e! o% 1!iacy o% access does no$ %&se $he" $oge$he!.
The sel% $o <hich <e hae ,een !e%e!!ing a!ises <hen $he cone!sa$ion o% ges$&!es is $a7en oe! in$o
$he cond&c$ o% $he indiid&al %o!". 0hen $his cone!sa$ion o% ges$&!es can ,e $a7en oe! in$o $he
indiid&al>s cond&c$ so $ha$ $he a$$i$&de o% $he o$he! %o!"s can a%%ec$ $he o!ganis", and $he o!ganis"
can !e1ly <i$h i$s co!!es1onding ges$&!e and $h&s a!o&se $he a$$i$&de o% $he o$he! in i$s o<n 1!ocess,
$hen a sel% a!ises. Een $he ,a!e cone!sa$ion o% ges$&!es $ha$ can ,e ca!!ied o&$ in lo<e! %o!"s is $o
,e e=1lained ,y $he %ac$ $ha$ $his cone!sa$ion o% ges$&!es has an in$elligen$ %&nc$ion. Een $he!e i$ is
a 1a!$ o% social 1!ocess. I% i$ is $a7en oe! in$o $he cond&c$ o% $he indiid&al i$ no$ only "ain$ains $ha$
%&nc$ion ,&$ acD&i!es s$ill g!ea$e! ca1aci$y. I% I can $a7e $he a$$i$&de o% a %!iend <i$h <ho" I a" going
$o ca!!y on a disc&ssion, in $a7ing $ha$ a$$i$&de I can a11ly i$ $o "ysel% and !e1ly as he !e1lies, and I
can hae $hings in e!y "&ch ,e$$e! sha1e $han i% I had no$ e"1loyed $ha$ cone!sa$ion o% ges$&!es
in "y o<n cond&c$. The sa"e is $!&e o% hi". I$ is good %o! ,o$h $o $hin7 o&$ $he si$&a$ion in adance.
Each indiid&al has $o $a7e also $he a$$i$&de o% $he co""&ni$y, $he gene!ali8ed a$$i$&de. :e has $o ,e
!eady $o ac$ <i$h !e%e!ence $o his o<n condi$ions 9&s$ as any indiid&al in $he co""&ni$y <o&ld ac$.
One o% $he g!ea$es$ adances in $he deelo1"en$ o% $he co""&ni$y a!ises <hen $his !eac$ion o% $he
co""&ni$y on $he indiid&al $a7es on <ha$ <e call an ins$i$&$ional %o!". 0ha$ <e "ean ,y $ha$ is
$ha$ $he <hole co""&ni$y ac$s $o<a!d $he indiid&al &nde! ce!$ain ci!c&"s$ances in an iden$ical <ay.
I$ "a7es no di%%e!ence, oe! agains$ a 1e!son <ho is s$ealing yo&! 1!o1e!$y, <he$he! i$ is To", Dic7,
o! :a!!y. The!e is an iden$ical !es1onse on $he 1a!$ o% $he <hole co""&ni$y &nde! $hese condi$ions.
0e call $ha$ $he %o!"a$ion o% $he ins$i$&$ion.
The!e is one o$he! "a$$e! <hich I <ish ,!ie%ly $o !e%e! $o no<. The only <ay in <hich <e can !eac$
agains$ $he disa11!oal o% $he en$i!e co""&ni$y is ,y se$$ing &1 a highe! so!$ o% co!n"&ni$y <hich in
a ce!$ain sense o&$?o$es $he one <e %ind. A 1e!son "ay !each a 1oin$ o% going agains$ $he <hole
<o!ld a,o&$ hi"@ he "ay s$and o&$ ,y hi"sel% oe! agains$ i$. B&$ $o do $ha$ he has $o s1ea7 <i$h $he
oice o% !eason $o hi"sel%. :e has $o co"1!ehend $he oices o% $he 1as$ and o% $he %&$&!e. Tha$ is
$he only <ay in <hich $he sel% can ge$ a oice <hich is "o!e $han $he oice o% $he co""&ni$y. As a
!&le <e ass&"e $ha$ $his gene!al oice o% $he co""&ni$y is iden$ical <i$h $he la!ge! co""&ni$y o% $he
1as$ and $he %&$&!e@ <e ass&"e $ha$ an o!gani8ed c&s$o" !e1!esen$s <ha$ <e call "o!ali$y. The
$hings one canno$ do a!e $hose <hich ee!y,ody <o&ld conde"n. I% <e $a7e $he a$$i$&de o% $he
co""&ni$y oe! agains$ o&! o<n !es1onses, $ha$ is a $!&e s$a$e"en$, ,&$ <e "&s$ no$ %o!ge$ $his
o$he! ca1aci$y, $ha$ o% !e1lying $o $he co""&ni$y and insis$ing on $he ges$&!e ?o% $he co""&ni$y
changing. 0e can !e%o!" $he o!de! o% $hings@ <e can insis$ on "a7ing $he co""&ni$y s$anda!ds
,e$$e! s$anda!ds. 0e a!e no$ si"1ly ,o&nd ,y $he co""&ni$y. 0e a!e engaged in a cone!sa$ion in
<hich <ha$ <e say is lis$ened $o ,y $he co""&ni$y and i$s !es1onse is one <hich is a%%ec$ed ,y <ha$
<e hae $o say. This is es1ecially $!&e in c!i$ical si$&a$ions. A "an !ises &1 and de%ends hi"sel% %o!
<ha$ he does@ he has his -day in co&!$-@ he can 1!esen$ his ie<s. :e can 1e!ha1s change $he
a$$i$&de o% $he co""&ni$y $o<a!d hi"sel%. The 1!ocess o% cone!sa$ion is one in <hich $he indiid&al
has no$ only $he !igh$ ,&$ $he d&$y o% $al7ing $o $he co""&ni$y o% <hich lie is a 1a!$, and ,!inging
a,o&$ $hose changes <hich $a7e 1lace $h!o&gh $he in$e!ac$ion o% indiid&als. Tha$ is $he <ay, o%
co&!se, in <hich socie$y ge$s ahead, ,y 9&s$ s&ch in$e!ac$ions as $hose in <hich so"e 1e!son $hin7s
a $hing o&$. 0e a!e con$in&ally changing o&! social sys$e" in so"e !es1ec$s, and <e a!e a,le $o do
$ha$ in$elligen$ly ,eca&se <e can $hin7.
S&ch is $he !e%lec$ie 1!ocess <i$hin <hich a sel% a!ises@ and <ha$ I hae ,een $!ying $o do is $o
dis$ing&ish $his 7ind o% conscio&sness %!o" conscio&sness as a se$ o% cha!ac$e!s de$e!"ined ,y $he
accessi,ili$y $o $he o!ganis" o% ce!$ain so!$s o% o,9ec$s. I$ is $!&e $ha$ o&! $hin7ing is also, <hile i$ is
9&s$ $hin7ing, accessi,le only $o $he o!ganis". B&$ $ha$ co""on cha!ac$e! o% ,eing accessi,le only
$o $he o!ganis" does no$ "a7e ei$he! $ho&gh$ o! $he sel% so"e$hing <hich <e a!e $o iden$i%y <i$h a
g!o&1 o% o,9ec$s <hich si"1ly a!e accessi,le. 0e canno$ iden$i%y $he sel% <i$h <ha$ is co""only
called conscio&sness, $ha$ is, <i$h $he 1!ia$e o! s&,9ec$ie $he!eness o% $he cha!ac$e!s o% o,9ec$s.
The!e is, o% co&!se, a c&!!en$ dis$inc$ion ,e$<een conscio&s ness and sel%?conscio&sness;
conscio&sness ans<e!ing $o ce!$ain e=1e!iences s&ch as $hose o% 1ain o! 1leas&!e, sel%?
conscio&sness !e%e!!ing $o a !ecogni$ion o! a11ea!ance o% a sel% as an o,9ec$. I$ is, ho<ee!, e!y
gene!ally ass&"ed $ha$ $hese o$he! conscio&s con$en$s ca!!y <i$h $he" also a sel%?conscio&sness?
$ha$ a 1ain is al<ays so"e,ody>s 1ain, and $ha$ i% $he!e <e!e no$ $his !e%e!ence $o so"e indiid&al i$
<o&ld no$ ,e 1ain. The!e is a e!y de%ini$e ele"en$ o% $!&$h in $his, ,&$ i$ is %a! %!o" $he <hole s$o!y.
The 1ain does hae $o ,elong $o an indiid&al@ i$ has $o ,e yo&! 1ain i% i$ is going $o ,elong $o yo&.
Pain can ,elong $o any,ody, ,&$ i% i$ did ,elong $o ee!y,ody i$ <o&ld ,e co"1a!a$iely &ni"1o!$an$.
I s&11ose i$ is conceia,le $ha$ &nde! an anes$he$ic <ha$ $a7es 1lace is $he dissocia$ion o%
e=1e!iences so $ha$ $he s&%%e!ing, so $o s1ea7, is no longe! yo&! s&%%e!ing. 0e hae ill&s$!a$ions o%
$ha$, sho!$ o% $he anes$he$ic dissocia$ion, in an e=1e!ience o% a disag!eea,le $hing <hich loses i$s
1o<e! oe! &s ,eca&se <e gie o&! a$$en$ion $o so"e$hing else. I% <e can ge$, so $o s1ea7, o&$side
o% $he $hing, dissocia$ing i$ %!o" $he eye $ha$ is !ega!ding i$, <e "ay %ind $ha$ i$ has los$ a g!ea$ deal
o% i$s &nend&!a,le cha!ac$e!. The &nend&!a,leness o% 1ain is a !eac$ion agains$ i$. I% yo& can
ac$&ally 7ee1 yo&!sel% %!o" !eac$ing agains$ s&%%e!ing yo& ge$ !id o% a ce!$ain con$en$ in $he s&%%e!ing
i$sel%. 0ha$ $a7es 1lace in e%%ec$ is $ha$ i$ ceases $o ,e yo&! 1ain. Yo& si"1ly !ega!d i$ o,9ec$iely.
S&ch is $he 1oin$ o% ie< <e a!e con$in&ally i"1!essing on a 1e!son <hen he is a1$ $o ,e s<e1$
a<ay ,y e"o$ion. In $ha$ case <ha$ <e ge$ !id o% is no$ $he o%%ense i$sel%, ,&$ $he !eac$ion agains$ $he
o%%ense. The o,9ec$ie cha!ac$e! o% $he 9&dge is $ha$ o% a 1e!son <ho is ne&$!al, <ho can si"1ly
s$and o&$side o% a si$&a$ion and assess i$. I% <e can ge$ $ha$ 9&dicial a$$i$&de in !ega!d $o $he o%%enses
o% a 1e!son agains$ o&!seles, <e !each $he 1oin$ <he!e <e do no$ !esen$ $he" ,&$ &nde!s$and
$he", <e ge$ $he si$&a$ion <he!e $o &nde!s$and is $o %o!gie. 0e !e"oe "&ch o% e=1e!ience
o&$side o% o&! o<n sel% ,y $his a$$i$&de. The dis$inc$ie and na$&!al a$$i$&de agains$ ano$he! is a
!esen$"en$ o% an o%%ense, ,&$ <e no< hae in a ce!$ain sense 1assed ,eyond $ha$ sel% and ,eco"e
a sel% <i$h o$he! a$$i$&des. The!e is a ce!$ain $echniD&e, $hen, $o <hich <e s&,9ec$ o&!seles in
end&!ing s&%%e!ing o! any e"o$ional si$&a$ion, and <hich consis$s in 1a!$ially se1a!a$ing one>s sel%
%!o" $he e=1e!ience so $ha$ i$ is no longe! $he e=1e!ience o% $he indiid&al in D&es$ion.
I%, no<, <e co&ld se1a!a$e $he e=1e!ience en$i!ely, so $ha$ <e sho&ld no$ !e"e",e! i$, so $ha$ <e
sho&ld no$ hae $o $a7e i$ &1 con$in&ally in$o $he sel% %!o" day $o day, %!o" "o"en$ $o "o"en$, $hen
i$ <o&ld no$ e=is$ any longe! so %a! as <e a!e conce!ned. I% <e had no "e"o!y <hich iden$i%ies
e=1e!iences <i$h $he sel%, $hen $hey <o&ld ce!$ainly disa11ea! so %a! as $hei! !ela$ion $o $he sel% is
conce!ned, and ye$ $hey "igh$ con$in&e as sens&o&s o! sensi,le e=1e!iences <i$ho&$ ,eing $a7en
&1 in$o a sel%. Tha$ so!$ o% a si$&a$ion is 1!esen$ed in $he 1a$hological case o% a "&l$i1le 1e!sonali$y
in <hich an indiid&al loses $he "e"o!y o% a ce!$ain 1hase o% his e=is$ence. Ee!y$hing connec$ed
<i$h $ha$ 1hase o% his e=is$ence is gone and he ,eco"es a di%%e!en$ 1e!sonali$y. The 1as$ has a
!eali$y <he$he! in $he e=1e!ience o! no$, ,&$ he!e i$ is no$ iden$i%ied <i$h $he sel%?i$ does no$ go $o
"a7e &1 $he sel%. 0e $a7e an a$$i$&de o% $ha$ so!$, %o! e=a"1le, <i$h !e%e!ence $o o$he!s <hen a
1e!son has co""i$$ed so"e so!$ o% an o%%ense <hich leads $o a s$a$e"en$ o% $he si$&a$ion, an
ad"ission, and 1e!ha1s !eg!e$, and $hen is d!o11ed. A 1e!son <ho %o!gies ,&$ does no$ %o!ge$ is an
&n1leasan$ co"1anion@ <ha$ goes <i$h %o!giing is %o!ge$$ing, ge$$ing !id o% $he "e"o!y o% i$.
The!e a!e "any ill&s$!a$ions <hich can ,e ,!o&gh$ &1 o% $he loose !ela$ionshi1 o% gien con$en$s $o a
sel% in de%ense o% o&! !ecogni$ion o% $he" as haing a ce!$ain al&e o&$side o% $he sel%. A$ $he leas$, i$
"&s$ ,e g!an$ed $ha$ <e can a11!oach $he 1oin$ <he!e so"e$hing <hich <e !ecogni8e as a con$en$
is less and less essen$ial $o $he sel%, is held o%% %!o" $he 1!esen$ sel%, and no longe! has $he al&e %o!
$ha$ sel% <hich i$ had %o! $he %o!"e! sel%. E=$!e"e cases see" $o s&11o!$ $he ie< $ha$ a ce!$ain
1o!$ion o% s&ch con$en$s can ,e en$i!ely c&$ o%% %!o" $he sel%. 0hile in so"e sense i$ is $he!e !eady $o
a11ea! &nde! s1eci%ic condi$ions, %o! $he $i"e ,eing i$ is dissocia$ed and does no$ ge$ in a,oe $he
$h!eshold o% o&! sel%?conscio&sness.
Sel%?conscio&sness, on $he o$he! hand, is de%ini$ely o!gani8ed a,o&$ $he social indiid&al, and $ha$,
as <e hae seen, is no$ si"1ly ,eca&se one is in a social g!o&1 and a%%ec$ed ,y o$he!s and a%%ec$s
$he", ,&$ ,eca&se Aand $his is a 1oin$ I hae ,een e"1hasi8ingB his o<n e=1e!ience as a sel% is one
<hich he $a7es oe! %!o" his ac$ion &1on o$he!s. :e ,eco"es a sel% in so %a! as he can $a7e $he
a$$i$&de o% ano$he! and ac$ $o<a!d hi"sel% as o$he!s ac$. In so %a! as $he cone!sa$ion o% ges$&!es
can ,eco"e 1a!$ o% cond&c$ in $he di!ec$ion and con$!ol o% e=1e!ience, $hen a sel% can a!ise. I$ is $he
social 1!ocess o% in%l&encing o$he!s in a social ac$ and $hen $a7ing $he a$$i$&de o% $he o$he!s a!o&sed
,y $he s$i"&l&s, and $hen !eac$ing in $&!n $o $his !es1onse, <hich cons$i$&$es a sel%.
O&! ,odies a!e 1a!$s o% o&! eni!on"en$@ and i$ is 1ossi,le %o! $he indiid&al $o e=1e!ience and ,e
conscio&s o% his ,ody, and o% ,odily sensa$ions, <i$ho&$ ,eing conscio&s o! a<a!e o% hi"sel%
?<i$ho&$, in o$he! <o!ds, $a7ing $he a$$i$&de o% $he o$he! $o<a!d hi"sel%. Acco!ding $o $he social
$heo!y o% conscio&sness, <ha$ <e "ean ,y conscio&sness is $ha$ 1ec&lia! cha!ac$e! and as1ec$ o%
$he eni!on"en$ o% indiid&al h&"an e=1e!ience <hich is d&e $o h&"an socie$y, a socie$y o% o$he!
indiid&al seles <ho $a7e $he a$$i$&de o% $he o$he! $o<a!d $he"seles. The 1hysiological conce1$ion
o! $heo!y o% conscio&sness is ,y i$sel% inadeD&a$e@ i$ !eD&i!es s&11le"en$a$ion %!o" $he socio?
1sychological 1oin$ o% ie<. The $a7ing o! %eeling o% $he a$$i$&de o% $he o$he! $o<a!d yo&!sel% is <ha$
cons$i$&$es sel%?conscio&sness, and no$ "e!e o!ganic sensa$ions o% <hich $he indiid&al is a<a!e
and <hich he e=1e!iences. 6n$il $he !ise o% his sel%?conscio&sness in $he 1!ocess o% social
e=1e!ience, $he indiid&al e=1e!iences his ,ody?i$s %eelings and sensa$ions?"e!ely as an i""edia$e
1a!$ o% his eni!on"en$, no$ as his o<n, no$ in $e!"s o% sel%?conscio&sness. The sel% and sel%?
conscio&sness hae %i!s$ $o a!ise, and $hen $hese e=1e!iences can ,e iden$i%ied 1ec&lia!ly <i$h $he
sel%, o! a11!o1!ia$ed ,y $he sel%@ $o en$e!, so $o s1ea7, in$o $his he!i$age o% e=1e!ience, $he sel% has
%i!s$ $o deelo1 <i$hin $he social 1!ocess in <hich $his he!i$age is inoled.
Th!o&gh sel%?conscio&sness $he indiid&al o!ganis" en$e!s in so"e sense in$o i$s o<n
eni!on"en$al %ield@ i$s o<n ,ody ,eco"es a 1a!$ o% $he se$ o% eni!on"en$al s$i"&li $o <hich i$
!es1onds o! !eac$s. A1a!$ %!o" $he con$e=$ o% $he social 1!ocess a$ i$s highe! leels?$hose a$ <hich i$
inoles conscio&s co""&nica$ion, conscio&s cone!sa$ions o% ges$&!es, a"ong $he indiid&al
o!ganis"s in$e!ac$ing <i$h i$?$he indiid&al o!ganis" does no$ se$ i$sel% as a <hole oe! agains$ i$s
eni!on"en$@ i$ does no$ as a <hole ,eco"e an o,9ec$ $o i$sel% Aand hence is no$ sel%?conscio&sB@ i$ is
no$ as a <hole a s$i"&l&s $o <hich i$ !eac$s. On $he con$!a!y, i$ !es1onds only $o 1a!$s o! se1a!a$e
as1ec$s o% i$sel%, and !ega!ds $he", no$ as 1a!$s o! as1ec$s o% i$sel% a$ all, ,&$ si"1ly as 1a!$s o!
as1ec$s o% i$s eni!on"en$ in gene!al. Only <i$hin $he social 1!ocess a$ i$s highe! leels, only in
$e!"s o% $he "o!e deelo1ed %o!"s o% $he social eni!on"en$ o! social si$&a$ion, does $he $o$al
indiid&al o!ganis" ,eco"e an o,9ec$ $o i$sel%, and hence sel%?conscio&s@ in $he social 1!ocess a$ i$s
lo<e!, non?conscio&s leels, and also in $he "e!ely 1sycho?1hysiological eni!on"en$ o! si$&a$ion
<hich is logically an$eceden$ $o and 1!es&11osed ,y $he social 1!ocess o% e=1e!ience and ,ehaio!,
i$ does no$ $h&s ,eco"e an o,9ec$ $o i$sel%. In s&ch e=1e!ience o! ,ehaio! as "ay ,e called sel%?
conscio&s, <e ac$ and !eac$ 1a!$ic&la!ly <i$h !e%e!ence $o o&!seles, $ho&gh also <i$h !e%e!ence $o
o$he! indiid&als@ and $o ,e sel%?conscio&s is essen$ially $o ,eco"e an o,9ec$ $o one>s sel% in i!$&e o%
one>s social !ela$ions $o o$he! indiid&als.

E"1hasis sho&ld ,e laid on $he cen$!al 1osi$ion o% $hin7ing <hen conside!ing $he na$&!e o% $he sel%.
Sel%?conscio&sness, !a$he! $han a%%ec$ie e=1e!ience <i$h i$s "o$o! acco"1ani"en$s, 1!oides $he
co!e and 1!i"a!y s$!&c$&!e o% $he sel%, <hich is $h&s essen$ially a cogni$ie !a$he! $han an e"o$ional
1heno"enon. The $hin7ing o! in$ellec$&al 1!ocess?$he in$e!nali8a$ion and inne! d!a"a$i8a$ion, ,y $he
indiid&al, o% $he e=$e!nal cone!sa$ion o% signi%ican$ ges$&!es <hich cons$i$&$es his chie% "ode o%
in$e!ac$ion <i$h o$he! indiid&als ,elonging $o $he sa"e socie$y ?is $he ea!lies$ e=1e!ien$ial 1hase in
$he genesis and deelo1"en$ o% $he sel%. Cooley and Ca"es, i$ is $!&e, endeao! $o %ind $he ,asis o%
$he sel% in !e%le=ie a%%ec$ie e=1e!iences, i.e., e=1e!iences inoling -sel%?%eeling-@ ,&$ $he $heo!y
$ha$ $he na$&!e o% $he sel% is $o ,e %o&nd in s&ch e=1e!iences does no$ acco&n$ %o! $he o!igin o% $he
sel%, o! o% $he sel%?%eeling <hich is s&11osed $o cha!ac$e!i8e s&ch e=1e!iences. The indiid&al need
no$ $a7e $he a$$i$&des o% o$he!s $o<a!d hi"sel% in $hese e=1e!iences, since $hese e=1e!iences "e!ely
in $he"seles do no$ necessi$a$e his doing so, and &nless he does so, he canno$ deelo1 a sel%@ and
he <ill no$ do so in $hese e=1e!iences &nless his sel% has al!eady o!igina$ed o$he!<ise, na"ely, in
$he <ay <e hae ,een desc!i,ing. The essence o% $he sel%, as <e hae said, is cogni$ie; i$ lies in
$he in$e!nali8ed cone!sa$ion o% ges$&!es <hich cons$i$&$es $hin7ing, o! in $e!"s o% <hich $ho&gh$ o!
!e%lec$ion 1!oceeds. And hence $he o!igin and %o&nda$ions o% $he sel%, li7e $hose o% $hin7ing, a!e
social.
"ndnotes
1. The !ela$ion o% indiid&al o!ganis"s $o $he social <hole o% <hich $hey a!e "e",e!s is
analogo&s $o $he !ela$ion o% $he indiid&al cells o% a "&l$i?cell&la! o!ganis" $o $he o!ganis"
as a <hole.
#. O&! cons$!&c$ie selec$ion o% o&! eni!on"en$ is <ha$ <e $e!" -conscio&sness,- in $he %i!s$
sense o% $he $e!". The o!ganis" does no$ 1!o9ec$ sens&o&s D&ali$ies?colo!s, %o! e=a"1le?
in$o $he eni!on"en$ $o <hich i$ !es1onds@ ,&$ i$ endo<s $his eni!on"en$ <i$h s&ch D&ali$ies,
in a sense si"ila! $o $ha$ in <hich an o= endo<s g!ass <i$h $he D&ali$y o% ,eing %ood, o! in
<hich ?? s1ea7ing "o!e gene!ally ?? $he !ela$ion ,e$<een ,iological o!ganis"s and ce!$ain
eni!on"en$al con$en$s gie !ise $o %ood o,9ec$s. I% $he!e <e!e no o!ganis"s <i$h 1a!$ic&la!
sense o!gans $he!e <o&ld ,e no eni!on"en$, in $he 1!o1e! o! &s&al sense o% $he $e!". An
o!ganis" cons$!&c$s Ain $he selec$ie senseB i$s eni!on"en$@ and conscio&sness o%$en !e%e!s
$o $he cha!ac$e! o% $he eni!on"en$ in so %a! as i$ is de$e!"ined o! cons$!&c$iely selec$ed ,y
o&! h&"an o!ganis"s, and de1ends &1on $he !ela$ionshi1 ,e$<een $he %o!"e! Aas $h&s
selec$ed o! cons$!&c$edB and $he la$$e!.
..# TH" 5I5 and the 5M"5
0e hae disc&ssed a$ leng$h $he social %o&nda$ions o% $he sel%, and hin$ed $ha$ $he sel% does no$
consis$ si"1ly in $he ,a!e o!gani8a$ion o% social a$$i$&des. 0e "ay no< e=1lici$ly !aise $he D&es$ion
as $o $he na$&!e o% $he -I- <hich is a<a!e o% $he social -"e.- I do no$ "ean $o !aise $he "e$a1hysical
D&es$ion o% ho< a 1e!son can ,e ,o$h -I- and -"e,- ,&$ $o as7 %o! $he signi%icance o% $his dis$inc$ion
%!o" $he 1oin$ o% ie< o% cond&c$ i$sel%. 0he!e in cond&c$ does $he -I- co"e in as oe! agains$ $he
-"e-E I% one de$e!"ines <ha$ his 1osi$ion is in socie$y and %eels hi"sel% as haing a ce!$ain %&nc$ion
and 1!iilege, $hese a!e all de%ined <i$h !e%e!ence $o an -I,- ,&$ $he -I- is no$ a -"e- and canno$
,eco"e a -"e.- 0e "ay hae a ,e$$e! sel% and a <o!se sel%, ,&$ $ha$ again is no$ $he -I- as oe!
agains$ $he -"e,- ,eca&se $hey a!e ,o$h seles. 0e a11!oe o% one and disa11!oe o% $he o$he!, ,&$
<hen <e ,!ing &1 one o! $he o$he! $hey a!e $he!e %o! s&ch a11!oal as -"e>s.- The -I- does no$ ge$
in$o $he li"eligh$@ <e $al7 $o o&!seles, ,&$ do no$ see o&!seles. The -I- !eac$s $o $he sel% <hich
a!ises $h!o&gh $he $a7ing o% $he a$$i$&des o% o$he!s. Th!o&gh $a7ing $hose a$$i$&des <e hae
in$!od&ced $he -"e- and <e !eac$ $o i$ as an -I.-
The si"1les$ <ay o% handling $he 1!o,le" <o&ld ,e in $e!"s o% "e"o!y. I $al7 $o "ysel%, and I
!e"e",e! <ha$ I said and 1e!ha1s $he e"o$ional con$en$ $ha$ <en$ <i$h i$. The -I- o% $his "o"en$ is
1!esen$ in $he -"e- o% $he ne=$ "o"en$. The!e again I canno$ $&!n a!o&nd D&ic7 eno&gh $o ca$ch
"ysel%. I ,eco"e a -"e- in so %a! as I !e"e",e! <ha$ I said. The -I- can ,e gien, ho<ee!, $his
%&nc$ional !ela$ionshi1. I$ is ,eca&se o% $he -I- $ha$ <e say $ha$ <e a!e nee! %&lly a<a!e o% <ha$ <e
a!e, $ha$ <e s&!1!ise o&!seles ,y o&! o<n ac$ion. I$ is as <e ac$ $ha$ <e a!e a<a!e o% o&!seles. I$ is
in "e"o!y $ha$ $he -I- is cons$an$ly 1!esen$ in e=1e!ience. 0e can go ,ac7 di!ec$ly a %e< "o"en$s
in o&! e=1e!ience, and $hen <e a!e de1enden$ &1on "e"o!y i"ages %o! $he !es$. So $ha$ $he -I- in
"e"o!y is $he!e as $he s1o7es"an o% $he sel% o% $he second, o! "in&$e, o! day ago. As gien, i$ is a
-"e,- ,&$ i$ is a -"e- <hich <as $he -I- a$ $he ea!lie! $i"e. I% yo& as7, $hen, <he!e di!ec$ly in yo&! o<n
e=1e!ience $he -I- co"es in, $he ans<e! is $ha$ i$ co"es in as a his$o!ical %ig&!e. I$ is <ha$ yo& <e!e a
second ago $ha$ is $he -I- o% $he -"e.- I$ is ano$he! -"e- $ha$ has $o $a7e $ha$ !Mle. Yo& canno$ ge$ $he
i""edia$e !es1onse o% $he -I- in $he 1!ocess.+,- The -I- is in a ce!$ain sense $ha$ <i$h <hich <e do
iden$i%y o&!seles. The ge$$ing o% i$ in$o e=1e!ience cons$i$&$es one o% $he 1!o,le"s o% "os$ o% o&!
conscio&s e=1e!ience@ i$ is no$ di!ec$ly gien in e=1e!ience.
The -I- is $he !es1onse o% $he o!ganis" $o $he a$$i$&des o% $he o$he!s@,, $he -"e- is $he o!gani8ed se$
o% a$$i$&des o% o$he!s <hich one hi"sel% ass&"es. The a$$i$&des o% $he o$he!s cons$i$&$e $he
o!gani8ed -"e,- and $hen one !eac$s $o<a!d $ha$ as an -I.- I no< <ish $o e=a"ine $hese conce1$s in
g!ea$e! de$ail.
The!e is nei$he! -I- no! -"e- in $he cone!sa$ion o% ges$&!es@ $he <hole ac$ is no$ ye$ ca!!ied o&$, ,&$
$he 1!e1a!a$ion $a7es 1lace in $his %ield o% ges$&!e. No<, in so %a! as $he indiid&al a!o&ses in hi"sel%
$he a$$i$&des o% $he o$he!s, $he!e a!ises an o!gani8ed g!o&1 o% !es1onses. And i$ is d&e $o $he
indiid&al>s a,ili$y $o $a7e $he a$$i$&des o% $hese o$he!s in so %a! as $hey can ,e o!gani8ed $ha$ he ge$s
sel%?conscio&sness. The $a7ing o% all o% $hose o!gani8ed se$s o% a$$i$&des gies hi" his -"e-@ $ha$ is
$he sel% he is a<a!e o%. :e can $h!o< $he ,all $o so"e o$he! "e",e! ,eca&se o% $he de"and "ade
&1on hi" %!o" o$he! "e",e!s o% $he $ea". Tha$ is $he sel% $ha$ i""edia$ely e=is$s %o! hi" in his
conscio&sness. :e has $hei! a$$i$&des, 7no<s <ha$ $hey <an$ and <ha$ $he conseD&ence o% any ac$
o% his <ill ,e, and he has ass&"ed !es1onsi,ili$y %o! $he si$&a$ion. No<, i$ is $he 1!esence o% $hose
o!gani8ed se$s o% a$$i$&des $ha$ cons$i$&$es $ha$ -"e- $o <hich he as an -I- is !es1onding. B&$ <ha$
$ha$ !es1onse <ill ,e he does no$ 7no< and no,ody else 7no<s. Pe!ha1s he <ill "a7e a ,!illian$
1lay o! an e!!o!. The !es1onse $o $ha$ si$&a$ion as i$ a11ea!s in his i""edia$e e=1e!ience is
&nce!$ain, and i$ is $ha$ <hich cons$i$&$es $he -I.-
The -I- is his ac$ion oe! agains$ $ha$ social si$&a$ion <i$hin his o<n cond&c$, and i$ ge$s in$o his
e=1e!ience only a%$e! he has ca!!ied o&$ $he ac$. Then he is a<a!e o% i$. :e had $o do s&ch a $hing
and he did i$. :e %&l%ils his d&$y and he "ay loo7 <i$h 1!ide a$ $he $h!o< <hich he "ade. The -"e-
a!ises $o do $ha$ d&$y?$ha$ is $he <ay in <hich i$ a!ises in his e=1e!ience. :e had in hi" all $he
a$$i$&des o% o$he!s, calling %o! a ce!$ain !es1onse@ $ha$ <as $he -"e- o% $ha$ si$&a$ion, and his
!es1onse is $he -I.-
I <an$ $o call a$$en$ion 1a!$ic&la!ly $o $he %ac$ $ha$ $his !es1onse o% $he -I- is so"e$hing $ha$ is "o!e o!
less &nce!$ain. The a$$i$&des o% o$he!s <hich one ass&"es as a%%ec$ing his o<n cond&c$ cons$i$&$e
$he -"e,- and $ha$ is so"e$hing $ha$ is $he!e, ,&$ $he !es1onse $o i$ is as ye$ no$ gien. 0hen one
si$s do<n $o $hin7 any$hing o&$, he has ce!$ain da$a $ha$ a!e $he!e. S&11ose $ha$ i$ is a social
si$&a$ion <hich he has $o s$!aigh$en o&$. :e sees hi"sel% %!o" $he 1oin$ o% ie< o% one indiid&al o!
ano$he! in $he g!o&1. These indiid&als, !ela$ed all $oge$he!, gie hi" a ce!$ain sel%. 0ell, <ha$ is he
going $o doE :e does no$ 7no< and no,ody else 7no<s. :e can ge$ $he si$&a$ion in$o his e=1e!ience
,eca&se he can ass&"e $he a$$i$&des o% $he a!io&s indiid&als inoled in i$. :e 7no<s ho< $hey
%eel a,o&$ i$ ,y $he ass&"1$ion o% $hei! a$$i$&des. :e says, in e%%ec$, -I hae done ce!$ain $hings $ha$
see" $o co""i$ "e $o a ce!$ain co&!se o% cond&c$.- Pe!ha1s i% he does so ac$ i$ <ill 1lace hi" in a
%alse 1osi$ion <i$h ano$he! g!o&1. The -I- as a !es1onse $o $his si$&a$ion, in con$!as$ $o $he -"e-
<hich is inoled in $he a$$i$&des <hich he $a7es, is &nce!$ain. And <hen $he !es1onse $a7es 1lace,
$hen i$ a11ea!s in $he %ield o% e=1e!ience la!gely as a "e"o!y i"age.
O&! s1ecio&s 1!esen$ as s&ch is e!y sho!$. 0e do, ho<ee!, e=1e!ience 1assing een$s@ 1a!$ o% $he
1!ocess o% $he 1assage o% een$s is di!ec$ly $he!e in o&! e=1e!ience, incl&ding so"e o% $he 1as$ and
so"e o% $he %&$&!e. 0e see a ,all %alling as i$ 1asses, and as i$ does 1ass 1a!$ o% $he ,all is coe!ed
and 1a!$ is ,eing &ncoe!ed. 0e !e"e",e! <he!e $he ,all <as a "o"en$ ago and <e an$ici1a$e
<he!e i$ <ill ,e ,eyond <ha$ is gien in o&! e=1e!ience. So o% o&!seles@ <e a!e doing so"e$hing,
,&$ $o loo7 ,ac7 and see <ha$ <e a!e doing inoles ge$$ing "e"o!y i"ages. So $he -I- !eally
a11ea!s e=1e!ien$ially as a 1a!$ o% a -"e.- B&$ on $he ,asis o% $his e=1e!ience <e dis$ing&ish $ha$
indiid&al <ho is doing so"e$hing %!o" $he -"e- <ho 1&$s $he 1!o,le" &1 $o hi". The !es1onse
en$e!s in$o his e=1e!ience only <hen i$ $a7es 1lace. I% he says he 7no<s <ha$ he is going $o do, een
$he!e he "ay ,e "is$a7en. :e s$a!$s o&$ $o do so"e$hing and so"e$hing ha11ens $o in$e!%e!e. The
!es&l$ing ac$ion is al<ays a li$$le di%%e!en$ %!o" any$hing <hich he co&ld an$ici1a$e. This is $!&e een i%
he is si"1ly ca!!ying o&$ $he 1!ocess o% <al7ing. The e!y $a7ing o% his e=1ec$ed s$e1s 1&$s hi" in a
ce!$ain si$&a$ion <hich has a sligh$ly di%%e!en$ as1ec$ %!o" <ha$ is e=1ec$ed, <hich is in a ce!$ain
sense noel. Tha$ "oe"en$ in$o $he %&$&!e is $he s$e1, so $o s1ea7, o% $he ego, o% $he -I.- I$ is
so"e$hing $ha$ is no$ gien in $he -"e.-
Ta7e $he si$&a$ion o% a scien$is$ soling a 1!o,le", <he!e he has ce!$ain da$a <hich call %o! ce!$ain
!es1onses. So"e o% $his se$ o% da$a call %o! his a11lying s&ch and s&ch a la<, <hile o$he!s call %o!
ano$he! la<. Da$a a!e $he!e <i$h $hei! i"1lica$ions. :e 7no<s <ha$ s&ch and s&ch colo!a$ion "eans,
and <hen he has $hese da$a ,e%o!e hi" $hey s$and %o! ce!$ain !es1onses on his 1a!$@ ,&$ no< $hey
a!e in con%lic$ <i$h each o$he!. I% he "a7es one !es1onse he canno$ "a7e ano$he!. 0ha$ he is going
$o do he does no$ 7no<, no! does any,ody else. The ac$ion o% $he sel% is in !es1onse $o $hese
con%lic$ing se$s o% da$a in $he %o!" o% a 1!o,le", <i$h con%lic$ing de"ands &1on hi" as a scien$is$.
:e has $o loo7 a$ i$ in di%%e!en$ <ays. Tha$ ac$ion o% $he -I- is so"e$hing $he na$&!e o% <hich <e
canno$ $ell in adance.
The -I,- $hen, in $his !ela$ion o% $he -I- and $he -"e,- is so"e$hing $ha$ is, so $o s1ea7, !es1onding $o
a social si$&a$ion <hich is <i$hin $he e=1e!ience o% $he indiid&al. I$ is $he ans<e! <hich $he
indiid&al "a7es $o $he a$$i$&de <hich o$he!s $a7e $o<a!d hi" <hen he ass&"es an a$$i$&de $o<a!d
$he". No<, $he a$$i$&des he is $a7ing $o<a!d $he" a!e 1!esen$ in his o<n e=1e!ience, ,&$ his
!es1onse $o $he" <ill con$ain a noel ele"en$. The -I- gies $he sense o% %!eedo", o% ini$ia$ie. The
si$&a$ion is $he!e %o! &s $o ac$ in a sel%?conscio&s %ashion. 0e a!e a<a!e o% o&!seles, and o% <ha$
$he si$&a$ion is, ,&$ e=ac$ly ho< <e <ill ac$ nee! ge$s in$o e=1e!ience &n$il a%$e! $he ac$ion $a7es
1lace.
S&ch is $he ,asis %o! $he %ac$ $ha$ $he -I- does no$ a11ea! in $he sa"e sense in e=1e!ience as does
$he -"e.- The -"e- !e1!esen$s a de%ini$e o!gani8a$ion o% $he co""&ni$y $he!e in o&! o<n a$$i$&des,
and calling %o! a !es1onse, ,&$ $he !es1onse $ha$ $a7es 1lace is so"e$hing $ha$ 9&s$ ha11ens. The!e
is no ce!$ain$y in !ega!d $o i$. The!e is a "o!al necessi$y ,&$ no "echanical necessi$y %o! $he ac$.
0hen i$ does $a7e 1lace $hen <e %ind <ha$ has ,een done. The a,oe acco&n$ gies &s, I $hin7, $he
!ela$ie 1osi$ion o% $he -I- and -"e- in $he si$&a$ion, and $he g!o&nds %o! $he se1a!a$ion o% $he $<o in
,ehaio!. The $<o a!e se1a!a$ed in $he 1!ocess ,&$ $hey ,elong $oge$he! in $he sense o% ,eing 1a!$s
o% a <hole. They a!e se1a!a$ed and ye$ $hey ,elong $oge$he!. The se1a!a$ion o% $he -I- and $he -"e-
is no$ %ic$i$io&s. They a!e no$ iden$ical, %o!, as I hae said, $he -I- is so"e$hing $ha$ is nee! en$i!ely
calc&la,le. The -"e- does call %o! a ce!$ain so!$ o% an -I- in so %a! as <e "ee$ $he o,liga$ions $ha$ a!e
gien in cond&c$ i$sel%, ,&$ $he -I- is al<ays so"e$hing di%%e!en$ %!o" <ha$ $he si$&a$ion i$sel% calls %o!.
So $he!e is al<ays $ha$ dis$inc$ion, i% yo& li7e, ,e$<een $he -I- and $he -"e.- The -I- ,o$h calls o&$ $he
-"e- and !es1onds $o i$. Ta7en $oge$he! $hey cons$i$&$e a 1e!sonali$y as i$ a11ea!s in social
e=1e!ience. The sel% is essen$ially a social 1!ocess going on <i$h $hese $<o dis$ing&isha,le 1hases.
I% i$ did no$ hae $hese $<o 1hases $he!e co&ld no$ ,e conscio&s !es1onsi,ili$y, and $he!e <o&ld ,e
no$hing noel in e=1e!ience.
"ndnotes
1. The sensi$ii$y o% $he o!ganis" ,!ings 1a!$s o% i$sel% in$o $he eni!on"en$. I$ does no$,
ho<ee!, ,!ing $he li%e?1!ocess i$sel% in$o $he eni!on"en$, and $he co"1le$e i"agina$ie
1!esen$a$ion o% $he o!ganis" is &na,le $o 1!esen$ $he liing o% $he o!ganis". I$ can
conceia,ly 1!esen$ $he condi$ions &nde! <hich liing $a7es 1lace ,&$ no$ $he &ni$a!y li%e?
1!ocess. The 1hysical o!ganis" in $he eni!on"en$ al<ays !e"ains a $hing AMSB.
#. IFo! $he -I- ie<ed as $he ,iologic indiid&al, see S&11le"en$a!y Essays II, III.K
./# S$CI%& %TTIT4)"S %() TH" PH'SIC%& 7$*&)
The sel% is no$ so "&ch a s&,s$ance as a 1!ocess in <hich $he cone!sa$ion o% ges$&!es has ,een
in$e!nali8ed <i$hin an o!ganic %o!". This 1!ocess does no$ e=is$ %o! i$sel%, ,&$ is si"1ly a 1hase o% $he
<hole social o!gani8a$ion o% <hich $he indiid&al is a 1a!$. The o!gani8a$ion o% $he social ac$ has
,een i"1o!$ed in$o $he o!ganis" and ,eco"es $hen $he "ind o% $he indiid&al. I$ s$ill incl&des $he
a$$i$&des o% o$he!s, ,&$ no< highly o!gani8ed, so $ha$ $hey ,eco"e <ha$ <e call social a$$i$&des
!a$he! $han !Mles o% se1a!a$e indiid&als. This 1!ocess o% !ela$ing one>s o<n o!ganis" $o $he o$he!s
in $he in$e!ac$ions $ha$ a!e going on, in so %a! as i$ is i"1o!$ed in$o $he cond&c$ o% $he indiid&al <i$h
$he cone!sa$ion o% $he -I- and $he -"e,- cons$i$&$es $he sel%.+,- The al&e o% $his i"1o!$a$ion o% $he
cone!sa$ion o% ges$&!es in$o $he cond&c$ o% $he indiid&al lies in $he s&1e!io! co?o!dina$ion gained
%o! socie$y as a <hole, and in $he inc!eased e%%iciency o% $he indiid&al as a "e",e! o% $he g!o&1. I$
is $he di%%e!ence ,e$<een $he 1!ocess <hich can $a7e 1lace in a g!o&1 o% !a$s o! an$s o! ,ees, and
$ha$ <hich can $a7e 1lace in a h&"an co""&ni$y. The social 1!ocess <i$h i$s a!io&s i"1lica$ions is
ac$&ally $a7en &1 in$o $he e=1e!ience o% $he indiid&al so $ha$ $ha$ <hich is going on $a7es 1lace
"o!e e%%ec$iely, ,eca&se in a ce!$ain sense i$ has ,een !ehea!sed in $he indiid&al. :e no$ only
1lays his 1a!$ ,e$$e! &nde! $hose condi$ions ,&$ he also !eac$s ,ac7 on $he o!gani8a$ion o% <hich he
is a 1a!$.
The e!y na$&!e o% $his cone!sa$ion o% ges$&!es !eD&i!es $ha$ $he a$$i$&de o% $he o$he! is changed
$h!o&gh $he a$$i$&de o% $he indiid&al $o $he o$he!>s s$i"&l&s. In $he cone!sa$ion o% ges$&!es o% $he
lo<e! %o!"s $he 1lay ,ac7 and %o!$h is no$icea,le, since $he indiid&al no$ only ad9&s$s hi"sel% $o $he
a$$i$&de o% o$he!s, ,&$ also changes $he a$$i$&des o% $he o$he!s. The !eac$ion o% $he indiid&al in $his
cone!sa$ion o% ges$&!es is one $ha$ in so"e deg!ee is con$in&ally "odi%ying $he social 1!ocess
i$sel%. I$ is $his "odi%ica$ion o% $he 1!ocess <hich is o% g!ea$es$ in$e!es$ in $he e=1e!ience o% $he
indiid&al. :e $a7es $he a$$i$&de o% $he o$he! $o<a!d his o<n s$i"&l&s, and in $a7ing $ha$ he %inds i$
"odi%ied in $ha$ his !es1onse ,eco"es a di%%e!en$ one, and leads in $&!n $o %&!$he! change.
F&nda"en$al a$$i$&des a!c 1!es&"a,ly $hose $ha$ a!e only changed g!ad&ally, and no one indiid&al
can !eo!gani8e $he <hole socie$y@ ,&$ one is con$in&ally a%%ec$ing socie$y ,y his o<n a$$i$&de
,eca&se he does ,!ing &1 $he a$$i$&de o% $he g!o&1 $o<a!d hi"sel%, !es1onds $o i$, and $h!o&gh $ha$
!es1onse changes $he a$$i$&de o% $he g!o&1. This is, o% co&!se, <ha$ <e a!e cons$an$ly doing in o&!
i"agina$ion, in o&! $ho&gh$@ <e a!e &$ili8ing o&! o<n a$$i$&de $o ,!ing a,o&$ a di%%e!en$ si$&a$ion in $he
co""&ni$y o% <hich <e a!e a 1a!$@ <e a!e e=e!$ing o&!seles, ,!inging %o!<a!d o&! o<n o1inion,
c!i$ici8ing $he a$$i$&des o% o$he!s, and a11!oing o! disa11!oing. B&$ <e can do $ha$ only in so %a! as
<e can call o&$ in o&!seles $he !es1onse o% $he co""&ni$y@ <e only hae ideas in so %a! as <e a!e
a,le $o $a7e $he a$$i$&de o% $he co""&ni$y and $hen !es1ond $o i$.
In $he case o% lo<e! ani"als $he !es1onse o% $he indiid&al $o $he social si$&a$ion, i$s ges$&!e as oe!
agains$ $he social si$&a$ion, is <ha$ ans<e!s $o $he idea in $he h&"an ani"al. I$ is no$, ho<ee!, an
idea. 0e &se $he ocal ges$&!e $o call o&$ $he !es1onse <hich ans<e!s $o $ha$ o% $he co""&ni$y. 0e
hae, $hen, in o&! o<n s$i"&l&s, a !e1ly $o $ha$ !es1onse, and i$ is $ha$ !e1ly <hich is an idea. Yo&
say $ha$ -i$ is "y idea $ha$ s&ch and s&ch a $hing sho&ld ,e done.- Yo&! idea is $he !e1ly <hich yo&
"a7e $o $he social de"and "ade &1on yo&. The social de"and, <e <ill say, is $ha$ yo& sho&ld 1ay
$a=es o% a ce!$ain so!$. Yo& conside! $hose $a=es illegi$i"a$e. No<, yo&! !e1ly $o $he de"and o% $he
co""&ni$y, s1eci%ically $o $he $a= assesso!, as i$ $a7es 1lace in yo&! o<n e=1e!ience, is an idea. To
$he e=$en$ $ha$ yo& hae in yo&! o<n cond&c$ sy",ols <hich a!e $he e=1!ession o% yo&! !e1ly $o $he
de"and, yo& hae an idea o% <ha$ yo&! assess"en$ o&gh$ $o ,e. I$ is an ideal si$&a$ion in so %a! as
yo& a!e $a7ing $he !Mle o% $he $a= assesso! oe! agains$ yo&!sel%, and !e1lying $o i$. I$ is no$ li7e $he
si$&a$ion in $he dog?%igh$ <he!e $he dog is ac$&ally 1!e1a!ing $o s1!ing and ano$he! dog $a7es
ano$he! a$$i$&de <hich de%ea$s $ha$ s1!ing. The di%%e!ence is $ha$ $he cone!sa$ion o% ges$&!es is a
1a!$ o% $he ac$&al !eali8ed %igh$, <he!eas in $he o$he! case yo& a!e $a7ing $he a$$i$&de o% $he $a=
a&$ho!i$ies in adance and <o!7ing o! calling o&$ yo&! o<n !es1onse $o i$. 0hen $ha$ $a7es 1lace in
yo&! e=1e!ience yo& hae ideas.
A 1e!son $h!ea$ens yo&, and yo& 7noc7 hi" do<n on $he s1o$. The!e has ,een no ideal ele"en$ in
$he si$&a$ion. I% yo& co&n$ $en and conside! <ha$ $he $h!ea$ "eans, yo& a!e haing an idea, a!e
,!inging $he si$&a$ion in$o an ideal se$$ing. I$ is $ha$, <e hae seen, <hich cons$i$&$es <ha$ <e $e!"
"ind. 0e a!e $a7ing $he a$$i$&de o% $he co""&ni$y and <e a!e !es1onding $o i$ in $his cone!sa$ion o%
ges$&!es. The ges$&!es in $his case a!e ocal ges$&!es. They a!e signi%ican$ sy",ols, and ,y sy",ol
<e do no$ "ean so"e$hing $ha$ lies o&$side o% $he %ield o% cond&c$. A sy",ol is no$hing ,&$ $he
s$i"&l&s <hose !es1onse is gien in adance. Tha$ is all <e "ean ,y a sy",ol. The!e is a <o!d,
and a ,lo<. The ,lo< is $he his$o!ical an$eceden$ o% $he <o!d, ,&$ i% $he <o!d "eans an ins&l$, $he
!es1onse is one no< inoled in $he <o!d, so"e$hing gien in $he e!y s$i"&l&s i$sel%. Tha$ is all $ha$
is "ean$ ,y a sy",ol. No<, i% $ha$ !es1onse can ,e gien in $e!"s o% an a$$i$&de &$ili8ed %o! $he
%&!$he! con$!ol o% ac$ion, $hen $he !ela$ion o% $ha$ s$i"&l&s and a$$i$&de is <ha$ <e "ean ,y a
signi%ican$ sy",ol.
O&! $hin7ing $ha$ goes on, as <e say, inside o% &s, is a 1lay o% sy",ols in $he a,oe sense. Th!o&gh
ges$&!es !es1onses a!e called o&$ in o&! o<n a$$i$&des, and as soon as $hey a!e called o&$ $hey
eo7e, in $&!n, o$he! a$$i$&des. 0ha$ <as $he "eaning no< ,eco"es a sy",ol <hich has ano$he!
"eaning. The "eaning has i$sel% ,eco"e a s$i"&l&s $o ano$he! !es1onse. In $he dog%igh$ $he
a$$i$&de o% $he one has $he "eaning o% changing $he a$$i$&de o% $he o$he! dog, ,&$ $he change o%
a$$i$&de no< ,eco"es a sy",ol A$ho&gh no$ a lang&age o! signi%ican$ sy",olB $o $he %i!s$ dog and
he, $oo, changes his a$$i$&de. 0ha$ <as a "eaning no< ,eco"es a s$i"&l&s. Cone!sa$ion is
con$in&ally going on, and <ha$ <as !es1onse ,eco"es in $he %ield o% ges$&!e a s$i"&l&s, and $he
!es1onse $o $ha$ is $he "eaning. *es1onses a!e "eanings in so %a! as $hey lie inside o% s&ch a
cone!sa$ion o% ges$&!es. O&! $hin7ing is 9&s$ s&ch a con$in&al change o% a si$&a$ion ,y o&! ca1aci$y
$o $a7e i$ oe! in$o o&! o<n ac$ion@ $o change i$ so $ha$ i$ calls %o! a di%%e!en$ a$$i$&de on o&! o<n 1a!$,
and $o ca!!y i$ on $o $he 1oin$ <he!e $he social ac$ "ay ,e co"1le$ed.
The -"e- and $he -I- lie in $he 1!ocess o% $hin7ing and $hey indica$e $he gie?and?$a7e <hich
cha!ac$e!i8es i$. The!e <o&ld no$ ,e an -I- in $he sense in <hich <e &se $ha$ $e!" i% $he!e <e!e no$ a
-"e-@ $he!e <o&ld no$ ,e a -"e- <i$ho&$ a !es1onse in $he %o!" o% $he -I.- These $<o, as $hey a11ea!
in o&! e=1e!ience, cons$i$&$e $he 1e!sonali$y. 0e a!e indiid&als ,o!n in$o a ce!$ain na$ionali$y,
loca$ed a$ a ce!$ain s1o$ geog!a1hically, <i$h s&ch and s&ch %a"ily !ela$ions, and s&ch and s&ch
1oli$ical !ela$ions. All o% $hese !e1!esen$ a ce!$ain si$&a$ion <hich cons$i$&$es $he -"e-@ ,&$ $his
necessa!ily inoles a con$in&ed ac$ion o% $he o!ganis" $o<a!d $he -"e- in $he 1!ocess <i$hin <hich
$ha$ lies. The sel% is no$ so"e$hing $ha$ e=is$s %i!s$ and $hen en$e!s in$o !ela$ionshi1 <i$h o$he!s, ,&$ i$
is, so $o s1ea7, an eddy in $he social c&!!en$ and so s$ill a 1a!$ o% $he c&!!en$. I$ is a 1!ocess in <hich
$he indiid&al is con$in&ally ad9&s$ing hi"sel% in adance $o $he si$&a$ion $o <hich he ,elongs, and
!eac$ing ,ac7 on i$. So $ha$ $he -I- and $he -"e,- $his $hin7ing, $his conscio&s ad9&s$"en$, ,eco"es
$hen a 1a!$ o% $he <hole social 1!ocess and "a7es a "&ch "o!e highly o!gani8ed socie$y 1ossi,le.
The -I- and $he -"e- ,elong $o $he cone!sa$ion o% ges$&!es. I% $he!e <e!e si"1ly -a <o!d and a
,lo<,- i% one ans<e!ed $o a social si$&a$ion i""edia$ely <i$ho&$ !e%lec$ion, $he!e <o&ld ,e no
1e!sonali$y in $he %o!egoing sense any "o!e $han $he!e is 1e!sonali$y in $he na$&!e o% $he dog o! $he
ho!se. 0e, o% co&!se, $end $o endo< o&! do"es$ic ani"als <i$h 1e!sonali$y, ,&$ as <e ge$ insigh$
in$o $hei! condi$ions <e see $he!e is no 1lace %o! $his so!$ o% i"1o!$a$ion o% $he social 1!ocess in$o $he
cond&c$ o% $he indiid&al. They do no$ hae $he "echanis" %o! i$?lang&age. So <e say $ha$ $hey
hae no 1e!sonali$y@ $hey a!e no$ !es1onsi,le %o! $he social si$&a$ion in <hich $hey %ind $he"seles.
The h&"an indiid&al, on $he o$he! hand, iden$i%ies hi"sel% <i$h $ha$ social si$&a$ion. :e !es1onds $o
i$, and al$ho&gh his !es1onse $o i$ "ay ,e in $he na$&!e o% c!i$icis" as <ell as s&11o!$, i$ inoles an
acce1$ance o% $he !es1onsi,ili$y 1!esen$ed ,y $he si$&a$ion. S&ch an acce1$ance does no$ e=is$ in
$he case o% $he lo<e! ani"als. 0e 1&$ 1e!sonali$ies in$o $he ani"als, ,&$ $hey do no$ ,elong $o $he"@
and &l$i"a$ely <e !eali8e $ha$ $hose ani"als hae no !igh$s. 0e a!e a$ li,e!$y $o c&$ o%% $hei! lies@
$he!e is no <!ong co""i$$ed <hen an ani"al>s li%e is $a7en a<ay. :e has no$ los$ any$hing ,eca&se
$he %&$&!e does no$ e=is$ %o! $he ani"al@ he has no$ $he -"e- in his e=1e!ience <hich ,y $he !es1onse
o% $he -I- is in so"e sense &nde! his con$!ol, so $ha$ $he %&$&!e can e=is$ %o! hi". :e has no
conscio&s 1as$ since $he!e is no sel% o% $he so!$ <e hae ,een desc!i,ing $ha$ can ,e e=$ended in$o
$he 1as$ ,y "e"o!ies. The!e a!e 1!es&"a,ly i"ages in $he e=1e!ience o% lo<e! ani"als, ,&$ no
ideas o! "e"o!ies in $he !eD&i!ed sense.+.- They hae no$ $he 1e!sonali$y $ha$ loo7s ,e%o!e o! a%$e!.
They hae no$ $ha$ %&$&!e and 1as$ <hich gies $he", so $o s1ea7, any !igh$s as s&ch. And ye$ $he
co""on a$$i$&de is $ha$ o% giing $he" 9&s$ s&ch 1e!sonali$ies as o&! o<n. 0e $al7 $o $he" and in
o&! $al7ing $o $he" <e ac$ as i% $hey had $he so!$ o% inne! <o!ld $ha$ <e hae.
A si"ila! a$$!i,&$ion is 1!esen$ in $he i""edia$e a$$i$&de <hich <e $a7e $o<a!d inani"a$e 1hysical
o,9ec$s a,o&$ &s. 0e $a7e $he a$$i$&de o% social ,eings $o<a!d $he". This is "os$ ela,o!a$ely $!&e, o%
co&!se, in $hose <ho" <e $e!" na$&!e 1oe$s. The 1oe$ is in a social !ela$ion <i$h $he $hings a,o&$
hi", a %ac$ 1e!ha1s "os$ iidly 1!esen$ed in 0o!ds<o!$h. The -Lines on Tin$e!n A,,ey- gies &s, I
,eliee, $he social !ela$ionshi1s o% 0o!ds<o!$h <hen he <as a child and $hei! con$in&a$ion $h!o&gh
his li%e. :is s$a$e"en$ o% $he !ela$ionshi1 o% "an $o na$&!e is essen$ially $he !ela$ionshi1 o% loe, a
social !ela$ion. This social a$$i$&de o% $he indiid&al $o<a!d $he 1hysical $hing is 9&s$ $he a$$i$&de
<hich one has $o<a!d o$he! o,9ec$s@ i$ is a social a$$i$&de. The "an 7ic7s $he chai! he s$&",les oe!,
and he has an a%%ec$ion %o! an o,9ec$ connec$ed <i$h hi" in his <o!7 o! 1lay. The i""edia$e !eac$ion
o% child!en $o $hings a,o&$ $he" is social. The!e is an eiden$ ,asis %o! $he 1a!$ic&la! !es1onse <hich
<e "a7e $o li$$le $hings, since $he!e is so"e$hing $ha$ calls o&$ a 1a!en$al !es1onse in any s"all
$hing@ s&ch a $hing calls o&$ a 1a!en$al !es1onse <hich is &nie!sal. This holds %o! 1hysical $hings, as
<ell as %o! ani"als.
The 1hysical o,9ec$ is an a,s$!ac$ion <hich <e "a7e %!o" $he social !es1onse $o na$&!e. 0e $al7 $o
na$&!e@ <e add!ess $he clo&ds, $he sea, $he $!ee, and o,9ec$s a,o&$ &s. 0e la$e! a,s$!ac$ %!o" $ha$
$y1e o% !es1onse ,eca&se o% <ha$ <e co"e $o 7no< o% s&ch o,9ec$s.+/- The i""edia$e !es1onse is,
ho<ee!, social@ <he!e <e ca!!y oe! a $hin7ing 1!ocess in$o na$&!e <e a!e "a7ing na$&!e !a$ional. I$
ac$s as i$ is e=1ec$ed $o ac$. 0e a!e $a7ing $he a$$i$&de o% $he 1hysical $hings a,o&$ &s, and <hen <e
change $he si$&a$ion na$&!e !es1onds in a di%%e!en$ <ay.
The hand is !es1onsi,le %o! <ha$ I $e!" 1hysical $hings, dis$ing&ishing $he 1hysical $hing %!o" <ha$ I
call $he cons&""a$ion o% $he ac$. I% <e $oo7 o&! %ood as dogs do ,y $he e!y o!gans ,y <hich <e
"as$ica$e i$, <e sho&ld no$ hae any g!o&nd %o! dis$ing&ishing $he %ood as a 1hysical $hing %!o" $he
ac$&al cons&""a$ion o% $he ac$, $he cons&"1$ion o% $he %ood. 0e sho&ld !each i$ and sei8e i$ <i$h
$he $ee$h, and $he e!y ac$ o% $a7ing hold o% i$ <o&ld ,e $he ac$ o% ea$ing i$. B&$ <i$h $he h&"an
ani"al $he hand is in$e!1osed ,e$<een $he cons&""a$ion and $he ge$$ing o% $he o,9ec$ $o $he "o&$h.
In $ha$ case <e a!e "ani1&la$ing a 1hysical $hing. S&ch a $hing co"es in ,e$<een $he ,eginning o%
$he ac$ and i$s %inal cons&""a$ion. I$ is in $ha$ sense a &nie!sal. 0hen <e s1ea7 o% a $hing <e
hae in "ind a 1hysical $hing, so"e$hing <e can ge$ hold o%. The!e a!e, o% co&!se, -$hings- yo&
canno$ ge$ hold o%, s&ch as 1!o1e!$y !igh$s and $he i"agina$ions o% a 1oe$@ ,&$ <hen <e o!dina!ily
s1ea7 o% $hings a,o&$ &s <e !e%e! $o 1hysical $hings. The cha!ac$e!s $ha$ go $o "a7e $hese &1 a!e
1!i"a!ily de$e!"ined ,y $he hand. Con$ac$ cons$i$&$es <ha$ <e call $he s&,s$ance o% s&ch a $hing. I$
has colo! and odo!, o% co&!se, ,&$ <e $hin7 o% $hese as inhe!en$ in $he so"e$hing <hich <e can
"ani1&la$e, $he 1hysical $hing. S&ch a $hing is o% e!y g!ea$ i"1o!$ance in $he deelo1"en$ o%
h&"an in$elligence. I$ is &nie!sal in $he sense $ha$ i$ is a 1hysical $hing, <he$he! $he cons&""a$ion
is $ha$ o% ea$ing, o! o% lis$ening $o a conce!$. The!e is a <hole se$ o% 1hysical $hings $ha$ co"e in
,e$<een $he ,eginning o% an ac$ and i$s cons&""a$ion, ,&$ $hey a!e &nie!sal in $he sense $ha$ $hey
,elong $o $he e=1e!ience o% all o% &s. The cons&""a$ion $ha$ <e ge$ o&$ o% a conce!$ is e!y di%%e!en$
%o! all o% &s, ,&$ $he 1hysical $hings <e a!e dealing <i$h a!e co""on, &nie!sal in $ha$ sense. The
ac$&al en9oy"en$s "ay $a7e on %o!"s <hich !e1!esen$ an e=1e!ience $ha$ is accessi,le only $o
se1a!a$e indiid&als, ,&$ <ha$ $he hand handles is so"e$hing $ha$ is &nie!sal. 0e isola$e a
1a!$ic&la! locali$y $o <hich any 1e!son "ay co"e. 0e hae a se$ o% a11a!a$&s <hich any 1e!son
"ay &se. 0e hae a ce!$ain se$ o% <eigh$s and "eas&!es ,y "eans o% <hich <e can de%ine $hese
1hysical $hings. In $his sense $he 1hysical $hing co"es in $o "a7e 1ossi,le a co""on D&ali$y <i$hin
<hich $he seles can o1e!a$e.+0-
An enginee! <ho is cons$!&c$ing a ,!idge is $al7ing $o na$&!e in $he sa"e sense $ha$ <e $al7 $o an
enginee!. The!e a!e s$!esses and s$!ains $he!e <hich he "ee$s, and na$&!e co"es ,ac7 <i$h o$he!
!es1onses $ha$ hae $o ,e "e$ in ano$he! <ay. In his $hin7ing he is $a7ing $he a$$i$&de o% 1hysical
$hings. :e is $al7ing $o na$&!e and na$&!e is !e1lying $o hi". Na$&!e is in$elligen$ in $he sense $ha$
$he!e a!e ce!$ain !es1onses o% na$&!e $o<a!d o&! ac$ion <hich <e can 1!esen$ and <hich <e can
!e1ly $o, and <hich ,eco"e di%%e!en$ <hen <e hae !e1lied. I$ is a change <e $hen can ans<e! $o,
and <e %inally !each a 1oin$ a$ <hich <e can coo1e!a$e <i$h na$&!e.

S&ch is $he deelo1"en$ o% "ode!n science o&$ o% <ha$ <e $e!" "agic. Magic is 9&s$ $his sa"e
!es1onse, ,&$ <i$h $he %&!$he! ass&"1$ion $ha$ 1hysical $hings do $hin7 and ac$ as <e do. I$ is
1!ese!ed in $he a$$i$&de <hich <e hae $o<a!d an o%%ending o,9ec$ o! $he $!&s$<o!$hy o,9ec$ &1on
<hich <e de1end. 0e all ca!!y a,o&$ a ce!$ain a"o&n$ o% $his so!$ o% "agic. 0e aoid so"e$hing
,eca&se <e %eel i$ is in so"e <ay dange!o&s@ <e all !es1ec$ ce!$ain o"ens $o <hich <e 1ay so"e
a$$en$ion. 0e 7ee1 &1 so"e social !es1onse $o na$&!e a,o&$ &s, een $ho&gh <e do no$ allo< $his $o
a%%ec$ &s in i"1o!$an$ decisions. These a!e a$$i$&des <hich 1e!ha1s <e no!"ally coe! &1, ,&$ <hich
a!e !eealed $o &s in n&"e!o&s si$&a$ions. In so %a! as <e a!e !a$ional, as <e !eason and $hin7, <e
a!e $a7ing a social a$$i$&de $o<a!d $he <o!ld a,o&$ &s, c!i$ically in $he case o% science, &nc!i$ically in
$he case o% "agic.
"ndnotes
1. Acco!ding $o $his ie<, conscio&s co""&nica$ion deelo1s o&$ o% &nconscio&s
co""&nica$ion <i$hin $he social 1!ocess@ cone!sa$ion in $e!"s o% signi%ican$ ges$&!es o&$ o%
cone!sa$ion in $e!"s o% non?signi%ican$ ges$&!es@ and $he deelo1"en$ in s&ch %ashion o%
conscio&s co""&nica$ion is coinciden$ <i$h $he deelo1"en$ o% "inds and seles <i$hin $he
social 1!ocess.
#. The!e is no eidence o% ani"als ,eing a,le $o !ecogni8e $ha$ one $hing is a sign o%
so"e$hing else and so "a7e &se o% $ha$ sign .... A131#B.
'. The 1hysical o,9ec$ is %o&nd $o ,e $ha$ o,9ec$ $o <hich $he!e is no social !es1onse <hich
calls o&$ again a social !es1onse in $he indiid&al. The o,9ec$s <i$h <hich <e canno$ ca!!y
on social in$e!co&!se a!e $he 1hysical o,9ec$s o% $he <o!ld AMSB.
0e hae ca!!ied o&! a$$i$&de in 1hysical science oe! in$o 1sychology, so $ha$ <e hae los$
sigh$ o% $he social na$&!e o% o&! ea!ly conscio&sness. The child %o!"s social o,9ec$s ,e%o!e
he %o!"s 1hysical o,9ec$s A131#B.
4. IOn $he social genesis and na$&!e o% $he 1hysical $hing, see Sec$ion '+@ also *he Philosophy
of the Present, 113?'3.K
.0# MI() %S TH" I()IVI)4%& IMP$*T%TI$( $3 TH" S$CI%& P*$C"SS
I hae ,een 1!esen$ing $he sel% and $he "ind in $e!"s o% a social 1!ocess, as $he i"1o!$a$ion o% $he
cone!sa$ion o% ges$&!es in$o $he cond&c$ o% $he indiid&al o!ganis", so $ha$ $he indiid&al o!ganis"
$a7es $hese o!gani8ed a$$i$&des o% $he o$he!s called o&$ ,y i$s o<n a$$i$&de, in $he %o!" o% i$s
ges$&!es, and in !eac$ing $o $ha$ !es1onse calls o&$ o$he! o!gani8ed a$$i$&des in $he o$he!s in $he
co""&ni$y $o <hich $he indiid&al ,elongs. This 1!ocess can ,e cha!ac$e!i8ed in a ce!$ain sense in
$e!"s o% $he -I- and $he -"e,- $he -"e- ,eing $ha$ g!o&1 o% o!gani8ed a$$i$&des $o <hich $he indiid&al
!es1onds as an -I.-
0ha$ I <an$ 1a!$ic&la!ly $o e"1hasi8e is $he $e"1o!al and logical 1!ee=is$ence o% $he social 1!ocess
$o $he sel%?conscio&s indiid&al $ha$ a!ises in i$.+,- The cone!sa$ion o% ges$&!es is a 1a!$ o% $he
social 1!ocess <hich is going on. I$ is no$ so"e$hing $ha$ $he indiid&al alone "a7es 1ossi,le. 0ha$
$he deelo1"en$ o% lang&age, es1ecially $he signi%ican$ sy",ol, has !ende!ed 1ossi,le is 9&s$ $he
$a7ing oe! o% $his e=$e!nal social si$&a$ion in$o $he cond&c$ o% $he indiid&al hi"sel%. The!e %ollo<s
%!o" $his $he eno!"o&s deelo1"en$ <hich ,elongs $o h&"an socie$y, $he 1ossi,ili$y o% $he 1!eision
o% <ha$ is going $o $a7e 1lace in $he !es1onse o% o$he! indiid&als, and a 1!eli"ina!y ad9&s$"en$ $o
$his ,y $he indiid&al. These, in $&!n, 1!od&ce a di%%e!en$ social si$&a$ion <hich is again !e%lec$ed in
<ha$ I hae $e!"ed $he -"e,- so $ha$ $he indiid&al hi"sel% $a7es a di%%e!en$ a$$i$&de.
Conside! a 1oli$ician o! a s$a$es"an 1&$$ing $h!o&gh so"e 1!o9ec$ in <hich he has $he a$$i$&de o% $he
co""&ni$y in hi"sel%. :e 7no<s ho< $he co""&ni$y !eac$s $o $his 1!o1osal. :e !eac$s $o $his
e=1!ession o% $he co""&ni$y in his o<n e=1e!ience?he %eels <i$h i$. :e has a se$ o% o!gani8ed
a$$i$&des <hich a!e $hose o% $he co""&ni$y. :is o<n con$!i,&$ion, $he -I- in $his case, is a 1!o9ec$ o%
!eo!gani8a$ion, a 1!o9ec$ <hich he ,!ings %o!<a!d $o $he co""&ni$y as i$ is !e%lec$ed in hi"sel%. :e
hi"sel% changes, o% co&!se, in so %a! as he ,!ings $his 1!o9ec$ %o!<a!d and "a7es i$ a 1oli$ical iss&e.
The!e has no< a!isen a ne< social si$&a$ion as a !es&l$ o% $he 1!o9ec$ <hich he is 1!esen$ing. The
<hole 1!oced&!e $a7es 1lace in his o<n e=1e!ience as <ell as in $he gene!al e=1e!ience o% $he
co""&ni$y. :e is s&ccess%&l $o $he deg!ee $ha$ $he %inal -"e- !e%lec$s $he a$$i$&de o% all in $he
co""&ni$y. 0ha$ I a" 1oin$ing o&$ is $ha$ <ha$ occ&!s $a7es 1lace no$ si"1ly in his o<n "ind, ,&$
!a$he! $ha$ his "ind is $he e=1!ession in his o<n cond&c$ o% $his social si$&a$ion, $his g!ea$
coo1e!a$ie co""&ni$y 1!ocess <hich is going on.
I <an$ $o aoid $he i"1lica$ion $ha$ $he indiid&al is $a7ing so"e$hing $ha$ is o,9ec$ie and "a7ing i$
s&,9ec$ie. The!e is an ac$&al 1!ocess o% liing $oge$he! on $he 1a!$ o% all "e",e!s o% $he co""&ni$y
<hich $a7es 1lace ,y "eans o% ges$&!es. The ges$&!es a!e ce!$ain s$ages in $he coo1e!a$ie
ac$ii$ies <hich "edia$e $he <hole 1!ocess. No<, all $ha$ has $a7en 1lace in $he a11ea!ance o% $he
"ind is $ha$ $his 1!ocess has ,een in so"e deg!ee $a7en oe! in$o $he cond&c$ o% $he 1a!$ic&la!
indiid&al. The!e is a ce!$ain sy",ol, s&ch as $he 1olice"an &ses <hen he di!ec$s $!a%%ic. Tha$ is
so"e$hing $ha$ is o&$ $he!e. I$ does no$ ,eco"e s&,9ec$ie <hen $he enginee!, <ho is engaged ,y
$he ci$y $o e=a"ine i$s $!a%%ic !eg&la$ions, $a7es $he sa"e a$$i$&de $he 1olice"an $a7es <i$h !e%e!ence
$o $!a%%ic, and $a7es $he a$$i$&de also o% $he d!ie!s o% "achines. 0e do i"1ly $ha$ he has $he d!ie!>s
o!gani8a$ion@ he 7no<s $ha$ s$o11ing "eans slo<ing do<n, 1&$$ing on $he ,!a7es. The!e is a de%ini$e
se$ o% 1a!$s o% his o!ganis" so $!ained $ha$ &nde! ce!$ain ci!c&"s$ances he ,!ings $he "achine $o a
s$o1. The !aising o% $he 1olice"an>s hand is $he ges$&!e <hich calls o&$ $he a!io&s ac$s ,y "eans o%
<hich $he "achine is chec7ed. Those a!io&s ac$s a!e in $he e=1e!$>s o<n o!gani8a$ion@ he can $a7e
$he a$$i$&de o% ,o$h $he 1olice"an and $he d!ie!. Only in $his sense has $he social 1!ocess ,een
"ade -s&,9ec$ie.- I% $he e=1e!$ 9&s$ did i$ as a child does, i$ <o&ld ,e 1lay@ ,&$ i% i$ is done %o! $he
ac$&al !eg&la$ion o% $!a%%ic, $hen $he!e is $he o1e!a$ion o% <ha$ <e $e!" "ind. Mind is no$hing ,&$ $he
i"1o!$a$ion o% $his e=$e!nal 1!ocess in$o $he cond&c$ o% $he indiid&al so as $o "ee$ $he 1!o,le"s
$ha$ a!ise.
This 1ec&lia! o!gani8a$ion a!ises o&$ o% a social 1!ocess $ha$ is logically i$s an$eceden$. A co""&ni$y
<i$hin <hich $he o!ganis" ac$s in s&ch a coo1e!a$ie %ashion $ha$ $he ac$ion o% one is $he s$i"&l&s $o
$he o$he! $o !es1ond, and so on, is $he an$eceden$ o% $he 1ec&lia! $y1e o% o!gani8a$ion <e $e!" a
"ind, o! a sel%. Ta7e $he si"1le %a"ily !ela$ion, <he!e $he!e is $he "ale and $he %e"ale and $he child
<hich has $o ,e ca!ed %o!. :e!e is a 1!ocess <hich can only go on $h!o&gh in$e!ac$ions <i$hin $his
g!o&1. I$ canno$ ,e said $ha$ $he indiid&als co"e %i!s$ and $he co""&ni$y la$e!, %o! $he indiid&als
a!ise in $he e!y 1!ocess i$sel%, 9&s$ as "&ch as $he h&"an ,ody o! any "&l$i?cell&la! %o!" is one in
<hich di%%e!en$ia$ed cells a!ise.
The!e has $o ,e a li%e?1!ocess going on in o!de! $o hae $he di%%e!en$ia$ed cells@ in $he sa"e <ay
$he!e has $o ,e a social 1!ocess going on in o!de! $ha$ $he!e "ay ,e indiid&als. I$ is 9&s$ as $!&e in
socie$y as i$ is in $he 1hysiological si$&a$ion $ha$ $he!e co&ld no$ ,e $he indiid&al i% $he!e <as no$ $he
1!ocess o% <hich he is a 1a!$. (ien s&ch a social 1!ocess, $he!e is $he 1ossi,ili$y o% h&"an
in$elligence <hen $his social 1!ocess, in $e!"s o% $he cone!sa$ion o% ges$&!es, is $a7en oe! in$o $he
cond&c$ o% $he indiid&al?and $hen $he!e a!ises, o% co&!se, a di%%e!en$ $y1e o% indiid&al in $e!"s o%
$he !es1onses no< 1ossi,le. The!e "igh$ conceia,ly ,e an indiid&al <ho si"1ly 1lays as $he child
does, <i$ho&$ ge$$ing in$o a social ga"e@ ,&$ $he h&"an indiid&al is 1ossi,le ,eca&se $he!e is a
social 1!ocess in <hich i$ can %&nc$ion !es1onsi,ly. The a$$i$&des a!e 1a!$s o% $he social !eac$ion@ $he
c!ies <o&ld no$ "ain$ain $he"seles as ocal ges$&!es &nless $hey did call o&$ ce!$ain !es1onses in
$he o$he!s@ $he a$$i$&de i$sel% co&ld only e=is$ as s&ch in $his in$e!1lay o% ges$&!es.
The "ind is si"1ly $he in$e!1lay o% s&ch ges$&!es in $he %o!" o% signi%ican$ sy",ols. 0e "&s$
!e"e",e! $ha$ $he ges$&!e is $he!e only in i$s !ela$ionshi1 $o $he !es1onse, $o $he a$$i$&de. One <o&ld
no$ hae <o!ds &nless $he!e <e!e s&ch !es1onses. Lang&age <o&ld nee! hae a!isen as a se$ o%
,a!e a!,i$!a!y $e!"s <hich <e!e a$$ached $o ce!$ain s$i"&li. 0o!ds hae a!isen o&$ o% a social
in$e!!ela$ionshi1. One o% (&llie!>s $ales <as o% a co""&ni$y in <hich a "achine <as c!ea$ed in$o
<hich $he le$$e!s o% $he al1ha,e$ co&ld ,e "echanically %ed in an endless n&",e! o% co",ina$ions,
and $hen $he "e",e!s o% $he co""&ni$y ga$he!ed a!o&nd $o see ho< $he le$$e!s a!!anged a%$e! each
!o$a$ion, on $he $heo!y $ha$ $hey "igh$ co"e in $he %o!" o% an Iliad o! one o% Sha7es1ea!e>s 1lays, o!
so"e o$he! g!ea$ <o!7. The ass&"1$ion ,ac7 o% $his <o&ld ,e $ha$ sy",ols a!e en$i!ely inde1enden$
o% <ha$ <e $e!" $hei! "eaning. The ass&"1$ion is ,aseless; $he!e canno$ ,e sy",ols &nless $he!e
a!e !es1onses. The!e <o&ld no$ ,e a call %o! assis$ance i% $he!e <as no$ a $endency $o !es1ond $o
$he c!y o% dis$!ess. I$ is s&ch signi%ican$ sy",ols, in $he sense o% a s&,?se$ o% social s$i"&li ini$ia$ing a
coo1e!a$ie !es1onse, $ha$ do in a ce!$ain sense cons$i$&$e o&! "ind, 1!oided $ha$ no$ only $he
sy",ol ,&$ also $he !es1onses a!e in o&! o<n na$&!e. 0ha$ $he h&"an ,eing has s&cceeded in
doing is in o!gani8ing $he !es1onse $o a ce!$ain sy",ol <hich is a 1a!$ o% $he social ac$, so $ha$ he
$a7es $he a$$i$&de o% $he o$he! 1e!son <ho coo1e!a$es <i$h hi". I$ is $ha$ <hich gies hi" a "ind.
The sen$inel o% a he!d is $ha$ "e",e! o% $he he!d <hich is "o!e sensi$ie $o odo! o! so&nd $han $he
o$he!s. A$ $he a11!oach o% dange!, he s$a!$s $o !&n ea!lie! $han $he o$he!s, <ho $hen %ollo< along, in
i!$&e o% a he!ding $endency $o !&n $oge$he!. The!e is a social s$i"&l&s, a ges$&!e, i% yo& li7e, $o
<hich $he o$he! %o!"s !es1ond. The %i!s$ %o!" ge$s $he odo! ea!lie! and s$a!$s $o !&n, and i$s s$a!$ing
$o !&n is a s$i"&l&s $o $he o$he!s $o !&n also. I$ is all e=$e!nal@ $he!e is no "en$al 1!ocess inoled.
The sen$inel does no$ !ega!d i$sel% as $he indiid&al <ho is $o gie a signal@ i$ 9&s$ !&ns a$ a ce!$ain
"o"en$ and so s$a!$s $he o$he!s $o !&n. B&$ <i$h a "ind, $he ani"al $ha$ gies $he signal also $a7es
$he a$$i$&de o% $he o$he!s <ho !es1ond $o i$. :e 7no<s <ha$ his signal "eans. A "an <ho calls -%i!e-
<o&ld ,e a,le $o call o&$ in hi"sel% $he !eac$ion he calls o&$ in $he o$he!. In so %a! as $he "an can
$a7e $he a$$i$&de o% $he o$he!?his a$$i$&de o% !es1onse $o %i!e, his sense o% $e!!o!?$ha$ !es1onse $o his
o<n c!y is so"e$hing $ha$ "a7es o% his cond&c$ a "en$al a%%ai!, as oe! agains$ $he cond&c$ o% $he
o$he!s.+.- B&$ $he only $hing $ha$ has ha11ened he!e is $ha$ <ha$ $a7es 1lace e=$e!nally in $he he!d
has ,een i"1o!$ed in$o $he cond&c$ o% $he "an. The!e is $he sa"e signal and $he sa"e $endency $o
!es1ond, ,&$ $he "an no$ only can gie $he signal ,&$ also can a!o&se in hi"sel% $he a$$i$&de o% $he
$e!!i%ied esca1e, and $h!o&gh calling $ha$ o&$ he can co"e ,ac7 &1on his o<n $endency $o call o&$
and can chec7 i$. :e can !eac$ &1on hi"sel% in $a7ing $he o!gani8ed a$$i$&de o% $he <hole g!o&1 in
$!ying $o esca1e %!o" dange!. The!e is no$hing "o!e s&,9ec$ie a,o&$ i$ $han $ha$ $he !es1onse $o his
o<n s$i"&l&s can ,e %o&nd in his o<n cond&c$, and $ha$ he can &$ili8e $he cone!sa$ion o% ges$&!es
$ha$ $a7es 1lace $o de$e!"ine his o<n cond&c$. I% he can so ac$, he can se$ &1 a !a$ional con$!ol, and
$h&s "a7e 1ossi,le a %a! "o!e highly o!gani8ed socie$y $han o$he!<ise. The 1!ocess is one <hich
does no$ &$ili8e a "an endo<ed <i$h a conscio&sness <he!e $he!e <as no conscio&sness ,e%o!e,
,&$ !a$he! an indiid&al <ho $a7es oe! $he <hole social 1!ocess in$o his o<n cond&c$. Tha$ a,ili$y,
o% co&!se, is de1enden$ %i!s$ o% all on $he sy",ol ,eing one $o <hich he can !es1ond@ and so %a! as
<e 7no<, $he ocal ges$&!e has ,een $he condi$ion %o! $he deelo1"en$ o% $ha$ $y1e o% sy",ol.
0he$he! i$ can deelo1 <i$ho&$ $he ocal ges$&!e I canno$ $ell.
I <an$ $o ,e s&!e $ha$ <e see $ha$ $he con$en$ 1&$ in$o $he "ind is only a deelo1"en$ and 1!od&c$ o%
social in$e!ac$ion. I$ is a deelo1"en$ <hich is o% eno!"o&s i"1o!$ance, and <hich leads $o
co"1le=i$ies and co"1lica$ions o% socie$y <hich go al"os$ ,eyond o&! 1o<e! $o $!ace, ,&$ o!iginally
i$ is no$hing ,&$ $he $a7ing oe! o% $he a$$i$&de o% $he o$he!. To $he e=$en$ $ha$ $he ani"al can $a7e $he
a$$i$&de o% $he o$he! and &$ili8e $ha$ a$$i$&de %o! $he con$!ol o% his o<n cond&c$, <e hae <ha$ is
$e!"ed "ind@ and $ha$ is $he only a11a!a$&s inoled in $he a11ea!ance o% $he "ind.
I 7no< o% no <ay in <hich in$elligence o! "ind co&ld a!ise o! co&ld hae a!isen, o$he! $han $h!o&gh
$he in$e!nali8a$ion ,y $he indiid&al o% social 1!ocesses o% e=1e!ience and ,ehaio!, $ha$ is, $h!o&gh
$his in$e!nali8a$ion o% $he cone!sa$ion o% signi%ican$ ges$&!es, as "ade 1ossi,le ,y $he indiid&al>s
$a7ing $he a$$i$&des o% o$he! indiid&als $o<a!d hi"sel% and $o<a!d <ha$ is ,eing $ho&gh$ a,o&$. And
i% "ind o! $ho&gh$ has a!isen in $his <ay, $hen $he!e nei$he! can ,e no! co&ld hae ,een any "ind o!
$ho&gh$ <i$ho&$ lang&age@ and $he ea!ly s$ages o% $he deelo1"en$ o% lang&age "&s$ hae ,een
1!io! $o $he deelo1"en$ o% "ind o! $ho&gh$.
"ndnotes
1. The !ela$ion o% "ind and ,ody is $ha$ lying ,e$<een $he o!gani8a$ion o% $he sel% in i$s
,ehaio! as a "e",e! o% a !a$ional co""&ni$y and $he ,odily o!ganis" as a 1hysical $hing.
The !a$ional a$$i$&de <hich cha!ac$e!i8es $he h&"an ,eing is $hen $he !ela$ionshi1 o% $he
<hole 1!ocess in <hich $he indiid&al is engaged $o hi"sel% as !e%lec$ed in his ass&"1$ion o%
$he o!gani8ed !Mles o% $he o$he!s in s$i"&la$ing hi"sel% $o his !es1onse. This sel% as
dis$ing&ished %!o" $he o$he!s lies <i$hin $he %ield o% co""&nica$ion, and $hey lie also <i$hin
$his %ield. 0ha$ "ay ,e indica$ed $o o$he!s o! one>s sel% and does no$ !es1ond $o s&ch
ges$&!es o% indica$ion is, in $he %ield o% 1e!ce1$ion, <ha$ <e call a 1hysical $hing. The h&"an
,ody is, es1ecially in i$s analysis, !ega!ded as a 1hysical $hing.
The line o% de"a!ca$ion ,e$<een $he sel% and $he ,ody is %o&nd, $hen, %i!s$ o% all in $he social
o!gani8a$ion o% $he ac$ <i$hin <hich $he sel% a!ises, in i$s con$!as$ <i$h $he ac$ii$y o% $he
1hysiological o!ganis" AMSB.
The legi$i"a$e ,asis o% dis$inc$ion ,e$<een "ind and ,ody is ,e$<een $he social 1a$$e!ns
and $he 1a$$e!ns o% $he o!ganis" i$sel%. Ed&ca$ion "&s$ ,!ing $he $<o closely $oge$he!. 0e
hae, as ye$, no co"1!ehending ca$ego!y. This does no$ "ean $o say $ha$ $he!e is any$hing
logically agains$ i$@ i$ is "e!ely a lac7 o% o&! a11a!a$&s o! 7no<ledge A13#/B.
#. Lang&age as "ade &1 o% signi%ican$ sy",ols is <ha$ <e "ean ,y "ind. The con$en$ o% o&!
"inds is AiB inne! cone!sa$ion, $he i"1o!$a$ion o% cone!sa$ion %!o" $he social g!o&1 $o $he
indiid&al A#B .... i"age!y. I"age!y sho&ld ,e !ega!ded in !ela$ion $o $he ,ehaio! in <hich i$s
%&nc$ions A13'1B.
I"age!y 1lays 9&s$ $he 1a!$ in $he ac$ $ha$ h&nge! does in $he %ood 1!ocess A131#B. ISee
S&11le"en$a!y Essay 1.K
.1# TH" 5I5 %() TH" 5M"5 %S PH%S"S $3 TH" S"&3I1K
0e co"e no< $o $he 1osi$ion o% $he sel%?conscio&s sel% o! "ind in $he co""&ni$y. S&ch a sel% %inds
i$s e=1!ession in sel%?asse!$ion, o! in $he deo$ion o% i$sel% $o $he ca&se o% $he co""&ni$y. The sel%
a11ea!s as a ne< $y1e o% indiid&al in $he social <hole. The!e is a ne< social <hole ,eca&se o% $he
a11ea!ance o% $he $y1e o% indiid&al "ind I hae desc!i,ed, and ,eca&se o% $he sel% <i$h i$s o<n
asse!$ion o% i$sel% o! i$s o<n iden$i%ica$ion <i$h $he co""&ni$y. The sel% is $he i"1o!$an$ 1hase in $he
deelo1"en$ ,eca&se i$ is in $he 1ossi,ili$y o% $he i"1o!$a$ion o% $his social a$$i$&de in$o $he
!es1onses o% $he <hole co""&ni$y $ha$ s&ch a socie$y co&ld a!ise. The change $ha$ $a7es 1lace
$h!o&gh $his i"1o!$a$ion o% $he cone!sa$ion o% ges$&!es in$o $he cond&c$ o% $he indiid&al is one $ha$
$a7es 1lace in $he e=1e!ience o% all o% $he co"1onen$ indiid&als.
These, o% co&!se, a!e no$ $he only changes $ha$ $a7e 1lace in $he co""&ni$y. In s1eech de%ini$e
changes $a7e 1lace $ha$ no,ody is a<a!e o% a$ all. I$ !eD&i!es $he ines$iga$ion o% scien$is$s $o
discoe! $ha$ s&ch 1!ocesses hae $a7en 1lace. This is also $!&e o% o$he! 1hases o% h&"an
o!gani8a$ion. They change, <e say, &nconscio&sly, as is ill&s$!a$ed in s&ch a s$&dy o% $he "y$h as
0&nd$ has ca!!ied o&$ in his 4ol.erpsychologie The "y$h ca!!ies an acco&n$ o% $he <ay in <hich
o!gani8a$ion has $a7en 1lace <hile la!gely <i$ho&$ any conscio&s di!ec$ion?and $ha$ so!$ o% change is
going on all $he $i"e. Ta7e a 1e!son>s a$$i$&de $o<a!d a ne< %ashion. I$ "ay a$ %i!s$ ,e one o%
o,9ec$ion. A%$e! a <hile he ge$s $o $he 1oin$ o% $hin7ing o% hi"sel% in $his changed %ashion, no$icing
$he clo$hes in $he <indo< and seeing hi"sel% in $he". The change has $a7en 1lace in hi" <i$ho&$
his ,eing a<a!e o% i$. The!e is, $hen, a 1!ocess ,y "eans o% <hich $he indiid&al in in$e!ac$ion <i$h
o$he!s inei$a,ly ,eco"es li7e o$he!s in doing $he sa"e $hing, <i$ho&$ $ha$ 1!ocess a11ea!ing in
<ha$ <e $e!" conscio&sness. 0e ,eco"e conscio&s o% $he 1!ocess <hen <e do de%ini$ely $a7e $he
a$$i$&de o% $he o$he!s, and $his si$&a$ion "&s$ ,e dis$ing&ished %!o" $he 1!eio&s one. Pe!ha1s one
says $ha$ he does no$ ca!e $o d!ess in a ce!$ain %ashion, ,&$ 1!e%e!s $o ,e di%%e!en$@ $hen he is $a7ing
$he a$$i$&de o% o$he!s $o<a!d hi"sel% in$o his o<n cond&c$. 0hen an an$ %!o" ano$he! nes$ is
in$!od&ced in$o $he nes$ o% o$he! %o!"s, $hese $&!n on i$ and $ea! i$ $o 1ieces. The a$$i$&de in $he
h&"an co""&ni$y "ay ,e $ha$ o% $he indiid&al hi"sel%, !e%&sing $o s&,"i$ hi"sel% ,eca&se he does
$a7e $ha$ co""on a$$i$&de. The an$ case is an en$i!ely e=$e!nal a%%ai!, ,&$ in $he h&"an indiid&al i$ is
a "a$$e! o% $a7ing $he a$$i$&des o% $he o$he!s and ad9&s$ing one>s sel% o! %igh$ing i$ o&$. I$ is $his
!ecogni$ion o% $he indiid&al as a sel% in $he 1!ocess o% &sing his sel%?conscio&sness <hich gies hi"
$he a$$i$&de o% sel%?asse!$ion o! $he a$$i$&de o% deo$ion $o $he co""&ni$y. :e has ,eco"e, $hen, a
de%ini$e sel%. In s&ch a case o% sel%?asse!$ion $he!e is an en$i!ely di%%e!en$ si$&a$ion %!o" $ha$ o% $he
"e",e! o% $he 1ac7 <ho 1e!ha1s do"ina$es i$, and "ay $&!n saagely on di%%e!en$ "e",e!s o% i$.
The!e an indiid&al is 9&s$ ac$ing ins$inc$iely, <e say, in a ce!$ain si$&a$ion. In $he h&"an socie$y <e
hae an indiid&al <ho no$ only $a7es his o<n a$$i$&de ,&$ $a7es $he a$$i$&de in a ce!$ain sense o% his
s&,9ec$s@ in so %a! as he is do"ina$ing he 7no<s <ha$ $o e=1ec$. 0hen $ha$ occ&!s in $he e=1e!ience
o% $he indiid&al a di%%e!en$ !es1onse !es&l$s <i$h di%%e!en$ e"o$ional acco"1ani"en$s, %!o" $ha$ in
$he case o% $he leade! o% $he 1ac7. In $he la$$e! case $he!e is si"1le ange! o! hos$ili$y, and in $he
o$he! case $he!e is $he e=1e!ience o% $he sel% asse!$ing i$sel% conscio&sly oe! agains$ o$he! seles,
<i$h $he sense o% 1o<e!, o% do"ina$ion. In gene!al, <hen $he co""&ni$y !eac$ion has ,een i"1o!$ed
in$o $he indiid&al $he!e is a ne< al&e in e=1e!ience and a ne< o!de! o% !es1onse.
0e hae disc&ssed $he sel% %!o" $he 1oin$ o% ie< o% $he -I- and $he -"e,- $he -"e- !e1!esen$ing $ha$
g!o&1 o% a$$i$&des <hich s$ands %o! o$he!s in $he co""&ni$y, es1ecially $ha$ o!gani8ed g!o&1 o%
!es1onses <hich <e hae de$ailed in disc&ssing $he ga"e on $he one hand and social ins$i$&$ions
on $he o$he!. In $hese si$&a$ions $he!e is a ce!$ain o!gani8ed g!o&1 o% a$$i$&des <hich ans<e! $o any
social ac$ on $he 1a!$ o% $he indiid&al o!ganis". In any coo1e!a$ie 1!ocess, s&ch as $he %a"ily, $he
indiid&al calls o&$ a !es1onse %!o" $he o$he! "e",e!s o% $he g!o&1. No<, $o $he e=$en$ $ha$ $hose
!es1onses can ,e called o&$ in $he indiid&al so $ha$ he can ans<e! $o $he", <e hae ,o$h $hose
con$en$s <hich go $o "a7e &1 $he sel%, $he -o$he!- and $he -I.- The dis$inc$ion e=1!esses i$sel% in o&!
e=1e!ience in <ha$ <e call $he !ecogni$ion o% o$he!s and $he !ecogni$ion o% o&!seles in $he o$he!s.
0e canno$ !eali8e o&!seles e=ce1$ in so %a! as <e can !ecogni8e $he o$he! in his !ela$ionshi1 $o &s.
I$ is as he $a7es $he a$$i$&de o% $he o$he! $ha$ $he indiid&al is a,le $o !eali8e hi"sel% as a sel%.
0e a!e !e%e!!ing, o% co&!se, $o a social si$&a$ion as dis$inc$ %!o" s&ch ,a!e o!ganic !es1onses as
!e%le=es o% $he o!ganis", so"e o% <hich <e hae al!eady disc&ssed, as in $he case <he!e a 1e!son
ad9&s$s hi"sel% &nconscio&sly $o $hose a,o&$ hi". In s&ch an e=1e!ience $he!e is no sel%?
conscio&sness. One a$$ains sel%?conscio&sness only as he $a7es, o! %inds hi"sel% s$i"&la$ed $o $a7e,
$he a$$i$&de o% $he o$he!. Then he is in a 1osi$ion o% !eac$ing in hi"sel% $o $ha$ a$$i$&de o% $he o$he!.
S&11ose <e %ind o&!seles in an econo"ic si$&a$ion. I$ is <hen <e $a7e $he a$$i$&de o% $he o$he! in
"a7ing an o%%e! $o &s $ha$ <e can e=1!ess o&!seles in acce1$ing o! declining s&ch an o%%e!. Tha$ is
a di%%e!en$ !es1onse o% $he sel% %!o" a dis$inc$ly a&$o"a$ic o%%e!ing $ha$ can $a7e 1lace <i$ho&$ sel%?
conscio&sness. A s"all ,oy $h!&s$s an ade!$ising ,ill in$o o&! hand and <e $a7e i$ <i$ho&$ any
de%ini$e conscio&sness o% hi" o! o% o&!seles. O&! $ho&gh$ "ay ,e else<he!e ,&$ $he 1!ocess s$ill
goes on. The sa"e $hing is $!&e, o% co&!se, in $he ca!e o% in%an$s. Yo&ng child!en e=1e!ience $ha$
<hich co"es $o $he", $hey ad9&s$ $he"seles $o i$ in an i""edia$e %ashion, <i$ho&$ $he!e ,eing
1!esen$ in $hei! e=1e!ience a sel%.
0hen a sel% does a11ea! i$ al<ays inoles an e=1e!ience o% ano$he!@ $he!e co&ld no$ ,e an
e=1e!ience o% a sel% si"1ly ,y i$sel%. The 1lan$ o! $he lo<e! ani"al !eac$s $o i$s eni!on"en$, ,&$
$he!e is no e=1e!ience o% a sel%. 0hen a sel% does a11ea! in e=1e!ience i$ a11ea!s oe! agains$ $he
o$he!, and <e hae ,een delinea$ing $he condi$ion &nde! <hich $his o$he! does a11ea! in $he
e=1e!ience o% $he h&"an ani"al, na"ely in $he 1!esence o% $ha$ so!$ o% s$i"&la$ion in $he
coo1e!a$ie ac$ii$y <hich a!o&ses in $he indiid&al hi"sel% $he sa"e !es1onse i$ a!o&ses in $he
o$he!. 0hen $he !es1onse o% $he o$he! ,eco"es an essen$ial 1a!$ in $he e=1e!ience o! cond&c$ o%
$he indiid&al@ <hen $a7ing $he a$$i$&de o% $he o$he! ,eco"es an essen$ial 1a!$ in his ,ehaio!? $hen
$he indiid&al a11ea!s in his o<n e=1e!ience as a sel%@ and &n$il $his ha11ens he does no$ a11ea! as
a sel%.
*a$ional socie$y, o% co&!se, is no$ li"i$ed $o any s1eci%ic se$ o% indiid&als. Any 1e!son <ho is
!a$ional can ,eco"e a 1a!$ o% i$. The a$$i$&de o% $he co""&ni$y $o<a!d o&! o<n !es1onse is i"1o!$ed
in$o o&!seles in $e!"s o% $he "eaning o% <ha$ <e a!e doing. This occ&!s in i$s <ides$ e=$en$ in
&nie!sal disco&!se, in $he !e1ly <hich $he !a$ional <o!ld "a7es $o o&! !e"a!7. The "eaning is as
&nie!sal as $he co""&ni$y@ i$ is necessa!ily inoled in $he !a$ional cha!ac$e! o% $ha$ co""&ni$y@ i$ is
$he !es1onse $ha$ $he <o!ld "ade &1 o&$ o% !a$ional ,eings inei$a,ly "a7es $o o&! o<n s$a$e"en$.
0e ,o$h ge$ $he o,9ec$ and o&!seles in$o e=1e!ience in $e!"s o% s&ch a 1!ocess@ $he o$he! a11ea!s
in o&! o<n e=1e!ience in so %a! as <e do $a7e s&ch an o!gani8ed and gene!ali8ed a$$i$&de.
I% one "ee$s a 1e!son on $he s$!ee$ <ho" he %ails $o !ecogni8e, one>s !eac$ion $o<a!d hi" is $ha$
$o<a!d any o$he! <ho is a "e",e! o% $he sa"e co""&ni$y. :e is $he o$he!, $he o!gani8ed,
gene!ali8ed o$he!, i% yo& li7e. One $a7es his a$$i$&de oe! agains$ one>s sel%. I% he $&!ns in one
di!ec$ion one is $o go in ano$he! di!ec$ion. One has his !es1onse as an a$$i$&de <i$hin hi"sel%. I$ is
haing $ha$ a$$i$&de <i$hin hi"sel% $ha$ "a7es i$ 1ossi,le %o! one $o ,e a sel%. Tha$ inoles
so"e$hing ,eyond $he "e!e $&!ning $o $he !igh$, as <e say, ins$inc$iely, <i$ho&$ sel%?conscio&sness.
To hae sel%?conscio&sness one "&s$ hae $he a$$i$&de o% $he o$he! in one>s o<n o!ganis" as
con$!olling $he $hing $ha$ he is going $o do. 0ha$ a11ea!s in $he i""edia$e e=1e!ience o% one>s sel%
in $a7ing $ha$ a$$i$&de is <ha$ <e $e!" $he -"e.- I$ is $ha$ sel% <hich is a,le $o "ain$ain i$sel% in $he
co""&ni$y, $ha$ is !ecogni8ed in $he co""&ni$y in so %a! as i$ !ecogni8es $he o$he!s. S&ch is $he
1hase o% $he sel% <hich I hae !e%e!!ed $o as $ha$ o% $he -"e.-
Oe! agains$ $he -"e- is $he -I.- The indiid&al no$ only has !igh$s, ,&$ he has d&$ies@ he is no$ only a
ci$i8en, a "e",e! o% $he co""&ni$y, ,&$ he is one <ho !eac$s $o $his co""&ni$y and in his !eac$ion
$o i$, as <e hae seen in $he cone!sa$ion o% ges$&!es, changes i$. The -I- is $he !es1onse o% $he
indiid&al $o $he a$$i$&de o% $he co""&ni$y as $his a11ea!s in his o<n e=1e!ience. :is !es1onse $o
$ha$ o!gani8ed a$$i$&de in $&!n changes i$. As <e hae 1oin$ed o&$, $his is a change <hich is no$
1!esen$ in his o<n e=1e!ience &n$il a%$e! i$ $a7es 1lace. The -I- a11ea!s in o&! e=1e!ience in "e"o!y.
I$ is only a%$e! <e hae ac$ed $ha$ <e 7no< <ha$ <e hae done@ i$ is only a%$e! <e hae s1o7en $ha$
<e 7no< <ha$ <e hae said. The ad9&s$"en$ $o $ha$ o!gani8ed <o!ld <hich is 1!esen$ in o&! o<n
na$&!e is one $ha$ !e1!esen$s $he -"e- and is cons$an$ly $he!e. B&$ i% $he !es1onse $o i$ is a !es1onse
<hich is o% $he na$&!e o% $he cone!sa$ion o% ges$&!es, i% i$ c!ea$es a si$&a$ion <hich is in so"e sense
noel, i% one 1&$s &1 his side o% $he case, asse!$s hi"sel% oe! agains$ o$he!s and insis$s $ha$ $hey
$a7e a di%%e!en$ a$$i$&de $o<a!d hi"sel%, $hen $he!e is so"e$hing i"1o!$an$ occ&!!ing $ha$ is no$
1!eio&sly 1!esen$ in e=1e!ience.
The gene!al condi$ions &nde! <hich one is going $o ac$ "ay ,e 1!esen$ in one>s e=1e!ience, ,&$ he
is as igno!an$ o% 9&s$ ho< he is going $o !es1ond as is $he scien$is$ o% $he 1a!$ic&la! hy1o$hesis he <ill
eole o&$ o% $he conside!a$ion o% a 1!o,le". S&ch and s&ch $hings a!e ha11ening $ha$ a!e con$!a!y
$o $he $heo!y $ha$ has ,een held. :o< a!e $hey $o ,e e=1lainedE Ta7e $he discoe!y $ha$ a g!a" o%
!adi&" <o&ld 7ee1 a 1o$ o% <a$e! ,oiling, and see"ingly lead $o no e=1endi$&!e o% ene!gy. :e!e
so"e$hing is ha11ening $ha$ !&ns con$!a!y $o $he $heo!y o% 1hysics &1 $o $he conce1$ion o% !adi&"
ac$ii$y. The scien$is$ <ho has $hese %ac$s ,e%o!e hi" has $o 1ic7 o&$ so"e e=1lana$ion. :e s&gges$s
$ha$ $he !adi&" a$o" is ,!ea7ing do<n, and is conseD&en$ly se$$ing %!ee ene!gy. On $he 1!eio&s
$heo!y an a$o" <as a 1e!"anen$ a%%ai! o&$ o% <hich one co&ld no$ ge$ ene!gy. B&$ no< i% i$ is
ass&"ed $ha$ $he a$o" i$sel% is a sys$e" inoling an in$e!!ela$ionshi1 o% ene!gies, $hen $he ,!ea7ing
do<n o% s&ch a sys$e" se$s %!ee <ha$ is !ela$iely an eno!"o&s a"o&n$ o% ene!gy. The 1oin$ I a"
"a7ing is $ha$ $he idea o% $he scien$is$ co"es $o hi", i$ is no$ as ye$ $he!e in his o<n "ind. :is "ind,
!a$he!, is $he 1!ocess o% $he a11ea!ance o% $ha$ idea. A 1e!son asse!$ing his !igh$s on a ce!$ain
occasion has !ehea!sed $he si$&a$ion in his o<n "ind@ he has !eac$ed $o<a!d $he co""&ni$y and
<hen $he si$&a$ion a!ises he a!o&ses hi"sel% and says so"e$hing al!eady in his "ind. B&$ <hen he
said i$ $o hi"sel% in $he %i!s$ 1lace he did no$ 7no< <ha$ he <as going $o say. :e $hen said so"e$hing
$ha$ <as noel $o hi"sel%, 9&s$ as $he scien$is$>s hy1o$hesis is a noel$y <hen i$ %lashes &1on hi".
S&ch a noel !e1ly $o $he social si$&a$ion inoled in $he o!gani8ed se$ o% a$$i$&des cons$i$&$es $he -I-
as oe! agains$ $he -"e.- The -"e- is a conen$ional, ha,i$&al indiid&al. I$ is al<ays $he!e. I$ has $o
hae $hose ha,i$s, $hose !es1onses <hich ee!y,ody has@ o$he!<ise $he indiid&al co&ld no$ ,e a
"e",e! o% $he co""&ni$y. B&$ an indiid&al is cons$an$ly !eac$ing $o s&ch an o!gani8ed co""&ni$y
in $he <ay o% e=1!essing hi"sel%, no$ necessa!ily asse!$ing hi"sel% in $he o%%ensie sense ,&$
e=1!essing hi"sel%, ,eing hi"sel% in s&ch a coo1e!a$ie 1!ocess as ,elongs $o any co""&ni$y. The
a$$i$&des inoled a!e ga$he!ed %!o" $he g!o&1, ,&$ $he indiid&al in <ho" $hey a!e o!gani8ed has
$he o11o!$&ni$y o% giing $he" an e=1!ession <hich 1e!ha1s has nee! $a7en 1lace ,e%o!e.
This ,!ings o&$ $he gene!al D&es$ion as $o <he$he! any$hing noel can a11ea!.+.- P!ac$ically, o%
co&!se, $he noel is cons$an$ly ha11ening and $he !ecogni$ion o% $his ge$s i$s e=1!ession in "o!e
gene!al $e!"s in $he conce1$ o% e"e!gence. E"e!gence inoles a !eo!gani8a$ion, ,&$ $he
!eo!gani8a$ion ,!ings in so"e$hing $ha$ <as no$ $he!e ,e%o!e. The %i!s$ $i"e o=ygen and hyd!ogen
co"e $oge$he!, <a$e! a11ea!s. No< <a$e! is a co",ina$ion o% hyd!ogen and o=ygen, ,&$ <a$e! <as
no$ $he!e ,e%o!e in $he se1a!a$e ele"en$s. The conce1$ion o% e"e!gence is a conce1$ <hich !ecen$
1hiloso1hy has "ade "&ch o%. I% yo& loo7 a$ $he <o!ld si"1ly %!o" $he 1oin$ o% ie< o% a
"a$he"a$ical eD&a$ion in <hich $he!e is a,sol&$e eD&ali$y o% $he di%%e!en$ sides, $hen, o% co&!se,
$he!e is no noel$y. The <o!ld is si"1ly a sa$is%ac$ion o% $ha$ eD&a$ion. P&$ in any al&es %o! 9 and
$he sa"e eD&a$ion holds. The eD&a$ions do hold, i$ is $!&e, ,&$ in $hei! holding so"e$hing else in %ac$
a!ises $ha$ <as no$ $he!e ,e%o!e. Fo! ins$ance, $he!e is a g!o&1 o% indiid&als $ha$ hae $o <o!7
$oge$he!. In a socie$y $he!e "&s$ ,e a se$ o% co""on o!gani8ed ha,i$s o% !es1onse %o&nd in all, ,&$
$he <ay in <hich indiid&als ac$ &nde! s1eci%ic ci!c&"s$ances gies !ise $o all o% $he indiid&al
di%%e!ences <hich cha!ac$e!i8e $he di%%e!en$ 1e!sons. The %ac$ $ha$ $hey hae $o ac$ in a ce!$ain
co""on %ashion does no$ de1!ie $he" o% o!iginali$y. The co""on lang&age is $he!e, ,&$ a di%%e!en$
&se o% i$ is "ade in ee!y ne< con$ac$ ,e$<een 1e!sons@ $he ele"en$ o% noel$y in $he !econs$!&c$ion
$a7es 1lace $h!o&gh $he !eac$ion o% $he indiid&als $o $he g!o&1 $o <hich $hey ,elong. Tha$
!econs$!&c$ion is no "o!e gien in adance $han is $he 1a!$ic&la! hy1o$hesis <hich $he scien$is$
,!ings %o!<a!d gien in $he s$a$e"en$ o% $he 1!o,le". No<, i$ is $ha$ !eac$ion o% $he indiid&al $o $he
o!gani8ed -"e,- $he -"e- $ha$ is in a ce!$ain sense si"1ly a "e",e! o% $he co""&ni$y, <hich
!e1!esen$s $he -I- in $he e=1e!ience o% $he sel%.
The !ela$ie al&es o% $he -"e- and $he -I- de1end e!y "&ch on $he si$&a$ion. I% one is "ain$aining
his 1!o1e!$y in $he co""&ni$y, i$ is o% 1!i"a!y i"1o!$ance $ha$ he is a "e",e! o% $ha$ co""&ni$y, %o!
i$ is his $a7ing o% $he a$$i$&de o% $he o$he!s $ha$ g&a!an$ees $o hi" $he !ecogni$ion o% his o<n !igh$s.
To ,e a -"e- &nde! $hose ci!c&"s$ances is $he i"1o!$an$ $hing. I$ gies hi" his 1osi$ion, gies hi"
$he digni$y o% ,eing a "e",e! in $he co""&ni$y, i$ is $he so&!ce o% his e"o$ional !es1onse $o $he
al&es $ha$ ,elong $o hi" as a "e",e! o% $he co""&ni$y. I$ is $he ,asis %o! his en$e!ing in$o $he
e=1e!ience o% o$he!s.
A$ $i"es i$ is $he !es1onse o% $he ego o! -I- $o a si$&a$ion, $he <ay in <hich one e=1!esses hi"sel%,
$ha$ ,!ings $o one a %eeling o% 1!i"e i"1o!$ance. One no< asse!$s hi"sel% agains$ a ce!$ain si$&a$ion,
and $he e"1hasis is on $he !es1onse. The de"and is %!eedo" %!o" conen$ions, %!o" gien la<s.
O% co&!se, s&ch a si$&a$ion is only 1ossi,le <he!e $he indiid&al a11eals, so $o s1ea7, %!o" a na!!o<
and !es$!ic$ed co""&ni$y $o a la!ge! one, $ha$ is, la!ge! in $he logical sense o% haing !igh$s <hich
a!e no$ so !es$!ic$ed. One a11eals %!o" %i=ed conen$ions <hich no longe! hae any "eaning $o a
co""&ni$y in <hich $he !igh$s shall ,e 1&,licly !ecogni8ed, and one a11eals $o o$he!s on $he
ass&"1$ion $ha$ $he!e is a g!o&1 o% o!gani8ed o$he!s $ha$ ans<e! $o one>s o<n a11eal?een i% $he
a11eal ,e "ade $o 1os$e!i$y. In $ha$ case $he!e is $he a$$i$&de o% $he -I- as oe! agains$ $he "e.
Bo$h as1ec$s o% $he -I- and -"e- a!e essen$ial $o $he sel% in i$s %&ll e=1!ession. One "&s$ $a7e $he
a$$i$&de o% $he o$he!s in a g!o&1 in o!de! $o ,elong $o a co""&ni$y@ he has $o e"1loy $ha$ o&$e!
social <o!ld $a7en <i$hin hi"sel% in o!de! $o ca!!y on $ho&gh$. I$ is $h!o&gh his !ela$ionshi1 $o o$he!s
in $ha$ co""&ni$y, ,eca&se o% $he !a$ional social 1!ocesses $ha$ o,$ain in $ha$ co""&ni$y, $ha$ he
has ,eing as a ci$i8en. On $he o$he! hand, $he indiid&al is cons$an$ly !eac$ing $o $he social a$$i$&des,
and changing in $his coo1e!a$ie 1!ocess $he e!y co""&ni$y $o <hich he ,elongs. Those changes
"ay ,e h&",le and $!iial ones. One "ay no$ hae any$hing $o say, al$ho&gh he $a7es a long $i"e $o
say i$. And ye$ a ce!$ain a"o&n$ o% ad9&s$"en$ and !ead9&s$"en$ $a7es 1lace. 0e s1ea7 o% a 1e!son
as a conen$ional indiid&al@ his ideas a!e e=ac$ly $he sa"e as $hose o% his neigh,o!s@ he is ha!dly
"o!e $han a -"e- &nde! $he ci!c&"s$ances@ his ad9&s$"en$s a!e only $he sligh$ ad9&s$"en$s $ha$ $a7e
1lace, as <e say, &nconscio&sly. Oe! agains$ $ha$ $he!e is $he 1e!son <ho has a de%ini$e
1e!sonali$y, <ho !e1lies $o $he o!gani8ed a$$i$&de in a <ay <hich "a7es a signi%ican$ di%%e!ence. 0i$h
s&ch a 1e!son i$ is $he -I- $ha$ is $he "o!e i"1o!$an$ 1hase o% $he e=1e!ience. Those $<o cons$an$ly
a11ea!ing 1hases a!e $he i"1o!$an$ 1hases in $he sel%.+/-
"ndnotes
1. ISee also -The De%ini$ion o% $he Psychical,- 'niversity of Chicago %ecennial Pu(lications,
135', 11. 15) %%.@ -The Mechanis" o% Social Conscio&sness,- Journal of Philosophy, I9
A131#B, )51 %%.@ -The Social Sel%,- i(id, 9 A131'B, '/) %%.K
2. ICf *he Philosophy of the Act, Pa!$ III.K 1!ditors6 note from /eorge6s Page: this footnote
refers to a (oo. that 7ill not e#ist for another ; years *here apparently 7as a revision of the
te#t of Mind, Self and Society after its first printing$
'. Psychologis$s deal as a !&le <i$h $he 1!ocesses <hich a!e inoled in <ha$ <e $e!"
1e!ce1$ion,- ,&$ hae e!y la!gely le%$ o&$ o% acco&n$ $he cha!ac$e! o% $he sel%. I$ has ,een
la!gely $h!o&gh $he 1a$hologis$ $ha$ $he i"1o!$ance o% $he sel% has en$e!ed in$o 1sychology.
Dissocia$ions hae cen$e!ed a$$en$ion on $he sel%, and hae sho<n ho< a,sol&$ely
%&nda"en$al is $his social cha!ac$e! o% $he "ind. Tha$ <hich cons$i$&$es $he 1e!sonali$y lies in
$his so!$ o% gie?and?$a7e ,e$<een "e",e!s in a g!o&1 $ha$ engage in a coo1e!a$ie
1!ocess. I$ is $his ac$ii$y $ha$ has led $o $he h&"anly in$elligen$ ani"al.
.2# TH" *"%&I?%TI$( $3 TH" S"&3 I( TH" S$CI%& SIT4%TI$(
The!e is s$ill one 1hase in $he deelo1"en$ o% $he sel% $ha$ needs $o ,e 1!esen$ed in "o!e de$ail; $he
!eali8a$ion o% $he sel% in $he social si$&a$ion in <hich i$ a!ises.
I hae a!g&ed $ha$ $he sel% a11ea!s in e=1e!ience essen$ially as a -"e- <i$h $he o!gani8a$ion o% $he
co""&ni$y $o <hich i$ ,elongs. This o!gani8a$ion is, o% co&!se, e=1!essed in $he 1a!$ic&la!
endo<"en$ and 1a!$ic&la! social si$&a$ion o% $he indiid&al. :e is a "e",e! o% $he co""&ni$y, ,&$
he is a 1a!$ic&la! 1a!$ o% $he co""&ni$y, <i$h a 1a!$ic&la! he!edi$y and 1osi$ion <hich dis$ing&ishes
hi" %!o" any,ody else. :e is <ha$ he is in so %a! as he is a "e",e! o% $his co""&ni$y, and $he !a<
"a$e!ials o&$ o% <hich $his 1a!$ic&la! indiid&al is ,o!n <o&ld no$ ,e a sel% ,&$ %o! his !ela$ionshi1 $o
o$he!s in $he co""&ni$y o% <hich he is a 1a!$. Th&s is he a<a!e o% hi"sel% as s&ch, and his no$ only
in 1oli$ical ci$i8enshi1, o! in "e",e!shi1 in g!o&1s o% <hich he is a 1a!$, ,&$ also %!o" $he 1oin$ o%
ie< o% !e%lec$ie $ho&gh$. :e is a "e",e! o% $he co""&ni$y o% $he $hin7e!s <hose li$e!a$&!e he
!eads and $o <hich he "ay con$!i,&$e ,y his o<n 1&,lished $ho&gh$. :e ,elongs $o a socie$y o% all
!a$ional ,eings, and $he !a$ionali$y $ha$ he iden$i%ies <i$h hi"sel% inoles a con$in&ed social
in$e!change. The <ides$ co""&ni$y in <hich $he indiid&al %inds hi"sel%, $ha$ <hich is ee!y<he!e,
$h!o&gh and %o! ee!y,ody, is $he $ho&gh$ <o!ld as s&ch. :e is a "e",e! o% s&ch a co""&ni$y and
he is <ha$ he is as s&ch a "e",e!.
The %ac$ $ha$ all seles a!e cons$i$&$ed ,y o! in $e!"s o% $he social 1!ocess, and a!e indiid&al
!e%lec$ions o% i$?o! !a$he! o% $his o!gani8ed ,ehaio! 1a$$e!n <hich i$ e=hi,i$s, and <hich $hey 1!ehend
in $hei! !es1ec$ie s$!&c$&!es?is no$ in $he leas$ inco"1a$i,le <i$h, o! des$!&c$ie o%, $he %ac$ $ha$
ee!y indiid&al sel% has i$s o<n 1ec&lia! indiid&ali$y, i$s o<n &niD&e 1a$$e!n@ ,eca&se each
indiid&al sel% <i$hin $ha$ 1!ocess, <hile i$ !e%lec$s in i$s o!gani8ed s$!&c$&!e $he ,ehaio! 1a$$e!n o%
$ha$ 1!ocess as a <hole, does so %!o" i$s o<n 1a!$ic&la! and &niD&e s$and1oin$ <i$hin $ha$ 1!ocess,
and $h&s !e%lec$s in i$s o!gani8ed s$!&c$&!e a di%%e!en$ as1ec$ o! 1e!s1ec$ie o% $his <hole social
,ehaio! 1a$$e!n %!o" $ha$ <hich is !e%lec$ed in $he o!gani8ed s$!&c$&!e o% any o$he! indiid&al sel%
<i$hin $ha$ 1!ocess A9&s$ as ee!y "onad in $he Lei,ni8ian &nie!se "i!!o!s $ha$ &nie!se %!o" a
di%%e!en$ 1oin$ o% ie<, and $h&s "i!!o!s a di%%e!en$ as1ec$ o! 1e!s1ec$ie o% $ha$ &nie!seB. In o$he!
<o!ds, $he o!gani8ed s$!&c$&!e o% ee!y indiid&al sel% <i$hin $he h&"an social 1!ocess o% e=1e!ience
and ,ehaio! !e%lec$s, and is cons$i$&$ed ,y, $he o!gani8ed !ela$ional 1a$$e!n o% $ha$ 1!ocess as a
<hole@ ,&$ each indiid&al sel%?s$!&c$&!e !e%lec$s, and is cons$i$&$ed ,y, a di%%e!en$ as1ec$ o!
1e!s1ec$ie o% $his !ela$ional 1a$$e!n, ,eca&se each !e%lec$s $his !ela$ional 1a$$e!n %!o" i$s o<n
&niD&e s$and1oin$@ so $ha$ $he co""on social o!igin and cons$i$&$ion o% indiid&al seles and $hei!
s$!&c$&!es does no$ 1!ecl&de <ide indiid&al di%%e!ences and a!ia$ions a"ong $he", o! con$!adic$
$he 1ec&lia! and "o!e o! less dis$inc$ie indiid&ali$y <hich each o% $he" in %ac$ 1ossesses. Ee!y
indiid&al sel% <i$hin a gien socie$y o! social co""&ni$y !e%lec$s in i$s o!gani8ed s$!&c$&!e $he <hole
!ela$ional 1a$$e!n o% o!gani8ed social ,ehaio! <hich $ha$ socie$y o! co""&ni$y e=hi,i$s o! is ca!!ying
on, and i$s o!gani8ed s$!&c$&!e is cons$i$&$ed ,y $his 1a$$e!n@ ,&$ since each o% $hese indiid&al
seles !e%lec$s a &niD&ely di%%e!en$ as1ec$ o! 1e!s1ec$ie o% $his 1a$$e!n in i$s s$!&c$&!e, %!o" i$s o<n
1a!$ic&la! and &niD&e 1lace o! s$and1oin$ <i$hin $he <hole 1!ocess o% o!gani8ed social ,ehaio!
<hich e=hi,i$s $his 1a$$e!n?since, $ha$ is, each is di%%e!en$ly o! &niD&ely !ela$ed $o $ha$ <hole 1!ocess,
and occ&1ies i$s o<n essen$ially &niD&e %oc&s o% !ela$ions $he!ein?$he s$!&c$&!e o% each is di%%e!en$ly
cons$i$&$ed ,y $his 1a$$e!n %!o" $he <ay in <hich $he s$!&c$&!e o% any o$he! is so cons$i$&$ed.
The indiid&al, as <e hae seen, is con$in&ally !eac$ing ,ac7 agains$ $his socie$y. Ee!y ad9&s$"en$
inoles so"e so!$ o% change in $he co""&ni$y $o <hich $he indiid&al ad9&s$s hi"sel%. And $his
change, o% co&!se, "ay ,e e!y i"1o!$an$. Ta7e een $he <ides$ co""&ni$y <hich <e can 1!esen$,
$he !a$ional co""&ni$y $ha$ is !e1!esen$ed in $he so?called &nie!sal disco&!se. 61 $o a
co"1a!a$iely !ecen$ $i"e $he %o!" o% $his <as $ha$ o% an A!is$o$elian <o!ld. B&$ "en in A"e!ica,
England, I$aly, (e!"any, F!ance, hae e!y conside!a,ly changed $he s$!&c$&!e o% $ha$ <o!ld,
in$!od&cing a logic o% "&l$i1le !ela$ions in 1lace o% $he A!is$o$elian !ela$ion o% s&,s$ance and
a$$!i,&$e. Ano$he! %&nda"en$al change has $a7en 1lace in $he %o!" o% $he <o!ld $h!o&gh $he !eac$ion
o% an indiid&al?Eins$ein. (!ea$ %ig&!es in his$o!y ,!ing a,o&$ e!y %&nda"en$al changes. These
1!o%o&nd changes <hich $a7e 1lace $h!o&gh $he ac$ion o% indiid&al "inds a!e only $he e=$!e"e
e=1!ession o% $he so!$ o% changes $ha$ $a7e 1lace s$eadily $h!o&gh?!eac$ions <hich a!e no$ si"1ly
$hose o% a -"e- ,&$ o% an -I.- These changes a!e changes $ha$ $a7e 1lace g!ad&ally and "o!e o! less
i"1e!ce1$i,ly. 0e 7no< $ha$ as <e 1ass %!o" one his$o!ical 1e!iod $o ano$he! $he!e hae ,een
%&nda"en$al changes, and <e 7no< $hese changes a!e d&e $o $he !eac$ions o% di%%e!en$ indiid&als.
I$ is only $he &l$i"a$e e%%ec$ $ha$ <e can !ecogni8e, ,&$ $he di%%e!ences a!e d&e $o $he ges$&!es o%
$hese co&n$less indiid&als ac$&ally changing $he si$&a$ion in <hich $hey %ind $he"seles, al$ho&gh
$he s1eci%ic changes a!e $oo "in&$e %o! &s $o iden$i%y. As I hae 1oin$ed o&$, $he ego o! -I- $ha$ is
!es1onsi,le %o! changes o% $ha$ so!$ a11ea!s in e=1e!ience only a%$e! i$s !eac$ion has $a7en 1lace. I$
is only a%$e! <e hae said $he <o!d <e a!e saying $ha$ <e !ecogni8e o&!seles as $he 1e!son $ha$
has said i$, as $his 1a!$ic&la! sel% $ha$ says $his 1a!$ic&la! $hing@ i$ is only a%$e! <e hae done $he $hing
$ha$ <e a!e going $o do $ha$ <e a!e a<a!e o% <ha$ <e a!e doing. :o<ee! ca!e%&lly <e 1lan $he
%&$&!e i$ al<ays is di%%e!en$ %!o" $ha$ <hich <e can 1!eise, and $his so"e$hing $ha$ <e a!e
con$in&ally ,!inging in and adding $o is <ha$ <e iden$i%y <i$h $he sel% $ha$ co"es in$o $he leel o% o&!
e=1e!ience only in $he co"1le$ion o% $he ac$.
In so"e !es1ec$s, o% co&!se, <e can de$e!"ine <ha$ $ha$ sel% is going $o do. 0e can acce1$ ce!$ain
!es1onsi,ili$ies in adance. One "a7es con$!ac$s and 1!o"ises, and one is ,o&nd ,y $he". The
si$&a$ion "ay change, $he ac$ "ay ,e di%%e!en$ %!o" $ha$ <hich $he indiid&al hi"sel% e=1ec$ed $o
ca!!y o&$, ,&$ he is held $o $he con$!ac$ <hich he has "ade. :e "&s$ do ce!$ain $hings in o!de! $o
!e"ain a "e",e! o% $he co""&ni$y. In $he d&$ies o% <ha$ <e call !a$ional cond&c$, in ad9&s$ing
o&!seles $o a <o!ld in <hich $he la<s o% na$&!e and o% econo"ics and o% 1oli$ical sys$e"s o,$ain,
<e can s$a$e <ha$ is going $o ha11en and $a7e oe! $he !es1onsi,ili$y %o! $he $hing <e a!e going $o
do, and ye$ $he !eal sel% $ha$ a11ea!s in $ha$ ac$ a<ai$s $he co"1le$ion o% $he ac$ i$sel%. No<, i$ is $his
liing ac$ <hich nee! ge$s di!ec$ly in$o !e%lec$ie e=1e!ience. I$ is only a%$e! $he ac$ has $a7en 1lace
$ha$ <e can ca$ch i$ in o&! "e"o!y and 1lace i$ in $e!"s o% $ha$ <hich <e hae done. I$ is $ha$ -I-
<hich <e "ay ,e said $o ,e con$in&ally $!ying $o !eali8e, and $o !eali8e $h!o&gh $he ac$&al cond&c$
i$sel%. One does no$ ee! ge$ i$ %&lly ,e%o!e hi"sel%. So"e$i"es so"e,ody else can $ell hi"
so"e$hing a,o&$ hi"sel% $ha$ he is no$ a<a!e o%. :e is nee! s&!e a,o&$ hi"sel%, and he as$onishes
hi"sel% ,y his cond&c$ as "&ch as he as$onishes o$he! 1eo1le.
The 1ossi,ili$ies in o&! na$&!e, $hose so!$s o% ene!gy <hich 0illia" Ca"es $oo7 so "&ch 1leas&!e in
indica$ing, a!e 1ossi,ili$ies o% $he sel% $ha$ lie ,eyond o&! o<n i""edia$e 1!esen$a$ion. 0e do no$
7no< 9&s$ <ha$ $hey a!e. They a!e in a ce!$ain sense $he "os$ %ascina$ing con$en$s $ha$ <e can
con$e"1la$e, so %a! as <e can ge$ hold o% $he". 0e ge$ a g!ea$ deal o% o&! en9oy"en$ o% !o"ance,
o% "oing 1ic$&!es, o% a!$, in se$$ing %!ee, a$ leas$ in i"agina$ion, ca1aci$ies <hich ,elong $o
o&!seles, o! <hich <e <an$ $o ,elong $o o&!seles. In%e!io!i$y co"1le=es a!ise %!o" $hose <an$s o%
a sel% <hich <e sho&ld li7e $o ca!!y o&$ ,&$ <hich <e canno$?<e ad9&s$ o&!seles $o $hese ,y $he so?
called in%e!io!i$y co"1le=es. The 1ossi,ili$ies o% $he -I- ,elong $o $ha$ <hich is ac$&ally going on,
$a7ing 1lace, and i$ is in so"e sense $he "os$ %ascina$ing 1a!$ o% o&! e=1e!ience. I$ is $he!e $ha$
noel$y a!ises and i$ is $he!e $ha$ o&! "os$ i"1o!$an$ al&es a!e loca$ed. I$ is $he !eali8a$ion in so"e
sense o% $his sel% $ha$ <e a!e con$in&ally see7ing.
The!e a!e a!io&s <ays in <hich <e can !eali8e $ha$ sel%. Since i$ is a social sel%, i$ is a sel% $ha$ is
!eali8ed in i$s !ela$ionshi1 $o o$he!s. I$ "&s$ ,e !ecogni8ed ,y o$he!s $o hae $he e!y al&es <hich
<e <an$ $o hae ,elong $o i$. I$ !eali8es i$sel% in so"e sense $h!o&gh i$s s&1e!io!i$y $o o$he!s, as i$
!ecogni8es i$s in%e!io!i$ies in co"1a!ison <i$h o$he!s. The in%e!io!i$y co"1le=es a!e $he !ee!se
si$&a$ions $o $hose %eelings o% s&1e!io!i$y <hich <e en$e!$ain <i$h !e%e!ence $o o&!seles as oe!
agains$ 1eo1le a,o&$ &s. I$ is in$e!es$ing $o go ,ac7 in$o one>s inne! conscio&sness and 1ic7 o&$
<ha$ i$ is $ha$ <e a!e a1$ $o de1end &1on in "ain$aining o&! sel%?!es1ec$. The!e a!e, o% co&!se,
1!o%o&nd and solid %o&nda$ions. One does 7ee1 his <o!d, "ee$ his o,liga$ions@ and $ha$ 1!oides a
,asis %o! sel%?!es1ec$. B&$ $hose a!e cha!ac$e!s <hich o,$ain in "os$ o% $he "e",e!s o% $he
co""&ni$y <i$h <ho" <e hae $o do. 0e all %all do<n a$ ce!$ain 1oin$s, ,&$ on $he <hole <e al<ays
a!e 1eo1le o% o&! <o!ds. 0e do ,elong $o $he co""&ni$y and o&! sel%?!es1ec$ de1ends on o&!
!ecogni$ion o% o&!seles as s&ch sel%?!es1ec$ing indiid&als. B&$ $ha$ is no$ eno&gh %o! &s, since <e
<an$ $o !ecogni8e o&!seles in o&! di%%e!ences %!o" o$he! 1e!sons. 0e hae, o% co&!se, a s1eci%ic
econo"ic and social s$a$&s $ha$ ena,les &s $o so dis$ing&ish o&!seles. 0e also hae $o so"e
e=$en$ 1osi$ions in a!io&s g!o&1s <hich gie a "eans o% sel%?iden$i%ica$ion, ,&$ $he!e is ,ac7 o% all
$hese "a$$e!s a sense o% $hings <hich on $he <hole <e do ,e$$e! $han o$he! 1eo1le do. I$ is e!y
in$e!es$ing $o ge$ ,ac7 $o $hese s&1e!io!i$ies, "any o% $he" o% a e!y $!iial cha!ac$e!, ,&$ o% g!ea$
i"1o!$ance $o &s. 0e "ay co"e ,ac7 $o "anne!s o% s1eech and d!ess, $o a ca1aci$y %o!
!e"e",e!ing, $o $his, $ha$, and $he o$he! $hing?,&$ al<ays $o so"e$hing in <hich <e s$and o&$ a,oe
1eo1le. 0e a!e ca!e%&l, o% co&!se, no$ di!ec$ly $o 1l&"e o&!seles. I$ <o&ld see" childish $o in$i"a$e
$ha$ <e $a7e sa$is%ac$ion in sho<ing $ha$ <e can do so"e$hing ,e$$e! $han o$he!s. 0e $a7e a g!ea$
deal o% 1ains $o coe! &1 s&ch a si$&a$ion@ ,&$ ac$&ally <e a!e as$ly g!a$i%ied. A"ong child!en and
a"ong 1!i"i$ie co""&ni$ies $hese s&1e!io!i$ies a!e a&n$ed and a 1e!son glo!ies in $he"@ ,&$ een
a"ong o&! "o!e adanced g!o&1s $hey a!e $he!e as essen$ial <ays o% !eali8ing one>s sel%, and $hey
a!e no$ $o ,e iden$i%ied <i$h <ha$ <e $e!" $he e=1!ession o% $he egois$ic o! sel%?cen$e!ed 1e!son. A
1e!son "ay ,e as gen&ine as yo& li7e in "a$$e!s o% dolla!s and cen$s o! e%%o!$s, and he "ay ,e
gen&ine in !ecogni8ing o$he! 1eo1le>s s&ccesses and en9oy $he", ,&$ $ha$ does no$ 7ee1 hi" %!o"
en9oying his o<n a,ili$ies and ge$$ing 1ec&lia! sa$is%ac$ion o&$ o% his o<n s&ccesses.
This sense o% s&1e!io!i$y does no$ !e1!esen$ necessa!ily $he disag!eea,le $y1e o% asse!$ie
cha!ac$e!, and i$ does no$ "ean $ha$ $he 1e!son <an$s $o lo<e! o$he! 1eo1le in o!de! $o ge$ hi"sel%
in$o a highe! s$anding. Tha$ is $he %o!" s&ch sel%?!eali8a$ion is a1$ $o a11ea! $o $a7e, $o say $he leas$,
and all o% &s !ecogni8e s&ch a %o!" as no$ si"1ly &n%o!$&na$e ,&$ as "o!ally "o!e o! less
des1ica,le. B&$ $he!e is a de"and, a cons$an$ de"and, $o !eali8e one>s sel% in so"e so!$ o%
s&1e!io!i$y oe! $hose a,o&$ &s. I$ a11ea!s, 1e!ha1s, "o!e de%ini$ely in s&ch si$&a$ions as $hose $o
<hich I hae !e%e!!ed, and <hich a!e $he ha!des$ $hings $o e=1lain. The!e is a ce!$ain en9oya,leness
a,o&$ $he "is%o!$&nes o% o$he! 1eo1le, es1ecially $hose ga$he!ed a,o&$ $hei! 1e!sonali$y. I$ %inds i$s
e=1!ession in <ha$ <e $e!" gossi1, een "ischieo&s gossi1. 0e hae $o ,e on o&! g&a!d agains$
i$. 0e "ay !ela$e an een$ <i$h !eal so!!o<, and ye$ $he!e is a ce!$ain sa$is%ac$ion in so"e$hing $ha$
has ha11ened $o so"e,ody else ,&$ has no$ ha11ened $o &s.
This is $he sa"e a$$i$&de $ha$ is inoled in $he h&"o! o% so"e,ody else $&",ling do<n. In s&ch
la&gh$e! $he!e is a ce!$ain !elease %!o" $he e%%o!$ <hich <e do no$ hae $o "a7e $o ge$ &1 again. I$ is
a di!ec$ !es1onse, one $ha$ lies ,ac7 o% <ha$ <e $e!" sel%?conscio&sness, and $he h&"o! o% i$ does
no$ go along <i$h $he en9oy"en$ o% $he o$he! 1e!son>s s&%%e!ing. I% a 1e!son does ac$&ally ,!ea7 a leg
<e can sy"1a$hi8e <i$h hi", ,&$ i$ <as %&nny, a%$e! all, $o see hi" s1!a<ling o&$. This is a si$&a$ion
in <hich $he!e is a "o!e o! less iden$i%ica$ion o% $he indiid&al <i$h $he o$he!. 0e do, so $o s1ea7,
s$a!$ $o %all <i$h hi", and $o !ise &1 a%$e! he has %allen, and o&! $heo!y o% la&gh$e! is $ha$ i$ is a
!elease %!o" $ha$ i""edia$e $endency $o ca$ch o&!seles &nde! $hose condi$ions. 0e hae iden$i%ied
o&!seles <i$h $he o$he! 1e!son, $a7en his a$$i$&de. Tha$ a$$i$&de inoles a s$!en&o&s e%%o!$ <hich
<e do no$ hae $o ca!!y o&$, and $he !elease %!o" $ha$ e%%o!$ e=1!esses i$sel% in la&gh$e!. La&gh$e! is
$he <ay in <hich $he -I,- so $o s1ea7, !es1onds &nde! $hose condi$ions. The indiid&al 1!o,a,ly se$s
$o <o!7 hel1ing $he o$he! 1e!son $o ge$ &1, ,&$ $he!e <as an ele"en$ in $he !es1onse <hich
e=1!essed i$sel% in $he sense o% $he s&1e!io!i$y o% $he 1e!son s$anding $o<a!d $he 1e!son on $he
side<al7. No<, $ha$ gene!al si$&a$ion is no$ si"1ly %o&nd &nde! 1hysical si$&a$ions, ,&$ is eD&ally
eiden$ in $he co""&ni$y in <hich a 1e!son co""i$$ing a fau# pas+ <e hae he!e $he sa"e sense o%
a"&se"en$ and o% s&1e!io!i$y.
I <an$ $o ,!ing o&$ in $hese ins$ances $he di%%e!ence ,e$<een $he naie a$$i$&de o% $he -I- and $he
"o!e so1his$ica$ed a$$i$&de o% $he -"e.- One ,ehaes 1e!%ec$ly 1!o1e!ly, s&11!esses his la&gh$e!, is
e!y 1!o"1$ $o ge$ $he %allen 1e!son on his %ee$ again. The!e is $he social a$$i$&de o% $he -"e- oe!
agains$ $he -I- $ha$ does en9oy $he si$&a$ion@ ,&$ en9oys i$, <e <ill say, in a ce!$ain ha!"less <ay.
The!e is no$hing icio&s a,o&$ i$, and een in $hose si$&a$ions <he!e one has a ce!$ain so!$ o%
sa$is%ac$ion in %ollo<ing o&$ $he scandals and di%%ic&l$ies o% a "o!e se!io&s so!$, $he!e is an a$$i$&de
<hich inoles $he sense o% s&1e!io!i$y and a$ $he sa"e $i"e does no$ ca!!y <i$h i$ any$hing $ha$ is
icio&s. 0e "ay ,e e!y ca!e%&l a,o&$ <ha$ <e say, ,&$ $he!e is s$ill $ha$ a$$i$&de o% $he sel% <hich is
in so"e sense s&1e!io! &nde! s&ch condi$ions@ <e hae no$ done $his 1a!$ic&la! &n$o<a!d $hing, <e
hae 7e1$ o&$ o% i$.
The sense o% s&1e!io!i$y is "agni%ied <hen i$ ,elongs $o a sel% $ha$ iden$i%ies i$sel% <i$h $he g!o&1. I$
is agg!aa$ed in o&! 1a$!io$is", <he!e <e legi$i"i8e an asse!$ion o% s&1e!io!i$y <hich <e <o&ld no$
ad"i$ in $he si$&a$ions $o <hich I hae ,een !e%e!!ing. I$ see"s $o ,e 1e!%ec$ly legi$i"a$e $o asse!$ $he
s&1e!io!i$y o% $he na$ion $o <hich one ,elongs oe! o$he! na$ions $o ,!and $he cond&c$ o% o$he!
na$ionali$ies in ,lac7 colo!s in o!de! $ha$ <e "ay ,!ing o&$ al&es in $he cond&c$ o% $hose $ha$ "a7e
&1 o&! o<n na$ion. I$ is 9&s$ as $!&e in 1oli$ics and !eligion in $he 1&$$ing o% one sec$ oe! agains$ $he
o$he!s. This $oo7 $he 1lace o% $he e=cl&sie e=1!essions o% na$ionalis" in $he ea!ly 1e!iod, $he 1e!iod
o% !eligio&s <a!s. One ,elonged $o one g!o&1 $ha$ <as s&1e!io! $o o$he! g!o&1s and co&ld asse!$
hi"sel% con%iden$ly ,eca&se he had (od on his side. The!e <e %ind a si$&a$ion &nde! <hich i$
see"ed $o ,e 1e!%ec$ly legi$i"a$e $o asse!$ $his so!$ o% s&1e!io!i$y <hich goes <i$h sel%?
conscio&sness and <hich in so"e sense see"s $o ,e essen$ial $o sel%?conscio&sness. I$ is no$, o%
co&!se, con%ined $o na$ionalis" and 1a$!io$is". 0e all ,eliee $ha$ $he g!o&1 <e a!e in is s&1e!io! $o
o$he! g!o&1s. 0e can ge$ $oge$he! <i$h $he "e",e!s in a ,i$ o% gossi1 $ha$ <i$h anyone else o! any
o$he! g!o&1 <o&ld ,e i"1ossi,le. Leade!shi1, o% co&!se, 1lays i$s 1a!$, since $he en$h&sias" %o!
$hose <ho hae a high s$anding a"ong &s aids in $he o!gani8a$ion o% $he g!o&1@ ,&$ on $he <hole <e
de1end &1on a co""on !ecogni$ion $ha$ o$he! 1eo1le a!e no$ D&i$e as good as <e a!e.
The %eeling o% g!o&1 s&1e!io!i$y is gene!ally e=1lained in $e!"s o% $he o!gani8a$ion o% $he g!o&1.
(!o&1s hae s&!ied in $he 1as$ in so %a! as $hey hae o!gani8ed agains$ a co""on ene"y. They
"ain$ain $he"seles ,eca&se $hey hae ac$ed as one agains$ $he co""on ene"y?s&ch is $he
e=1lana$ion, %!o" $he s$and1oin$ o% $he s&!ial o% $he %i$$es$, o% $he co""&ni$y <hich is "os$
sa$is%ac$o!ily o!gani8ed. I$ ce!$ainly is $he easies$ <ay o% ge$$ing $oge$he!, and i$ "ay ,e $ha$ i$ is an
adeD&a$e e=1lana$ion.
I% one does hae a gen&ine s&1e!io!i$y i$ is a s&1e!io!i$y <hich !es$s on $he 1e!%o!"ance o% de%ini$e
%&nc$ions. One is a good s&!geon, a good la<ye!, and he can 1!ide hi"sel% on his s&1e!io!i$y?,&$ i$ is
a s&1e!io!i$y <hich he "a7es &se o%. And <hen he does ac$&ally "a7e &se o% i$ in $he e!y
co""&ni$y $o <hich he ,elongs i$ loses $ha$ ele"en$ o% egois" <hich <e $hin7 o% 0hen <e $hin7 o%
a 1e!son si"1ly 1l&"ing hi"sel% on his s&1e!io!i$y oe! so"e,ody else. I hae ,een e"1hasi8ing
$he o$he! as1ec$ ,eca&se <e do so"e$i"es coe! i$ &1 in o&! o<n e=1e!ience. B&$ <hen $he sense
o% s&1e!io!i$y goes oe! in$o a %&nc$ional e=1!ession, $hen i$ ,eco"es no$ only en$i!ely legi$i"a$e, ,&$
i$ is $he <ay in <hich $he indiid&als do change $he si$&a$ions in <hich $hey lie. 0e change $hings
,y $he ca1aci$ies <hich <e hae $ha$ o$he! 1eo1le do no$ hae. S&ch ca1aci$y is <ha$ "a7es &s
e%%ec$ie. The i""edia$e a$$i$&de is one <hich ca!!ies <i$h i$ a sense o% s&1e!io!i$y, o% "ain$aining
one>s sel%. The s&1e!io!i$y is no$ $he end in ie<. I$ is a "eans %o! $he 1!ese!a$ion o% $he sel%. 0e
hae $o dis$ing&ish o&!seles %!o" o$he! 1eo1le and $his is acco"1lished ,y doing so"e$hing <hich
o$he! 1eo1le canno$ do, o! canno$ do as <ell.
No<, $o ,e a,le $o hold on $o o&!seles in o&! 1ec&lia!i$ies is so"e$hing <hich is loa,le. I% i$ is
$a7en si"1ly in $he c!&de %ashion o% $he 1e!son <ho ,oas$s o% hi"sel%, $hen a chea1 and &gly side o%
$his 1!ocess is e=hi,i$ed. B&$ i% i$ is an e=1!ession <hich goes o&$ in$o $he %&nc$ions <hich i$
s&s$ains, $hen i$ loses $ha$ cha!ac$e!. 0e ass&"e $his <ill ,e $he &l$i"a$e o&$co"e o% $he
e=1!essions o% na$ionalis". Na$ions o&gh$ $o ,e a,le $o e=1!ess $he"seles in $he %&nc$ional %ashion
$ha$ $he 1!o%essional "an does. The!e is $he ,eginning o% s&ch an o!gani8a$ion in $he leag&e o%
Na$ions. One na$ion !ecogni8es ce!$ain $hings i$ has $o do as a "e",e! o% $he co""&ni$y o% na$ions.
Een $he "anda$e sys$e" a$ leas$ 1&$s a %&nc$ional as1ec$ on $he ac$ion o% $he di!ec$ing na$ion and
no$ one <hich is si"1ly an e=1!ession o% 1o<e!.
.6# TH" C$(T*IB4TI$(S $3 TH" 5M"5 %() TH" 5I5
I hae ,een &nde!$a7ing $o dis$ing&ish ,e$<een $he -I- and $he -"e- as di%%e!en$ 1hases o% $he sel%,
$he -"e- ans<e!ing $o $he o!gani8ed a$$i$&des o% $he o$he!s <hich <e de%ini$ely ass&"e and <hich
de$e!"ine conseD&en$ly o&! o<n cond&c$ so %a! as i$ is o% a sel%?conscio&s cha!ac$e!. No< $he -"e-
"ay ,e !ega!ded as giing $he %o!" o% $he -I.- The noel$y co"es in $he ac$ion o% $he -I,- ,&$ $he
s$!&c$&!e, $he %o!" o% $he sel% is one <hich is conen$ional.
This conen$ional %o!" "ay ,e !ed&ced $o a "ini"&". In $he a!$is$>s a$$i$&de, <he!e $he!e is a!$is$ic
c!ea$ion, $he e"1hasis &1on $he ele"en$ o% noel$y is ca!!ied $o $he li"i$. This de"and %o! $he
&nconen$ional is es1ecially no$icea,le in "ode!n a!$. :e!e $he a!$is$ is s&11osed $o ,!ea7 a<ay
%!o" conen$ion@ a 1a!$ o% his a!$is$ic e=1!ession is $ho&gh$ $o ,e in $he ,!ea7do<n o% conen$ion.
Tha$ a$$i$&de is, o% co&!se, no$ essen$ial $o $he a!$is$ic %&nc$ion, and i$ 1!o,a,ly nee! occ&!s in $he
e=$!e"e %o!" in <hich i$ is o%$en 1!oclai"ed. Ta7e ce!$ain o% $he a!$is$s o% $he 1as$. In $he (!ee7
<o!ld $he a!$is$s <e!e, in a ce!$ain sense, $he s&1!e"e a!$isans. 0ha$ $hey <e!e $o do <as "o!e o!
less se$ ,y $he co""&ni$y, and acce1$ed ,y $he"seles, as $he e=1!ession o% he!oic %ig&!es, ce!$ain
dei$ies, $he e!ec$ion o% $e"1les. De%ini$e !&les <e!e acce1$ed as essen$ial $o $he e=1!ession. And ye$
$he a!$is$ in$!od&ced an o!iginali$y in$o i$ <hich dis$ing&ishes one a!$is$ %!o" ano$he!. In $he case o%
$he a!$is$ $he e"1hasis &1on $ha$ <hich is &nconen$ional, $ha$ <hich is no$ in $he s$!&c$&!e o% $he
-"e,- is ca!!ied as %a!, 1e!ha1s, as i$ can ,e ca!!ied.
This sa"e e"1hasis also a11ea!s in ce!$ain $y1es o% cond&c$ <hich a!e i"1&lsie. I"1&lsie
cond&c$ is &ncon$!olled cond&c$. The s$!&c$&!e o% $he -"e- does no$ $he!e de$e!"ine $he e=1!ession
o% $he -I.- I% <e &se a F!e&dian e=1!ession, $he - "e - is in a ce!$ain sense a censo!. I$ de$e!"ines
$he so!$ o% e=1!ession <hich can $a7e 1lace, se$s $he s$age, and gies $he c&e. In $he case o%
i"1&lsie cond&c$ $his s$!&c$&!e o% $he A,"e- inoled in $he si$&a$ion does no$ %&!nish $o any s&ch
deg!ee $his con$!ol. Ta7e $he si$&a$ion o% sel%?asse!$ion <he!e $he sel% si"1ly asse!$s i$sel% oe!
agains$ o$he!s, and s&11ose $ha$ $he e"o$ional s$!ess is s&ch $ha$ $he %o!"s o% 1oli$e socie$y in $he
1e!%o!"ance o% legi$i"a$e cond&c$ a!e oe!$h!o<n, so $ha$ $he 1e!son e=1!esses hi"sel% iolen$ly.
The!e $he -"e- is de$e!"ined ,y $he si$&a$ion. The!e a!e ce!$ain !ecogni8ed %ields <i$hin <hich an
indiid&al can asse!$ hi"sel%, ce!$ain !igh$s <hich he has <i$hin $hese li"i$s. B&$ le$ $he s$!ess
,eco"e $oo g!ea$, $hese li"i$s a!e no$ o,se!ed, and an indiid&al asse!$s hi"sel% in 1e!ha1s a
iolen$ %ashion. Then $he -I- is $he do"inan$ ele"en$ oe! agains$ $he -"e.- 6nde! <ha$ <e conside!
no!"al condi$ions $he <ay in <hich an indiid&al ac$s is de$e!"ined ,y his $a7ing $he a$$i$&de o% $he
o$he!s in $he g!o&1, ,&$ i% $he indiid&al is no$ gien $he o11o!$&ni$y $o co"e &1 agains$ 1eo1le, as a
child is no$ <ho is held o&$ o% in$e!co&!se <i$h o$he! 1eo1le, $hen $he!e !es&l$s a si$&a$ion in <hich
$he !eac$ion is &ncon$!olled.
Social con$!ol+,- is $he e=1!ession o% $he -"e- oe! agains$ $he e=1!ession o% $he -I.- I$ se$s $he
li"i$s, i$ gies $he de$e!"ina$ion $ha$ ena,les $he -I,- so $o s1ea7, $o &se $he -"e- as $he "eans o%
ca!!ying o&$ <ha$ is $he &nde!$a7ing $ha$ all a!e in$e!es$ed in. 0he!e 1e!sons a!e held o&$side o!
,eyond $ha$ so!$ o% o!gani8ed e=1!ession $he!e a!ises a si$&a$ion in <hich social con$!ol is a,sen$. In
$he "o!e o! less %an$as$ic 1sychology o% $he F!e&dian g!o&1, $hin7e!s a!e dealing <i$h $he se=&al li%e
and <i$h sel%?asse!$ion in i$s iolen$ %o!". The no!"al si$&a$ion, ho<ee!, is one <hich inoles a
!eac$ion o% $he indiid&al in a si$&a$ion <hich is socially de$e!"ined, ,&$ $o <hich he ,!ings his o<n
!es1onses as an -I.- The !es1onse is, in $he e=1e!ience o% $he indiid&al, an e=1!ession <i$h <hich
$he sel% is iden$i%ied. I$ is s&ch a !es1onse <hich !aises hi" a,oe $he ins$i$&$ionali8ed indiid&al.
As I hae said ,e%o!e, an ins$i$&$ion is, a%$e! all, no$hing ,&$ an o!gani8a$ion o% a$$i$&des <hich <e all
ca!!y in &s, $he o!gani8ed a$$i$&des o% $he o$he!s $ha$ con$!ol and de$e!"ine cond&c$. No<, $his
ins$i$&$ionali8ed indiid&al is, o! sho&ld ,e, $he "eans ,y <hich $he indiid&al e=1!esses hi"sel% in
his o<n <ay, %o! s&ch indiid&al e=1!ession is $ha$ <hich is iden$i%ied <i$h $he sel% in $hose al&es
<hich a!e essen$ial $o $he sel%, and <hich a!ise %!o" $he sel%. To s1ea7 o% $he" as a!ising %!o" $he
sel% does no$ a$$ach $o $he" $he cha!ac$e! o% $he sel%ish egois$, %o! &nde! $he no!"al condi$ions $o
<hich <e <e!e !e%e!!ing $he indiid&al is "a7ing his con$!i,&$ion $o a co""on &nde!$a7ing. The
,ase,all 1laye! <ho "a7es a ,!illian$ 1lay is "a7ing $he 1lay called %o! ,y $he nine $o <hich he
,elongs. :e is 1laying %o! his side. A "an "ay, o% co&!se, 1lay $he galle!y, ,e "o!e in$e!es$ed in
"a7ing a ,!illian$ 1lay $han in hel1ing $he nine $o <in, 9&s$ as a s&!geon "ay ca!!y o&$ a ,!illian$
o1e!a$ion and sac!i%ice $he 1a$ien$. B&$ &nde! no!"al condi$ions $he con$!i,&$ion o% $he indiid&al
ge$s i$s e=1!ession in $he social 1!ocesses $ha$ a!e inoled in $he ac$, so $ha$ $he a$$ach"en$ o% $he
al&es $o $he sel% does no$ inole egois" o! sel%ishness. The o$he! si$&a$ion in <hich $he sel% in i$s
e=1!ession does in so"e sense e=1loi$ $he g!o&1 o! socie$y $o <hich i$ ,elongs is one <hich se$s &1,
so $o s1ea7, a na!!o< sel% <hich $a7es adan$age o% $he <hole g!o&1 in sa$is%ying i$sel%. Een s&ch a
sel% is s$ill a social a%%ai!. 0e dis$ing&ish e!y de%ini$ely ,e$<een $he sel%ish "an and $he i"1&lsie
"an. The "an <ho "ay lose his $e"1e! and 7noc7 ano$he! do<n "ay ,e a e!y &nsel%ish "an. :e
is no$ necessa!ily a 1e!son <ho <o&ld &$ili8e a ce!$ain si$&a$ion %o! $he sa7e o% his o<n in$e!es$s.
The la$$e! case inoles $he na!!o< sel% $ha$ does no$ !ela$e i$sel% $o $he <hole social g!o&1 o% <hich
i$ is a 1a!$.
4al&es do de%ini$ely a$$ach $o $his e=1!ession o% $he sel% <hich is 1ec&lia! $o $he sel%@ and <ha$ is
1ec&lia! $o $he sel% is <ha$ i$ calls i$s o<n. And ye$ $his al&e lies in $he social si$&a$ion, and <o&ld
no$ ,e a1a!$ %!o" $ha$ social si$&a$ion. I$ is $he con$!i,&$ion o% $he indiid&al $o $he si$&a$ion, een
$ho&gh i$ is only in $he social si$&a$ion $ha$ $he al&e o,$ains.
0e see7 ce!$ainly %o! $ha$ so!$ o% e=1!ession <hich is sel%?e=1!ession. 0hen an indiid&al %eels
hi"sel% hedged in he !ecogni8es $he necessi$y o% ge$$ing a si$&a$ion in <hich $he!e shall ,e an
o11o!$&ni$y %o! hi" $o "a7e his addi$ion $o $he &nde!$a7ing, and no$ si"1ly $o ,e $he
conen$ionali8ed -"e.- In a 1e!son <ho ca!!ies o&$ $he !o&$ine 9o,, i$ leads $o $he !eac$ion agains$
$he "achine, and $o $he de"and $ha$ $ha$ $y1e o% !o&$ine <o!7 shall %all in$o i$s 1lace in $he <hole
social 1!ocess. The!e is, o% co&!se, a ce!$ain a"o&n$ o% !eal "en$al and 1hysical heal$h, a e!y
essen$ial 1a!$ o% one>s li%e, $ha$ is inoled in doing !o&$ine <o!7. One can e!y <ell 9&s$ ca!!y o&$
ce!$ain 1!ocesses in <hich his con$!i,&$ion is e!y sligh$, in a "o!e o! less "echanical %ashion, and
%ind hi"sel% in a ,e$$e! 1osi$ion ,eca&se o% i$. S&ch "en as Cohn S$&a!$ Mill hae ,een a,le $o ca!!y
on !o&$ine occ&1a$ions d&!ing a ce!$ain 1a!$ o% $he day, and $hen gie $he"seles $o o!iginal <o!7 %o!
$he !es$ o% $he day. A 1e!son <ho canno$ do a ce!$ain a"o&n$ o% s$e!eo$y1ed <o!7 is no$ a heal$hy
indiid&al. Bo$h $he heal$h o% $he indiid&al and $he s$a,ili$y o% socie$y call %o! a e!y conside!a,le
a"o&n$ o% s&ch <o!7. The !eac$ion $o "achine ind&s$!y si"1ly calls %o! $he !es$!ic$ion o% $he a"o&n$
o% $i"e gien $o i$, ,&$ i$ does no$ inole i$s $o$al a,oli$ion. Nee!$heless, and g!an$ing $his 1oin$,
$he!e "&s$ ,e so"e <ay in <hich $he indiid&al can e=1!ess hi"sel%. I$ is $he si$&a$ions in <hich i$ is
1ossi,le $o ge$ $his so!$ o% e=1!ession $ha$ see" $o ,e 1a!$ic&la!ly 1!ecio&s, na"ely, $hose si$&a$ions
in <hich $he indiid&al is a,le $o do so"e$hing on his o<n, <he!e he can $a7e oe! !es1onsi,ili$y and
ca!!y o&$ $hings in his o<n <ay, <i$h an o11o!$&ni$y $o $hin7 his o<n $ho&gh$s. Those social
si$&a$ions in <hich $he s$!&c$&!e o% $he -"e- %o! $he $i"e ,eing is one in <hich $he indiid&al ge$s an
o11o!$&ni$y %o! $ha$ so!$ o% e=1!ession o% $he sel% ,!ing so"e o% $he "os$ e=ci$ing and g!a$i%ying
e=1e!iences.
These e=1e!iences "ay $a7e 1lace in a %o!" <hich inoles deg!ada$ion, o! in a %o!" <hich inoles
$he e"e!gence o% highe! al&es. The "o, %&!nishes a si$&a$ion in <hich $he -"e- is one <hich
si"1ly s&11o!$s and e"1hasi8es $he "o!e iolen$ so!$ o% i"1&lsie e=1!ession. This $endency is
dee1ly i",edded in h&"an na$&!e. I$ is as$onishing <ha$ 1a!$ o% $he -I- o% $he sic7 is cons$i$&$ed ,y
"&!de! s$o!ies. O% co&!se, in $he s$o!y i$sel%, i$ is $he $!ac7ing?do<n o% $he "&!de!e! $ha$ is $he %ocal
1oin$ o% in$e!es$@ ,&$ $ha$ $!ac7ing?do<n o% $he "&!de!e! $a7es one ,ac7 $o $he engeance a$$i$&de o%
$he 1!i"i$ie co""&ni$y. In $he "&!de! s$o!y one ge$s a !eal illain, !&ns hi" do<n, and ,!ings hi"
$o 9&s$ice. S&ch e=1!essions "ay inole deg!ada$ion o% $he sel%. In si$&a$ions inoling $he de%ense
o% $he co&n$!y a "o, a$$i$&de o! a e!y high "o!al a$$i$&de "ay 1!eail, de1ending &1on $he
indiid&al. The si$&a$ion in <hich one can le$ hi"sel% go, in <hich $he e!y s$!&c$&!e o% $he -"e-
o1ens $he doo! %o! $he -I,- is %ao!a,le $o sel%?e=1!ession. I hae !e%e!!ed $o $he si$&a$ion in <hich a
1e!son can si$ do<n <i$h a %!iend and say 9&s$ <ha$ he is $hin7ing a,o&$ so"eone else. The!e is a
sa$is%ac$ion in le$$ing one>s sel% go in $his <ay. The so!$ o% $hing $ha$ &nde! o$he! ci!c&"s$ances yo&
<o&ld no$ say and <o&ld no$ een le$ yo&!sel% $hin7 is no< na$&!ally &$$e!ed. I% yo& ge$ in a g!o&1
<hich $hin7s as yo& do $hen one can go $o leng$hs <hich "ay s&!1!ise $he 1e!son hi"sel%. The -"e-
in $he a,oe si$&a$ions is de%ini$ely cons$i$&$ed ,y $he social !ela$ions. No< i% $his si$&a$ion is s&ch
$ha$ i$ o1ens $he doo! $o i"1&lsie e=1!ession one ge$s a 1ec&lia! sa$is%ac$ion, high o! lo<, $he
so&!ce o% <hich is $he al&e $ha$ a$$aches $o $he e=1!ession o% $he -I- in $he social 1!ocess.
"ndnotes
1. IOn $he $o1ic o% social con$!ol see -The (enesis o% $he Sel% and Social Con$!ol,- International
Journal of !thics, JJJ4 A13#)?#+B, #+1 %%.@ -The 0o!7ing :y1o$hesis in Social *e%o!",-
American Journal of Sociology, 4 AI 233?1355B, './ %%.@ -The Psychology o% P&ni$ie 9&s$ice,-
i(id, JJIII A131/?12B, +// %%.K
.8# TH" S$CI%& C*"%TIVIT' $3 TH" "M"*G"(T S"&3
0e hae ,een disc&ssing $he al&e <hich ga$he!s a,o&$ $he sel%, es1ecially $ha$ <hich is inoled in
$he -I- as oe! agains$ $ha$ inoled in $he -"e.- The -"e- is essen$ially a "e",e! o% a social g!o&1,
and !e1!esen$s, $he!e%o!e, $he al&e o% $he g!o&1, $ha$ so!$ o% e=1e!ience <hich $he g!o&1 "a7es
1ossi,le. I$s al&es a!e $he al&es $ha$ ,elong $o socie$y. In a sense $hese al&es a!e s&1!e"e.
They a!e al&es <hich &nde! ce!$ain e=$!e"e "o!al and !eligio&s condi$ions call o&$ $he sac!i%ice o%
$he sel% %o! $he <hole. 0i$ho&$ $his s$!&c$&!e o% $hings, $he li%e o% $he sel% <o&ld ,eco"e i"1ossi,le.
These a!e $he condi$ions &nde! <hich $ha$ see"ing 1a!ado= a!ises, $ha$ $he indiid&al sac!i%ices
hi"sel% %o! $he <hole <hich "a7es his o<n li%e as a sel% 1ossi,le. C&s$ as $he!e co&ld no$ ,e
indiid&al conscio&sness e=ce1$ in a social g!o&1, so $he indiid&al in a ce!$ain sense is no$ <illing
$o lie &nde! ce!$ain condi$ions <hich <o&ld inole a so!$ o% s&icide o% $he sel% in i$s 1!ocess o%
!eali8a$ion. Oe! agains$ $ha$ si$&a$ion <e !e%e!!ed $o $hose al&es <hich a$$ach 1a!$ic&la!ly $o $he -I-
!a$he! $han $o $he -"e,- $hose al&es <hich a!e %o&nd in $he i""edia$e a$$i$&de o% $he a!$is$, $he
inen$o!, $he scien$is$ in his discoe!y, in gene!al in $he ac$ion o% $he -I- <hich canno$ ,e calc&la$ed
and <hich inoles a !econs$!&c$ion o% $he socie$y, and so o% $he -"e- <hich ,elongs $o $ha$ socie$y.
I$ is $ha$ 1hase o% e=1e!ience <hich is %o&nd in $he -I- and $he al&es $ha$ a$$ach $o i$ a!e $he al&es
,elonging $o $his $y1e o% e=1e!ience as s&ch. These al&es a!e no$ 1ec&lia! $o $he a!$is$, $he
inen$o!, and $he scien$i%ic discoe!e!, ,&$ ,elong $o $he e=1e!ience o% all seles <he!e $he!e is an -I-
$ha$ ans<e!s $o $he -"e.-
The !es1onse o% $he -I- inoles ada1$a$ion, ,&$ an ada1$a$ion <hich a%%ec$s no$ only $he scl% ,&$ also
$he social eni!on"en$ <hich hel1s $o cons$i$&$e $he sel%@ $ha$ is, i$ i"1lies a ie< o% eol&$ion in
<hich $he indiid&al a%%ec$s i$s o<n eni!on"en$ as <ell as ,eing a%%ec$ed ,y i$. A s$a$e"en$ o%
eol&$ion $ha$ <as co""on in an ea!lie! 1e!iod ass&"ed si"1ly $he e%%ec$ o% an eni!on"en$ on
o!gani8ed liing 1!o$o1las", "olding i$ in so"e sense $o $he <o!ld in <hich i$ had $o lie. On $his
ie< $he indiid&al is !eally 1assie as oe! agains$ $he in%l&ences <hich a!e a%%ec$ing i$ all $he $i"e.
B&$ <ha$ needs no< $o ,e !ecogni8ed is $ha$ $he cha!ac$e! o% $he o!ganis" is a de$e!"inan$ o% i$s
eni!on"en$. 0e s1ea7 o% ,a!e sensi$ii$y as e=is$en$ ,y i$sel%, %o!ge$$ing i$ is al<ays a sensi$ii$y $o
ce!$ain $y1es o% s$i"&li. In $e!"s o% i$s sensi$ii$y $he %o!" selec$s an eni!on"en$, no$ selec$ing
e=ac$ly in $he sense in <hich a 1e!son selec$s a ci$y o! a co&n$!y o! a 1a!$ic&la! cli"a$e in <hich $o
lie, ,&$ selec$s in $he sense $ha$ i$ %inds $hose cha!ac$e!is$ics $o <hich i$ can !es1ond, and &ses $he
!es&l$ing e=1e!iences $o gain ce!$ain o!ganic !es&l$s $ha$ a!e essen$ial $o i$s con$in&ed li%e?1!ocess.
In a sense, $he!e%o!e, $he o!ganis" s$a$es i$s eni!on"en$ in $e!"s o% "eans and ends. Tha$ so!$ o%
a de$e!"ina$ion o% $he eni!on"en$ is as !eal, o% co&!se, as $he e%%ec$ o% $he eni!on"en$ on $he
%o!". 0hen a %o!" deelo1s a ca1aci$y, ho<ee! $his $a7es 1lace, $o deal <i$h 1a!$s o% $he
eni!on"en$ <hich i$s 1!ogeni$o!s co&ld no$ deal <i$h, i$ has $o $his deg!ee c!ea$ed a ne<
eni!on"en$ %o! i$sel%. The o= $ha$ has a diges$ie o!gan ca1a,le o% $!ea$ing g!ass as a %ood adds a
ne< %ood, and in adding $his i$ adds a ne< o,9ec$. The s&,s$ance <hich <as no$ %ood ,e%o!e
,eco"es %ood no<. The eni!on"en$ o% $he %o!" has inc!eased. The o!ganis" in a !eal sense is
de$e!"ina$ie o% i$s eni!on"en$. The si$&a$ion is one in <hich $he!e is ac$ion and !eac$ion, and
ada1$a$ion $ha$ changes $he %o!" "&s$ also change $he eni!on"en$.
As a "an ad9&s$s hi"sel% $o a ce!$ain eni!on"en$ he ,eco"es a di%%e!en$ indiid&al@ ,&$ in
,eco"ing a di%%e!en$ indiid&al he has a%%ec$ed $he co""&ni$y in <hich he lies. I$ "ay ,e a sligh$
e%%ec$, ,&$ in so %a! as he has ad9&s$ed hi"sel%, $he ad9&s$"en$s hae changed $he $y1e o% $he
eni!on"en$ $o <hich he can !es1ond and $he <o!ld is acco!dingly a di%%e!en$ <o!ld. The!e is al<ays
a "&$&al !ela$ionshi1 o% $he indiid&al and $he co""&ni$y in <hich $he indiid&al lies. O&!
!ecogni$ion o% $his &nde! o!dina!y condi$ions is con%ined $o !ela$iely s"all social g!o&1s, %o! he!e an
indiid&al canno$ co"e in$o $he g!o&1 <i$ho&$ in so"e deg!ee changing $he cha!ac$e! o% $he
o!gani8a$ion. Peo1le hae $o ad9&s$ $he"seles $o hi" as "&ch as he ad9&s$s hi"sel% $o $he". I$
"ay see" $o ,e a "olding o% $he indiid&al ,y $he %o!ces a,o&$ hi", ,&$ $he socie$y li7e<ise
changes in $his 1!ocess, and ,eco"es $o so"e deg!ee a di%%e!en$ socie$y. The change "ay ,e
desi!a,le o! i$ "ay ,e &ndesi!a,le, ,&$ i$ inei$a,ly $a7es 1lace.
This !ela$ionshi1 o% $he indiid&al $o $he co""&ni$y ,eco"es s$!i7ing <hen <e ge$ "inds $ha$ ,y
$hei! aden$ "a7e $he <ide! socie$y a no$icea,ly di%%e!en$ socie$y. Pe!sons o% g!ea$ "ind and g!ea$
cha!ac$e! hae s$!i7ingly changed $he co""&ni$ies $o <hich $hey hae !es1onded. 0e call $he"
leade!s, as s&ch, ,&$ $hey a!e si"1ly ca!!ying $o $he n$h 1o<e! $his change in $he co""&ni$y ,y $he
indiid&al <ho "a7es hi"sel% a 1a!$ o% i$, <ho ,elongs $o i$.+,- The g!ea$ cha!ac$e!s hae ,een
$hose <ho, ,y ,eing <ha$ $hey <e!e in $he co""&ni$y, "ade $ha$ co""&ni$y a di%%e!en$ one. They
hae enla!ged and en!iched $he co""&ni$y. S&ch %ig&!es as g!ea$ !eligio&s cha!ac$e!s in his$o!y
hae, $h!o&gh $hei! "e",e!shi1, inde%ini$ely inc!eased $he 1ossi,le si8e o% $he co""&ni$y i$sel%.
Ces&s gene!ali8ed $he conce1$ion o% $he co""&ni$y in $e!"s o% $he %a"ily in s&ch a s$a$e"en$ as
$ha$ o% $he neigh,o! in $he 1a!a,les. Een $he "an o&$side o% $he co""&ni$y <ill no< $a7e $ha$
gene!ali8ed %a"ily a$$i$&de $o<a!d i$, and he "a7es $hose $ha$ a!e so ,!o&gh$ in$o !ela$ionshi1 <i$h
hi" "e",e!s o% $he co""&ni$y $o <hich he ,elongs, $he co""&ni$y o% a &nie!sal !eligion. The
change o% $he co""&ni$y $h!o&gh $he a$$i$&de o% $he indiid&al ,eco"es, o% co&!se, 1ec&lia!ly
i"1!essie and e%%ec$ie in his$o!y. I$ "a7es se1a!a$e indiid&als s$and o&$ as sy",olic. They
!e1!esen$, in $hei! 1e!sonal !ela$ionshi1s, a ne< o!de!, and $hen ,eco"e !e1!esen$a$ie o% $he
co""&ni$y as i$ "igh$ e=is$ i% i$ <e!e %&lly deelo1ed along $he lines $ha$ $hey had s$a!$ed. Ne<
conce1$ions hae ,!o&gh$ <i$h $he", $h!o&gh g!ea$ indiid&als, a$$i$&des <hich eno!"o&sly enla!ge
$he eni!on"en$ <i$hin <hich $hese indiid&als lied. A "an <ho is a neigh,o! o% any,ody else in
$he g!o&1 is a "e",e! o% a la!ge! socie$y, and $o $he e=$en$ $ha$ he lies in s&ch a co""&ni$y he
has hel1ed $o c!ea$e $ha$ socie$y.
I$ is in s&ch !eac$ions o% $he indiid&al, $he -I,- oe! agains$ $he si$&a$ion in <hich $he -I- %inds i$sel%,
$ha$ i"1o!$an$ social changes $a7e 1lace. 0e %!eD&en$ly s1ea7 o% $he" as e=1!essions o% $he
indiid&al geni&s o% ce!$ain 1e!sons. 0e do no$ 7no< <hen $he g!ea$ a!$is$, scien$is$, s$a$es"an,
!eligio&s leade! <ill co"e?1e!sons <ho <ill hae a %o!"a$ie e%%ec$ &1on $he socie$y $o <hich $hey
,elong. The e!y de%ini$ion o% geni&s <o&ld co"e ,ac7 $o so"e$hing o% $he so!$ $o <hich I hae ,een
!e%e!!ing, $o $his incalc&la,le D&ali$y, $his change o% $he eni!on"en$ on $he 1a!$ o% an indiid&al ,y
hi"sel% ,eco"ing a "e",e! o% $he co""&ni$y.
An indiid&al o% $he $y1e $o <hich <e a!e !e%e!!ing a!ises al<ays <i$h !e%e!ence $o a %o!" o% socie$y
o! social o!de! <hich is i"1lied ,&$ no$ adeD&a$ely e=1!essed. Ta7e $he !eligio&s geni&s, s&ch as
Ces&s o! B&ddha, o! $he !e%lec$ie $y1e, s&ch as Soc!a$es. 0ha$ has gien $he" $hei! &niD&e
i"1o!$ance is $ha$ $hey hae $a7en $he a$$i$&de o% liing <i$h !e%e!ence $o a la!ge! socie$y. Tha$ la!ge!
s$a$e <as one <hich <as al!eady "o!e o! less i"1lied in $he ins$i$&$ions o% $he co""&ni$y in <hich
$hey lied. S&ch an indiid&al is die!gen$ %!o" $he 1oin$ o% ie< o% <ha$ <e <o&ld call $he 1!e9&dices
o% $he co""&ni$y@ ,&$ in ano$he! ?? sense he e=1!esses $he 1!inci1les o% $he co""&ni$y "o!e
co"1le$ely $han any o$he!. Th&s a!ises $he si$&a$ion o% an A$henian o! a :e,!e< s$oning $he geni&s
<ho e=1!esses $he 1!inci1les o% his o<n socie$y, one $he 1!inci1le o% !a$ionali$y and $he o$he! $he
1!inci1le o% co"1le$e neigh,o!liness. The $y1e <e !e%e! $o as $he geni&s is o% $ha$ so!$. The!e is an
analogo&s si$&a$ion in $he %ield o% a!$is$ic c!ea$ion; $he a!$is$s also !eeal con$en$s <hich !e1!esen$ a
<ide! e"o$ional e=1!ession ans<e!ing $o a <ide! socie$y. To $he deg!ee $ha$ <e "a7e $he
co""&ni$y in <hich <e lie di%%e!en$ <e all hae <ha$ is essen$ial $o geni&s, and <hich ,eco"es
geni&s <hen $he e%%ec$s a!e 1!o%o&nd.
The !es1onse o% $he -I- "ay ,e a 1!ocess <hich inoles a deg!ada$ion o% $he social s$a$e as <ell as
one <hich inoles highe! in$eg!a$ion. Ta7e $he case o% $he "o, in i$s a!io&s e=1!essions. A "o, is
an o!gani8a$ion <hich has eli"ina$ed ce!$ain al&es <hich hae o,$ained in $he in$e!!ela$ion o%
indiid&als <i$h each o$he!, has si"1li%ied i$sel%, and in doing $ha$ has "ade i$ 1ossi,le $o allo< $he
indiid&al, es1ecially $he !e1!essed indiid&al, $o ge$ an e=1!ession <hich o$he!<ise <o&ld no$ ,e
allo<ed. The indiid&al>s !es1onse is "ade 1ossi,le ,y $he ac$&al deg!ada$ion o% $he social s$!&c$&!e
i$sel%, ,&$ $ha$ does no$ $a7e a<ay $he i""edia$e al&e $o $he indiid&al <hich a!ises &nde! $hose
condi$ions. :e ge$s his e"o$ional !es1onse o&$ o% $ha$ si$&a$ion ,eca&se in his e=1!ession o%
iolence he is doing <ha$ ee!yone else is doing. The <hole co""&ni$y is doing $he sa"e $hing.
The !e1!ession <hich e=is$ed has disa11ea!ed and he is a$ one <i$h $he co""&ni$y and $he
co""&ni$y is a$ one <i$h hi". An ill&s$!a$ion o% a "o!e $!iial cha!ac$e! is %o&nd in o&! 1e!sonal
!ela$ions <i$h $hose a,o&$ &s. O&! "anne!s a!e "e$hods o% no$ only "edia$ed in$e!co&!se ,e$<een
1e!sons ,&$ also <ays o% 1!o$ec$ing o&!seles agains$ each o$he!. A 1e!son "ay, ,y "anne!s,
isola$e hi"sel% so $ha$ he canno$ ,e $o&ched ,y anyone else. Manne!s 1!oide a <ay in <hich <e
7ee1 1eo1le a$ a dis$ance, 1eo1le $ha$ <e do no$ 7no< and do no$ <an$ $o 7no<. 0e all "a7e &se o%
1!ocesses o% $ha$ so!$. B&$ $he!e a!e occasions in <hich <e can d!o1 o%% $he $y1e o% "anne! <hich
holds 1eo1le a$ a!">s leng$h. 0e "ee$ $he "an in so"e dis$an$ co&n$!y <ho" 1e!ha1s <e <o&ld
see7 $o aoid "ee$ing a$ ho"e, and <e al"os$ $ea! o&! a!"s o%% e",!acing hi". The!e is a g!ea$
deal o% e=hila!a$ion in si$&a$ions inoled in $he hos$ili$y o% o$he! na$ions@ <e all see" a$ one agains$
a co""on ene"y@ $he ,a!!ie!s d!o1, and <e hae a social sense o% co"!adeshi1 $o $hose s$anding
<i$h &s in a co""on &nde!$a7ing. The sa"e $hing $a7es 1lace in a 1oli$ical ca"1aign. Fo! $he $i"e
,eing <e e=$end $he glad hand?and a ciga!?$o anyone <ho is a "e",e! o% $he 1a!$ic&la! g!o&1 $o
<hich <e ,elong. 0e ge$ !id o% ce!$ain !es$!ic$ions &nde! $hose ci!c&"s$ances, !es$!ic$ions <hich
!eally 7ee1 &s %!o" in$ense social e=1e!iences. A 1e!son "ay ,e a ic$i" o% his good "anne!s@ $hey
"ay incase hi" as <ell as 1!o$ec$ hi". B&$ &nde! $he condi$ions $o <hich I hae !e%e!!ed, a 1e!son
does ge$ o&$side o% hi"sel%, and ,y doing so "a7es hi"sel% a de%ini$e "e",e! o% a la!ge!
co""&ni$y $han $ha$ $o <hich he 1!eio&sly ,elonged.
This enla!ged e=1e!ience has a 1!o%o&nd in%l&ence. I$ is $he so!$ o% e=1e!ience <hich $he neo1hy$e
has in cone!sion. I$ is $he sense o% ,elonging $o $he co""&ni$y, o% haing an in$i"a$e !ela$ionshi1
<i$h an inde%ini$e n&",e! o% indiid&als <ho ,elong $o $he sa"e g!o&1. Tha$ is $he e=1e!ience <hich
lies ,ac7 o% $he so"e$i"es hys$e!ical e=$!e"es <hich ,elong $o cone!sions. The 1e!son has
en$e!ed in$o $he &nie!sal co""&ni$y o% $he ch&!ch, and $he !es&l$ing e=1e!ience is $he e=1!ession
o% $ha$ sense o% iden$i%ica$ion o% one>s sel% <i$h ee!yone else in $he co""&ni$y. The sense o% loe is
sho<n ,y s&ch 1!oceedings as <ashing $he %ee$ o% le1e!s@ in gene!al, ,y %inding a 1e!son <ho is
"os$ dis$an$ %!o" $he co""&ni$y, and ,y "a7ing a see"ingly se!ile o%%e!ing, iden$i%ying one>s sel%
co"1le$ely <i$h $his indiid&al. This is a 1!ocess o% ,!ea7ing do<n $he <alls so $ha$ $he indiid&al is
a ,!o$he! o% ee!yone. The "edieal sain$ <o!7ed o&$ $ha$ "e$hod o% iden$i%ying hi"sel% <i$h all
liing ,eings, as did $he !eligio&s $echniD&e o% India. This ,!ea7do<n o% ,a!!ie!s is so"e$hing $ha$
a!o&ses a %lood o% e"o$ions, ,eca&se i$ se$s %!ee an inde%ini$e n&",e! o% 1ossi,le con$ac$s $o o$he!
1eo1le <hich hae ,een chec7ed, held !e1!essed. The indiid&al, ,y en$e!ing in$o $ha$ ne<
co""&ni$y, has, ,y his s$e1 in "a7ing hi"sel% a "e",e!, ,y his e=1e!ience o% iden$i%ica$ion, $a7en
on $he al&e $ha$ ,elongs $o all "e",e!s o% $ha$ co""&ni$y.

S&ch e=1e!iences a!e, o% co&!se, o% i""ense i"1o!$ance. 0e "a7e &se o% $he" all $he $i"e in $he
co""&ni$y. 0e dec!y $he a$$i$&de o% hos$ili$y as a "eans o% ca!!ying on $he in$e!!ela$ions ,e$<een
na$ions. 0e %eel <e sho&ld ge$ ,eyond $he "e$hods o% <a!%a!e and di1lo"acy, and !each so"e so!$
o% 1oli$ical !ela$ion o% na$ions $o each o$he! in <hich $hey co&ld ,e !ega!ded as "e",e!s o% a
co""on co""&ni$y, and so ,e a,le $o e=1!ess $he"seles, no$ in $he a$$i$&de o% hos$ili$y, ,&$ in
$e!"s o% $hei! co""on al&es. Tha$ is <ha$ <e se$ &1 as $he ideal o% $he Leag&e o% Na$ions. 0e
hae $o !e"e",e!, ho<ee!, $ha$ <e a!e no$ a,le $o <o!7 o&$ o&! o<n 1oli$ical ins$i$&$ions <i$ho&$
in$!od&cing $he hos$ili$ies o% 1a!$ies. 0i$ho&$ 1a!$ies <e co&ld no$ ge$ a %!ac$ion o% $he o$e!s $o co"e
$o $he 1olls $o e=1!ess $he"seles on iss&es o% g!ea$ 1&,lic i"1o!$ance, ,&$ <e can en!ol a
conside!a,le 1a!$ o% $he co""&ni$y in a 1oli$ical 1a!$y $ha$ is %igh$ing so"e o$he! 1a!$y. I$ is $he
ele"en$ o% $he %igh$ $ha$ 7ee1s &1 $he in$e!es$. 0e can enlis$ $he in$e!es$ o% a n&",e! o% 1eo1le <ho
<an$ $o de%ea$ $he o11osing 1a!$y, and ge$ $he" $o $?he 1olls $o do $ha$. The 1a!$y 1la$%o!" is an
a,s$!ac$ion, o% co&!se, and does no$ "ean "&ch $o &s, since <e a!e ac$&ally de1ending
1sychologically &1on $he o1e!a$ion o% $hese "o!e ,a!,a!o&s i"1&lses in o!de! $o 7ee1 o&! o!dina!y
ins$i$&$ions !&nning. 0hen <e o,9ec$ $o $he o!gani8a$ion o% co!!&1$ 1oli$ical "achines <e o&gh$ $o
!e"e",e! $o %eel a ce!$ain g!a$i$&de $o 1eo1le <ho a!e a,le $o enlis$ $he in$e!es$ o% 1eo1le in 1&,lic
a%%ai!s.
0e a!e no!"ally de1enden$ &1on $hose si$&a$ions in <hich $he sel% is a,le $o e=1!ess i$sel% in a
di!ec$ %ashion, and $he!e is no si$&a$ion in <hich $he sel% can e=1!ess i$sel% so easily as i$ can oe!
agains$ $he co""on ene"y o% $he g!o&1s $o <hich i$ is &ni$ed. The hy"n $ha$ co"es $o o&! "inds
"os$ %!eD&en$ly as e=1!essie o% Ch!is$endo" is -On<a!d Ch!is$ian Soldie!s-@ Pa&l o!gani8ed $he
ch&!ch o% his $i"e agains$ $he <o!ld o% hea$hens@ and -*eela$ion- !e1!esen$s $he co""&ni$y oe!
agains$ $he <o!ld o% da!7ness. The idea o% Sa$an has ,een as essen$ial $o $he o!gani8a$ion o% $he
ch&!ch as 1oli$ics has ,een $o $he o!gani8a$ion o% de"oc!acy. The!e has $o ,e so"e$hing $o %igh$
agains$ ,eca&se $he sel% is "os$ easily a,le $o e=1!ess i$sel% in 9oining a de%ini$e g!o&1.
The al&e o% an o!de!ed socie$y is essen$ial $o o&! e=is$ence, ,&$ $he!e also has $o ,e !oo" %o! an
e=1!ession o% $he indiid&al hi"sel% i% $he!e is $o ,e a sa$is%ac$o!ily deelo1ed socie$y. A "eans %o!
s&ch e=1!ession "&s$ ,e 1!oided. 6n$il <e hae s&ch a social s$!&c$&!e in <hich an indiid&al can
e=1!ess hi"sel% as $he a!$is$ and $he scien$is$ does, <e a!e $h!o<n ,ac7 on $he so!$ o% s$!&c$&!e
%o&nd in $he "o,, in <hich ee!y,ody is %!ee $o e=1!ess hi"sel% agains$ so"e ha$ed o,9ec$ o% $he
g!o&1.
One di%%e!ence ,e$<een 1!i"i$ie h&"an socie$y and ciili8ed h&"an socie$y is $ha$ in 1!i"i$ie
h&"an socie$y $he indiid&al sel% is "&ch "o!e co"1le$ely de$e!"ined, <i$h !ega!d $o his $hin7ing
and his ,ehaio!, ,y $he gene!al 1a$$e!n o% $he o!gani8ed social ac$ii$y ca!!ied on ,y $he 1a!$ic&la!
social g!o&1 $o <hich he ,elongs, $han he is in ciili8ed h&"an socie$y. In o$he! <o!ds, 1!i"i$ie
h&"an socie$y o%%e!s "&ch less sco1e %o! indiid&ali$y?%o! o!iginal, &niD&e, o! c!ea$ie $hin7ing and
,ehaio! on $he 1a!$ o% $he indiid&al sel% <i$hin i$ o! ,elonging $o i$?$han does ciili8ed h&"an
socie$y@ and indeed $he eol&$ion o% ciili8ed h&"an socie$y %!o" 1!i"i$ie h&"an socie$y has la!gely
de1ended &1on o! !es&l$ed %!o" a 1!og!essie social li,e!a$ion o% $he indiid&al sel% and his cond&c$,
<i$h $he "odi%ica$ions and ela,o!a$ions o% $he h&"an social 1!ocess <hich hae %ollo<ed %!o" and
,een "ade 1ossi,le ,y $ha$ li,e!a$ion. In 1!i"i$ie socie$y, $o a %a! g!ea$e! e=$en$ $han in ciili8ed
socie$y, indiid&ali$y is cons$i$&$ed ,y $he "o!e o! less 1e!%ec$ achiee"en$ o% a gien social $y1e a
$y1e al!eady gien, indica$ed, o! e=e"1li%ied in $he o!gani8ed 1a$$e!n o% social cond&c$, in $he
in$eg!a$ed !ela$ional s$!&c$&!e o% $he social 1!ocess o% e=1e!ience and ,ehaio! <hich $he gien
social g!o&1 e=hi,i$s and is ca!!ying on@ in ciili8ed socie$y indiid&ali$y is cons$i$&$ed !a$he! ,y $he
indiid&al>s de1a!$&!e %!o", o! "odi%ied !eali8a$ion o%, any gien social $y1e $han ,y his con%o!"i$y,
and $ends $o ,e so"e$hing "&ch "o!e dis$inc$ie and sing&la! and 1ec&lia! $han i$ is in 1!i"i$ie
h&"an socie$y. B&$ een in $he "os$ "ode!n and highly?eoled %o!"s o% h&"an ciili8a$ion $he
indiid&al, ho<ee! o!iginal and c!ea$ie he "ay ,e in his $hin7ing o! ,ehaio!, al<ays and
necessa!ily ass&"es a de%ini$e !ela$ion $o, and !e%lec$s in $he s$!&c$&!e o% his sel% o! 1e!sonali$y, $he
gene!al o!gani8ed 1a$$e!n o% e=1e!ience and ac$ii$y e=hi,i$ed in o! cha!ac$e!i8ing $he social li%e?
1!ocess in <hich he is inoled, and o% <hich his sel% o! 1e!sonali$y is essen$ially a c!ea$ie
e=1!ession o! e",odi"en$. No indiid&al has a "ind <hich o1e!a$es si"1ly in i$sel%, in isola$ion
%!o" $he social li%e?1!ocess in <hich i$ has a!isen o! o&$ o% <hich i$ has e"e!ged, and in <hich $he
1a$$e!n o% o!gani8ed social ,ehaio! has conseD&en$ly ,een ,asically i"1!essed &1on i$.
"ndnotes
1. The ,ehaio! o% a geni&s is socially condi$ioned, 9&s$ as $ha$ o% an o!dina!y indiid&al is@ and
his achiee"en$s a!e $he !es&l$s o%, o! a!e !es1onses $o, social s$i"&li, 9&s$ as $hose o% an
o!dina!y indiid&al a!e. The geni&s, li7e $he o!dina!y indiid&al, co"es ,ac7 a$ hi"sel% %!o"
$he s$and1oin$ o% $he o!gani8ed social g!o&1 $o <hich he ,elongs, and $he a$$i$&des o% $ha$
g!o&1 $o<a!d any gien 1!o9ec$ in <hich he ,eco"es inoled@ and he !es1onds $o $his
gene!ali8ed a$$i$&de o% $he g!o&1 <i$h a de%ini$e a$$i$&de o% his o<n $o<a!d $he gien 1!o9ec$,
9&s$ as $he o!dina!y indiid&al does. B&$ $his de%ini$e a$$i$&de o% his o<n <i$h <hich he
!es1onds $o $he gene!ali8ed a$$i$&de o% $he g!o&1 is &niD&e and o!iginal in $he case o% $he
geni&s, <he!eas i$ is no$ so in $he case o% $he o!dina!y indiid&al@ and i$ is $his &niD&eness
and o!iginali$y o% his !es1onse $o a gien social si$&a$ion o! 1!o,le" o! 1!o9ec$ ? <hich
nee!$heless condi$ions his ,ehaio! no less $han i$ does $ha$ o% $he o!dina!y indiid&al ? $ha$
dis$ing&ishes $he geni&s %!o" $he o!dina!y indiid&al.
.9# % C$(T*%ST $3 I()IVI)4%&ISTIC %() S$CI%& TH"$*I"S $3 TH" S"&3
The di%%e!ences ,e$<een $he $y1e o% social 1sychology <hich de!ies $he seles o% indiid&als %!o"
$he social 1!ocess in <hich $hey a!e i"1lica$ed and in <hich $hey e"1i!ically in$e!ac$ <i$h one
ano$he!, and $he $y1e o% social 1sychology <hich ins$ead de!ies $ha$ 1!ocess %!o" $he seles o% $he
indiid&als inoled in i$, a!e clea!. The %i!s$ $y1e ass&"es a social 1!ocess o! social o!de! as $he
logical and ,iological 1!econdi$ion o% $he a11ea!ance o% $he seles o% $he indiid&al o!ganis"s
inoled in $ha$ 1!ocess o! ,elonging $o $ha$ o!de!. The o$he! $y1e, on $he con$!a!y, ass&"es
indiid&al seles as $he 1!es&11osi$ions, logically and ,iologically, o% $he social 1!ocess o! o!de!
<i$hin <hich $hey in$e!ac$.
The di%%e!ence ,e$<een $he social and $he indiid&al $heo!ies o% $he deelo1"en$ o% "ind, sel%, and
$he social 1!ocess o% e=1e!ience o! ,ehaio! is analogo&s $o $he di%%e!ence ,e$<een $he eol&$iona!y
and $he con$!ac$ $heo!ies o% $he s$a$e as held in $he 1as$ ,y ,o$h !a$ionalis$s and e"1i!icis$s.+,- The
la$$e! $heo!y $a7es indiid&als and $hei! indiid&al e=1e!iencing?indiid&al "inds and seles?as
logically 1!io! $o $he social 1!ocess in <hich $hey a!e inoled, and e=1lains $he e=is$ence o% $ha$
social 1!ocess in $e!"s o% $he"@ <he!eas $he %o!"e! $a7es $he social 1!ocess o% e=1e!ience o!
,ehaio! as logically 1!io! $o $he indiid&als and $hei! indiid&al e=1e!iencing <hich a!e inoled in i$,
and e=1lains $hei! e=is$ence in $e!"s o% $ha$ social 1!ocess. B&$ $he la$$e! $y1e o% $heo!y canno$
e=1lain $ha$ <hich is $a7en as logically 1!io! a$ all, canno$ e=1lain $he e=is$ence o% "inds and seles@
<he!eas $he %o!"e! $y1e o% $heo!y can e=1lain $ha$ <hich i$ $a7es as logically 1!io!, na"ely, $he
e=is$ence o% $he social 1!ocess o% ,ehaio!, in $e!"s o% s&ch %&nda"en$al ,iological o! 1hysiological
!ela$ions and in$e!ac$ions as !e1!od&c$ion, o! $he coo1e!a$ion o% indiid&als %o! "&$&al 1!o$ec$ion o!
%o! $he sec&!ing o% %ood.
O&! con$en$ion is $ha$ "ind can nee! %ind e=1!ession, and co&ld nee! hae co"e in$o e=is$ence a$
all, e=ce1$ in $e!"s o% a social eni!on"en$@ $ha$ an o!gani8ed se$ o! 1a$$e!n o% social !ela$ions and
in$e!ac$ions Aes1ecially $hose o% co""&nica$ion ,y "eans o% ges$&!es %&nc$ioning as signi%ican$
sy",ols and $h&s c!ea$ing a &nie!se o% disco&!seB is necessa!ily 1!es&11osed ,y i$ and inoled in
i$s na$&!e. And $his en$i!ely social $heo!y o! in$e!1!e$a$ion o% "ind +.- $his con$en$ion $ha$ "ind
deelo1s and has i$s ,eing only in and ,y i!$&e o% $he social 1!ocess o% e=1e!ience and ac$ii$y,
<hich i$ hence 1!es&11oses, and $ha$ in no o$he! <ay can i$ deelo1 and hae i$s ,eing?"&s$ ,e
clea!ly dis$ing&ished %!o" $he 1a!$ially A,&$ only 1a!$iallyB social ie< o% "ind. On $his ie<, $ho&gh
"ind can ge$ e=1!ession only <i$hin o! in $e!"s o% $he eni!on"en$ o% an o!gani8ed social g!o&1, ye$
i$ is nee!$heless in so"e sense a na$ie endo<"en$ ? a congeni$al o! he!edi$a!y ,iological a$$!i,&$e
? o% $he indiid&al o!ganis", and co&ld no$ o$he!<ise e=is$ o! "ani%es$ i$sel% in $he social 1!ocess a$
all@ so $ha$ i$ is no$ i$sel% essen$ially a social 1heno"enon, ,&$ !a$he! is ,iological ,o$h in i$s na$&!e
and in i$s o!igin, and is social only in i$s cha!ac$e!is$ic "ani%es$a$ions o! e=1!essions. Acco!ding $o
$his la$$e! ie<, "o!eoe!, $he social 1!ocess 1!es&11oses, and in a sense is a 1!od&c$ o%, "ind@ in
di!ec$ con$!as$ is o&! o11osi$e ie< $ha$ "ind 1!es&11oses, and is a 1!od&c$ o%, $he social 1!ocess.
The adan$age o% o&! ie< is $ha$ i$ ena,les &s $o gie a de$ailed acco&n$ and ac$&ally $o e=1lain $he
genesis and deelo1"en$ o% "ind@ <he!eas $he ie< $ha$ "ind is a congeni$al ,iological endo<"en$
o% $he indiid&al o!ganis" does no$ !eally ena,le &s $o e=1lain i$s na$&!e and o!igin a$ all; nei$he!
<ha$ so!$ o% ,iological endo<"en$ i$ is, no! ho< o!ganis"s a$ a ce!$ain leel o% eol&$iona!y 1!og!ess
co"e $o 1ossess i$.+/- F&!$he!"o!e, $he s&11osi$ion $ha$ $he social 1!ocess 1!es&11oses, and is in
so"e sense a 1!od&c$ o%, "ind see"s $o ,e con$!adic$ed ,y $he e=is$ence o% $he social co""&ni$ies
o% ce!$ain o% $he lo<e! ani"als, es1ecially $he highly co"1le= social o!gani8a$ions o% ,ees and an$s,
<hich a11a!en$ly o1e!a$e on a 1&!ely ins$inc$ie o! !e%le= ,asis, and do no$ in $he leas$ inole $he
e=is$ence o% "ind o! conscio&sness in $he indiid&al o!ganis"s <hich %o!" o! cons$i$&$e $he". And
een i% $his con$!adic$ion is aoided ,y $he ad"ission $ha$ only a$ i$s highe! leels?only a$ $he leels
!e1!esen$ed ,y $he social !ela$ions and in$e!ac$ions o% h&"an ,eings?does $he social 1!ocess o%
e=1e!ience and ,ehaio! 1!es&11ose $he e=is$ence o% "ind o! ,eco"e necessa!ily a 1!od&c$ o%
"ind, s$ill i$ is ha!dly 1la&si,le $o s&11ose $ha$ $his al!eady ongoing and deelo1ing 1!ocess sho&ld
s&ddenly, a$ a 1a!$ic&la! s$age in i$s eol&$ion, ,eco"e de1enden$ %o! i$s %&!$he! con$in&ance &1on
an en$i!ely e=$!aneo&s %ac$o!, in$!od&ced in$o i$, so $o s1ea7, %!o" <i$ho&$.
The indiid&al en$e!s as s&ch in$o his o<n e=1e!ience only as an o,9ec$, no$ as a s&,9ec$@ and he
can en$e! as an o,9ec$ only on $he ,asis o% social !ela$ions and in$e!ac$ions, only ,y "eans o% his
e=1e!ien$ial $!ansac$ions <i$h o$he! indiid&als in an o!gani8ed social eni!on"en$. I$ is $!&e $ha$
ce!$ain con$en$s o% e=1e!ience A1a!$ic&la!ly 7inaes$he$icB a!e accessi,le only $o $he gien indiid&al
o!ganis" and no$ $o any o$he!s@ and $ha$ $hese 1!ia$e o! -s&,9ec$ie,- as o11osed $o 1&,lic o!
-o,9ec$ie,- con$en$s o% e=1e!ience a!e &s&ally !ega!ded as ,eing 1ec&lia!ly and in$i"a$ely
connec$ed <i$h $he indiid&al>s sel%, o! as ,eing in a s1ecial sense sel%?e=1e!iences. B&$ $his
accessi,ili$y solely $o $he gien indiid&al o!ganis" o% ce!$ain con$en$s o% i$s e=1e!ience does no$
a%%ec$, no! in any <ay con%lic$ <i$h, $he $heo!y as $o $he social na$&!e and o!igin o% $he sel% $ha$ <e
a!e 1!esen$ing@ $he e=is$ence o% 1!ia$e o! -s&,9ec$ie- con$en$s o% e=1e!ience does no$ al$e! $he %ac$
$ha$ sel%?conscio&sness inoles $he indiid&al>s ,eco"ing an o,9ec$ $o hi"sel% ,y $a7ing $he
a$$i$&des o% o$he! indiid&als $o<a!d hi"sel% <i$hin an o!gani8ed se$$ing o% social !ela$ionshi1s, and
$ha$ &nless $he indiid&al had $h&s ,eco"e an o,9ec$ $o hi"sel% he <o&ld no$ ,e sel%?conscio&s o!
hae a sel% a$ all. A1a!$ %!o" his social in$e!ac$ions <i$h o$he! indiid&als, he <o&ld no$ !ela$e $he
1!ia$e o! -s&,9ec$ie- con$en$s o% his e=1e!ience $o hi"sel%, and he co&ld no$ ,eco"e a<a!e o%
hi"sel% as s&ch, $ha$ is, as an indiid&al, a 1e!son, "e!ely ,y "eans o! in $e!"s o% $hese con$en$s o%
his e=1e!ience@ %o! in o!de! $o ,eco"e a<a!e o% hi"sel% as s&ch he "&s$, $o !e1ea$, ,eco"e an
o,9ec$ $o hi"sel%, o! en$e! his o<n e=1e!ience as an o,9ec$, and only ,y social "eans?only ,y $a7ing
$he a$$i$&des o% o$he!s $o<a!d hi"sel%?is he a,le $o ,eco"e an o,9ec$ $o hi"sel%.+0-
I$ is $!&e, o% co&!se, $ha$ once "ind has a!isen in $he social 1!ocess i$ "a7es 1ossi,le $he
deelo1"en$ o% $ha$ 1!ocess in$o "&ch "o!e co"1le= %o!"s o% social in$e!ac$ion a"ong $he
co"1onen$ indiid&als $han <as 1ossi,le ,e%o!e i$ had a!isen. B&$ $he!e is no$hing odd a,o&$ a
1!od&c$ o% a gien 1!ocess con$!i,&$ing $o, o! ,eco"ing an essen$ial %ac$o! in, $he %&!$he!
deelo1"en$ o% $ha$ 1!ocess. The social 1!ocess, $hen, does no$ de1end %o! i$s o!igin o! ini$ial
e=is$ence &1on $he e=is$ence and in$e!ac$ions o% seles@ $ho&gh i$ does de1end &1on $he la$$e! %o!
$he highe! s$ages o% co"1le=i$y and o!gani8a$ion <hich i$ !eaches a%$e! seles hae a!isen <i$hin i$.
"ndnotes
1. :is$o!ically, ,o$h $he !a$ionalis$ and $he e"1i!icis$ a!e co""i$$ed $o $he in$e!1!e$a$ion o%
e=1e!ience in $e!"s o% $he indiid&al A13'1B.
O$he! 1eo1le a!e $he!e as "&ch as <e a!e $he!e@ $o ,e a sel% !eD&i!es o$he! seles A13#)B.
In o&! e=1e!ience $he $hing is $he!e as "&ch as <e a!e he!e. O&! e=1e!ience is in $he $hing
as"&ch as i$ is in &s AMSB.
#. In de%ending a social $heo!y o% "ind <e a!e de%ending a %&nc$ional, as o11osed $o any %o!"
o% s&,s$an$ie o! en$i$ie, ie< as $o i$s na$&!e. And in 1a!$ic&la!, <e a!e o11osing all
in$!ac!anial o! in$!a?e1ide!"al ie<s as $o i$s cha!ac$e! and loc&s. Fo! i$ %ollo<s %!o" o&!
social $heo!y o% "ind $ha$ $he %ield o% "ind "&s$ ,e co?e=$ensie <i$h, and incl&de all $he
co"1onen$s o%, $he %ield o% $he social 1!ocess o% e=1e!ience and ,ehaio!, i.e., $he "a$!i= o%
social !ela$ions and in$e!ac$ions a"ong indiid&als, <hich is 1!es&11osed ,y i$, and o&$ o%
<hich i$ a!ises o! co"es in$o ,eing. I% "ind is socially cons$i$&$ed, $hen $he %ield o! loc&s o%
any gien indiid&al "ind "&s$ e=$end as %a! as $he social ac$ii$y o! a11a!a$&s o% social
!ela$ions <hich cons$i$&$es i$ e=$ends@ and hence $ha$ %ield canno$ ,e ,o&nded ,y $he s7in o%
$he indiid&al o!ganis" $o <hich i$ ,elongs.
3. Acco!ding $o $he $!adi$ional ass&"1$ion o% 1sychology, $he con$en$ o% e=1e!ience is en$i!ely
indiid&al and no$ in any "eas&!e $o ,e 1!i"a!ily acco&n$ed %o! in social $e!"s, een $ho&gh
i$s se$$ing o! con$e=$ is a social one. And %o! a social 1sychology li7e Cooley>s ? <hich is
%o&nded on 1!ecisely $his sa"e ass&"1$ion ? all social in$e!ac$ions de1end &1on $he
i"agina$ions o% $he indiid&als inoled, and $a7e 1lace in $e!"s o% $hei! di!ec$ conscio&s
in%l&ences &1on one ano$he! in $he 1!ocesses o% social e=1e!ience. Cooley>s social
1sychology, as %o&nd in his ,uman 8ature and the Social -rder, is hence inei$a,ly
in$!os1ec$ie, and his 1sychological "e$hod ca!!ies <i$h i$ $he i"1lica$ion o% co"1le$e
soli1sis"; socie$y !eally has no e=is$ence e=ce1$ in $he indiid&al>s "ind, and $he conce1$ o%
$he sel% as in any sense in$!insically social is a 1!od&c$ !% i"agina$ion. Een %o! Cooley $he
sel% 1!es&11oses e=1e!ience, and e=1e!ience is a 1!ocess <i$hin <hich seles a!ise@ ,&$
since $ha$ 1!ocess is %o! hi" 1!i"a!ily in$e!nal and indiid&al !a$he! $han e=$e!nal and social,
he is co""i$$ed in his 1sychology $o a s&,9ec$iis$ic and idealis$ic, !a$he! $han an
o,9ec$iis$ic and na$&!alis$ic, "e$a1hysical 1osi$ion.
). The h&"an ,eing>s 1hysiological ca1aci$y %o! deelo1ing "ind o! in$elligence is a 1!od&c$ o%
$he 1!ocess o% ,iological eol&$ion, 9&s$ as is his <hole o!ganis"@ ,&$ $he ac$&al deelo1"en$
o% his "ind o! in$elligence i$sel%, gien $ha$ ca1aci$y, "&s$ 1!oceed in $e!"s o% $he social
si$&a$ions <he!ein i$ ge$s i$s e=1!ession and i"1o!$@ and hence i$ i$sel% is a 1!od&c$ o% $he
1!ocess o% social eol&$ion, $he 1!ocess o% social e=1e!ience and ,ehaio!.
/:# TH" B%SIS $3 H4M%( S$CI"T': M%( %() TH" I(S"CTS
In $he ea!lie! 1a!$s o% o&! disc&ssion <e hae %ollo<ed o&$ $he deelo1"en$ o% $he sel% in $he
e=1e!ience o% $he h&"an o!ganis", and no< <e a!e $o conside! so"e$hing o% $he social o!ganis"
<i$hin <hich $his sel% a!ises.
:&"an socie$y as <e 7no< i$ co&ld no$ e=is$ <i$ho&$ "inds and seles, since all i$s "os$
cha!ac$e!is$ic %ea$&!es 1!es&11ose $he 1ossession o% "inds and seles ,y i$s indiid&al "e",e!s@
,&$ i$s indiid&al "e",e!s <o&ld no$ 1ossess "inds and seles i% $hese had no$ a!isen <i$hin o!
e"e!ged o&$ o% $he h&"an social 1!ocess in i$s lo<e! s$ages o% deelo1"en$?$hose s$ages a$ <hich
i$ <as "e!ely a !es&l$an$ o%, and <holly de1enden$ &1on, $he 1hysiological di%%e!en$ia$ions and
de"ands o% $he indiid&al o!ganis"s i"1lica$ed in i$. The!e "&s$ hae ,een s&ch lo<e! s$ages o%
$he h&"an social 1!ocess, no$ only %o! 1hysiological !easons, ,&$ also Ai% o&! social $heo!y o% $he
o!igin and na$&!e o% "inds and seles is co!!ec$B ,eca&se "inds and seles, conscio&sness and
in$elligence, co&ld no$ o$he!<ise hae e"e!ged@ ,eca&se, $ha$ is, so"e so!$ o% an ongoing social
1!ocess in <hich h&"an ,eings <e!e i"1lica$ed "&s$ hae ,een $he!e in adance o% $he e=is$ence
o% "inds and seles in h&"an ,eings, in o!de! $o "a7e 1ossi,le $he deelo1"en$, ,y h&"an ,eings,
o% "inds and seles <i$hin o! in $e!"s o% $ha$ 1!ocess.+,-
The ,ehaio! o% all liing o!ganis"s has a ,asically social as1ec$; $he %&nda"en$al ,iological o!
1hysiological i"1&lses and needs <hich lie a$ $he ,asis o% all s&ch ,ehaio!?es1ecially $hose o%
h&nge! and se=, $hose connec$ed <i$h n&$!i$ion and !e1!od&c$ion?a!e i"1&lses and needs <hich, in
$he ,!oades$ sense, a!e social in cha!ac$e! o! hae social i"1lica$ions, since $hey inole o! !eD&i!e
social si$&a$ions and !ela$ions %o! $hei! sa$is%ac$ion ,y any gien indiid&al o!ganis"@ and $hey $h&s
cons$i$&$e $he %o&nda$ion o% all $y1es o! %o!"s o% social ,ehaio!, ho<ee! si"1le o! co"1le=, c!&de
o! highly o!gani8ed, !&di"en $a!y o! <ell deelo1ed. The e=1e!ience and ,ehaio! o% $he indiid&al
o!ganis" a!e al<ays co"1onen$s o% a la!ge! social <hole o! 1!ocess o% e=1e!ience and ,ehaio! in
<hich $he indiid&al o!ganis"?,y i!$&e o% $he social cha!ac$e! o% $he %&nda"en$al 1hysiological
i"1&lses and needs <hich "o$ia$e and a!e e=1!essed in i$s e=1e!ience and ,ehaio!?is necessa!ily
i"1lica$ed, een a$ $he lo<es$ eol&$iona!y leels. The!e is no liing o!ganis" o% any 7ind <hose
na$&!e o! cons$i$&$ion is s&ch $ha$ i$ co&ld e=is$ o! "ain$ain i$sel% in co"1le$e isola$ion %!o" all o$he!
liing o!ganis"s, o! s&ch $ha$ ce!$ain !ela$ions $o o$he! liing o!ganis"s A<he$he! o% i$s o<n o! o%
o$he! s1eciesB?!ela$ions <hich in $he s$!ic$ sense a!e social?do no$ 1laya necessa!y and
indis1ensa,le 1a!$ in i$s li%e. All liing o!ganis"s a!e ,o&nd &1 in a gene!al social eni!on"en$ o!
si$&a$ion, in a co"1le= o% social in$e!!ela$ions and in$e!ac$ions &1on <hich $hei! con$in&ed e=is$ence
de1ends.
A"ong $hese %&nda"en$al socio?1hysiological i"1&lses o! needs Aand conseD&en$ a$$i$&desB <hich
a!e ,asic $o social ,ehaio! and social o!gani8a$ion in all s1ecies o% liing o!ganis"s, $he one <hich
is "os$ i"1o!$an$ in $he case o% h&"an social ,ehaio!, and <hich "os$ decisiely o! de$e!"ina$ely
e=1!esses i$sel% in $he <hole gene!al %o!" o% h&"an social o!gani8a$ion A,o$h 1!i"i$ie and ciili8edB,
is $he se= o! !e1!od&c$ie i"1&lse@ $ho&gh ha!dly less i"1o!$an$ a!e $he 1a!en$al i"1&lse o! a$$i$&de,
<hich is o% co&!se closely connec$ed o! associa$ed <i$h $he se= i"1&lse, and $he i"1&lse o! a$$i$&de
o% neigh,o!liness, <hich is a 7ind o% gene!ali8a$ion o% $he 1a!en$al i"1&lse o! a$$i$&de and &1on
<hich all coo1e!a$ie social ,ehaio! is "o!e o! less de1enden$. Th&s $he %a"ily is $he %&nda"en$al
&ni$ o% !e1!od&c$ion and o% "ain$enance o% $he s1ecies; i$ is $he &ni$ o% h&"an social o!gani8a$ion in
$e!"s o% <hich $hese i$al ,iological ac$ii$ies o! %&nc$ions a!e 1e!%o!"ed o! ca!!ied on. And all s&ch
la!ge! &ni$s o! %o!"s o% h&"an social o!gani8a$ion as $he clan o! $he s$a$e a!e &l$i"a$ely ,ased &1on,
and A<he$he! di!ec$ly o! indi!ec$lyB a!e deelo1"en$s %!o" o! e=$ensions o%, $he %a"ily. Clan o! $!i,al
o!gani8a$ion is a di!ec$ gene!ali8a$ion o% %a"ily o!gani8a$ion@ and s$a$e o! na$ional o!gani8a$ion is a
di!ec$ gene!ali8a$ion o% clan o! $!i,al o!gani8a$ion?hence &l$i"a$ely, $ho&gh indi!ec$ly, o% %a"ily
o!gani8a$ion also. In sho!$, all o!gani8ed h&"an socie$y?een in i$s "os$ co"1le= and highly
deelo1ed %o!"s?is in a sense "e!ely an e=$ension and !a"i%ica$ion o% $hose si"1le and ,asic
socio?1hysiological !ela$ions a"ong i$s indiid&al "e",e!s A!ela$ions ,e$<een $he se=es !es&l$ing
%!o" $hei! 1hysiological di%%e!en$ia$ion, and !ela$ions ,e$<een 1a!en$s and child!enB &1on <hich i$ is
%o&nded, and %!o" <hich i$ o!igina$es.
These socio?1hysiological i"1&lses on <hich all social o!gani8a$ions a!e ,ased cons$i$&$e,
"o!eoe!, one o% $he $<o 1oles in $he gene!al 1!ocess o% social di%%e!en$ia$ion and eol&$ion, ,y,
e=1!essing $he"seles in all $he co"1le=i$ies o% social !ela$ions and in$e!ac$ions, social !es1onses
and ac$ii$ies. They a!e $he essen$ial 1hysiological "a$e!ials %!o" <hich h&"an na$&!e is socially
%o!"ed@ so $ha$ h&"an na$&!e is so"e$hing social $h!o&gh and $h!o&gh, and al<ays 1!es&11oses
$he $!&ly social indiid&al. Indeed, any 1sychological o! 1hiloso1hical $!ea$"en$ o% h&"an na$&!e
inoles $he ass&"1$ion $ha$ $he h&"an indiid&al ,elongs $o an o!gani8ed social co""&ni$y, and
de!ies his h&"an na$&!e %!o" his social in$e!ac$ions and !ela$ions <i$h $ha$ co""&ni$y as a <hole
and <i$h $he o$he! indiid&al "e",e!s o% i$. The o$he! 1ole o% $he gene!al 1!ocess o% social
di%%e!en$ia$ion and eol&$ion is cons$i$&$ed ,y $he !es1onses o% indiid&als $o $he iden$ical !es1onses
o% o$he!s, $ha$ is, $o class o! social !es1onses, o! $o !es1onses o% <hole o!gani8ed social g!o&1s o%
o$he! indiid&als <i$h !e%e!ence $o gien se$s o% social s$i"&li, $hese class o! social !es1onses ,eing
$he so&!ces and ,ases and s$&%% o% social ins$i$&$ions. Th&s <e "ay call $he %o!"e! 1ole o% $he
gene!al 1!ocess o% social di%%e!en$ia$ion and eol&$ion $he Indiid&al o! 1hysiological 1ole, and $he
la$$e! 1ole o% $his 1!ocess $he ins$i$&$ional 1ole.+.-
I hae 1oin$ed o&$ $ha$ $he social o!ganis" is &sed ,y indiid&als <hose coo1e!a$ie ac$ii$y is
essen$ial $o $he li%e o% $he <hole. S&ch social o!ganis"s e=is$ o&$side o% $he h&"an socie$y. The
insec$s !eeal a e!y c&!io&s deelo1"en$. 0e a!e $e"1$ed $o ,e an$h!o1o"o!1hic in o&! acco&n$s
o% $he li%e o% ,ees and an$s, since i$ see"s co"1a!a$iely easy $o $!ace $he o!gani8a$ion o% $he
h&"an co""&ni$y in $hei! o!gani8a$ions. The!e a!e di%%e!en$ $y1es o% indiid&als <i$h co!!es1onding
%&nc$ions, and a li%e?1!ocess <hich see"s $o de$e!"ine $he li%e o% $he di%%e!en$ indiid&als. I$ is
$e"1$ing $o !e%e! $o s&ch a li%e1!ocess as analogo&s $o a h&"an socie$y. 0e hae no$, ho<ee!, any
,asis as ye$ %o! ca!!ying o&$ $he analogy in $his %ashion ,eca&se <e a!e &na,le $o iden$i%y any
sys$e" o% co""&nica$ion in insec$ socie$ies, and also ,eca&se $he 1!inci1le o% o!gani8a$ion in $hese
co""&ni$ies is a di%%e!en$ one %!o" $ha$ %o&nd in $he h&"an co""&ni$y.
The 1!inci1le o% o!gani8a$ion a"ong $hese insec$s is $ha$ o% 1hysiological 1las$ici$y, giing !ise $o an
ac$&al deelo1"en$ in $he 1hysiological 1!ocess o% a di%%e!en$ $y1e o% %o!" ad9&s$ed $o ce!$ain
%&nc$ions. Th&s, $he <hole 1!ocess o% !e1!od&c$ion is ca!!ied on %o! $he en$i!e co""&ni$y ,y a single
D&een ,ee o! D&een an$, a single %o!" <i$h an eno!"o&s deelo1"en$ o% $he !e1!od&c$ie o!gans,
<i$h $he co!!es1onding degene!a$ion o% $he !e1!od&c$ie o!gans in o$he! insec$s in $he co""&ni$y.
The!e is $he deelo1"en$ o% a single g!o&1 o% %igh$e!s, a di%%e!en$ia$ion ca!!ied so %a! $ha$ $hey
canno$ %eed $he"seles. This 1!ocess o% 1hysiological deelo1"en$ $ha$ "a7es an indiid&al an
o!gan in $he social <hole is D&i$e co"1a!a,le $o $he deelo1"en$ o% di%%e!en$ $iss&es in a
1hysiological o!ganis". In a sense, all o% $he %&nc$ions <hich a!e $o ,e %o&nd in a "&l$icell&la! %o!"
"ay ,e %o&nd in a single cell. 6nicell&la! %o!"s "ay ca!!y o&$ $he en$i!e i$al 1!ocess@ $hey "oe, ge$
!id o% $hei! <as$e 1!od&c$s, !e1!od&ce. B&$ in a "&l$icell&la! %o!" $he!e is a di%%e!en$ia$ion o% $iss&e
%o!"ing "&scle cells %o! "oe"en$, cells <hich $a7e in o=ygen and 1ass o&$ <as$e 1!od&c$s, cells
se$ aside %o! $he 1!ocess o% !e1!od&c$ion. Th&s, $he!e !es&l$s $iss&e "ade &1 o% cells <hich a!e
di%%e!en$ia$ed. Li7e<ise $he!e is in a co""&ni$y o% an$s, o! o% ,ees, a 1hysiological di%%e!en$ia$ion
a"ong di%%e!en$ %o!"s <hich is co"1a!a,le $o $he di%%e!en$ia$ion o% di%%e!en$ cells in $he $iss&e o% a
"&l$icell&la! %o!".
No<, s&ch di%%e!en$ia$ion is no$ $he 1!inci1le o% o!gani8a$ion in h&"an socie$y. The!e is, o% co&!se,
$he %&nda"en$al dis$inc$ion o% se= <hich !e"ains a 1hysiological di%%e!ence, and in $he "ain $he
dis$inc$ions ,e$<een $he 1a!en$?%o!"s and child?%o!"s a!e 1hysiological dis$inc$ions, ,&$ a1a!$ %!o"
$hese $he!e is 1!ac$ically no 1hysiological dis$inc$ion ,e$<een $he di%%e!en$ indiid&als $ha$ go $o
"a7e &1 $he h&"an co""&ni$y. :ence, o!gani8a$ion canno$ $a7e 1lace, as i$ does in $he co""&ni$y
o% an$s o! ,ees, $h!o&gh 1hysiological di%%e!en$ia$ion o% ce!$ain %o!"s in$o social o!gans. On $he
con$!a!y, all o% $he indiid&als hae essen$ially $he sa"e 1hysiological s$!&c$&!es, and $he 1!ocess o%
o!gani8a$ion a"ong s&ch %o!"s has $o ,e an en$i!ely di%%e!en$ 1!ocess %!o" $ha$ %o&nd a"ong $he
insec$s.
The deg!ee $o <hich insec$ di%%e!en$ia$ion can ,e ca!!ied is as$onishing. Many o% $he 1!od&c$s o% a
high social o!gani8a$ion a!e ca!!ied on ,y $hese co""&ni$ies. They ca1$&!e o$he! "in&$e %o!"s
<hose e=&da$ions $hey deligh$ in, and 7ee1 $he" "&ch as <e 7ee1 "il7 co<s. They hae <a!!io!
classes and $hey see" $o ca!!y on !aids, and ca!!y o%% slaes, "a7ing la$e! &se o% $he". They can
do <ha$ $he h&"an socie$y canno$ do; $hey can de$e!"ine $he se= o% $he ne=$ gene!a$ion, 1ic7 o&$
and de$e!"ine <ho $he 1a!en$ in $he ne=$ gene!a$ion <ill ,e. 0e ge$ as$onishing deelo1"en$s
<hich 1a!allel o&! o<n &nde!$a7ings $ha$ <e $!y $o ca!!y on in socie$y, ,&$ $he "anne! in <hich $hey
a!e ca!!ied on is essen$ially di%%e!en$. I$ is ca!!ied on $h!o&gh 1hysiological di%%e!en$ia$ion, and <e %ail
$o %ind in $he s$&dy o% $hese ani"als any "edi&" o% co""&nica$ion li7e $ha$ $h!o&gh <hich h&"an
o!gani8a$ion $a7es 1lace. Al$ho&gh <e a!e s$ill e!y la!gely in $he da!7 <i$h !e%e!ence $o $his social
en$i$y o% $he ,eehie o! $he an$>s nes$, and al$ho&gh <e no$e an o,io&s li7eness ,e$<een $he" and
h&"an socie$y, $he!e is an en$i!ely di%%e!en$ sys$e" o% o!gani8a$ion in $he $<o cases.
In ,o$h cases $he!e is an o!gani8a$ion <i$hin <hich $he 1a!$ic&la! indiid&als a!ise and <hich is a
condi$ion %o! $he a11ea!ance o% $he di%%e!en$ indiid&als. The!e co&ld no$ ,e $he 1ec&lia!
deelo1"en$ %o&nd in $he ,eehie e=ce1$ in a ,ee co""&ni$y. 0e can in so"e deg!ee ge$ a
s&gges$ion %o! &nde!s$anding $he eol&$ion o% s&ch a social g!o&1. 0e can %ind soli$a!y %o!"s s&ch
as $he ,&",le?,ee, and can "o!e o! less 1!o%i$a,ly s1ec&la$e as $o o$he! %o!"s o&$ o% <hich $he
deelo1"en$ o% an insec$ socie$y "igh$ $a7e 1lace. P!es&"a,ly $he %inding o% a s&!1l&s o% %ood
<hich $hese %o!"s co&ld ca!!y oe! %!o" one gene!a$ion $o ano$he! <o&ld ,e a de$e!"ining %ac$o!. In
$he li%e o% $he soli$a!y %o!" $he %i!s$ gene!a$ion disa11ea!s and $he la!ae a!e le%$ ,ehind, so $ha$
$he!e is a co"1le$e disa11ea!ance o% $he ad&l$s <i$h each a11ea!ance o% $he ne< gene!a$ion. In
s&ch o!gani8a$ions as $he ,eehie $he!e a!ise $he condi$ions &nde! <hich, d&e $o $he a,&ndance o%
%ood, $he %o!"s ca!!y oe! %!o" one gene!a$ion $o ano$he!. 6nde! $hose condi$ions a co"1le= social
deelo1"en$ is 1ossi,le, ,&$ de1enden$ s$ill &1on 1hysiological di%%e!en$ia$ion. 0e hae no
eidence o% $he acc!&ing o% an e=1e!ience <hich is 1assed on ,y "eans o% co""&nica$ion %!o" one
gene!a$ion $o ano$he!. Nee!$heless, &nde! $hose condi$ions o% s&!1l&s %ood $his 1hysiological
deelo1"en$ $ %lo<e!s o&$ in an as$onishing %ashion. S&ch a di%%e!en$ia$ion as $his co&ld only $a7e
1lace in a co""&ni$y. The D&een ,ee and $he %igh$e! a"ong $he an$s co&ld only a!ise o&$ o% an
insec$ socie$y. One co&ld no$ ,!ing $oge$he! $hese di%%e!en$ indiid&als and cons$i$&$e an insec$
socie$y@ $he!e has $o ,e an insec$ socie$y %i!s$ in o!de! $ha$ $hese indiid&als "igh$ a!ise.
In $he h&"an co""&ni$y <e "igh$ no$ see" $o hae s&ch dis1a!a$e in$elligences o% se1a!a$e
indiid&als and $he deelo1"en$ o% $he indiid&als o&$ o% $he social "a$!i=, s&ch as is !es1onsi,le %o!
$he deelo1"en$ o% $he insec$s. The h&"an indiid&als a!e $o a la!ge deg!ee iden$ical@ $he!e is no
essen$ial di%%e!ence o% in$elligence %!o" $he 1oin$ o% ie< o% 1hysiological di%%e!en$ia$ion ,e$<een $he
se=es. The!e a!e 1hysiological o!ganis"s <hich a!e essen$ially iden$ical, so <e do no$ see" $o
hae $he!e a social "a$!i= $ha$ is !es1onsi,le %o! $he a11ea!ance o% $he indiid&al. I$ is ,eca&se o%
s&ch conside!a$ions $ha$ a $heo!y has deelo1ed $ha$ h&"an socie$ies hae a!isen o&$ o% indiid&als,
no$ indiid&als o&$ o% socie$y. Th&s, $he con$!ac$ $heo!y o% socie$y ass&"es $ha$ $he indiid&als a!e
%i!s$ all $he!e as in$elligen$ indiid&als, as seles, and $ha$ $hese indiid&als ge$ $oge$he! and %o!"
socie$y. On $his ie< socie$ies hae a!isen li7e ,&siness co!1o!a$ions, ,y $he deli,e!a$e co"ing?
$oge$he! o% a g!o&1 o% ines$o!s, <ho elec$ $hei! o%%ice!s and cons$i$&$e $he"seles a socie$y. The
indiid&als co"e %i!s$ and $he socie$ies a!ise o&$ o% $he "as$e!y o% ce!$ain indiid&als. The $heo!y is
an old one and in so"e o% i$s 1hases is s$ill c&!!en$. I%, ho<ee!, $he 1osi$ion $o <hich I hae ,een
!e%e!!ing is a co!!ec$ one, i% $he indiid&al !eaches his sel% only $h!o&gh co""&nica$ion <i$h o$he!s,
only $h!o&gh $he ela,o!a$ion o% social 1!ocesses ,y "eans o% signi%ican$ co""&nica$ion, $hen $he
sel% co&ld no$ an$eda$e $he social o!ganis". The la$$e! <o&ld hae $o ,e $he!e %i!s$.
A social 1!ocess is inoled in $he !ela$ion o% 1a!en$s and child!en a"ong $he "a""als. The!e <e
s$a!$ o%% <i$h $he only 1hysical di%%e!en$ia$ion Ae=ce1$ se=B <hich e=is$s a"ong h&"an indiid&als,
and $hese 1hysiological di%%e!ences gie a ,asis %o! $he social 1!ocess. S&ch %a"ilies can e=is$
a"ong ani"als lo<e! $han "an. Thei! o!gani8a$ion is on a 1hysiological ,asis, $ha$ is, one %o!" ac$s
in a ce!$ain <ay on acco&n$ o% i$s 1hysiological s$!&c$&!e and ano$he! !es1onds on acco&n$ o% i$s o<n
1hysiological s$!&c$&!e. The!e "&s$ ,e in $ha$ 1!ocess a ges$&!e <hich calls o&$ $he !es1onse, ,&$
$he cone!sa$ion o% ges$&!es is no$ a$ $his ea!ly s$age signi%ican$. The ,eginning o% co""&nica$ion is
nee!$heless $he!e in $he 1!ocess o% o!gani8a$ion de1enden$ &1on $he 1hysiological di%%e!ences@
$he!e >s also $he con%lic$ o% indiid&als <i$h each o$he!, <hich is no$ ,ased necessa!ily on
1hysiological condi$ions.
A %igh$ $a7es 1lace ,e$<een indiid&als. The!e "ay ,e a 1hysiological ,ac7g!o&nd s&ch as h&nge!,
se= !ial!y, !ial!y in leade!shi1. 0e can 1e!ha1s al<ays %ind so"e 1hysiological ,ac7g!o&nd, ,&$
$he con$es$ is ,e$<een indiid&als $ha$ s$and 1!ac$ically on $he sa"e leel, and in s&ch con%lic$s
$he!e is $he sa"e cone!sa$ion o% ges$&!es <hich I hae ill&s$!a$ed in $he dog?%igh$. Th&s, <e ge$ $he
,eginnings o% $he 1!ocess o% co""&nica$ion in $he coo1e!a$ie 1!ocess, <he$he! o% !e1!od&c$ion,
ca!ing %o! $he yo&ng, o! %igh$ing. The ges$&!es a!e no$ ye$ signi%ican$ sy",ols, ,&$ $hey do allo< o%
co""&nica$ion. Bac7 o% i$ lies a social 1!ocess, and a ce!$ain 1a!$ o% i$ is de1enden$ &1on
1hysiological di%%e!en$ia$ion, ,&$ $he 1!ocess is one <hich in addi$ion inoles ges$&!es.
I$ is see"ingly o&$ o% $his 1!ocess $ha$ $he!e a!ises signi%ican$ co""&nica$ion. I$ is in $he 1!ocess o%
co""&nica$ion $ha$ $he!e a11ea!s ano$he! $y1e o% indiid&al. This 1!ocess is, o% co&!se, de1enden$
&1on a ce!$ain 1hysiological s$!&c$&!e; i% $he indiid&al <as no$ sensi$ie $o his o<n s$i"&li <hich a!e
essen$ial $o $he ca!!ying?o&$ o% $he !es1onse $o $he o$he! %o!", s&ch co""&nica$ion co&ld no$ $a7e
1lace. In %ac$ <e %ind $ha$ in $he case o% $he dea% and d&",, i% no ca!e is gien $o $he deelo1"en$ o%
lang&age, $he child does no$ deelo1 no!"al h&"an in$elligence, ,&$ !e"ains on $he leel o% lo<e!
ani"als. The!e is $hen a 1hysiological ,ac7g!o&nd %o! lang&age, ,&$ i$ is no$ one o% 1hysiological
di%%e!en$ia$ion ,e$<een $he a!io&s %o!"s. 0e all hae ocal o!gans and a&di$o!y o!gans, and in so
%a! as o&! deelo1"en$ is a no!"al deelo1"en$, <e a!e all ca1a,le o% in%l&encing o&!seles as <e
in%l&ence o$he!s. I$ is o&$ o% $his ca1aci$y %o! ,eing in%l&enced ,y o&! o<n ges$&!e as <e in%l&ence
o$he!s $ha$ has a!isen $he 1ec&lia! %o!" o% $he h&"an social o!ganis", "ade &1 o&$ o% ,eings $ha$ $o
$ha$ deg!ee a!e 1hysiologically iden$ical. Ce!$ain o% $he social 1!ocesses <i$hin <hich $his
co""&nica$ion $a7es 1lace a!e de1enden$ &1on 1hysiological di%%e!ences, ,&$ $he indiid&al is no$ in
$he social 1!ocess di%%e!en$ia$ed 1hysiologically %!o" o$he! indiid&als. Tha$, I a" insis$ing,
cons$i$&$es $he %&nda"en$al di%%e!ence ,e$<een $he socie$ies o% $he insec$s and h&"an socie$y.+/- I$
is a dis$inc$ion <hich s$ill has $o ,e "ade <i$h !ese!a$ions, ,eca&se i$ "ay ,e $ha$ $he!e <ill ,e
so"e <ay o% discoe!ing in $he %&$&!e a lang&age a"ong $he an$s and ,ees. 0e do %ind, as I hae
said, a di%%e!en$ia$ion o% 1hysiological cha!ac$e!s <hich so %a! e=1lain $he 1ec&lia! o!gani8a$ion o%
$hese insec$ socie$ies. :&"an socie$y, $hen, is de1enden$ &1on $he deelo1"en$ o% lang&age %o! i$s
o<n dis$inc$ie %o!" o% o!gani8a$ion.
I$ is $e"1$ing $o loo7 a$ $he 1hysiology o% $he insec$ as oe! agains$ $he 1hysiology o% $he h&"an
%o!" and no$e i$s di%%e!ences. B&$ <hile i$ is $e"1$ing $o s1ec&la$e on s&ch di%%e!ences, $he!e is as
ye$ no adeD&a$e ,asis %o! gene!ali8a$ion in $ha$ %ield. The h&"an %o!" is di%%e!en$ %!o" $he insec$
%o!". O% co&!se, $he an$s and ,ees hae ,!ains ,&$ $hey hae no$ any$hing $ha$ ans<e!s $o $he
co!$e=. 0e do !ecogni8e $ha$ 9&s$ as <e hae a $y1e o% socie$y ,&il$ &1 on $his 1!inci1le o%
1hysiological di%%e!en$ia$ion, so <e "&s$ hae a di%%e!en$ 1hysiological o!gani8a$ion. 0e ge$ &ni$y
in$o $he a!ied s$!&c$&!es o% $he h&"an %o!" ,y "eans o% an addi$ional o!gan, $he ,!ain and $he
co!$e=. The!e is &ni$y in $he insec$ %o!" ,y ac$&al colla,o!a$ion o% 1hysiological 1a!$s. The!e is so"e
1hysiological ,asis ,ac7 o% $his, o,sc&!e $ho&gh $he de$ails a!e.+0- I$ is i"1o!$an$ $o !ecogni8e $ha$
$he in$elligen$ %o!" does a$$ain $he deelo1"en$ o% in$elligence $h!o&gh s&ch an o!gan as $he cen$!al
ne!o&s sys$e" <i$h i$s 1ec&lia! deelo1"en$ o% $he ,!ain and $he co!$e=. The s1inal col&"n
!e1!esen$s se$s o% "o!e o! less %i=ed !es1onses. I$ is $he deelo1"en$ o% $he co!$e= $ha$ ,!ings a,o&$
all so!$s o% 1ossi,le co",ina$ions o% $hese n&"e!o&s ,&$ !ela$iely %i=ed !es1onses. By "eans, $hen,
o% an o!gan <hich is s&1e!i"1osed on $he cen$!al ne!o&s sys$e", connec$ions can ,e se$ &1
,e$<een $he di%%e!en$ $y1es o% !es1onses <hich a!ise $h!o&gh $he lo<e! sys$e". The!e $h&s a!ises
$he al"os$ inde%ini$e "&l$i1lici$y o% $he !es1onses o% $he h&"an o!ganis".
0hile i$ is in $he deelo1"en$ o% $he ,!ain as s&ch $ha$ <e ge$ $he 1ossi,ili$y o% $he a11ea!ance o%
dis$inc$iely h&"an cond&c$., h&"an cond&c$, i% 1&$ si"1ly in $e!"s o% $he s$e" o% $he ,!ain and
col&"n, <o&ld ,e e!y !es$!ic$ed, and $he h&"an ani"al <o&ld ,e a %ee,le and &ni"1o!$an$ ani"al.
The!e <o&ld no$ ,e "&ch he co&ld do. :e co&ld !&n and cli",, and ea$ <ha$ he co&ld ,!ing $o his
"o&$h <i$h his hands, in i!$&e o% $hose !e%le=es <hich go ,ac7 $o $he o!iginal cen$!al ne!o&s
sys$e". B&$ a se$ o% co",ina$ions o% all $he di%%e!en$ 1!ocesses %o&nd $he!e gies an inde%ini$e
n&",e! o% 1ossi,le !eac$ions in $he ac$ii$ies o% $he h&"an ani"al. I$ is ,eca&se o% $he a!ie$y o%
co",ina$ions In $he connec$ions o% $he !es1onses $o s$i"&li, <hich $a7e 1lace in $he 1a$hs $ha$ !&n
in$o $he co!$e=, $ha$ one can "a7e any so!$ o% co",ina$ion o% all $he di%%e!en$ <ays in <hich a h&"an
,eing can &se his a!"s, his legs, and $he !es$ o% his ,ody.+1-
The!e is, as <e hae seen, ano$he! e!y i"1o!$an$ 1hase in $he deelo1"en$ o% $he h&"an ani"al
<hich is 1e!ha1s D&i$e as essen$ial as s1eech %o! $he deelo1"en$ o% "an>s 1ec&lia! in$elligence,
and $ha$ is $he &se o% $he hand %o! $he isola$ion o% 1hysical $hings. S1eech and $he hand go along
$oge$he! in $he deelo1"en$ o% $he social h&"an ,eing. The!e has $o a!ise sel%?conscio&sness %o!
$he <hole %lo<e!ing?o&$ o% in$elligence. B&$ $he!e has $o ,e so"e 1hase o% $he ac$ <hich s$o1s sho!$
o% cons&""a$ion i% $ha$ ac$ is $o deelo1 in$elligen$ly, and lang&age and $he hand 1!oide $he
necessa!y "echanis"s. 0e all hae hands and s1eech, and a!e all, as social ,eings, iden$ical,
in$elligen$ ,eings. 0e all hae <ha$ <e $e!" -conscio&sness- and <e all lie in a <o!ld o% $hings. I$ is
in s&ch "edia $ha$ h&"an socie$y deelo1s, "edia en$i!ely di%%e!en$ %!o" $hose <i$hin <hich $he
insec$ socie$y deelo1s.
"ndnotes
1. On $he o$he! hand, $he !a$e o% deelo1"en$ o! eol&$ion o% h&"an socie$y, since $he
e"e!gence o% "inds and seles o&$ o% $he h&"an social 1!ocesses o% e=1e!ience and
,ehaio!, has ,een $!e"endo&sly accele!a$ed as a !es&l$ o% $ha$ e"e!gence.
Social eol&$ion o! deelo1"en$ and sel%?eol&$ion o! deelo1"en$ a!e co!!ela$ie and
in$e!de1enden$, once $he sel% has a!isen o&$ o% $he social li%e?1!ocess.
#. The sel%ish e!s&s $he &nsel%ish as1ec$s o! sides o% $he sel% a!e $o ,e acco&n$ed %o! in $e!"s
o% $he con$en$ e!s&s $he s$!&c$&!e o% $he sel%. 0e "ay say, in a sense, $ha$ $he con$en$ o%
$he sel% is indiid&al Asel%ish, $he!e%o!e, o! $he so&!ce o% sel%ishnessB, <he!eas $he s$!&c$&!e
o% $he sel% is social ? hence &nsel%ish, o! $he ,asis o% &nsel%ishness.
The !ela$ion ,e$<een $he !a$ional o! 1!i"a!ily social side o% $he sel% and i$s i"1&lsie o!
e"o$ional o! 1!i"a!ily an$i?social and indiid&al side is s&ch $ha$ $he la$$e! is, %o! $he "os$
1a!$, con$!olled <i$h !es1ec$ $o i$s ,ehaio!is$ic e=1!essions ,y $he %o!"e!@ and $ha$ $he
con%lic$s <hich occ&! %!o" $i"e $o $i"e a"ong i$s di%%e!en$ i"1&lses ?? o! a"ong $he a!io&s
co"1onen$s o% i$s i"1&lsie side ? a!e se$$led and !econciled ,y i$s !a$ional side.
'. The sociali8ed h&"an ani"al $a7es $he a$$i$&de o% $he o$he! $o<a!d hi"sel% and $o<a!d any
gien social si$&a$ion in <hich he and o$he! indiid&als "ay ha11en $o ,e 1laced o!
i"1lica$ed@ and he $h&s iden$i%ies hi"sel% <i$h $he o$he! in $ha$ gien si$&a$ion, !es1onding
i"1lici$ly as $he o$he! does o! <o&ld !es1ond e=1lici$ly, and goe!ning his o<n e=1lici$
!eac$ion acco!dingly. The sociali8ed non?h&"an ani"al, on $he o$he! hand, does no$ $a7e
$he a$$i$&de o% $he o$he! $o<a!d hi"sel% and $o<a!d $he gien social si$&a$ion in <hich $hey
a!e ,o$h inoled ,eca&se he is 1hysiologically inca1a,le o% doing so@ and hence, also, he
canno$ ad9&s$iely and coo1e!a$iely con$!ol his o<n e=1lici$ !es1onse $o $he gien social
si$&a$ion in $e!"s o% an a<a!eness o% $ha$ a$$i$&de o% $he o$he!, as $he sociali8ed h&"an
ani"al can.
All co""&nica$ion, all cone!sa$ions o% ges$&!es, a"ong $he lo<e! ani"als, and een
a"ong $he "e",e!s o% $he "o!e highly deelo1ed insec$ socie$ies, is 1!es&"a,ly
&nconscio&s. :ence, i$ is only in h&"an socie$y ? only <i$hin $he 1ec&lia!ly co"1le= con$e=$
o% social !ela$ions and in$e!ac$ions <hich $he h&"an cen$!al ne!o&s sys$e" "a7es
1hysiologically 1ossi,le ? $ha$ "inds a!ise o! can a!ise@ and $h&s also h&"an ,eings a!e
eiden$ly $he only ,iological o!ganis"s <hich a!e o! can ,e sel%?conscio&s o! 1ossessed o%
seles.
). The indiid&al "e",e!s o% een $he "os$ adanced ine!$e,!a$e socie$ies do no$ 1ossess
s&%%icien$ 1hysiological ca1aci$ies %o! deelo1ing "inds o! seles, conscio&sness o!
in$elligence, o&$ o% $hei! social !ela$ions and in$e!ac$ions <i$h one ano$he!@ and hence $hese
socie$ies canno$ a$$ain ei$he! $he deg!ee o% co"1le=i$y <hich <o&ld ,e 1!es&11osed ,y $he
e"e!gence o% "inds and seles <i$hin $he", o% $he %&!$he! deg!ee o% co"1le=i$y <hich <o&ld
,e 1ossi,le only i% "inds and seles had e"e!ged o! a!isen <i$hin $he". Only $he indiid&al
"e",e!s o% h&"an socie$ies 1ossess $he !eD&i!ed 1hysiological ca1aci$ies %o! s&ch social
deelo1"en$ o% "inds and seles@ and hence only h&"an socie$ies a!e a,le $o !each $he
leel o% co"1le=i$y, in $hei! s$!&c$&!e and o!gani8a$ion, <hich ,eco"es Possi,le as a !es&l$
o% $he e"e!gence o% "inds and seles in $hei! indiid&al "e",e!s.
+. 0e hae said in gene!al $ha$ $he li"i$ o% 1ossi,le social deelo1"en$ in any s1ecies o%
ani"al o!ganis"?$he deg!ee o% co"1le=i$y o% social o!gani8a$ion <hich indiid&als o% $ha$
s1ecies a!e ca1a,le o% a$$aining?is de$e!"ined ,y $he na$&!e and e=$en$ o% $hei! !elean$
1hysiological eD&i1"en$, $hei! 1hysiological ca1aci$ies %o! social ,ehaio!@ and $his li"i$ o%
1ossi,le social deelo1"en$ in $he 1a!$ic&la! case o% $he h&"an s1ecies is de$e!"ined,
$heo!e$ically a$ leas$, ,y $he n&",e! o% ne!e cells o! ne&!al ele"en$s in $he h&"an ,!ain,
and ,y $he conseD&en$ n&",e! and die!si$y o% $hei! 1ossi,le co",ina$ions and
in$e!!ela$ions <i$h !e%e!ence $o $hei! e%%ec$ &1on, o! con$!ol o%, oe!$ indiid&al ,ehaio!.
All $ha$ is inna$e o! he!edi$a!y in connec$ion <i$h "inds and seles is $he 1hysiological
"echanis" o% $he h&"an cen$!al ne!o&s sys$e", ,y "eans o% <hich $he genesis o% "inds
and seles o&$ o% $he h&"an social 1!ocess o% e=1e!ience and ,ehaio!? o&$ o% $he h&"an
"a$!i= o% social !ela$ions and in$e!ac$ions?is "ade ,iologically 1ossi,le in h&"an indiid&als.
/,# TH" B%SIS $3 H4M%( S$CI"T': M%( %() TH" V"*T"B*%T"S
0e hae seen $ha$ h&"an socie$y is o!gani8ed on a 1!inci1le di%%e!en$ %!o" $he insec$ socie$ies,
<hich a!e ,ased on 1hysiological di%%e!en$ia$ion. :&"an indiid&als a!e iden$ical in la!ge !es1ec$s
<i$h each o$he! and 1hysiologically di%%e!en$ia$ed !ela$iely sligh$ly. The sel%?conscio&s indiid&al
$ha$ goes $o cons$i$&$e s&ch a socie$y is no$ de1enden$ &1on $he 1hysiological di%%e!en$ia$ions, een
<he!e $hey e=is$, <hile in $he insec$ co""&ni$y $he e!y e=is$ence o% $he co""&ni$ies is de1enden$
&1on s&ch 1hysiological di%%e!en$ia$ion. The o!gani8a$ion o% social a$$i$&des cons$i$&$ing $he s$!&c$&!e
and con$en$ o% $he h&"an indiid&al sel% is e%%ec$ed ,o$h in $e!"s o% $he o!gani8a$ion o% ne&!al
ele"en$s and $hei! in$e!connec$ions in $he indiid&al>s cen$!al ne!o&s sys$e", and in $e!"s o% $he
gene!al o!de!ed 1a$$e!n o% social o! g!o&1 ,ehaio! o! cond&c$ in <hich $he indiid&al ??as a "e",e!
o% $he socie$y o! g!o&1 o% indiid&als ca!!ying on $ha$ ,ehaio! ? is inoled.
I$ is $!&e, also, $ha$ "any e!$e,!a$e %o!"s <i$h $he ,eginnings o% a socie$y do no$ de1end on
1hysiological di%%e!en$ia$ion. S&ch socie$ies lo<e! $han "an a!e !ela$iely insigni%ican$. The %a"ily, o%
co&!se, is signi%ican$, and <e can say $ha$ $he %a"ily e=is$s lo<e! $han "an. The!e is no$ only $he
necessa!y !ela$ionshi1 o% 1a!en$ and child <hich is d&e $o $he 1e!iod o% in%ancy, ,&$ also $he
!ela$ionshi1 ,e$<een $he se=es, <hich "ay ,e !ela$iely 1e!"anen$, and <hich leads $o an
o!gani8a$ion o% $he %a"ily. B&$ $he!e is no$ %o&nd an o!gani8a$ion o% a la!ge! g!o&1 on $he ,asis
solely o% $he %a"ily o!gani8a$ion. The he!d, $he school o% %ishes, g!o&1s o% ,i!ds, so %a! as $hey %o!"
loose agg!ega$ions, do no$ a!ise o&$ o% $he deelo1"en$ o% a 1hysiological %&nc$ion <hich ,elongs $o
$he %a"ily. S&ch he!ds e=hi,i$ <ha$ <e "ay call -ins$inc$ie !ela$ionshi1s,- in $he sense $ha$ $he
%o!"s 7ee1 $oge$he! and see" $o %ind in each o$he! a s$i"&l&s %o! ca!!ying on $hei! o<n ac$ii$y.
Ani"als in a g!o&1 <ill 1e!%o!" $he g!a8ing %&nc$ions ,e$$e! $han <hen alone. The!e see" $o ,e
ins$inc$ie $endencies on $he 1a!$ o% $hese %o!"s $o "oe in $he di!ec$ion <hich o$he! ani"als a!e
"oing, s&ch as is %o&nd in any g!o&1 o% ca$$le d!i%$ing ac!oss $he 1!ai!ie $oge$he! as $hey g!a8e. The
"oe"en$ o% one %o!" is a s$i"&l&s $o $he o$he! %o!" $o "oe on in $he di!ec$ion in <hich $he o$he!
%o!" is "oing. Tha$ see"s $o ,e a,o&$ $he li"i$ o% $ha$ 1hase o% he!ding. The!e a!e also %o!"s
h&ddled $oge$he! in de%ense o! in a$$ac7, as $he he!d <hich de%ends i$sel% agains$ $he a$$ac7 o% $he
<oles, o! $he <oles !&nning $oge$he! in a$$ac7ing $he he!d. B&$ s&ch "echanis"s gie !ela$iely
sligh$ ,ases %o! o!gani8a$ion, and $hey do no$ en$e! in$o $he li%e o% $he indiid&al so as $o de$e!"ine
$ha$ li%e $h!o&gho&$. The indiid&al is no$ de$e!"ined $h!o&gh his !ela$ionshi1 $o $he he!d. The he!d
co"es in as a ne< so!$ o% o!gani8a$ion and "a7es $he li%e o% $he indiid&al 1ossi,le %!o" $he 1oin$ o%
ie< o% $he de%ense %!o" an a$$ac7, ,&$ $he ac$&al 1!ocesses o% ea$ing and o% 1!o1aga$ion a!e no$
de1enden$ on $he he!ding i$sel%. I$ does no$ !e1!esen$ s&ch an o!gani8a$ion o% all $he "e",e!s as $o
de$e!"ine $he li%e o% $he se1a!a$e "e",e!s. S$ill "o!e %&nda"en$ally, $he %a"ily, so %a! as i$ e=is$s
a"ong $he lo<e! %o!"s, does no$ co"e in as $ha$ <hich "a7es 1ossi,le $he s$!&c$&!e o% $he he!d as
s&ch. I$ is $!&e $ha$ in $his "assing $oge$he! o% ca$$le agains$ $he a$$ac7 %!o" o&$side $he yo&ng %o!"
is 1&$ inside o% $he ci!cle, and $his is a deelo1"en$ o% $he %a"ily !ela$ion, o% $ha$ gene!al a$$i$&de o%
1a!en$al ca!e $o<a!d $he yo&ng. B&$ i$ is no$ an ins$inc$ <hich is he!e deelo1ed de%ini$ely in$o a
1!ocess o% de%ense o! in$o a 1!ocess o% a$$ac7.
In $he case o% $he h&"an g!o&1, on $he o$he! hand, $he!e is a deelo1"en$ in <hich $he co"1le=
1hases o% socie$y hae a!isen o&$ o% $he o!gani8a$ion <hich $he a11ea!ance o% $he sel% "ade
1ossi,le. One 1e!ha1s %inds in $he !ela$ionshi1 o% $he di%%e!en$ "e",e!s o% $he "os$ 1!i"i$ie g!o&1
a$$i$&des o% "&$&al de%ense and a$$ac7. I$ is li7ely $ha$ s&ch co?o1e!a$ie a$$i$&des, co",ined <i$h $he
a$$i$&des o% $he %a"ily, s&11ly $he si$&a$ions o&$ o% <hich seles a!ise. (ien $he sel%, $he!e is $hen
$he 1ossi,ili$y o% $he %&!$he! deelo1"en$ o% $he socie$y on $his sel%?conscio&s ,asis, <hich is so
dis$inc$ %!o" $he loose o!gani8a$ion o% $he he!d o! %!o" $he co"1le= socie$y o% $he insec$s. I$ is $he
sel% as s&ch $ha$ "a7es $he dis$inc$iely h&"an socie$y 1ossi,le. I$ is $!&e $ha$ so"e so!$ o%
coo1e!a$ie ac$ii$y an$eda$es $he sel%. The!e "&s$ ,e so"e loose o!gani8a$ion in <hich $he di%%e!en$
o!ganis"s <o!7 $oge$he!, and $ha$ so!$ o% coo1e!a$ion in <hich $he ges$&!e o% $he indiid&al "ay
,eco"e a s$i"&l&s $o hi"sel% o% $he sa"e $y1e as $he s$i"&l&s $o $he o$he! %o!", so $ha$ $he
cone!sa$ion o% ges$&!es can 1ass oe! in$o $he cond&c$ o% $he indiid&al. S&ch condi$ions a!e
1!es&11osed in $he deelo1"en$ o% $he sel%. B&$ <hen $he sel% has deelo1ed, $hen a ,asis is
o,$ained %o! $he deelo1"en$ o% a socie$y <hich is di%%e!en$ in i$s cha!ac$e! %!o" $hese o$he!
socie$ies $o <hich I hae !e%e!!ed.
The %a"ily !ela$ion, yo& "igh$ say, gies &s so"e s&gges$ion o% $he so!$ o% o!gani8a$ion <hich
,elongs $o $he insec$, %o! he!e <e hae 1hysiological di%%e!en$ia$ion ,e$<een $he di%%e!en$ "e",e!s,
$he 1a!en$s and $he child. And in $he "o, <e hae a !ee!sion $o $he socie$y o% a he!d o% ca$$le. A
g!o&1 o% indiid&als can ,e s$a"1eded li7e ca$$le. B&$ in $hose $<o e=1!essions, $a7en ,y
$he"seles and a1a!$ %!o" $he sel%, yo& do no$ hae $he s$!&c$&!e o% a h&"an socie$y@ yo& co&ld no$
"a7e &1 a h&"an socie$y o&$ o% $he %a"ily as i$ e=is$s in %o!"s lo<e! $han "an@ yo& co&ld no$ "a7e
&1 h&"an socie$y o&$ o% a he!d. To s&gges$ $his <o&ld ,e $o leae o&$ o% acco&n$ $he %&nda"en$al
o!gani8a$ion o% h&"an socie$y a,o&$ a sel% o! seles.
The!e is, o% co&!se, in one sense, a 1hysiological ,asis %o! h&"an socie$y, na"ely, in $he
deelo1"en$ o% $he cen$!al ne!o&s sys$e", s&ch as ,elongs $o $he e!$e,!a$es, and <hich !eaches
i$s highes$ deelo1"en$ in "an. Th!o&gh $he o!gani8a$ion o% $he cen$!al ne!o&s sys$e" $he di%%e!en$
!eac$ions o% $he %o!" "ay ,e co",ined in all so!$s o% o!de!s, s1a$ial and $e"1o!al, $he s1inal col&"n
!e1!esen$ing a <hole se!ies o% di%%e!en$ 1ossi,le !eac$ions <hich, <hen e=ci$ed, go o%% ,y
$he"seles, <hile $he co!$ical leels o% $he cen$!al ne!o&s sys$e" 1!oide all so!$s o% co",ina$ions
o% $hese a!io&s 1ossi,le !eac$ions. These highe! leels o% $he ,!ain "a7e 1ossi,le $he a!ie$y o%
ac$ii$ies o% $he highe! e!$e,!a$es. S&ch is $he !a< s$&%%, s$a$ed in 1hysiological $e!"s, %!o" <hich
$he in$elligence o% $he h&"an social ,eing a!ises.
The h&"an ,eing is social in a dis$ing&ishing %ashion. Physiologically he is social in !ela$iely %e<
!es1onses. The!e a!e, o% co&!se, %&nda"en$al 1!ocesses o% 1!o1aga$ion and o% $he ca!e o% $he
yo&ng <hich hae ,een !ecogni8ed as a 1a!$ o% $he social deelo1"en$ o% h&"an in$elligence. No$
only is $he!e a 1hysiological 1e!iod o% in%ancy, ,&$ i$ is so leng$hened $ha$ i$ !e1!esen$s a,o&$ one?
$hi!d o% $he indiid&al>s e=1ec$a$ion o% li%e. Co!!es1onding $o $ha$ 1e!iod, $he 1a!en$al !ela$ion $o $he
indiid&al has ,een inc!eased %a! ,eyond $he %a"ily@ $he deelo1"en$ o% schools, and o% ins$i$&$ions,
s&ch as $hose inoled in $he ch&!ch and $he goe!n"en$, is an e=$ension o% $he 1a!en$al !ela$ion.
Tha$ is an e=$e!nal ill&s$!a$ion o% $he inde%ini$e co"1lica$ion o% si"1le 1hysiological 1!ocesses. 0e
$a7e $he ca!e o% an in%an$ %o!" and loo7 a$ i$ %!o" $he s$and1oin$ o% $he "o$he!@ <e see $he ca!e $ha$
is gien $o $he "o$he! ,e%o!e $he ,i!$h o% $he child, $he conside!a$ion $ha$ is gien %o! 1!oiding
1!o1e! %ood@ <e see $he <ay in <hich $he school is ca!!ied on so $ha$ $he ,eginning o% $he ed&ca$ion
o% $he child s$a!$s <i$h $he %i!s$ yea! o% i$s li%e in $he %o!"a$ion o% ha,i$s <hich a!e o% 1!i"a!y
i"1o!$ance $o i$@ <e $a7e in$o acco&n$ ed&ca$ion in $he %o!" o% !ec!ea$ion, <hich co"es one <ay o!
ano$he! in$o 1&,lic con$!ol@ in all $hese <ays <e can see <ha$ an ela,o!a$ion $he!e is o% $he
i""edia$e ca!e <hich 1a!en$s gie $o child!en &nde! $he "os$ 1!i"i$ie condi$ions, and ye$ i$ is
no$hing ,&$ a con$in&ed co"1lica$ion o% se$s o% 1!ocesses <hich ,elong $o $he o!iginal ca!e o% $he
child.
This, I say, is an e=$e!nal 1ic$&!e o% $he so!$ o% deelo1"en$ $ha$ $a7es 1lace in a cen$!al ne!o&s
sys$e". The!e a!c g!o&1s o% !ela$iely si"1le !eac$ions <hich can ,e "ade inde%ini$ely co"1le= ,y
&ni$ing $he" <i$h each o$he! in all so!$s o% o!de!s, and ,y ,!ea7ing &1 a co"1le= !eac$ion,
!econs$!&c$ing i$ in a di%%e!en$ %ashion, and &ni$ing i$ <i$h o$he! 1!ocesses. Conside! $he 1laying o%
"&sical ins$!&"en$s. The!e is an i""edia$e $endency $o !hy$h"ic 1!ocesses, $o &se $he !hy$h" o%
$he ,ody $o e"1hasi8e ce!$ain so&nds, "oe"en$s <hich can ,e %o&nd a"ong $he go!illas. Then
co"es $he 1ossi,ili$y o% 1ic7ing $o 1ieces $he ac$ion o% $he <hole ,ody, $he cons$!&c$ion o% ela,o!a$e
dances, $he !ela$ion o% $he dance $o so&nd <hich a11ea!s in song, 1heno"ena <hich ge$ $hei!
e=1!ession in $he g!ea$ (!ee7 d!a"as. These !es&l$s a!e $hen e=$e!nali8ed in "&sical ins$!&"en$s,
<hich a!e in a <ay !e1licas o% a!io&s o!gans o% $he ,ody. All $hese e=$e!nal co"1lica$ions a!e
no$hing ,&$ an e=$e!nali8a$ion in socie$y o% $he so!$ o% co"1lica$ion $ha$ e=is$s in $he highe! leels o%
$he cen$!al ne!o&s sys$e". 0e $a7e $he 1!i"i$ie !eac$ions, analy8e $he", and !econs$!&c$ $he"
&nde! di%%e!en$ condi$ions. Tha$ 7ind o% !econs$!&c$ion $a7es 1lace $h!o&gh $he deelo1"en$ o% $he
so!$ o% in$elligence <hich is iden$i%ied <i$h $he a11ea!ance o% $he sel%. The ins$i$&$ions o% socie$y,
s&ch as li,!a!ies, sys$e"s o% $!ans1o!$a$ion, $he co"1le= in$e!!ela$ionshi1 o% indiid&als !eached in
1oli$ical o!gani8a$ions, a!e no$hing ,&$ <ays o% $h!o<ing on $he social sc!een, so $o s1ea7, in
enla!ged %ashion $he co"1le=i$ies e=is$ing inside o% $he cen$!al ne!o&s sys$e", and $hey "&s$, o%
co&!se, e=1!ess %&nc$ionally $he o1e!a$ion o% $his sys$e".
The 1ossi,ili$y o% ca!!ying $his ela,o!a$ion $o $he e=$en$ <hich has a11ea!ed in $he h&"an ani"al
and $he co!!es1onding h&"an socie$y, is $o ,e %o&nd in $he deelo1"en$ o% co""&nica$ion in $he
cond&c$ o% $he sel%. The a!o&sing o% $he a$$i$&de <hich <o&ld lead $o $he sa"e so!$ o% ac$ion as $ha$
<hich is called o&$ in $he o$he! indiid&al "a7es 1ossi,le $he 1!ocess o% analysis, $he ,!ea7ing?&1 o%
$he ac$ i$sel%. In $he case o% $he %ence! o! ,o=e!, <he!e a "an "a7es a ce!$ain %ein$ $o call o&$ a
ce!$ain !es1onse on $he 1a!$ o% his o11onen$, he is a$ $he sa"e $i"e calling o&$, in so %a! as he is
a<a!e o% <ha$ he is doing, $he ,eginning o% $he sa"e !es1onse in hi"sel%. 0hen he is doing $ha$ he
is s$i"&la$ing a ce!$ain a!ea in $he cen$!al ne!o&s sys$e" <hich, i% allo<ed $o ,e $he do"inan$
a!ea., <o&ld lead $o $he indiid&al doing $he sa"e $hing $ha$ his o11onen$ does. :e has $a7en his
ac$ii$y and isola$ed $ha$ 1a!$ic&la! 1hase o% i$, and in isola$ing $ha$ he has also ,!o7en &1 his
!es1onse so $ha$ $he di%%e!en$ $hings he can do a!e <i$hin hi"sel%. :e has s$i"&la$ed $hose a!eas
<hich ans<e! $o $he di%%e!en$ 1a!$s o% $he co"1le= 1!ocess. :e can no< co",ine $he" in a!io&s
<ays, and his co",ina$ion o% $he" is a 1!ocess o% !e%lec$ie in$elligence. I$ is a 1!ocess <hich is
ill&s$!a$ed "os$ %&lly in a chess 1laye!. A good chess 1laye! has $he !es1onse o% $he o$he! 1e!son in
his sys$e". :e can ca!!y %o&! o! %ie "oes ahead in his "ind. 0ha$ he is doing is s$i"&la$ing
ano$he! 1e!son $o do a $hing <hile he s$i"&la$es hi"sel% $o do $he sa"e $hing. Tha$ ena,les hi" $o
analy8e his "ode o% a$$ac7 in$o i$s di%%e!en$ ele"en$s in $e!"s o% $he !es1onses co"ing %!o" his
o11onen$ and $hen $o !econs$!&c$ his o<n ac$ii$y on $ha$ ,asis.
I hae s$!essed $he 1oin$ $ha$ $he 1!ocess o% co""&nica$ion is no$hing ,&$ an ela,o!a$ion o% $he
1ec&lia! in$elligence <i$h <hich $he e!$e,!a$e %o!" is endo<ed. The "echanis" <hich can analy8e
$he !es1onses, $a7e $he" $o 1ieces, and !econs$!&c$ $he", is "ade 1ossi,le ,y $he ,!ain as?s&ch,
and $he 1!ocess o% co""&nica$ion is $he "eans ,y <hich $his is ,!o&gh$ &nde! $he con$!ol o% $he
indiid&al hi"sel%. :e can $a7e his !es1onse $o 1ieces and 1!esen$ i$ $o hi"sel% as a se$ o% di%%e!en$
$hings he can do &nde! condi$ions "o!e o! less con$!olla,le. The 1!ocess o% co""&nica$ion si"1ly
1&$s $he in$elligence o% $he indiid&al a$ his o<n dis1osal. B&$ $he indiid&al $ha$ has $his a,ili$y is a
social indiid&al. :e does no$ deelo1 i$ ,y hi"sel% and $hen en$e! in$o socie$y on $he ,asis o% $his
ca1aci$y. :e ,eco"es s&ch a sel% and ge$s s&ch con$!ol ,y ,eing a social indiid&al, and i$ is only in
socie$y $ha$ he can a$$ain $his so!$ o% a sel% <hich <ill "a7e i$ 1ossi,le %o! hi" $o $&!n ,ac7 on hi"sel%
and indica$e $o hi"sel% $he di%%e!en$ $hings he can do.
The ela,o!a$ion, $hen, o% $he in$elligence o% $he e!$e,!a$e %o!" in h&"an socie$y is de1enden$ &1on
$he deelo1"en$ o% $his so!$ o% social !eac$ion in <hich $he indiid&al can in%l&ence hi"sel% as he
in%l&ences o$he!s. I$ is $his $ha$ "a7es i$ 1ossi,le %o! hi" $o $a7e oe! and ela,o!a$e $he a$$i$&des o%
$he o$he! indiid&als. :e does i$ in $e!"s o% $he highe! leels o% $he cen$!al ne!o&s sys$e" $ha$ a!e
!e1!esen$a$ie o% $he !eac$ions $ha$ $a7e 1lace. The !eac$ion o% <al7ing, s$!i7ing, o! any si"1le
!eac$ion, ,elongs $o $he col&"n a$ $he s$e" o% $he ,!ain. 0ha$ $a7es 1lace ,eyond $his is si"1ly $he
co",ina$ions o% !eac$ions o% $his $y1e. 0hen a 1e!son goes ac!oss $he !oo" $o $a7e &1 a ,oo7, <ha$
has $a7en 1lace in his ,!ain has ,een $he connec$ion o% $he 1!ocesses inoled in going ac!oss $he
!oo" <i$h $hose in $a7ing &1 $he ,oo7. 0hen yo& $a7e $he a$$i$&de o% ano$he! yo& a!e si"1ly
a!o&sing $he a,oe !es1onses <hich co",ine a !eac$ion <i$h di%%e!en$ !eac$ions $o e%%ec$ $he
necessa!y !es1onse. The cen$e!s inoled in $he co",ining o% $he !es1onses o% $he lo<e! %o!"s
ans<e! $o $he highe! "en$al 1!ocesses, and "a7e 1ossi,le $he ela,o!a$ion o% !es1onses in $hese
co"1le= %o!"s.
The h&"an %o!" has a "echanis" %o! "a7ing $hese co",ina$ions <i$hin i$sel%. A h&"an indiid&al
is a,le $o indica$e $o hi"sel% <ha$ $he o$he! 1e!son is going $o do, and $hen $o $a7e his a$$i$&de on $he
,asis o% $ha$ indica$ion. :e can analy8e his ac$ and !econs$!&c$ i$ ,y "eans o% $his 1!ocess. The so!$
o% in$elligence he has is no$ ,ased on 1hysiological di%%e!en$ia$ion, no! ,ased &1on he!d ins$inc$, ,&$
&1on $he deelo1"en$ $h!o&gh $he social 1!ocess <hich ena,les hi" $o ca!!y o&$ his 1a!$ in $he
social !eac$ion ,y indica$ing $o hi"sel% $he di%%e!en$ 1ossi,le !eac$ions, analy8ing $he", and
!eco",ining $he". I$ is $ha$ so!$ o% an indiid&al <hich "a7es h&"an socie$y 1ossi,le. The
1!eceding conside!a$ions a!e $o ,e o11osed $o $he &$$e!ly illogical $y1e o% analysis <hich deals <i$h
$he h&"an indiid&al as i% he <e!e 1hysiologically di%%e!en$ia$ed, si"1ly ,eca&se one can %ind a
di%%e!en$ia$ion o% indiid&als in $he h&"an socie$y <hich can ,e co"1a!ed <i$h $he di%%e!en$ia$ion in a
nes$ o% an$s. In "an $he %&nc$ional di%%e!en$ia$ion $h!o&gh lang&age gies an en$i!ely di%%e!en$
1!inci1le o% o!gani8a$ion <hich 1!od&ces no$ only a di%%e!en$ $y1e o% indiid&al ,&$ also a di%%e!en$
socie$y.
/.# $*G%(ISM; C$MM4(IT'; %() "(VI*$(M"(T
I <an$ $o $a7e &1 ne=$ $he !ela$ionshi1 o% $he o!ganis" $o $he eni!on"en$ as $his ge$s e=1!ession in
$he !ela$ion o% $he co""&ni$y and i$s eni!on"en$.
0e hae seen $ha$ $he indiid&al o!ganis" de$e!"ines in so"e sense i$s o<n eni!on"en$ ,y i$s
sensi$ii$y. The only eni!on"en$ $o <hich $he o!ganis" can !eac$ is one $ha$ i$s sensi$ii$y !eeals.
The so!$ o% eni!on"en$ $ha$ can e=is$ %o! $he o!ganis", $hen, is one $ha$ $he o!ganis" in so"e
sense de$e!"ines. I% in $he deelo1"en$ o% $he %o!" $he!e is an inc!ease in $he die!si$y o% sensi$ii$y
$he!e <ill ,e an inc!ease in $he !es1onses o% $he o!ganis" $o i$s eni!on"en$, $ha$ is, $he o!ganis"
<ill hae a co!!es1ondingly la!ge! eni!on"en$. The!e is a di!ec$ !eac$ion o% $he o!ganis" &1on $he
eni!on"en$ <hich leads $o so"e "eas&!e o% con$!ol. In $he "a$$e! o% %ood, in $he "a$$e! o%
1!o$ec$ion agains$ $he !ain and cold and agains$ ene"ies, $he %o!" does in so"e sense di!ec$ly
con$!ol $he eni!on"en$ $h!o&gh i$s !es1onse. S&ch di!ec$ con$!ol, ho<ee!, is e!y sligh$ as
co"1a!ed <i$h $he de$e!"ina$ion o% $he eni!on"en$ de1enden$ &1on $he sensi$ii$y o% $he %o!".
The!e "ay ,e, o% co&!se, in%l&ences <hich a%%ec$ $he %o!" as a <hole <hich do no$ ans<e! $o $his
$y1e o% de$e!"ina$ion, s&ch as g!ea$ ca$aclys"s li7e ea!$hD&a7es, een$s <hich li%$ $he o!ganis" in$o
di%%e!en$ eni!on"en$s <i$ho&$ $he sensi$ii$y o% $he %o!" ,eing i$sel% i""edia$ely inoled. (!ea$
geological changes, s&ch as $he g!ad&al adance and disa11ea!ance o% $he glacial e1och, a!e 9&s$
s&1e!ind&ced on $he o!ganis". The o!ganis" canno$ con$!ol $he"@ $hey 9&s$ $a7e 1lace. In $ha$
sense $he eni!on"en$ con$!ols $he %o!" !a$he! $han ,eing con$!olled ,y i$. Nee!$heless, in so %a! as
$he %o!" does !es1ond i$ does so in i!$&e o% i$s sensi$ii$y. In $his sense i$ selec$s and 1ic7s o&$ <ha$
cons$i$&$es i$s eni!on"en$. I$ selec$s $ha$ $o <hich i$ !es1onds and "a7es &se o% i$ %o! i$s o<n
1&!1oses 1&!1oses inoled in i$s li%e?1!ocesses. I$ &$ili8es $he ea!$h on <hich i$ $!eads and $h!o&gh
<hich i$ ,&!!o<s, and $he $!ees $ha$ i$ cli",s@ ,&$ only <hen i$ is sensi$ie $o $he". The!e "&s$ ,e a
!ela$ion o% s$i"&l&s and !es1onse@ $he eni!on"en$ "&s$ lie in so"e sense inside o% $he ac$ i% $he
%o!" is $o !es1ond $o i$.
This in$i"a$e !ela$ionshi1 o% eni!on"en$ and %o!" is so"e$hing $ha$ <e need $o i"1!ess on
o&!seles, %o! <e a!e a1$ $o a11!oach $he si$&a$ion %!o" $he s$and1oin$ o% a 1!ee=is$en$ eni!on"en$
9&s$ $he!e, in$o <hich $he liing %o!" en$e!s o! <i$hin <hich i$ ha11ens, and $hen $o $hin7 o% $his
eni!on"en$ a%%ec$ing $he %o!", se$$ing $he condi$ions &nde! <hich $he %o!" can lie. In $ha$ <ay
$he!e is se$ &1 $he 1!o,le" o% an eni!on"en$ <i$hin <hich ad9&s$"en$ is s&11osed $o $a7e 1lace.
This is a na$&!al eno&gh a11!oach %!o" $he scien$i%ic 1oin$ o% ie< O% $he his$o!y o% li%e on $he ea!$h.
The ea!$h <as $he!e ,e%o!e li%e a11ea!ed, and i$ !e"ains <hile di%%e!en$ %o!"s 1ass a<ay and o$he!s
co"e on. 0e !ega!d $he %o!"s $ha$ a11ea! in $he geological !eco!d as inciden$s, and "o!e o! less
acciden$al. 0e can 1oin$ $o a n&",e! o% c!i$ical 1e!iods in $he his$o!y o% $he ea!$h in <hich $he
a11ea!ance o% li%e is de1enden$ &1on $hings $ha$ ha11en, o! a11ea!. The %o!"s see" $o ,e D&i$e a$
$he "e!cy o% $he eni!on"en$. So <e s$a$e $he eni!on"en$ no$ in $e!"s O% $he %o!" ,&$ $he %o!" in
$e!"s o% $he eni!on"en$.
Nee!$heless, $he only eni!on"en$ $o <hich $he %o!" !es1onds is $he eni!on"en$ <hich is
1!ede$e!"ined ,y $he sensi$ii$y o% $he %o!" and i$s !es1onse $o i$. I$ is $!&e $ha$ $he !es1onse "ay ,e
one <hich is &n%ao!a,le $o $he %o!", ,&$ $he changes $ha$ <e a!e in$e!es$ed in a!e $hose changes o%
$he %o!" in an eni!on"en$ <hich i$ i$sel% does selec$ and <hich i$ i$sel% o!gani8es in $e!"s o% i$s o<n
cond&c$. I$ e=is$s a$ a dis$ance %!o" o,9ec$s <hich a!e %ao!a,le o! &n%ao!a,le $o i$, and i$ "eas&!es
$he dis$ance in $e!"s o% i$s o<n "oe"en$s $o<a!d o! a<ay %!o" $he o,9ec$s. Tha$ <hich a%%ec$s i$ in
i$s dis$an$ e=1e!ience is a 1!o"ise o% <ha$ <ill ha11en a%$e! con$ac$ $a7es 1lace. I$ "ay ,e %ao!a,le
con$ac$ <i$h %ood, o! con$ac$ <i$h $he 9a<s o% i$s ene"ies. I$ is s&ch !es&l$an$s <hich $he dis$an$
e=1e!ience is indica$ing@ $his is $he <ay in <hich an eni!on"en$ e=is$s.
The $hings <e see a$ a dis$ance a!e $he con$ac$s $ha$ <e shall ge$ a%$e! <e "oe $o<a!d $he $hing.
O&! eni!on"en$ e=is$s in a ce!$ain sense as hy1o$heses. -The <all is oe! $he!e,- "eans -0e hae
ce!$ain is&al e=1e!iences <hich 1!o"ise $o &s ce!$ain con$ac$s o% ha!dness, !o&ghness, coolness.-
Ee!y$hing $ha$ e=is$s a,o&$ &s e=is$s %o! &s in $his hy1o$he$ical %ashion. O% co&!se, $he hy1o$heses
a!e s&11o!$ed ,y cond&c$, ,y e=1e!i"en$, i% yo& li7e. 0e 1&$ o&! %ee$ do<n <i$h an ass&!ance ,o!n
o&$ o% 1as$ e=1e!ience, and <e e=1ec$ $he c&s$o"a!y !es&l$. 0e a!e occasionally s&,9ec$ $o ill&sions,
and $hen <e !eali8e $ha$ $he <o!ld $ha$ e=is$s a,o&$ &s does e=is$ in a hy1o$he$ical %ashion. 0ha$
co"es $o &s $h!o&gh dis$an$ e=1e!ience is a so!$ o% lang&age <hich !eeals $o &s $he 1!o,a,le
e=1e!ience <e sho&ld ge$ i% <e <e!e ac$&ally $o $!ae!se $he dis$ance ,e$<een &s and $hose o,9ec$s.
The %o!" <hich has no dis$an$ e=1e!ience, s&ch as an a"oe,a, o! <hich has s&ch dis$an$
e=1e!ience inoled only %&nc$ionally, has no$ $he so!$ o% eni!on"en$ $ha$ o$he! %o!"s hae. I <an$
$o ,!ing $his o&$ $o e"1hasi8e $he %ac$ $ha$ $he eni!on"en$ is in a e!y !eal sense de$e!"ined ,y $he
cha!ac$e! o% $he %o!". I$ is 1ossi,le %o! &s, %!o" $he s$and1oin$ o% o&! scien$i%ic acco&n$ o% $he <o!ld,
$o ge$ o&$side o% $hese eni!on"en$s o% $he di%%e!en$ %o!"s and !ela$e $he" $o each o$he!. 0e $he!e
hae a s$&dy o% eni!on"en$s in $hei! !ela$ionshi1 $o $he %o!"s $he"seles, and <e s$a$e o&!
eni!on"en$s %i!s$ and $hen !ela$e $he" $o $he %o!". B&$ as %a! as eni!on"en$s e=is$ %o! $he %o!"
i$sel% $hey e=is$ in $his selec$ed cha!ac$e! and as cons$!&c$ed in $e!"s o% 1ossi,le !es1onses.+,-
Oe! agains$ $his con$!ol <hich $he %o!" e=e!cises on i$s eni!on"en$ Ae=1!essi,le in $e!"s o%
selec$ion and o!gani8a$ionB, $he!e is a %&!$he! con$!ol <hich I hae !e%e!!ed $o in a %o!" <hich does
ac$&ally de$e!"ine ,y i$s !es1onses $he o,9ec$s $ha$ e=is$ a,o&$ i$. In so %a! as an ani"al digs a hole
o! ,&ilds a nes$, i$ does ge$ $hings $oge$he! so $ha$ i$ "a7es a ho&se %o! i$sel%. These ac$&al
cons$!&c$ions a!e o% a di%%e!en$ cha!ac$e! %!o" $ha$ so!$ o% con$!ol $o <hich I 1!eio&sly !e%e!!ed. The
an$s, %o! e=a"1le, ac$&ally 7ee1 ce!$ain %o!"s o% ege$a$ion in $hei! galle!ies &1on <hich $hey %eed.
This gies a con$!ol o% $he eni!on"en$ $ha$ goes ,eyond $hose $o <hich <e hae ye$ !e%e!!ed, since
i$ necessi$a$es ac$ie !es1onses ,y $he ani"als de$e!"ining <ha$ $he ege$a,le g!o<$h <ill ,e. S&ch
ac$ions "a7e &1 a e!y sligh$ 1a!$ o% $he lies o% $hese insec$s, ,&$ $hey do occ&!. Tha$ so!$ o% con$!ol
goes ,eyond $he ,&ilding o% $he ,&!!o< o! $he nes$, since $he!e is an ac$&al cons$!&c$ion o% $he
eni!on"en$ <i$hin <hich $he ani"al ca!!ies on i$s li%e?1!ocess. The s$!i7ing $hing a,o&$ $he h&"an
o!ganis" is $he ela,o!a$e e=$ension o% con$!ol o% $he $y1e I hae 9&s$ !e%e!!ed $o in $he case o% $he
insec$s.
The eni!on"en$, I hae said, is o&! eni!on"en$. 0e see <ha$ <e can !each, <ha$ <e can
"ani1&la$e, and $hen deal <i$h i$ as <e co"e in con$ac$ <i$h i$. I hae e"1hasi8ed $he i"1o!$ance o%
$he hand in $he ,&ilding?&1 o% $his eni!on"en$. The ac$s o% $he liing %o!" a!e $hose <hich lead &1
$o cons&""a$ions s&ch as $ha$ o% ea$ing %ood. The hand co"es in ,e$<een $he ,eginning and $he
end o% $his 1!ocess. 0e ge$ hold o% $he %ood, <e handle i$, and so %a! as o&! s$a$e"en$ o% $he
eni!on"en$ is conce!ned, <e can say $ha$ <e 1!esen$ i$ $o o&!seles in $e!"s o% $he "ani1&la$ed
o,9ec$. The %!&i$ $ha$ <e can hae is a $hing $ha$ <e can handle. I$ "ay ,e %!&i$ <hich <e can ea$ o! a
!e1!esen$a$ion o% i$ in <a=. The o,9ec$, ho<ee!, is a 1hysical $hing. The <o!ld o% 1hysical $hings <e
hae a,o&$ &s is no$ si"1ly $he goal o% o&! "oe"en$ ,&$ a <o!ld <hich 1e!"i$s $he cons&""a$ion
o% $he ac$. A dog can, o% co&!se, 1ic7 &1 s$ic7s and ,!ing $he" ,ac7. :e can &$ili8e his 9a<s %o!
ca!!ying, ,&$ $ha$ is $he only e=$ension 1ossi,le ,eyond $hei! ac$&al &$ili8a$ion %o! $he 1!ocess o%
deo&!ing. The ac$ is D&ic7ly ca!!ied $h!o&gh $o i$s cons&""a$ion. The h&"an ani"al, ho<ee!, has
$his i"1le"en$al s$age $ha$ co"es ,e$<een $he ac$&al cons&""a$ion and $he ,eginning o% $he ac$,
and $he $hing a11ea!s in $ha$ 1hase o% $he ac$. O&! eni!on"en$ as s&ch is "ade &1 o&$ o% 1hysical
$hings. O&! cond&c$ $!ansla$es $he o,9ec$s $o <hich <e !es1ond oe! in$o 1hysical $hings <hich lie
,eyond o&! ac$&al cons&""a$ion o% $he i""edia$e ac$. The $hings $ha$ <e can ge$ hold o%, $ha$ <e
can ,!ea7 &1 in$o "in&$e 1a!$s, a!e $he $hings <hich <e !each sho!$ o% $he cons&""a$ion o% $he ac$,
and <hich <e can in so"e sense "ani1&la$e <i$h !e%e!ence $o %&!$he! ac$ii$y. I% <e s1ea7 no< o%
$he ani"al as cons$i$&$ing i$s eni!on"en$ ,y i$s sensi$ii$y, ,y i$s "oe"en$s $o<a!d $he o,9ec$s, ,y
i$s !eac$ions, <e can see $ha$ $he h&"an %o!" cons$i$&$es i$s eni!on"en$ in $e!"s o% $hese 1hysical
$hings <hich a!e in a !eal sense $he 1!od&c$s o% o&! o<n hands. They, o% co&!se, hae $he %&!$he!
adan$age %!o" $he 1oin$ o% ie< o% in$elligence $ha$ $hey a!e i"1le"en$s, $hings <e can &se. They
co"e ,e$<i=$ and ,e$<een $he ,eginning o% $he ac$ and i$s cons&""a$ion, so $ha$ <e hae o,9ec$s
in $e!"s o% <hich <e can e=1!ess $he !ela$ion o% "eans $o ends. 0e can analy8e o&! ends in $e!"s
o% $he "eans a$ o&! dis1osal. The h&"an hand, ,ac7ed &1, o% co&!se, ,y $he inde%ini$e n&",e! o%
ac$ions <hich $he cen$!al ne!o&s sys$e" "a7es 1ossi,le, is o% c!i$ical i"1o!$ance in $he
deelo1"en$ o% h&"an in$elligence. I$ is i"1o!$an$ $ha$ a "an sho&ld ,e a,le $o descend %!o" a $!ee
A1!oiding his ances$o!s lied in a $!eeB, ,&$ i$ is o% g!ea$e! i"1o!$ance $ha$ he sho&ld hae a $h&",
o11osi$e $he %inge!s $o g!as1 and &$ili8e $he o,9ec$s $ha$ he needs. 0e $h&s ,!ea7 &1 o&! <o!ld in$o
1hysical o,9ec$s, in$o an eni!on"en$ o% $hings $ha$ <e can "ani1&la$e and can &$ili8e %o! o&! %inal
ends and 1&!1oses.
Beyond $his indiid&al %&nc$ion lies $he &ses $o <hich <e 1&$ s&ch 1hysical o,9ec$s in %acili$a$ing $he
con$!ol <hich $he o!gani8ed g!o&1 ge$s oe! i$s <o!ld. *ed&ce $his g!o&1 $o i$s lo<es$ $e!"s?s&ch as
<e %ind in o&! !o"ances a,o&$ $he cae "an?and $he $hings <i$h <hich i$ o1e!a$es a!e ha!dly
any$hing "o!e $han cl&,s o! s$ones. I$s eni!on"en$ is no$ so di%%e!en$ %!o" $he eni!on"en$ o% $he
ani"als. B&$ $he deelo1"en$ o% h&"an socie$y on a la!ge! scale has lea $o a e!y co"1le$e con$!ol
o% i$s eni!on"en$. The h&"an %o!" es$a,lishes i$s o<n ho"e <he!e i$ <ishes@ ,&ilds ci$ies@ ,!ings
i$s <a$e! %!o" g!ea$ dis$ances@ es$a,lishes $he ege$a$ion <hich shall g!o< a,o&$ i$@ de$e!"ines $he
ani"als $ha$ <ill e=is$@ ge$s in$o $ha$ s$!&ggle <hich is going on no< <i$h insec$ li%e, de$e!"ining <ha$
insec$s shall con$in&e $o lie@ is a$$e"1$ing $o de$e!"ine <ha$ "ic!oo!ganis"s shall !e"ain in i$s
eni!on"en$. I$ de$e!"ines, ,y "eans o% i$s clo$hing and ho&sing, <ha$ $he $e"1e!a$&!e shall ,e
a,o&$ i$@ i$ !eg&la$es $he e=$en$ o% i$s eni!on"en$ ,y "eans o% i$s "e$hods o% loco"o$ion. The <hole
on<a!d s$!&ggle o% "an7ind on $he %ace o% $he ea!$h is s&ch a de$e!"ina$ion o% $he li%e $ha$ shall
e=is$ a,o&$ i$ and s&ch a con$!ol o% 1hysical o,9ec$s as de$e!"ine and a%%ec$ i$s o<n li%e. The
co""&ni$y as s&ch c!ea$es i$s eni!on"en$ ,y ,eing sensi$ie $o i$.
0e s1ea7 o% Da!<inian eol&$ion, o% $he con%lic$ o% di%%e!en$ %o!"s <i$h each o$he!, as ,eing $he
essen$ial 1a!$ o% $he 1!o,le" o% deelo1"en$@ ,&$ i% <e leae o&$ so"e o% $he insec$s and "ic!o?
o!ganis"s, $he!e a!e no liing %o!"s <i$h <hich $he h&"an %o!" in i$s social ca1aci$y is in ,asic
con%lic$. 0e de$e!"ine <ha$ <ild li%e <e <ill 7ee1@ <e can <i1e o&$ all $he %o!"s o% ani"al o!
ege$a,le li%e $ha$ e=is$@ <e can so< <ha$ seed <e <an$, and 7ill o! ,!eed <ha$ ani"als <e <an$.
The!e is no longe! a ,iological eni!on"en$ in $he Da!<inian sense $o se$ o&! 1!o,le". O% co&!se,
<e canno$ con$!ol $he geological %o!ces, $he so?called -ac$s o% (od.- They co"e in and <i1e o&$
<ha$ "an has c!ea$ed. Changes in $he sola! sys$e" can si"1ly annihila$e $he 1lane$ on <hich <e
lie@ s&ch %o!ces lie o&$side o&! con$!ol. B&$ i% <e $a7e $hose %o!ces <hich <e loo7 &1on as i"1o!$an$
in $he deelo1"en$ o% $his s1ecies on $he %ace o% $he glo,e, $hey a!e $o a g!ea$ e=$en$ &nde! $he
con$!ol o% h&"an socie$y. The 1!o,le" o% $he 1!ess&!e o% 1o1&la$ion has al<ays 1layed a la!ge 1a!$
in $he selec$ion o% %o!"s $ha$ s&!ie. Na$&!e has $o selec$ on $he 1!inci1le o% oe!1!od&c$ion in o!de!
$ha$ $he!e "ay ,e, s1ea7ing in an an$h!o1o"o!1hic %ashion, a!ia$ions, so"e o% <hich "ay 1ossess
adan$ages oe! $he o$he!s. 9&s$ as B&!!o<s &sed n&"e!o&s a!ie$ies in his 1lan$ e=1e!i"en$s in $he
ho1e $ha$ so"e <o&ld ,e o% adan$age, so, s1ea7ing an$h!o1o"o!1hically, na$&!e &ses a!ie$y,
1!od&cing "o!e %o!"s $ha$ can s&!ie in $he ho1e $ha$ so"e s&1e!io! %o!" <ill s&!ie. The dea$h?
!a$e o% a ce!$ain insec$ is 33.2, and $hose %o!"s $ha$ s&!ie a!e o% a di"inishing n&",e!. The!e
!e"ain 1!o,le"s o% 1o1&la$ion %o! $he h&"an %o!", ,&$ "an co&ld de$e!"ine $he 1o1&la$ion <hich is
$o e=is$ in $e!"s o% 7no<ledge he al!eady 1ossesses. The 1!o,le" is in $he hands o% $he co""&ni$y
as %a! as i$ !eac$s in$elligen$ly &1on i$s 1!o,le"s. Th&s, een $hose 1!o,le"s <hich co"e %!o" <i$hin
$he co""&ni$y i$sel% can ,e de%ini$ely con$!olled ,y $he co""&ni$y. I$ is $his con$!ol o% i$s o<n
eol&$ion <hich is $he goal o% $he deelo1"en$ o% h&"an socie$y.
I$ has ,een legi$i"a$ely said $ha$ $he!e is no$ any goal 1!esen$ed in ,iological eol&$ion, $ha$ $he
$heo!y o% eol&$ion is 1a!$ o% a "echanical $heo!y o% na$&!e. S&ch eol&$ion <o!7s, so $o s1ea7, %!o"
,ehind. The e=1lana$ion is in $e!"s o% %o!ces al!eady $he!e, and in $his 1!ocess $he 1a!$ic&la! %o!"s
a11ea! <hich do %i$ ce!$ain si$&a$ions and so s&!ie in $he s$!&ggle %o! e=is$ence. S&ch a 1!ocess o%
ada1$a$ion is no$ necessa!ily a 1!ocess <hich 1ic7s o&$ <ha$ <e conside! $he "o!e desi!a,le %o!".
The 1a!asi$e is de%ini$ely a !es&l$ o% eol&$iona!y 1!ocess. I$ loses a!io&s o!gans ,eca&se $hey a!e
no longe! necessa!y, ,&$ i$ has ada1$ed i$sel% $o $he li%e o% %eeding on $he hos$. 0e can e=1lain $ha$
%!o" $he 1oin$ o% ie< o% eol&$ion. F!o" s&ch a 1oin$ o% ie< <e do no$ hae $o !ega!d na$&!e as
1!od&cing "o!e and "o!e highly co"1lica$ed, "o!e 1e!%ec$ %o!"s. The changes a!e si"1ly
e=1lained ,y a!ia$ions and ada1$a$ion $o $he si$&a$ions $ha$ a!ise. The!e is no necessi$y o% ,!inging
in an end $o<a!d <hich all c!ea$ion "oes.
Nee!$heless, $he h&"an si$&a$ion <hich I hae 9&s$ 1!esen$ed does in a ce!$ain sense 1!esen$ an
end, no$, i% yo& li7e, in $he 1hysiological sense, ,&$ as a de$e!"ina$ion o% $he 1!ocess o% li%e on $he
s&!%ace o% $he ea!$h. The h&"an socie$y $ha$ can i$sel% de$e!"ine <ha$ $he condi$ions a!e <i$hin
<hich i$ lies is no longe! in a si$&a$ion o% si"1ly $!ying $o "ee$ $he 1!o,le"s $ha$ $he eni!on"en$
1!esen$s. I% h&"ani$y can con$!ol i$s eni!on"en$, i$ <ill in a ce!$ain sense s$a,ili8e i$sel% and !each
$he end o% a 1!ocess o% deelo1"en$, e=ce1$ in so %a! as $he socie$y goes on deelo1ing in $his
1!ocess o% con$!olling i$s o<n eni!on"en$. 0e do no$ hae $o deelo1 a ne< %o!" <i$h hai!y
coe!ing $o lie in cold cli"a$es@ <e can si"1ly 1!od&ce clo$hes <hich ena,le $he e=1lo!e!s $o go $o
$he No!$h Pole. 0e can de$e!"ine $he condi$ions &nde! <hich $he hea$ o% $he $!o1ics shall ,e "ade
end&!a,le. 0e can, ,y 1&$$ing a <i!e in$o $he <all o% a !oo", !aise o! lo<e! $he $e"1e!a$&!e. Een in
$he case o% $he "ic!oo!ganis"s, i% <e can con$!ol $hese, as h&"an socie$y in 1a!$ does, <e hae
de$e!"ined no$ only <ha$ $he eni!on"en$ is in i$s i""edia$e !ela$ion $o &s, ,&$ also <ha$ $he
1hysical eni!on"en$ is in i$s in%l&ence on $he %o!"@ and $ha$ <o&ld 1!od&ce a $e!"in&s as a goal o%
eol&$ion.
0e a!e so %a! a<ay %!o" any ac$&al %inal ad9&s$"en$ o% $his so!$ $ha$ <e co!!ec$ly say $ha$ $he
eol&$ion o% $he social o!ganis" has a long !oad ahead o% i$. B&$ s&11osing i$ had a$$ained $his goal,
had de$e!"ined $he condi$ions <i$hin <hich i$ co&ld lie and !e1!od&ce i$sel%, $hen $he %&!$he!
changes in $he h&"an %o!" <o&ld no longe! $a7e 1lace in $e!"s o% $he 1!inci1les $ha$ hae
de$e!"ined ,iological eol&$ion. The h&"an si$&a$ion is a deelo1"en$ o% $he con$!ol <hich all liing
%o!"s e=e!cise oe! $hei! eni!on"en$ in selec$ion and in o!gani8a$ion, ,&$ $he h&"an socie$y has
!eached an end <hich no o$he! %o!" has !eached, $ha$ o% ac$&ally de$e!"ining, <i$hin ce!$ain li"i$s,
<ha$ i$s ino!ganic eni!on"en$ <ill ,e. 0e canno$ $!ans1o!$ o&!seles $o o$he! 1lane$s, o! de$e!"ine
<ha$ $he "oe"en$s o% $he sola! sys$e" <ill ,e A1ossi,le changes o% $ha$ so!$ lie ,eyond any
conceia,le con$!ol o% $he h&"an o!ganis"B@ ,&$ a1a!$ %!o" s&ch li"i$s, $hose %o!ces <hich a%%ec$
$he li%e o% $he %o!" and can conceia,ly change i$ in $he Da!<inian sense hae co"e &nde! $he
con$!ol o% $he socie$y i$sel%, and, in so %a! as $hey co"e &nde! $he e=e!cised con$!ol o% $he socie$y,
h&"an socie$y 1!esen$s an end o% $he 1!ocess o% o!ganic eol&$ion. I$ is needless $o add $ha$, so %a!
as $he deelo1"en$ o% h&"an socie$y is conce!ned, $he 1!ocess i$sel% is a long <ay %!o" i$s goal.
"ndnotes
1. AFo! $he !ela$ion o% $he <o!ld o% co""on e=1e!ience and o% science, see *he Philosophy of
the Act, Pa!$ II.B 1!ditors6 note: *his is a reference to a (oo. 7hich 7ould not (e pu(lished
for another si# years and may represent a revision after the first printing of Mind Self and
Society$
//# TH" S$CI%& 3$4()%TI$(S %() 34(CTI$(S $3 TH$4GHT %() C$MM4(IC%TI$(
In $he sa"e socio?1hysiological <ay $ha$ $he h&"an indiid&al ,eco"es conscio&s o% hi"sel% he
also ,eco"es conscio&s o% o$he! indiid&als@ and his conscio&sness ,o$h o% hi"sel% and o% o$he!
indiid&als is eD&ally i"1o!$an$ %o! his o<n sel%?deelo1"en$ and %o! $he deelo1"en$ o% $he
o!gani8ed socie$y o! social g!o&1 $o <hich he ,elongs.
The 1!inci1le <hich I hae s&gges$ed as ,asic $o h&"an social o!gani8a$ion is $ha$ o%
co""&nica$ion inoling 1a!$ici1a$ion in $he o$he!. This !eD&i!es $he a11ea!ance o% $he o$he! in $he
sel%, $he iden$i%ica$ion o% $he o$he! <i$h $he sel%, $he !eaching o% sel%?conscio&sness $h!o&gh $he o$he!.
This 1a!$ici1a$ion is "ade 1ossi,le $h!o&gh $he $y1e o% co""&nica$ion <hich $he h&"an ani"al is
a,le $o ca!!y o&$ ?? a $y1e o% co""&nica$ion dis$ing&ished %!o" $ha$ <hich $a7es 1lace a"ong o$he!
%o!"s <hich hae no$ $his 1!inci1le in $hei! socie$ies. I disc&ssed $he sen$inel, so?called, $ha$ "ay ,e
said $o co""&nica$e his discoe!y o% $he dange! $o $he o$he! "e",e!s, as $he cl&c7ing o% $he hen
"ay ,e said $o co""&nica$e $o $he chic7. The!e a!e condi$ions &nde! <hich $he ges$&!e o% one %o!"
se!es $o 1lace $he o$he! %o!"s in $he 1!o1e! a$$i$&de $o<a!d e=$e!nal condi$ions. In one sense <e
"ay say $he one %o!" co""&nica$es <i$h $he o$he!, ,&$ $he di%%e!ence ,e$<een $ha$ and sel%?
conscio&s co""&nica$ion is eiden$. One %o!" does no$ 7no< $ha$ co""&nica$ion is $a7ing 1lace
<i$h $he o$he!. 0e ge$ ill&s$!a$ions o% $ha$ in <ha$ <e $e!" "o,?conscio&sness, $he a$$i$&de <hich an
a&dience <ill $a7e <hen &nde! $he in%l&ence o% a g!ea$ s1ea7e!. One is in%l&enced ,y $he a$$i$&des o%
$hose a,o&$ hi", <hich a!e !e%lec$ed ,ac7 in$o $he di%%e!en$ "e",e!s o% $he a&dience so $ha$ $hey
co"e $o !es1ond as a <hole. One %eels $he gene!al a$$i$&de o% $he <hole a&dience. The!e is $hen
co""&nica$ion in a !eal sense, $ha$ is, one %o!" co""&nica$es $o $he o$he! an a$$i$&de <hich $he
o$he! ass&"es $o<a!d a ce!$ain 1a!$ o% $he eni!on"en$ $ha$ is o% i"1o!$ance $o $he" ,o$h. Tha$
leel o% co""&nica$ion is %o&nd in %o!"s o% socie$y <hich a!e o% lo<e! $y1e $han $he social
o!gani8a$ion o% $he h&"an g!o&1.
In $he h&"an g!o&1, on $he o$he! hand, $he!e is no$ only $his 7ind o% co""&nica$ion ,&$ also $ha$ in
<hich $he 1e!son <ho &ses $his ges$&!e and so co""&nica$es ass&"es $he a$$i$&de o% $he o$he!
indiid&al as <ell as calling i$ o&$ in $he o$he!. :e hi"sel% is in $he !Mle o% $he o$he! 1e!son <ho" he
is so e=ci$ing and in%l&encing. I$ is $h!o&gh $a7ing $his !Mle o% $he o$he! $ha$ he is a,le $o co"e ,ac7
on hi"sel% and so di!ec$ his o<n 1!ocess o% co""&nica$ion. This $a7ing $he !Mle o% $he o$he!, an
e=1!ession I hae so o%$en &sed, is no$ si"1ly o% 1assing i"1o!$ance. I$ is no$ so"e$hing $ha$ 9&s$
ha11ens as an inciden$al !es&l$ o% $he ges$&!e, ,&$ i$ is o% i"1o!$ance in $he deelo1"en$ o%
coo1e!a$ie ac$ii$y. The i""edia$e e%%ec$ o% s&ch !Mle?$a7ing lies in $he con$!ol <hich $he indiid&al
is a,le $o e=e!cise oe! his o<n !es1onse.+,- The con$!ol o% $he ac$ion o% $he indiid&al in a
coo1e!a$ie 1!ocess can $a7e 1lace in $he cond&c$ o% $he indiid&al hi"sel% i% he can $a7e $he !Mle o%
$he o$he!. I$ is $his con$!ol o% $he !es1onse o% $he indiid&al hi"sel% $h!o&gh $a7ing $he !Mle o% $he
o$he! $ha$ leads $o $he al&e o% $his $y1e o% co""&nica$ion %!o" $he 1oin$ o% ie< o% $he o!gani8a$ion
o% $he cond&c$ in $he g!o&1. I$ ca!!ies $he 1!ocess o% coo1e!a$ie ac$ii$y %a!$he! $han i$ can ,e ca!!ied
in $he he!d as s&ch, o! in $he insec$ socie$y.
And $h&s i$ is $ha$ social con$!ol, as o1e!a$ing in $e!"s o% sel%?c!i$icis", e=e!$s i$sel% so in$i"a$ely and
e=$ensiely oe! indiid&al ,ehaio! o! cond&c$, se!ing $o in$eg!a$e $he indiid&al and his ac$ions
<i$h !e%e!ence $o $he o!gani8ed social 1!ocess o% e=1e!ience and ,ehaio! in <hich he is i"1lica$ed.
The 1hysiological "echanis" o% $he h&"an indiid&al>s cen$!al ne!o&s sys$e" "a7es i$ 1ossi,le
%o! hi" $o $a7e $he a$$i$&des o% o$he! indiid&als> and $he a$$i$&des o% $he o!gani8ed social g!o&1 o%
<hich he and $hey a!e "e",e!s, $o<a!d hi"sel%, in $e!"s o% his in$eg!a$ed social !ela$ions $o $he"
and $o $he g!o&1 as a <hole@ so $ha$ $he gene!al social 1!ocess o% e=1e!ience and ,ehaio! <hich
$he g!o&1 is ca!!ying on is di!ec$ly 1!esen$ed $o hi" in his o<n e=1e!ience, and so $ha$ he is $he!e,y
a,le $o goe!n and di!ec$ his cond&c$ conscio&sly and c!i$ically, <i$h !e%e!ence $o his !ela$ions ,o$h
$o $he social g!o&1 as a <hole and $o i$s o$he! indiid&al "e",e!s, in $e!"s o% $his social 1!ocess.
Th&s he ,eco"es no$ only sel%?conscio&s ,&$ also sel%?c!i$ical@ and $h&s, $h!o&gh sel%?c!i$icis",
social con$!ol oe! indiid&al ,ehaio! o! cond&c$ o1e!a$es ,y i!$&e o% $he social o!igin and ,asis o%
s&ch c!i$icis". Tha$ is $o say, sel%?c!i$icis" is essen$ially social c!i$icis", and ,ehaio! con$!olled ,y
sel%?c!i$icis" is essen$ially ,ehaio! con$!olled socially.+.- :ence social con$!ol, so %a! %!o" $ending
$o c!&sh o&$ $he h&"an indiid&al o! $o o,li$e!a$e his sel%?conscio&s indiid&ali$y, is, on $he con$!a!y,
ac$&ally cons$i$&$ie o% and ine=$!ica,ly associa$ed <i$h $ha$ indiid&ali$y@ %o! $he indiid&al is <ha$ he
is, as a conscio&s and indiid&al 1e!sonali$y, 9&s$ in as %a! as he is a "e",e! o% socie$y, inoled in
$he social 1!ocess o% e=1e!ience and ac$ii$y, and $he!e,y socially con$!olled in his cond&c$.

The e!y o!gani8a$ion o% $he sel%?conscio&s co""&ni$y is de1enden$ &1on indiid&als $a7ing $he
a$$i$&de o% $he o$he! indiid&als. The deelo1"en$ o% $his 1!ocess, as I hae indica$ed, is de1enden$
&1on ge$$ing $he a$$i$&de o% $he g!o&1 as dis$inc$ %!o" $ha$ o% a se1a!a$e indiid&al?ge$$ing <ha$ I
hae $e!"ed a -gene!ali8ed o$he!.- I hae ill&s$!a$ed $his ,y $he ,all ga"e, in <hich $he a$$i$&des o% a
se$ o% indiid&als a!e inoled in a coo1e!a$ie !es1onse in <hich $he di%%e!en$ !Mles inole each
o$he!. In so %a! as a "an $a7es $he a$$i$&de o% one indiid&al in $he g!o&1, he "&s$ $a7e i$ in i$s
!ela$ionshi1 $o $he ac$ion o% $he o$he! "e",e!s o% $he g!o&1@ and i% he is %&lly $o ad9&s$ hi"sel%, he
<o&ld hae $o $a7e $he a$$i$&des o% all inoled in $he 1!ocess. The deg!ee, o% co&!se, $o <hich he
can do $ha$ is !es$!ained ,y his ca1aci$y, ,&$ s$ill in all in$elligen$ 1!ocesses <e a!e a,le s&%%icien$ly $o
$a7e $he !Mles o% $hose inoled in $he ac$ii$y $o "a7e o&! o<n ac$ion in$elligen$. The deg!ee $o
<hich $he li%e o% $he <hole co""&ni$y can ge$ in$o $he sel%?conscio&s li%e o% $he se1a!a$e indiid&als
a!ies eno!"o&sly. :is$o!y is la!gely occ&1ied in $!acing o&$ $he deelo1"en$ <hich co&ld no$ hae
,een 1!esen$ in $he ac$&al e=1e!ience o% $he "e",e!s o% $he co""&ni$y a$ $he $i"e $he his$o!ian is
<!i$ing a,o&$. S&ch an acco&n$ e=1lains $he i"1o!$ance o% his$o!y. One can loo7 ,ac7 oe! $ha$
<hich $oo7 1lace, and ,!ing o&$ changes, %o!ces, and in$e!es$s <hich no,ody a$ $he $i"e <as
conscio&s o%. 0e hae $o <ai$ %o! $he his$o!ian $o gie $he 1ic$&!e ,eca&se $he ac$&al 1!ocess <as
one <hich $!anscended $he e=1e!ience o% $he se1a!a$e indiid&als.
Occasionally a 1e!son a!ises <ho is a,le $o $a7e in "o!e $han o$he!s o% an ac$ in 1!ocess, <ho can
1&$ hi"sel% in$o !ela$ion <i$h <hole g!o&1s in $he co""&ni$y <hose a$$i$&des hae no$ en$e!ed in$o
$he lies o% $he o$he!s in $he co""&ni$y. :e ,eco"es a leade!. Classes &nde! a %e&dal o!de! "ay
,e so se1a!a$e %!o" each o$he! $ha$, <hile $hey can ac$ in ce!$ain $!adi$ional ci!c&"s$ances, $hey
canno$ &nde!s$and each o$he!@ and $hen $he!e "ay a!ise an indiid&al <ho is ca1a,le o% en$e!ing
in$o $he a$$i$&des o% $he o$he! "e",e!s o% $he g!o&1. Fig&!es o% $ha$ so!$ ,eco"e o% eno!"o&s
i"1o!$ance ,eca&se $hey "a7e 1ossi,le co""&nica$ion ,e$<een g!o&1s o$he!<ise co"1le$ely
se1a!a$ed %!o" each o$he!. The so!$ o% ca1aci$y <e s1ea7 o% is in 1oli$ics $he a$$i$&de o% $he
s$a$es"an <ho is a,le $o en$e! in$o $he a$$i$&des o% $he g!o&1 and $o "edia$e ,e$<een $he" ,y
"a7ing his o<n e=1e!ience &nie!sal, so $ha$ o$he!s can en$e! in$o $his %o!" o% co""&nica$ion
$h!o&gh hi".
The as$ i"1o!$ance o% "edia o% co""&nica$ion s&ch as $hose inoled in 9o&!nalis" is seen a$
once, since $hey !e1o!$ si$&a$ions $h!o&gh <hich one can en$e! in$o $he a$$i$&de and e=1e!ience o%
o$he! 1e!sons. The d!a"a has se!ed $his %&nc$ion in 1!esen$ing <ha$ hae ,een %el$ $o ,e i"1o!$an$
si$&a$ions. I$ has 1ic7ed o&$ cha!ac$e!s <hich lie in "en>s "inds %!o" $!adi$ion, as $he (!ee7s did in
$hei! $!agedies, and $hen e=1!essed $h!o&gh $hese cha!ac$e!s si$&a$ions <hich ,elong $o $hei! o<n
$i"e ,&$ <hich ca!!y $he indiid&als ,eyond $he ac$&al %i=ed <alls <hich hae a!isen ,e$<een $he",
as "e",e!s o% di%%e!en$ classes in $he co""&ni$y. The deelo1"en$ o% $his $y1e o% co""&nica$ion
%!o" $he d!a"a in$o $he noel has his$o!ically so"e$hing o% $he sa"e i"1o!$ance as 9o&!nalis" has
%o! o&! o<n $i"e. The noel 1!esen$s a si$&a$ion <hich lies o&$side o% $he i""edia$e 1&!ie< o% $he
!eade! in s&ch %o!" $ha$ he en$e!s in$o $he a$$i$&de o% $he g!o&1 in $he si$&a$ion. The!e is a %a! highe!
deg!ee o% 1a!$ici1a$ion, and conseD&en$ly o% 1ossi,le co""&nica$ion, &nde! $hose condi$ions $han
o$he!<ise. The!e is inoled, o% co&!se, in s&ch a deelo1"en$ $he e=is$ence o% co""on in$e!es$s.
Yo& canno$ ,&ild &1 a socie$y o&$ o% ele"en$s $ha$ lie o&$side o% $he indiid&al>s li%e?1!ocesses. Yo&
hae $o 1!es&11ose so"e so!$ o% coo1e!a$ion <i$hin <hich $he indiid&als a!e $he"seles ac$iely
inoled as $he only 1ossi,le ,asis %o! $his 1a!$ici1a$ion in co""&nica$ion. Yo& canno$ s$a!$ $o
co""&nica$e <i$h 1eo1le in Ma!s and se$ &1 a socie$y <hen yo& hae no an$eceden$ !ela$ionshi1.
O% co&!se, i% $he!e is an al!eady e=is$ing co""&ni$y in Ma!s o% $he sa"e cha!ac$e! as yo&! o<n, $hen
yo& can 1ossi,ly ca!!y on co""&nica$ion <i$h i$@ ,&$ a co""&ni$y $ha$ lies en$i!ely o&$side o% yo&!
o<n co""&ni$y, $ha$ has no co""on in$e!es$, no coo1e!a$ie ac$ii$y, is one <i$h <hich yo& co&ld
no$ co""&nica$e.
In h&"an socie$y $he!e hae a!isen ce!$ain &nie!sal %o!"s <hich %o&nd $hei! e=1!ession in &nie!sal
!eligions and also in &nie!sal econo"ic 1!ocesses. These go ,ac7, in $he case o% !eligion, $o s&ch
%&nda"en$al a$$i$&des o% h&"an ,eings $o<a!d each o$he! as 7indliness, hel1%&lness, and
assis$ance. S&ch a$$i$&des a!e inoled in $he li%e o% indiid&als in $he g!o&1, and a gene!ali8a$ion o%
$he" is %o&nd ,ac7 o% all &nie!sal !eligions. These 1!ocesses a!e s&ch $ha$ $hey ca!!y <i$h $he"
neigh,o!liness and, in so %a! as <e hae co?o1e!a$ie ac$ii$y, assis$ance $o $hose in $!o&,le and in
s&%%e!ing. The %&nda"en$al a$$i$&de o% hel1ing $he o$he! 1e!son <ho is do<n, <ho %inds hi"sel% in
sic7ness o! o$he! "is%o!$&ne, ,elongs $o $he e!y s$!&c$&!e o% $he indiid&als in a h&"an co""&ni$y.
I$ can ,e %o&nd een &nde! condi$ions <he!e $he!e is $he o11osing a$$i$&de o% co"1le$e hos$ili$y, as
in giing assis$ance $o $he <o&nded ene"y in $he "ids$ o% a ,a$$le. The a$$i$&de o% chial!y, o! $he
"e!e ,!ea7ing o% ,!ead <i$h ano$he!, iden$i%ies $he indiid&al <i$h $he o$he! een i% he is an ene"y.
Those a!e si$&a$ions in <hich $he indiid&al %inds hi"sel% in an a$$i$&de o% coo1e!a$ion@ and i$ is o&$ o%
si$&a$ions li7e $ha$, o&$ o% &nie!sal coo1e!a$ie ac$ii$y, $ha$ $he &nie!sal !eligions hae a!isen. The
deelo1"en$ o% $his %&nda"en$al neigh,o!liness is e=1!essed in $he 1a!a,le o% $he good Sa"a!i$an.
On $he o$he! hand, <e hae a %&nda"en$al 1!ocess o% e=change on $he 1a!$ o% indiid&als a!ising
%!o" $he goods %o! <hich $hey hae no i""edia$e need $he"seles ,&$ <hich can ,e &$ili8ed %o!
o,$aining $ha$ <hich $hey do need. S&ch e=change can $a7e 1lace <he!ee! indiid&als <ho hae
s&ch s&!1l&ses a!e a,le $o co""&nica$e <i$h each o$he!. The!e is a 1a!$ici1a$ion in $he a$$i$&de o%
need, each 1&$$ing hi"sel% in $he a$$i$&de o% $he o$he! in $he !ecogni$ion o% $he "&$&al al&e <hich
$he e=change has %o! ,o$h. I$ is a highly a,s$!ac$ !ela$ionshi1, %o! so"e$hing <hich one canno$
hi"sel% &se ,!ings hi" in$o !ela$ionshi1 <i$h any,ody else in e=change. I$ is a si$&a$ion <hich is as
&nie!sal as $ha$ $o <hich <e hae !e%e!!ed in $he case o% neigh,o!liness. These $<o a$$i$&des
!e1!esen$ $he "os$ highly &nie!sal, and, %o! $he $i"e ,eing, "os$ highly a,s$!ac$ socie$y. They a!e
a$$i$&des <hich can $!anscend $he li"i$s o% $he di%%e!en$ social g!o&1s o!gani8ed a,o&$ $hei! o<n li%e?
1!ocesses, and "ay a11ea! een in ac$&al hos$ili$y ,e$<een g!o&1s. In $he 1!ocess o% e=change o!
assis$ance 1e!sons <ho <o&ld ,e o$he!<ise hos$ile can co"e in$o an a$$i$&de o% coo1e!a$ie ac$ii$y.
Bac7 o% $hese $<o a$$i$&des lies $ha$ <hich is inoled in any gen&ine co""&nica$ion. I$ is "o!e
&nie!sal in one !es1ec$ $han !eligio&s and econo"ic a$$i$&des, and less in ano$he!. One has $o hae
so"e$hing $o co""&nica$e ,e%o!e co""&nica$ing. One "ay see"ingly hae $he sy",ol o% ano$he!
lang&age, ,&$ i% he has no$ any co""on ideas Aand $hese inole co""on !es1onsesB <i$h $hose
<ho s1ea7 $ha$ lang&age, he canno$ co""&nica$e <i$h $he"@ so $ha$ ,ac7 een o% $he 1!ocess o%
disco&!se "&s$ lie coo1e!a$ie ac$ii$y. The 1!ocess o% co""&nica$ion is one <hich is "o!e
&nie!sal $han $ha$ o% $he &nie!sal !eligion o! &nie!sal econo"ic 1!ocess in $ha$ i$ is one $ha$
se!es $he" ,o$h. Those $<o ac$ii$ies hae ,een $he "os$ &nie!sal coo1e!a$ie ac$ii$ies. The
scien$i%ic co""&ni$y is one <hich has co"e $o ,e 1e!ha1s as &nie!sal in one sense, ,&$ een i$
canno$ ,e %o&nd a"ong 1eo1le <ho hae no conscio&s signs o! li$e!a$&!e. The 1!ocess o%
co""&nica$ion is, $hen, in one sense "o!e &nie!sal $han $hese di%%e!en$ coo1e!a$ie 1!ocesses. I$
is $he "edi&" $h!o&gh <hich $hese coo1e!a$ie ac$ii$ies can ,e ca!!ied on in $he sel%?conscio&s
socie$y. B&$ one "&s$ !ecogni8e $ha$ i$ is a "edi&" %o! coo1e!a$ie ac$ii$ies@ $he!e is no$ any %ield o%
$ho&gh$ as s&ch <hich can si"1ly go on ,y i$sel%. Thin7ing is no$ a %ield o! !eal" <hich can ,e $a7en
o&$side o% 1ossi,le social &ses. The!e has $o ,e so"e s&ch %ield as !eligion o! econo"ics in <hich
$he!e is so"e$hing $o co""&nica$e, in <hich $he!e is a coo1e!a$ie 1!ocess, in <hich <ha$ is
co""&nica$ed can ,e socially &$ili8ed. One "&s$ ass&"e $ha$ so!$ o% a coo1e!a$ie si$&a$ion in
o!de! $o !each <ha$ is called $he -&nie!se o% disco&!se.- S&ch a &nie!se o% disco&!se is $he
"edi&" %o! all $hese di%%e!en$ social 1!ocesses, and in $ha$ sense i$ is "o!e &nie!sal $han $hey@ ,&$
i$ is no$ a 1!ocess $ha$, so $o s1ea7, !&ns ,y i$sel%.
I$ is necessa!y $o e"1hasi8e $his ,eca&se 1hiloso1hy and $he dog"as $ha$ hae gone <i$h i$ hae
se$ &1 a 1!ocess o% $ho&gh$ and a $hin7ing s&,s$ance $ha$ is $he an$eceden$ o% $hese e!y 1!ocesses
<i$hin <hich $hin7ing goes on. Thin7ing, ho<ee!, is no$hing ,&$ $he !es1onse o% $he indiid&al $o $he
a$$i$&de o% $he o$he! in $he <ide social 1!ocess in <hich ,o$h a!e inoled, and $he di!ec$ing o% one>s
an$ici1a$o!y ac$ion ,y $hese a$$i$&des o% $he o$he!s $ha$ one does ass&"e. Since $ha$ is <ha$ $he
1!ocess o% $hin7ing consis$s in, i$ canno$ si"1ly !&n ,y i$sel%.
I hae ,een loo7ing a$ lang&age as a 1!inci1le o% social o!gani8a$ion <hich has "ade $he
dis$inc$iely h&"an socie$y 1ossi,le. O% co&!se, i% $he!e a!e inha,i$an$s in Ma!s, i$ is 1ossi,le %o! &s
$o en$e! in$o co""&nica$ion <i$h $he" in as %a! as <e can en$e! in$o social !ela$ions <i$h $he". I% <e
can isola$e $he logical cons$an$s <hich a!e essen$ial %o! any 1!ocess o% $hin7ing, 1!es&"a,ly $hose
logical cons$an$s <o&ld 1&$ &s in$o a 1osi$ion $o ca!!y on co""&nica$ion <i$h $he o$he! co""&ni$y.
They <o&ld cons$i$&$e a co""on social 1!ocess so $ha$ one co&ld 1ossi,ly en$e! in$o a social
1!ocess <i$h any o$he! ,eing in any his$o!ical 1e!iod o! s1a$ial 1osi$ion. By "eans o% $ho&gh$ one
can 1!o9ec$ a socie$y in$o $he %&$&!e o! 1as$, ,&$ <e a!e al<ays 1!es&11osing a social !ela$ionshi1
<i$hin <hich $his 1!ocess o% co""&nica$ion $a7es 1lace. The 1!ocess o% co""&nica$ion canno$ ,e
se$ &1 as so"e$hing $ha$ e=is$s ,y i$sel%, o! as a 1!es&11osi$ion o% $he social 1!ocess. On $he
con$!a!y, $he social 1!ocess is 1!es&11osed in o!de! $o !ende! $ho&gh$ and co""&nica$ion 1ossi,le.
"ndnotes
1. F!o" $he s$and1oin$ o% social eol&$ion, i$ is $his ,!inging o% any gien social ac$, o! o% $he
$o$al social 1!ocess in <hich $ha$ ac$ is a cons$i$&en$, di!ec$ly and as an o!gani8ed <hole in$o
$he e=1e!ience o% each o% $he indiid&al o!ganis"s i"1lica$ed in $ha$ ac$, <i$h !e%e!ence $o
<hich he "ay conseD&en$ly !eg&la$e and goe!n his indiid&al cond&c$, $ha$ cons$i$&$es $he
1ec&lia! al&e and signi%icance o% sel%?conscio&sness in $hese indiid&al o!ganis"s.
0e hae seen $ha$ $he 1!ocess o! ac$ii$y o% $hin7ing is a cone!sa$ion ca!!ied on ,y $he
indiid&al ,e$<een hi"sel% and $he gene!ali8ed o$he!@ and $ha$ $he gene!al %o!" and s&,9ec$
"a$$e! o% $his cone!sa$ion is gien and de$e!"ined ,y $he a11ea!ance in e=1e!ience o%
so"e so!$ o% 1!o,le" $o ,e soled. :&"an in$elligence, <hich e=1!esses i$sel% in $ho&gh$, is
!ecogni8ed $o hae $his cha!ac$e! o% %acing and dealing <i$h any 1!o,le" o% eni!on"en$al
ad9&s$"en$ <hich con%!on$s an o!ganis". 1ossessing i$. And $h&s, as <e hae also seen, $he
essen$ial cha!ac$e!is$ic o% in$elligen$ ,ehaio! is delayed !es1onses ?? a hal$ in ,ehaio! <hile
$hin7ing is going on@ $his delayed !es1onse and $he $hin7ing %o! $he 1&!1oses o% <hich i$ is
delayed Aincl&ding $he %inal selec$ion, as $he !es&l$ o% $he $hin7ing, o% $he ,es$ o! "os$
e=1edien$ a"ong $he see!al !es1onses 1ossi,le in $he gien eni!on"en$al si$&a$ionB ,eing
"ade 1ossi,le 1hysiologically $h!o&gh $he "echanis" o% $he cen$!al ne!o&s sys$e", and
socially $h!o&gh $he "echanis" o% lang&age.
#. F!e&d>s conce1$ion o% $he 1sychological -censo!- !e1!esen$s a 1a!$ial !ecogni$ion o% $his
o1e!a$ion o% social con$!ol in $e!"s o% sel%?c!i$icis", a !ecogni$ion, na"ely, o% i$s o1e!a$ion
<i$h !e%e!ence $o se=&al e=1e!ience and cond&c$. B&$ $his sa"e so!$ o%> censo!shi1 o!
c!i$icis" o% hi"sel% ,y $he indiid&al is !e%lec$ed also in all o$he! as1ec$s o% his social
e=1e!ience, ,ehaio!, and !ela$ions?a %ac$ <hich %ollo<s na$&!ally and inei$a,ly %!o" o&!
social $heo!y o% $he sel%.
/0# TH" C$MM4(IT' %() TH" I(STIT4TI$(I1K
The!e a!e <ha$ I hae $e!"ed -gene!ali8ed social a$$i$&des- <hich "a7e an o!gani8ed sel% 1ossi,le.
In $he co""&ni$y $he!e a!e ce!$ain <ays o% ac$ing &nde! si$&a$ions <hich a!e essen$ially iden$ical,
and $hese <ays o% ac$ing on $he 1a!$ o% anyone a!e $hose <hich <e e=ci$e in o$he!s <hen <e $a7e
ce!$ain s$e1s. I% <e asse!$ o&! !igh$s, <e a!e calling %o! a de%ini$e !es1onse 9&s$ ,eca&se $hey a!e
!igh$s $ha$ a!e &nie!sal?a !es1onse <hich ee!yone sho&ld, and 1e!ha1s <ill, gie. No< $ha$
!es1onse is 1!esen$ in o&! o<n na$&!e@ in so"e deg!ee <e a!e !eady $o $a7e $ha$ sa"e a$$i$&de
$o<a!d so"e,ody else i% he "a7es $he a11eal. 0hen <e call o&$ $ha$ !es1onse in o$he!s, <e can
$a7e $he a$$i$&de o% $he o$he! and $hen ad9&s$ o&! o<n cond&c$ $o i$. The!e a!e, $hen, <hole se!ies o%
s&ch co""on !es1onses in $he co""&ni$y in <hich <e lie, and s&ch !es1onses a!e <ha$ <e $e!"
-ins$i$&$ions.- The ins$i$&$ion !e1!esen$s a co""on !es1onse on $he 1a!$ o% all "e",e!s o% $he
co""&ni$y $o a 1a!$ic&la! si$&a$ion. This co""on !es1onse is one <hich, o% co&!se, a!ies <i$h $he
cha!ac$e! o% $he indiid&al. In $he case o% $he%$ $he !es1onse o% $he she!i%% is di%%e!en$ %!o" $ha$ o% $he
a$$o!ney?gene!al, %!o" $ha$ o% $he 9&dge and $he 9&!o!s, and so %o!$h@ and ye$ $hey all a!e !es1onses
<hich "ain$ain 1!o1e!$y, <hich inole $he !ecogni$ion o% $he 1!o1e!$y !igh$ in o$he!s. The!e is a
co""on !es1onse in a!ied %o!"s. And $hese a!ia$ions, as ill&s$!a$ed in $he di%%e!en$ o%%icials, hae
an o!gani8a$ion <hich gies &ni$y $o $he a!ie$y o% $he !es1onses. One a11eals $o $he 1olice"an %o!
assis$ance, one e=1ec$s $he s$a$e>s a$$o!ney $o ac$, e=1ec$s $he co&!$ and i$s a!io&s %&nc$iona!ies $o
ca!!y o&$ $he 1!ocess o% $he $!ial o% $he c!i"inal. One does $a7e $he a$$i$&de o% all o% $hese di%%e!en$
o%%icials as inoled in $he e!y "ain$enance o% 1!o1e!$y@ all o% $he" as an o!gani8ed 1!ocess a!e in
so"e sense %o&nd in o&! o<n na$&!es. 0hen <e a!o&se s&ch a$$i$&des, <e a!e $a7ing $he a$$i$&de o%
<ha$ I hae $e!"ed a & gene!ali8ed o$he!.- S&ch o!gani8ed se$s o% !es1onse a!e !ela$ed $o each
o$he!@ i% one calls o&$ one s&ch se$ o% !es1onses, he is i"1lici$ly calling o&$ o$he!s as <ell.
Th&s $he ins$i$&$ions o% socie$y a!e o!gani8ed %o!"s o% g!o&1 o! social ac$ii$y?%o!"s so o!gani8ed
$ha$ $he indiid&al "e",e!s o% socie$y can ac$ adeD&a$ely and socially ,y $a7ing $he a$$i$&des o%
o$he!s $o<a!d $hese ac$ii$ies. O11!essie, s$e!eo$y1ed, and &l$!a?conse!a$ie social ins$i$&$ions?li7e
$he ch&!ch?<hich ,y $hei! "o!e o! less !igid and in%le=i,le &n1!og!essieness c!&sh o! ,lo$ o&$
indiid&ali$y, o! disco&!age any dis$inc$ie o! o!iginal e=1!essions o% $ho&gh$ and ,ehaio! in $he
indiid&al seles o! 1e!sonali$ies i"1lica$ed in and s&,9ec$ed $o $he", a!e &ndesi!a,le ,&$ no$
necessa!y o&$co"es o% $he gene!al social 1!ocess o% e=1e!ience and ,ehaio!. The!e is no
necessa!y o! inei$a,le !eason <hy social ins$i$&$ions sho&ld ,e o11!essie o! !igidly conse!a$ie,
o! <hy $hey sho&ld no$ !a$he! ,e, as "any a!e, %le=i,le and 1!og!essie, %os$e!ing indiid&ali$y !a$he!
$han disco&!aging i$. In any case, <i$ho&$ social ins$i$&$ions o% so"e so!$, <i$ho&$ $he o!gani8ed
social a$$i$&des and ac$ii$ies ,y <hich social ins$i$&$ions a!e cons$i$&$ed, $he!e co&ld ,e no %&lly
"a$&!e indiid&al seles o! 1e!sonali$ies a$ all@ %o! $he indiid&als inoled in $he gene!al social li%e?
1!ocess o% <hich social ins$i$&$ions a!e o!gani8ed "ani%es$a$ions can deelo1 and 1ossess %&lly
"a$&!e seles o! 1e!sonali$ies only in so %a! as each one o% $he" !e%lec$s o! 1!ehends in his
indiid&al e=1e!ience $hese o!gani8ed social a$$i$&des and ac$ii$ies <hich social ins$i$&$ions e",ody
o! !e1!esen$. Social ins$i$&$ions, li7e indiid&al seles, a!e deelo1"en$s <i$hin, o! 1a!$ic&la! and
%o!"ali8ed "ani%es$a$ions o%, $he social li%e?1!ocess a$ i$s h&"an eol&$iona!y leel. As s&ch $hey
a!e no$ necessa!ily s&,e!sie o% indiid&ali$y in $he indiid&al "e",e!s@ and $hey do no$ necessa!ily
!e1!esen$ o! &1hold na!!o< de%ini$ions o% ce!$ain %i=ed and s1eci%ic 1a$$e!ns o% ac$ing <hich in any
gien ci!c&"s$ances sho&ld cha!ac$e!i8e $he ,ehaio! o% all in$elligen$ and socially !es1onsi,le
indiid&als Ain o11osi$ion $o s&ch &nin$elligen$ and socially i!!es1onsi,le indiid&als as "o!ons and
i",ecilesB, as "e",e!s o% $he gien co""&ni$y o! social g!o&1. On $he con$!a!y, $hey need $o
de%ine $he social, o! socially !es1onsi,le, 1a$$e!ns o% indiid&al cond&c$ in only a e!y ,!oad and
gene!al sense, a%%o!ding 1len$y o% sco1e %o! o!iginali$y, %le=i,ili$y, and a!ie$y o% s&ch cond&c$@ and as
$he "ain %o!"ali8ed %&nc$ional as1ec$s o! 1hases o% $he <hole o!gani8ed s$!&c$&!e o% $he social li%e?
1!ocess a$ i$s h&"an leel $hey 1!o1e!ly 1a!$a7e o% $he dyna"ic and 1!og!essie cha!ac$e! o% $ha$
1!ocess.+.-
The!e a!e a g!ea$ n&",e! o% ins$i$&$ionali8ed !es1onses <hich a!e, <e o%$en say, a!,i$!a!y, s&ch as
$he "anne!s o% a 1a!$ic&la! co""&ni$y. Manne!s in $hei! ,es$ sense, o% co&!se, canno$ ,e
dis$ing&ished %!o" "o!als, and a!e no$hing ,&$ $he e=1!ession o% $he co&!$esy o% an indiid&al
$o<a!d 1eo1le a,o&$ hi". They o&gh$ $o e=1!ess $he na$&!al co&!$esy o% ee!yone $o ee!yone else.
The!e sho&ld ,e s&ch an e=1!ession, ,&$ o% co&!se a g!ea$ "any ha,i$s %o! $he e=1!ession o%
co&!$esy a!e D&i$e a!,i$!a!y. The <ays $o g!ee$ 1eo1le a!e di%%e!en$ in di%%e!en$ co""&ni$ies@ <ha$ is
a11!o1!ia$e in one "ay ,e an o%%ense in ano$he!. The D&es$ion a!ises <he$he! a ce!$ain "anne!
<hich e=1!esses a co&!$eo&s a$$i$&de "ay ,e <ha$ <e $e!" -conen$ional.- In ans<e! $o $his <e
1!o1ose $o dis$ing&ish ,e$<een "anne!s and conen$ions. Conen$ions a!e isola$ed social
!es1onses <hich <o&ld no$ co"e in$o, o! go $o "a7e &1, $he na$&!e o% $he co""&ni$y in i$s essen$ial
cha!ac$e! as $his e=1!esses i$sel% in $he social !eac$ions. A so&!ce o% con%&sion <o&ld lie in
iden$i%ying "anne!s and "o!als <i$h conen$ions, since $he %o!"e! a!e no$ a!,i$!a!y in $he sense $ha$
conen$ions a!e. Th&s conse!a$ies iden$i%y <ha$ is a 1&!e conen$ion <i$h $he essence o% a social
si$&a$ion@ no$hing "&s$ ,e changed. B&$ $he e!y dis$inc$ion $o <hich I hae !e%e!!ed is one <hich
i"1lies $ha$ $hese a!io&s ins$i$&$ions, as social !es1onses $o si$&a$ions in <hich indiid&als a!e
ca!!ying o&$ social ac$s, a!e o!ganically !ela$ed $o each o$he! in a <ay <hich conen$ions a!e no$.

S&ch in$e!!ela$ion is one o% $he 1oin$s <hich is ,!o&gh$ o&$, %o! e=a"1le, in $he econo"ic
in$e!1!e$a$ion o% his$o!y. I$ <as %i!s$ 1!esen$ed "o!e o! less as a 1a!$y doc$!ine ,y $he Ma!=ian
socialis$s, i"1lying a 1a!$ic&la! econo"ic in$e!1!e$a$ion. I$ has no< 1assed oe! in$o $he his$o!ian>s
$echniD&e <i$h a !ecogni$ion $ha$ i% he can ge$ hold o% $he !eal econo"ic si$&a$ion, <hich is, o%
co&!se, "o!e accessi,le $han "os$ social e=1!essions, he can <o!7 o&$ %!o" $ha$ $o $he o$he!
e=1!essions and ins$i$&$ions o% $he co""&ni$y. Medieal econo"ic ins$i$&$ions ena,le one $o
in$e!1!e$ $he o$he! ins$i$&$ions o% $he 1e!iod. One can ge$ a$ $he econo"ic si$&a$ion di!ec$ly and,
%ollo<ing $ha$ o&$, can %ind <ha$ $he o$he! ins$i$&$ions <e!e, o! "&s$ hae ,een. Ins$i$&$ions,
"anne!s, o! <o!ds, 1!esen$ in a ce!$ain sense $he li%e?ha,i$s o% $he co""&ni$y as s&ch@ and <hen all
indiid&al ac$s $o<a!d o$he!s in, say, econo"ic $e!"s, he is calling o&$ no$ si"1ly a single !es1onse
,&$ a <hole g!o&1 o% !ela$ed !es1onses.
The sa"e si$&a$ion 1!eails in a 1hysiological o!ganis". I% $he ,alance o% a 1e!son <ho is s$anding
is dis$&!,ed, $his calls %o! a !ead9&s$"en$ <hich is 1ossi,le only in so %a! as $he a%%ec$ed 1a!$s o% $he
ne!o&s sys$e" lead $o ce!$ain de%ini$e and in$e!connec$ed !es1onses. The di%%e!en$ 1a!$s o% $he
!eac$ion can ,e isola$ed, ,&$ $he o!ganis" has $o ac$ as a <hole. No< i$ is $!&e $ha$ an indiid&al
liing in socie$y lies in a ce!$ain so!$ o% o!ganis" <hich !eac$s $o<a!d hi" as a <holeB and he calls
o&$ ,y his ac$ion $his "o!e o! less o!gani8ed !es1onse. The!e is 1e!ha1s &nde! his a$$en$ion only
so"e e!y "ino! %!ac$ion o% $his o!gani8ed !es1onse?he conside!s, say, only $he 1assage o% a
ce!$ain a"o&n$ o% "oney. B&$ $ha$ e=change co&ld no$ $a7e 1lace <i$ho&$ $he en$i!e econo"ic
o!gani8a$ion, and $ha$ in $&!n inoles all $he o$he! 1hases o% $he g!o&1 li%e. The indiid&al can go
any $i"e %!o" one 1hase $o $he o$he!s, since he has in his o<n na$&!e $he $y1e o% !es1onse <hich
his ac$ion calls %o!. In $a7ing any ins$i$&$ionali8ed a$$i$&de he o!gani8es in so"e deg!ee $he <hole
social 1!ocess, in 1!o1o!$ion as he is a co"1le$e sel%.
The ge$$ing o% $his social !es1onse in$o $he indiid&al cons$i$&$es $he 1!ocess o% ed&ca$ion <hich
$a7es oe! $he c&l$&!al "edia o% $he co""&ni$y in a "o!e o! less a,s$!ac$ <ay.+/- Ed&ca$ion is
de%ini$ely $he 1!ocess o% $a7ing oe! a ce!$ain o!gani8ed se$ o% !es1onses $o one>s o<n s$i"&la$ion@
and &n$il one can !es1ond $o hi"sel% as $he co""&ni$y !es1onds $o hi", he does no$ gen&inely
,elong $o $he co""&ni$y. :e "ay ,elong $o a s"all co""&ni$y, as $he s"all ,oy ,elongs $o a gang
!a$he! $han $o $he ci$y in <hich he lies. 0e all ,elong $o s"all cliD&es, and <e "ay !e"ain si"1ly
inside o% $he". The -o!gani8ed o$he!- 1!esen$ in o&!seles is $hen a co""&ni$y o% a na!!o<
dia"e$e!. 0e a!e s$!&ggling no< $o ge$ a ce!$ain a"o&n$ o% in$e!na$ional?"indedness. 0e a!e
!eali8ing o&!seles as "e",e!s o% a la!ge! co""&ni$y. The iid na$ionalis" o% $he 1!esen$ 1e!iod
sho&ld, in $he end, call o&$ an in$e!na$ional a$$i$&de o% $he la!ge! co""&ni$y. The si$&a$ion is
analogo&s $o $ha$ o% $he ,oy and $he gang@ $he ,oy ge$s a la!ge! sel% in 1!o1o!$ion as he en$e!s in$o
$his la!ge! co""&ni$y. In gene!al, $he sel% has ans<e!ed de%ini$ely $o $ha$ o!gani8a$ion o% $he social
!es1onse <hich cons$i$&$es $he co""&ni$y as s&ch@ $he deg!ee $o <hich $he sel% is deelo1ed
de1ends &1on $he co""&ni$y, &1on $he deg!ee $o <hich $he indiid&al calls o&$ $ha$ ins$i$&$ionali8ed
g!o&1 o% !es1onses in hi"sel%. The c!i"inal as s&ch is $he indiid&al <ho lies in a e!y s"all g!o&1,
and $hen "a7es de1!eda$ions &1on $he la!ge! co""&ni$y o% <hich he is no$ a "e",e!. :e is $a7ing
$he 1!o1e!$y $ha$ ,elongs $o o$he!s, ,&$ he hi"sel% does no$ ,elong $o $he co""&ni$y $ha$ !ecogni8es
and 1!ese!es $he !igh$s o% 1!o1e!$y.
The!e is a ce!$ain so!$ o% o!gani8ed !es1onse $o o&! ac$s <hich !e1!esen$s $he <ay in <hich 1eo1le
!eac$ $o<a!d &s in ce!$ain si$&a$ions. S&ch !es1onses a!e in o&! na$&!e ,eca&se <e ac$ as "e",e!s
o% $he co""&ni$y $o<a!d o$he!s, and <ha$ I a" e"1hasi8ing no< is $ha$ $he o!gani8a$ion o% $hese
!es1onses "a7es $he co""&ni$y 1ossi,le.
0e a!e a1$ $o ass&"e $ha$ o&! es$i"a$e o% $he al&e o% $he co""&ni$y sho&ld de1end &1on i$s si8e.
The A"e!ican <o!shi1s ,igness as oe! agains$ D&ali$a$ie social con$en$. A li$$le co""&ni$y s&ch
as $ha$ o% A$hens 1!od&ced so"e o% $he g!ea$es$ s1i!i$&al 1!od&c$s <hich $he <o!ld has ee! seen@
con$!as$ i$s achiee"en$s <i$h $hose o% $he 6ni$ed S$a$es, and $he!e is no need $o as7 <he$he! $he
"e!e ,igness o% $he one has any !ela$ionshi1 $o $he D&ali$a$ie con$en$s o% $he achiee"en$s o% $he
o$he!. I <ish $o ,!ing o&$ $he i"1lici$ &nie!sali$y o% $he highly deelo1ed, highly o!gani8ed
co""&ni$y. No<, A$hens as $he ho"e o% Soc!a$es, Pla$o, and A!is$o$le, $he sea$ o% a g!ea$
"e$a1hysical deelo1"en$ in $he sa"e 1e!iod, $he ,i!$h1lace o% 1oli$ical $heo!is$s and g!ea$
d!a"a$is$s, ac$&ally ,elongs $o $he <hole <o!ld. These D&ali$a$ie achiee"en$s <hich <e asc!i,e $o
a li$$le co""&ni$y ,elong $o i$ only in so %a! as i$ has $he o!gani8a$ion $ha$ "a7es i$ &nie!sal. The
A$henian co""&ni$y !es$ed &1on slae la,o! and &1on a 1oli$ical si$&a$ion <hich <as na!!o< and
con$!ac$ed, and $ha$ 1a!$ o% i$s social o!gani8a$ion <as no$ &nie!sal and co&ld no$ ,e "ade $he
,asis %o! a la!ge co""&ni$y. The *o"an E"1i!e disin$eg!a$ed e!y la!gely ,eca&se i$s <hole
econo"ic s$!&c$&!e <as laid on $he ,asis o% slae la,o!. I$ <as no$ o!gani8ed on a &nie!sal ,asis.
F!o" $he legal s$and1oin$ and ad"inis$!a$ie o!gani8a$ion i$ <as &nie!sal, and 9&s$ as (!ee7
1hiloso1hy has co"e do<n $o &s so has *o"an la<. To $he deg!ee $ha$ any achiee"en$ o%
o!gani8a$ion o% a co""&ni$y is s&ccess%&l i$ is &nie!sal, and "a7es 1ossi,le a ,igge! co""&ni$y. In
one sense $he!e canno$ ,e a co""&ni$y <hich is la!ge! $han $ha$ !e1!esen$ed ,y !a$ionali$y, and $he
(!ee7 ,!o&gh$ !a$ionali$y $o i$s sel%?conscio&s e=1!ession.+0- In $ha$ sa"e sense $he gos1el o% Ces&s
,!o&gh$ de%ini$ely $o e=1!ession $he a$$i$&de o% neigh,o!liness $o <hich anyone co&ld a11eal, and
1!oided $he soil o&$ o% <hich co&ld a!ise a &nie!sal !eligion. Tha$ <hich is %ine and ad"i!a,le is
&nie!sal ?al$ho&gh i$ "ay ,e $!&e $ha$ $he ac$&al socie$y in <hich $he &nie!sali$y can ge$ i$s
e=1!ession has no$ a!isen.
Poli$ically, A"e!ica has, in a ce!$ain sense, gien &nie!sali$y $o <ha$ <e $e!" -sel%?goe!n"en$.-
The social o!gani8a$ion o% $he Middle Ages e=is$ed &nde! %e&dalis" and c!a%$ g&ilds. The i""edia$e
social o!gani8a$ions in <hich $he!e <as sel%?goe!n"en$ <e!e all 1a!$ic&la! 1!oisional g&ilds o!
1a!$ic&la! co""&ni$ies. 0ha$ has ha11ened in A"e!ica is $ha$ <e hae gene!ali8ed $he 1!inci1le o%
sel%?goe!n"en$ so $ha$ i$ is $he essen$ial agency o% 1oli$ical con$!ol o% $he <hole co""&ni$y. I% $ha$
$y1e o% con$!ol is "ade 1ossi,le $he!e is $heo!e$ically no li"i$ $o $he si8e o% $he co""&ni$y. In $ha$
sense alone <o&ld 1oli$ical ,igness ,eco"e an e=1!ession o% $he achiee"en$ o% $he co""&ni$y
i$sel%.
The o!gani8a$ion, $hen, o% social !es1onses "a7es i$ 1ossi,le %o! $he indiid&al $o call o&$ in hi"sel%
no$ si"1ly a single !es1onse o% $he o$he! ,&$ $he !es1onse, so $o s1ea7, o% $he co""&ni$y as a
<hole. Tha$ is <ha$ gies $o an indiid&al <ha$ <e $e!" -"ind.- To do any$hing no< "eans a ce!$ain
o!gani8ed !es1onse@ and i% one has in hi"sel% $ha$ !es1onse, he has <ha$ <e $e!" -"ind.- 0e !e%e!
$o $ha$ !es1onse ,y $he sy",ols <hich se!e, as $he "eans ,y <hich s&ch !es1onses a!e called o&$.
To &se $he $e!"s -goe!n"en$,- -1!o1e!$y,- -%a"ily,- is $o ,!ing o&$, as <e say, $he "eaning $hey
hae. No<, $hose "eanings !es$ &1on ce!$ain !es1onses. A 1e!son <ho has in hi"sel% $he &nie!sal
!es1onse o% $he co""&ni$y $o<a!d $ha$ <hich he does, has in $ha$ sense $he "ind o% $he co""&ni$y.
As a scien$is$B <e <ill say, one>s co""&ni$y consis$s o% an his colleag&es, ,&$ $his co""&ni$y
incl&des anyone <ho can &nde!s$and <ha$ is said. The sa"e is $!&e o% li$e!a$&!e. The si8e o% i$s
a&dience is a %&nc$ional one@ i% $he achiee"en$ o% o!gani8a$ion is o,$ained, i$ "ay ,e o% any si8e.
Bigness "ay in $his sense ,e an indica$ion o% D&ali$a$ie achiee"en$. Tha$ <hich is g!ea$ is al<ays
in one sense o,9ec$ie, i$ is al<ays &nie!sal. The "en$al deelo1"en$ o% $he indiid&al consis$s in
ge$$ing in hi"sel% $hese o!gani8ed !es1onses in $hei! i"1lica$ed !ela$ionshi1s $o each o$he!.
The !a$ional 1hase o% i$, $ha$ <hich goes <i$h <ha$ <e $e!" -lang&age,- is $he sy",ol@ and $his is $he
"eans, $he "echanis", ,y <hich $he !es1onse is ca!!ied o&$. Fo! e%%ec$ie coo1e!a$ion one has $o
hae $he sy",ols ,y "eans o% <hich $he !es1onses can ,e ca!!ied o&$, so $ha$ ge$$ing a signi%ican$
lang&age is o% %i!s$ i"1o!$ance. Lang&age i"1lies o!gani8ed !es1onses@ and $he al&e, $he
i"1lica$ion o% $hese !es1onses, is $o ,e %o&nd in $he co""&ni$y %!o" <hich $his o!gani8a$ion o%
!es1onses is $a7en oe! in$o $he na$&!e o% $he indiid&al hi"sel%. The signi%ican$ sy",ol is no$hing
,&$ $ha$ 1a!$ o% $he ac$ <hich se!es as a ges$&!e $o call o&$ $he o$he! 1a!$ o% $he 1!ocess, $he
!es1onse o% $he o$he!, in $he e=1e!ience o% $he %o!" $ha$ "a7es $he ges$&!e. The &se o% sy",ols is
$hen o% $he highes$ i"1o!$ance, een <hen ca!!ied $o $he 1oin$ a$$ained in "a$he"a$ics, <he!e one
can $a7e $he sy",ols and si"1ly co",ine $he" in acco!dance <i$h $he !&les o% $he "a$he"a$ical
co""&ni$y $o <hich $hey ,elong <i$ho&$ 7no<ing <ha$ $he sy",ols "ean. In %ac$, in s&ch %ields one
has $o a,s$!ac$ %!o" $he "eaning o% $he sy",ols@ $he!e is he!e a 1!ocess o% ca!!ying on $he !a$ional
1!ocess o% !easoning <i$ho&$ 7no<ing <ha$ $he "eaning is. 0e a!e dealing <i$h = and y, and ho<
$hese can ,e co",ined <i$h each o$he!@ <e do no$ 7no< in adance $o <ha$ $hey a11ly. Al$ho&gh
sy",ols &nde! ce!$ain condi$ions can ,e handled in s&ch a %ashion, <e do, a%$e! all, ,!ing $he" $o
ea!$h and a11ly $he". The sy",ols as s&ch a!e si"1ly <ays o% calling o&$ !es1onses. They a!e no$
,a!e <o!ds, ,&$ <o!ds $ha$ do ans<e! $o ce!$ain !es1onses@ and <hen <e co",ine a ce!$ain se$ o%
sy",ols, <e inei$a,ly co",ine a ce!$ain se$ o% !es1onses.
This ,!ings &1 again $he 1!o,le" o% $he &nie!sal. In so %a! as $he indiid&al $a7es $he a$$i$&de o% $he
o$he! $ha$ sy",ol is &nie!sal, ,&$ is i$ a $!&e &nie!sal <hen i$ is so li"i$edE Can <e ge$ ,eyond $ha$
li"i$a$ionE The logicians> &nie!se o% disco&!se lays 1lain $he e=$en$ o% &nie!sali$y. In an ea!lie!
s$age $ha$ &nie!sali$y <as s&11osed $o ,e !e1!esen$ed in a se$ o% logical a=io"s, ,&$ $he s&11osed
a=io"s hae ,een %o&nd $o ,e no$ &nie!sal. So $ha$, in %ac$, -&nie!sal- disco&!se $o ,e &nie!sal
has had $o ,e con$in&ally !eised. I$ "ay !e1!esen$ $hose !a$ional ,eings <i$h <ho" <e a!e in
con$ac$, and $he!e is 1o$en$ial &nie!sali$y in s&ch a <o!ld as $ha$. S&ch <o&ld ,e, I s&11ose, $he
only &nie!sal $ha$ is inoled in $he &se o% signi%ican$ sy",ols. I% <e can ge$ $he se$ o% signi%ican$
sy",ols <hich hae in $his sense a &nie!sal "eaning, anyone $ha$ can $al7 in $ha$ lang&age
in$elligen$ly has $ha$ &nie!sali$y. No<, $he!e is no li"i$a$ion e=ce1$ $ha$ a 1e!son sho&ld $al7 $ha$
lang&age, &se $he sy",ols <hich ca!!y $hose signi%ica$ions@ and $ha$ gies an a,sol&$e &nie!sali$y
%o! anyone <ho en$e!s in$o $he lang&age. The!e a!e, o% co&!se, di%%e!en$ &nie!ses o% disco&!se, ,&$
,ac7 o% all, $o $he e=$en$ $ha$ $hey a!e 1o$en$ially co"1!ehensi,le $o each o$he!, lies $he logicians>
&nie!se o% disco&!se <i$h a se$ o% cons$an$s and 1!o1osi$ional %&nc$ions, and anyone &sing $he"
<ill ,elong $o $ha$ sa"e &nie!se o% disco&!se. I$ is $his <hich gies a 1o$en$ial &nie!sali$y $o $he
1!ocess o% co""&nica$ion.+1-
I hae $!ied $o ,!ing o&$ $he 1osi$ion $ha$ $he socie$y in <hich <e ,elong !e1!esen$s an o!gani8ed se$
o% !es1onses $o ce!$ain si$&a$ions in <hich $he indiid&al is inoled, and $ha$ in so %a! as $he
indiid&al can $a7e $hose o!gani8ed !es1onses oe! in$o his o<n na$&!e, and call $he" o&$ ,y "eans
o% $he sy",ol in $he social !es1onse, he has a "ind in <hich "en$al 1!ocesses can go on, a "ind
<hose inne! s$!&c$&!e he has $a7en %!o" $he co""&ni$y $o <hich he ,elongs.
I$ is $he &ni$y o% $he <hole social 1!ocess $ha$ is $he &ni$y o% $he indiid&al, and social con$!ol oe! $he
indiid&al lies in $his co""on 1!ocess <hich is going on, a 1!ocess <hich di%%e!en$ia$es $he
indiid&al in his 1a!$ic&la! %&nc$ion <hile a$ $he sa"e $i"e con$!olling his !eac$ion. I$ is $he a,ili$y o%
$he 1e!son $o 1&$ hi"sel% in o$he! 1eo1le>s 1laces $ha$ gies hi" his c&es as $o <ha$ he is $o do
&nde! a s1eci%ic si$&a$ion. I$ is $his $ha$ gies $o $he "an <ha$ <e $e!" his cha!ac$e! as a "e",e! o%
$he co""&ni$y@ his ci$i8enshi1, %!o" a 1oli$ical s$and1oin$@ his "e",e!shi1 %!o" any one o% $he
di%%e!en$ s$and1oin$s in <hich he ,elongs $o $he co""&ni$y. I$ "a7es hi" a 1a!$ o% $he co""&ni$y,
and he !ecogni8es hi"sel% as a "e",e! o% i$ 9&s$ ,eca&se he does $a7e $he a$$i$&de o% $hose
conce!ned, and does con$!ol his o<n cond&c$ in $e!"s o% co""on a$$i$&des.
O&! "e",e!shi1 in $he socie$y o% h&"an ,eings is so"e$hing $ha$ calls o&$ e!y li$$le a$$en$ion on
$he 1a!$ o% $he ae!age indiid&al. :e is seldo" con$en$ $o ,&ild &1 a !eligion on $he ,asis o% h&"an
socie$y in and o% i$sel% <i$h no$hing else added ?$he <ide! $he e=$en$ o% a !eligion, $he %e<e! $he
1eo1le <ho conscio&sly ,elong $o i$, 0e hae no$ $a7en e!y se!io&sly o&! "e",e!shi1 in $he
h&"an socie$y, ,&$ i$ is ,eco"ing "o!e !eal $o &s. The 0o!ld 0a! has sha7en do<n a g!ea$ "any
al&es@ and <e !eali8e $ha$ <ha$ $a7es 1lace in India, in A%ghanis$an, iii Meso1o$a"ia, is en$e!ing
in$o o&! lies, so $ha$ <e a!e ge$$ing <ha$ <e $e!" -in$e!na$ional "indedness.- 0e a!e !eac$ing in a
<ay $ha$ ans<e!s $o $he !es1onses o% 1eo1le on $he o$he! side o% $he h&"an g!o&1.
The D&es$ion <he$he! <e ,elong $o a la!ge! co""&ni$y is ans<e!ed in $e!"s o% <he$he! o&! o<n
ac$ion calls o&$ a !es1onse in $his <ide! co""&ni$y, and <he$he! i$s !es1onse is !e%lec$ed ,ac7 in$o
o&! o<n cond&c$. Can <e ca!!y on a cone!sa$ion in in$e!na$ional $e!"sE+2- The D&es$ion is la!gely
a D&es$ion o% social o!gani8a$ion. The necessa!y !es1onses hae ,eco"e "o!e de%ini$ely a 1a!$ o%
o&! e=1e!ience ,eca&se <e a!e ge$$ing close! $o o$he! 1eo1les $han ,e%o!e. O&! econo"ic
o!gani8a$ion is ge$$ing "o!e and "o!e <o!7ed o&$, so $ha$ $he goods <e sell in So&$h A"e!ica, in
India, in China, a!e de%ini$ely a%%ec$ing o&! lies. 0e hae $o ,e on good $e!"s <i$h o&! c&s$o"e!s@ i%
<e a!e going $o ca!!y on a s&ccess%&l econo"ic 1olicy in So&$h A"e!ica, <e "&s$ e=1lain <ha$ is
$he "eaning o% $he Mon!oe Doc$!ine, and so on and on.
0e a!e ge$$ing $o !eali8e "o!e and "o!e $he <hole socie$y $o <hich <e ,elong ,eca&se $he social
o!gani8a$ion is s&ch $ha$ i$ ,!ings o&$ $he !es1onse o% $he o$he! 1e!son $o o&! o<n ac$ no$ only in $he
o$he! 1e!son ,&$ also in o&!seles. Li1ling says; -Eas$ is Eas$, and 0es$ is 0es$, and nee! $he
$<ain shall "ee$-@ ,&$ $hey a!e "ee$ing. The ass&"1$ion has ,een $ha$ $he !es1onse o% $he Eas$ $o
$he 0es$ and o% $he 0es$ $o $he Eas$ a!e no$ co"1!ehensi,le $o each o$he!. B&$, in %ac$, <e %ind $ha$
<e a!e a<a7ening, $ha$ <e a!e ,eginning $o in$e!change !Mles. A 1!ocess o% o!gani8a$ion is going on
&nde!nea$h o&! conscio&s e=1e!ience, and $he "o!e $his o!gani8a$ion is ca!!ied o&$ $he close! <e
a!e ,!o&gh$ $oge$he!. The "o!e <e do call o&$ in o&!seles $he !es1onse <hich o&! ges$&!es call o&$
in $he o$he!, $he "o!e <e &nde!s$and hi".
The!e is, o% co&!se, ,ac7 o% all $his a la!ge! co""&ni$y !e%e!!ed $o in !eligio&s $e!"s as a -,lessed
co""&ni$y,- $he co""&ni$y o% a &nie!sal !eligion. B&$ $ha$, $oo, !es$s on co?o1e!a$ie ac$ii$ies. An
ill&s$!a$ion is $ha$ o% $he good Sa"a!i$an, <he!e Ces&s $oo7 1eo1le and sho<ed $ha$ $he!e <as
dis$!ess on $he 1a!$ o% one <hich called o&$ in $he o$he! a !es1onse <hich he &nde!s$ood@ $he
dis$!ess o% $he o$he! <as a s$i"&l&s, and $ha$ s$i"&l&s called o&$ $he !es1onse in his o<n na$&!e.
This is $he ,asis o% $ha$ %&nda"en$al !ela$ionshi1 <hich goes &nde! $he na"e o% -neigh,o!liness.- I$
is a !es1onse <hich <e all "a7e in a ce!$ain sense $o ee!y,ody. The 1e!son <ho is a s$!ange! calls
o&$ a hel1%&l a$$i$&de in o&!seles, and $ha$ is an$ici1a$ed in $he o$he!. I$ "a7es &s all a7in. I$
1!oides $he co""on h&"an na$&!e on <hich $he &nie!sal !eligions a!e all ,&il$. :o<ee!, $he
si$&a$ions &nde! <hich $ha$ neigh,o!liness "ay e=1!ess i$sel% a!e e!y na!!o<@ and conseD&en$ly
s&ch !eligions as a!e ,&il$ &1 on i$ hae $o !es$!ic$ h&"an lies $o 9&s$ a %e< !ela$ionshi1s, s&ch as
sy"1a$hy in dis$!ess, o! li"i$ $he"seles $o e=1!essing $he e"o$ional sides o% h&"an na$&!e. B&$ i%
$he social !ela$ion can ,e ca!!ied on %&!$he! and %&!$he! $hen yo& can conceia,ly ,e a neigh,o! $o
ee!y,ody in yo&! ,loc7, in yo&! co""&ni$y, in $he <o!ld, since yo& a!e ,!o&gh$ "&ch close! $o $he
a$$i$&de o% $he o$he! <hen $his a$$i$&de is also called o&$ in yo&!sel%. 0ha$ is essen$ial is $he
deelo1"en$ o% $he <hole "echanis" o% social !ela$ionshi1 <hich ,!ings &s $oge$he!, so $ha$ <e can
$a7e $he a$$i$&de o% $he o$he! in o&! a!io&s li%e?1!ocesses.
The h&"an indiid&al <ho 1ossesses a sel% is al<ays a "e",e! o% a la!ge! social co""&ni$y, a
"o!e e=$ensie social g!o&1, $han $ha$ in <hich he i""edia$ely and di!ec$ly %inds hi"sel%, o! $o
<hich he i""edia$ely and di!ec$ly ,elongs. In o$he! <o!ds, $he gene!al 1a$$e!n o% social o! g!o&1
,ehaio! <hich is !e%lec$ed in $he !es1ec$ie o!gani8ed a$$i$&des?$he !es1ec$ie in$eg!a$ed s$!&c$&!es
o% $he seles?o% $he indiid&als inoled, al<ays has a <idc! !e%e!ence, %o! $hose indiid&als, $han
$ha$ o% i$s di!ec$ !ela$ion $o $he", na"ely, a !e%e!ence ,eyond i$sel% $o a <ide! social eni!on"en$ o!
con$e=$ o% social !ela$ionshi1s <hich incl&des i$, and o% <hich i$ is only a "o!e o! less li"i$ed 1a!$.
And $hei! a<a!eness o% $ha$ !e%e!ence is a conseD&ence o% $hei! ,eing sen$ien$ o! conscio&s ,eings,
o! o% $hei! haing "inds, and o% $he ac$ii$ies o% !easoning <hich $hey hence ca!!y on.+6-
"ndnotes
1. ISee -Na$&!al *igh$s and $he Theo!y o% $he Poli$ical Ins$i$&$ion,- Journal of Philosophy, JII
A131+B, 1)1 %%.K
#. :&"an socie$y, <e hae insis$ed, does no$ "e!ely s$a"1 $he 1a$$e!n o% i$s o!gani8ed social
,ehaio! &1on any one o% i$s indiid&al "e",e!s, so $ha$ $his 1a$$e!n ,eco"es li7e<ise $he
1a$$e!n o% $he indiid&al>s sel%@ i$ also, a$ $he sa"e $i"e, gies hi" a "ind, as $he "eans o!
a,ili$y o% conscio&sly cone!sing <i$h hi"sel% in $e!"s o% $he social a$$i$&des <hich cons$i$&$e
$he s$!&c$&!e o% his sel% and <hich e",ody $he 1a$$e!n o% h&"an socie$y>s o!gani8ed
,ehaio! as !e%lec$ed in $ha$ s$!&c$&!e. And his "ind ena,les hi" in $&!n $o s$a"1 $he 1a$$e!n
o% his %&!$he! deelo1ing sel% A%&!$he! deelo1ing $h!o&gh his "en$al ac$ii$yB &1on $he
s$!&c$&!e o! o!gani8a$ion o% h&"an socie$y, and $h&s in a deg!ee $o !econs$!&c$ and "odi%y in
$e!"s o% his sel% $he gene!al 1a$$e!n o% social o! g!o&1 ,ehaio! in $e!"s o% <hich his sel%
<as o!iginally cons$i$&$ed.
3. IA"ong so"e eigh$een no$es, edi$o!ials, and a!$icles on ed&ca$ion a$$en$ion "ay ,e called $o
$he %ollo<ing; -The *ela$ion o% Play $o Ed&ca$ion,- 'niversity of Chicago "ecord, I A123.B,
1)5 %%.@ -The Teaching o% Science in College,- Science, JJI4 A135.B, '35 %%.@ -Psychology o%
Social Conscio&sness I"1lied in Ins$!&c$ion,- i(id, JJJI A1315B, .22 %%.@ -Ind&s$!ial
Ed&ca$ion and T!ade Schools,- !lementary School *eacher, 4III A1352B, )5# %%.@ -Ind&s$!ial
Ed&ca$ion and $he 0o!7ing Man and $he School,- i(id, IJ A1353B, '.3 %%., -On $he P!o,le"
o% :is$o!y in $he Ele"en$a!y School,- i(id, )''@ -Mo!al T!aining in $he Schools,- i(id, '#/ %%.@
-Science in $he :igh School,- School "evie7, JI4 A135.B, #'/ ff See Bi,liog!a1hy a$ end o%
ol&"e.K
). Pla$o held $ha$ $he ci$y?s$a$e <as $he ,es$?i% no$, indeed, $he only 1!ac$ica,le o! %easi,le?$y1e
o% s$a$e o! social o!gani8a$ion@ and A!is$o$le ag!eed. Acco!ding $o Pla$o, "o!eoe!, $he
co"1le$e social isola$ion o% any one ci$y?s$a$e %!o" $he !es$ o% $he <o!ld <as desi!a,le.
A!is$o$le, on $he o$he! hand, did !ecogni8e $he necessi$y %o! social in$e!?!ela$ions a"ong
di%%e!en$ ci$y?s$a$es, o! ,e$<een any one ci$y?s$a$e and $he !es$ o% $he ciili8ed <o!ld, ,&$ he
co&ld no$ discoe! a gene!al 1!inci1le in $e!"s o% <hich $hose in$e!!ela$ions co&ld ,e
de$e!"ined <i$ho&$ disas$!o&sly da"aging o! i$ia$ing $he 1oli$ical and social s$!&c$&!e o% $he
ci$y?s$a$e i$sel%@ and $his s$!&c$&!e he <ished, as did Pla$o, $o 1!ese!e. Tha$ is $o say, he <as
&na,le $o ge$ hold o% a %&nda"en$al 1!inci1le in $e!"s o% <hich $he social and 1oli$ical
o!gani8a$ion o% $he (!ee7 ci$y?s$a$e co&ld ,e gene!ali8ed $o a11ly $o $he in$e!!ela$ions
,e$<een see!al s&ch s$a$es <i$hin A single social <hole, li7e $he Ale=and!ian e"1i!e, in
<hich $hey <e!e all incl&ded as &ni$s, o! $o a11ly $o $ha$ social <hole o! e"1i!e i$sel%@ and
es1ecially $o a11ly $o s&ch a social <hole o! e"1i!e een i% i$ did no$ con$ain ci$y?s$a$es as i$s
&ni$s. I% <e a!e !igh$, $his %&nda"en$al 1!inci1le <hich he <as &na,le $o discoe! <as si"1ly
$he 1!inci1le o% social in$eg!a$ion and o!gani8a$ion in $e!"s o% !a$ional seles, and o% $hei!
!e%lec$ion, in $hei! !es1ec$ie o!gani8ed s$!&c$&!es, o% $he 1a$$e!ns o% o!gani8ed social
,ehaio! in <hich $hey a!e inoled and $o <hich $hey o<e $hei! e=is$ence.
+. I$ is in $e!"s o% $his "echanis" o% &nie!sals Ao! &nie!sally signi%ican$ ges$&!es o! sy",olsB
,y "eans o% <hich $hin7ing o1e!a$es, $ha$ $he h&"an indiid&al $!anscends $he local social
g!o&1 $o <hich he i""edia$ely ,elongs, and $ha$ $his social g!o&1 acco!dingly A$h!o&gh i$s
indiid&al "e",e!sB $!anscends i$sel%, and !ela$es i$sel% $o $he <hole la!ge! con$e=$ o!
eni!on"en$ o% o!gani8ed social !ela$ions and in$e!ac$ions <hich s&!!o&nds i$ and o% <hich i$
is only one 1a!$.
Physiologically, &nie!sali$y o% "ind in $he h&"an social o!de! is %&nda"en$ally ,ased on $he
&nie!sali$y o% a si"ila! ne&!al s$!&c$&!e in all $he indiid&als ,elonging $o $ha$ social o!de!;
$he $y1e o% ne&!al s$!&c$&!e, na"ely, <hich $he social deelo1"en$ o% "ind !eD&i!es.
6. ASee -Na$ional?Mindedness and In$e!na$ional?Mindedness,- International Journal of !thics,
JJJIJ A13#3B, '2S %%,@ -The Psychological Bases o% In$e!na$ionalis",- Survey, JJJIII A131)?
1+B, .5) %%.B
7. I$ is es1ecially in $e!"s o% $he logical &nie!se o% disco&!se?$he gene!al sys$e" o% &nie!sally
signi%ican$ sy",ols?<hich all $ho&gh$ o! !easoning 1!es&11oses as $he %ield o% i$s ac$ii$y,
and <hich $!anscends $he ,o&nds o% di%%e!en$ lang&ages and di%%e!en$ !acial and na$ional
c&s$o"s, $ha$ $he indiid&als ,elonging $o any gien social g!o&1 o! co""&ni$y ,eco"e
conscio&s o% $his <ide! social !e%e!ence o% $ha$ g!o&1 o! co""&ni$y ,eyond i$sel%, $o $he
%&!$he! and la!ge! con$e=$ o% social !ela$ions and in$e!ac$ions o% h&"an socie$y o! ciili8a$ion
as a <hole in <hich, <i$h all o$he! 1a!$ic&la! h&"an socie$ies o! o!gani8ed social g!o&1s, i$ is
i"1lica$ed. This <ide! !e%e!ence o! !ela$ional i"1lica$ion o% $he gene!al ,ehaio! 1a$$e!n o%
any gien h&"an social g!o&1 o! co""&ni$y is leas$ eiden$ in $he case o% 1!i"i$ie "an,
and is "os$ a11a!en$ in $he case o% highly ciili8ed "ode!n "an. In $e!"s o% his !a$ional sel%,
o! in $e!"s o% $ha$ o!gani8a$ion o% social a$$i$&des $o<a!d hi"sel% and $o<a!d o$he!s <hich
cons$i$&$es $he s$!&c$&!e o% his !a$ional sel%, and <hich !e%lec$s no$ only $he 1a$$e!n o%
,ehaio! o% $he i""edia$e social g!o&1 in i$sel% $ha$ he ,elongs $o ,&$ also $he !e%e!ence o%
$his 1a$$e!n ,eyond i$sel% $o $he <hole <ide! gene!al 1a$$e!n o% h&"an social o! g!o&1
,ehaio! o% <hich i$ %o!"s only one 1a!$, $he "ode!n ciili8ed h&"an indiid&al is and %eels
hi"sel% $o ,e a "e",e! no$ only o% a ce!$ain local co""&ni$y o! s$a$e o! na$ion, ,&$ also o%
an en$i!e gien !ace o! een ciili8a$ion as a <hole.
/1# TH" 34SI$( $3 TH" 5I5 %() TH" M"5 I( S$CI%& %CTIVITI"S
In a si$&a$ion <he!e 1e!sons a!e all $!ying $o sae so"eone %!o" d!o<ning, $he!e is a sense o%
co""on e%%o!$ in <hich one is s$i"&la$ed ,y $he o$he!s $o do $he sa"e $hing $hey a!e doing. In $hose
si$&a$ions one has a sense o% ,eing iden$i%ied <i$h all ,eca&se $he !eac$ion is essen$ially an iden$ical
!eac$ion. In $he case o% $ea" <o!7, $he!e is an iden$i%ica$ion o% $he indiid&al <i$h $he g!o&1@ ,&$ in
$ha$ case one is doing so"e$hing di%%e!en$ %!o" $he o$he!s, een $ho&gh <ha$ $he o$he!s do
de$e!"ines <ha$ he is $o do. I% $hings "oe s"oo$hly eno&gh, $he!e "ay ,e so"e$hing o% $he sa"e
e=al$a$ion as in $he o$he! si$&a$ion. The!e is s$ill $he sense o% di!ec$ed con$!ol. I$ is <he!e $he -I- and
$he -"e- can in so"e sense %&se $ha$ $he!e a!ises $he 1ec&lia! sense o% e=al$a$ion <hich ,elongs $o
$he !eligio&s and 1a$!io$ic a$$i$&des in <hich $he !eac$ion <hich one calls o&$ in o$he!s is $he
!es1onse <hich one is "a7ing hi"sel%. I no< <ish $o disc&ss in "o!e de$ail $han 1!eio&sly $he
%&sion o% $he -I- and $he -"e- in $he a$$i$&des o% !eligion, 1a$!io$is", and $ea" <o!7.
In $he conce1$ion o% &nie!sal neigh,o!liness, $he!e is a ce!$ain g!o&1 o% a$$i$&des o% 7indliness and
hel1%&lness in <hich $he !es1onse o% one calls o&$ in $he o$he! and in hi"sel% $he sa"e a$$i$&de.
:ence $he %&sion o% $he -I- and $he -"e- <hich leads $o in$ense e"o$ional e=1e!iences. The <ide!
$he social 1!ocess in <hich $his is inoled, $he g!ea$e! is $he e=al$a$ion, $he e"o$ional !es1onse,
<hich !es&l$s. 0e si$ do<n and 1lay a ga"e o% ,!idge <i$h %!iends o! ind&lge in so"e o$he!
!ela=a$ion in $he "ids$ o% o&! daily <o!7. I$ is so"e$hing $ha$ <ill las$ an ho&! o! so, and $hen <e shall
$a7e &1 $he g!ind again. 0e a!e, ho<ee!, inoled in $he <hole li%e o% socie$y@ i$s o,liga$ions a!e
&1on &s@ <e hae $o asse!$ o&!seles in a!io&s si$&a$ions@ $hose %ac$o!s a!e all lying ,ac7 in $he
sel%. B&$ &nde! $he si$&a$ions $o <hich I a" no< !e%e!!ing $ha$ <hich lies in $he ,ac7g!o&nd is %&sed
<i$h <ha$ <e a!e all doing. This, <e %eel, is $he "eaning o% li%e?and one e=1e!iences an e=al$ed
!eligio&s a$$i$&de. 0e ge$ in$o an a$$i$&de in <hich ee!yone is a$ one <i$h each o$he! in so %a! as all
,elong $o $he sa"e co""&ni$y. As long as <e can !e$ain $ha$ a$$i$&de <e hae %o! $he $i"e ,eing
%!eed o&!seles o% $ha$ sense o% con$!ol <hich hangs oe! &s all ,eca&se o% $he !es1onsi,ili$ies <e
hae $o "ee$ in di%%ic&l$ and $!ying social condi$ions. S&ch is $he no!"al si$&a$ion in o&! social
ac$ii$y, and <e hae i$s 1!o,le"s ,ac7 in o&! "inds@ ,&$ in s&ch a si$&a$ion as $his, $he !eligio&s
si$&a$ion, all see" $o ,e li%$ed in$o $he a$$i$&de o% acce1$ing ee!yone as ,elonging $o $he sa"e
g!o&1. One>s in$e!es$ is $he in$e!es$ o% all. The!e is co"1le$e iden$i%ica$ion o% indiid&als. 0i$hin $he
indiid&al $he!e is a %&sion o% $he -"e- <i$h $he -I.-
The i"1&lse o% $he -I- in $his case is neigh,o!liness, 7indliness. One gies ,!ead $o $he h&ng!y. I$ is
$ha$ social $endency <hich <e all hae in &s $ha$ calls o&$ a ce!$ain $y1e o% !es1onse; one <an$s $o
gie. 0hen one has a li"i$ed ,an7 acco&n$, one canno$ gie all he has $o $he 1oo!. Ye$ &nde!
ce!$ain !eligio&s si$&a$ions, in g!o&1s <i$h a ce!$ain ,ac7g!o&nd, he can ge$ $he a$$i$&de o% doing 9&s$
$ha$. (iing is s$i"&la$ed ,y "o!e giing. :e "ay no$ hae "&ch $o gie, ,&$ he is !eady $o gie
hi"sel% co"1le$ely. The!e is a %&sion o% $he -I- and $he -"e.- The - "e- is no$ $he!e $o con$!ol $he -I,-
,&$ $he si$&a$ion has ,een so cons$!&c$ed $ha$ $he e!y a$$i$&de a!o&sed in $he o$he! s$i"&la$es one
$o do $he sa"e $hing. The e=al$a$ion in $he case o% 1a$!io$is" 1!esen$s an analogo&s ins$ance o% $his
%&sion.
F!o" $he e"o$ional s$and1oin$ s&ch si$&a$ions a!e 1ec&lia!ly 1!ecio&s. They inole, o% co&!se, $he
s&ccess%&l co"1le$ion o% $he social 1!ocess. I $hin7 $ha$ $he !eligio&s a$$i$&de inoles $his !ela$ion o%
$he social s$i"&l&s $o $he <o!ld a$ la!ge, $he ca!!ying?oe! o% $he social a$$i$&de $o $he la!ge! <o!ld. I
$hin7 $ha$ $ha$ is $he de%ini$e %ield <i$hin <hich $he !eligio&s e=1e!ience a11ea!s. O% co&!se, <he!e
one has a clea!ly "a!7ed $heology in <hich $he!e a!e de%ini$e dealings <i$h $he dei$y, <i$h <ho" one
ac$s as conc!e$ely as <i$h ano$he! 1e!son in $he !oo", $hen $he cond&c$ <hich $a7es 1lace is si"1ly
o% a $y1e <hich is co"1a!a,le $o $he cond&c$ <i$h !e%e!ence $o ano$he! social g!o&1, and i$ "ay ,e
one <hich is lac7ing in $ha$ 1ec&lia! "ys$ical cha!ac$e! <hich <e gene!ally asc!i,e $o $he !eligio&s
a$$i$&de. I$ "ay ,e a calc&la$ing a$$i$&de in <hich a 1e!son "a7es a o<, and ca!!ies i$ o&$ 1!oiding
$he dei$y gies hi" a 1a!$ic&la! %ao!. No<, $ha$ a$$i$&de <o&ld no!"ally co"e &nde! $he gene!al
s$a$e"en$ o% !eligion, ,&$ in addi$ion i$ is gene!ally !ecogni8ed $ha$ $he a$$i$&de has $o ,e one $ha$
ca!!ies $his 1a!$ic&la! e=$ension o% $he social a$$i$&de $o $he &nie!se a$ la!ge. I $hin7 i$ is $ha$ <hich
<e gene!ally !e%e! $o as $he !eligio&s e=1e!ience, and $ha$ $his is $he si$&a$ion o&$ o% <hich $he
"ys$ical e=1e!ience o% !eligion a!ises. The social si$&a$ion is s1!ead oe! $he en$i!e <o!ld.
I$ "ay ,e only on ce!$ain days o% $he <ee7 and a$ ce!$ain ho&!s o% $ha$ day $ha$ <e can ge$ in$o $ha$
a$$i$&de o% %eeling a$ one <i$h ee!y,ody and ee!y$hing a,o&$ &s. The day goes a!o&nd@ <e hae $o
go in$o $he "a!7e$ $o co"1e$e <i$h o$he! 1eo1le and $o hold o&! heads a,oe $he <a$e! in a di%%ic&l$
econo"ic si$&a$ion. 0e canno$ 7ee1 &1 $he sense o% e=al$a$ion, ,&$ een $hen <e "ay s$ill say $ha$
$hese de"ands o% li%e a!e only a $as7 <hich is 1&$ on &s, a d&$y <hich <e "&s$ 1e!%o!" in o!de! $o
ge$ a$ 1a!$ic&la! "o"en$s $he !eligio&s a$$i$&de. 0hen $he e=1e!ience is a$$ained, ho<ee!, i$ co"es
<i$h $his %eeling o% co"1le$e iden$i%ica$ion o% $he sel% <i$h $he o$he!.
I$ is a di%%e!en$, and 1e!ha1s highe!, a$$i$&de o% iden$i%ica$ion <hich co"es in $he %o!" o% <ha$ I hae
!e%e!!ed $o as -$ea" <o!7.- :e!e one has $he so!$ o% sa$is%ac$ion <hich co"es %!o" <o!7ing <i$h
o$he!s in a ce!$ain si$&a$ion. The!e is, o% co&!se, s$ill a sense o% con$!ol@ a%$e! all, <ha$ one does is
de$e!"ined ,y <ha$ o$he! 1e!sons a!e doing@ one has $o ,e 7eenly a<a!e o% $he 1osi$ions o% all $he
o$he!s@ he 7no<s <ha$ $he o$he!s a!e going $o do. B&$ he has $o ,e cons$an$ly a<a7e $o $he <ay in
<hich o$he! 1eo1le a!e !es1onding in o!de! $o do his 1a!$ in $he $ea" <o!7. Tha$ si$&a$ion has i$s
deligh$, ,&$ i$ is no$ a si$&a$ion in <hich one si"1ly $h!o<s hi"sel%, so $o s1ea7, in$o $he s$!ea"
<he!e he can ge$ a sense o% a,andon"en$. Tha$ e=1e!ience ,elongs $o $he !eligio&s o! 1a$!io$ic
si$&a$ion. Tea" <o!7 ca!!ies, ho<ee!, a con$en$ <hich $he o$he! does no$ ca!!y. The !eligio&s
si$&a$ion is a,s$!ac$ as %a! as $he con$en$ is conce!ned. :o< one is $o hel1 o$he!s is a e!y
co"1lica$ed &nde!$a7ing. One <ho &nde!$a7es $o ,e a &nie!sal hel1 $o o$he!s is a1$ $o %ind hi"sel%
a &nie!sal n&isance. The!e is no "o!e dis$!essing 1e!son $o hae a,o&$ $han one <ho is cons$an$ly
see7ing $o assis$ ee!y,ody else. F!&i$%&l assis$ance has $o ,e in$elligen$ assis$ance. B&$ i% one can
ge$ $he si$&a$ion o% a <ell?o!gani8ed g!o&1 doing so"e$hing as a &ni$, a sense o% $he sel% is a$$ained
<hich is $he e=1e!ience o% $ea" <o!7, and $his is ce!$ainly %!o" an in$ellec$&al s$and1oin$ highe! $han
"e!e a,s$!ac$ neigh,o!liness. The sense o% $ea" <o!7 is %o&nd <he!e all a!e <o!7ing $o<a!d a
co""on end and ee!yone has a sense o% $he co""on end in$e!1ene$!a$ing $he 1a!$ic&la! %&nc$ion
<hich he is ca!!ying on.
The %!eD&en$ a$$i$&de o% $he 1e!son in social se!ice <ho is $!ying $o e=1!ess a %&nda"en$al a$$i$&de
o% neigh,o!liness+,- "ay ,e co"1a!ed <i$h $he a$$i$&de o% $he enginee!, $he o!gani8e!, <hich
ill&s$!a$es in e=$!e"e %o!" $he a$$i$&de o% $ea" <o!7. The enginee! has $he a$$i$&des o% all $he o$he!
indiid&als in $he g!o&1, and i$ is ,eca&se he has $ha$ 1a!$ici1a$ion $ha$ he is a,le $o di!ec$. 0hen
$he enginee! co"es o&$ o% $he "achine sho1 <i$h $he ,a!e ,l&e 1!in$, $he "achine does no$ ye$
e=is$@ ,&$ he "&s$ 7no< <ha$ $he 1eo1le a!e $o do, ho< long i$ sho&ld $a7e $he", ho< $o "eas&!e
$he 1!ocesses inoled, and ho< $o eli"ina$e <as$e. Tha$ so!$ o% $a7ing $he a$$i$&des o% ee!yone
else as %&lly and co"1le$ely as 1ossi,le, en$e!ing &1on one>s o<n ac$ion %!o" $he s$and1oin$ o% s&ch
a co"1le$e $a7ing o% $he !Mle o% $he o$he!s, <e "ay 1e!ha1s !e%e! $o as $he -a$$i$&de o% $he enginee!.-
I$ is a highly in$elligen$ a$$i$&de@ and i% i$ can ,e %o!"ed <i$h a 1!o%o&nd in$e!es$ in social $ea" <o!7, i$
,elongs $o $he high social 1!ocesses and $o $he signi%ican$ e=1e!iences. :e!e $he %&ll conc!e$eness
o% $he -"e- de1ends &1on a "an>s ca1aci$y $o $a7e $he a$$i$&de o% ee!y,ody else in $he 1!ocess
<hich he di!ec$s. :e!e is gained $he conc!e$e con$en$ no$ %o&nd in $he ,a!e e"o$ional iden$i%ica$ion
o% one>s sel% <i$h ee!yone else in $he g!o&1.
These a!e $he di%%e!en$ $y1es o% e=1!essions o% $he -I- in $hei! !ela$ionshi1 $o $he -"e- $ha$ I <an$ed
$o ,!ing o&$ in o!de! $o co"1le$e $he s$a$e"en$ o% $he !ela$ion o% $he -I- and $he -"e.- The sel% &nde!
$hese ci!c&"s$ances is $he ac$ion o% $he -I- in ha!"ony <i$h $he $a7ing o% $he !Mle o% o$he!s in $he
-"e.- The sel% is ,o$h $he -I- and $he -"e-@ $he -"e- se$$ing $he si$&a$ion $o <hich $he -I- !es1onds.
Bo$h $he -I- and -"e- a!e inoled in $he sel%, and he!e each s&11o!$s $he o$he!.
I <ish no< $o disc&ss $he %&sion o% $he -I- and $he -"e- in $e!"s o% ano$he! a11!oach, na"ely,
$h!o&gh a co"1a!ison o% $he 1hysical o,9ec$ <i$h $he sel% as a social o,9ec$.
The -"e,- I hae said, 1!esen$s $he si$&a$ion <i$hin <hich cond&c$ $a7es 1lace, and $he -I- is $he
ac$&al !es1onse $o $ha$ si$&a$ion. This $<o%old se1a!a$ion in$o si$&a$ion and !es1onse is
cha!ac$e!is$ic o% any in$elligen$ ac$ een i% i$ does no$ inole $his social "echanis". The!e is a
de%ini$e si$&a$ion <hich 1!esen$s a 1!o,le", and $hen $he o!ganis" !es1onds $o $ha$ si$&a$ion ,y an
o!gani8a$ion o% $he di%%e!en$ !eac$ions $ha$ a!e inoled. The!e has $o ,e s&ch an o!gani8a$ion o%
ac$ii$ies in o&! o!dina!y "oe"en$s a"ong di%%e!en$ a!$icles in a !oo", o! $h!o&gh a %o!es$, o!
a"ong a&$o"o,iles. The s$i"&li 1!esen$ $end $o call o&$ a g!ea$ a!ie$y o% !es1onses@ ,&$ $he ac$&al
!es1onse o% $he o!ganis" is an o!gani8a$ion o% $hese $endencies, no$ a single !es1onse <hich
"edia$es all $he o$he!s. One does no$ si$ do<n in a chai!., one does no$ $a7e a ,oo7, o1en a
<indo<, o! do a g!ea$ a!ie$y o% $hings $o <hich in a ce!$ain sense $he indiid&al is ini$ed <hen he
en$e!s a !oo". :e does so"e s1eci%ic $hing@ he 1e!ha1s goes and $a7es a so&gh$ 1a1e! o&$ o% a
des7 and does no$ do any$hing else. Ye$ $he o,9ec$s e=is$ $he!e in $he !oo" %o! hi". The chai!, $he
<indo<s, $a,les, e=is$ as s&ch ,eca&se o% $he &ses $o <hich he no!"ally 1&$s $hese o,9ec$s. The
al&e $ha$ $he chai! has in his 1e!ce1$ion is $he al&e <hich ,elongs $o his !es1onse@ so he "oes
,y a chai! and 1as$ a $a,le and a<ay %!o" a <indo<. :e ,&ilds &1 a landsca1e $he!e, a scene o%
o,9ec$s <hich "a7e 1ossi,le his ac$&al "oe"en$ $o $he d!a<e! <hich con$ains $he 1a1e! $ha$ he is
a%$e!. This landsca1e is $he "eans o% !eaching $he goal he is 1&!s&ing@ and $he chai!, $he $a,le, $he
<indo<, all en$e! in$o i$ as o,9ec$s. The 1hysical o,9ec$ is, in a ce!$ain sense, <ha$ yo& do no$
!es1ond $o in a cons&""a$o!y %ashion. I%, $he "o"en$ yo& s$e1 in$o a !oo", yo& d!o1 in$o a chai!
yo& ha!dly do "o!e $han di!ec$ yo&! a$$en$ion $o $he chai!@ yo& do no$ ie< i$ as a chai! in $he sa"e
sense as <hen yo& 9&s$ !ecogni8e i$ as a chai! and di!ec$ yo&! "oe"en$ $o<a!d a dis$an$ o,9ec$.
The chai! $ha$ e=is$s in $he la$$e! case is no$ one yo& a!e si$$ing do<n in@ ,&$ i$ is a so"e$hing $ha$
<ill !eceie yo& a%$e! yo& do d!o1 in$o i$, and $ha$ gies i$ $he cha!ac$e! o% an o,9ec$ as s&ch.
S&ch 1hysical o,9ec$s a!e &$ili8ed in ,&ilding &1 $he %ield in <hich $he dis$an$ o,9ec$ is !eached. The
sa"e !es&l$ occ&!s %!o" a $e"1o!al s$and1oin$ <hen one ca!!ies o&$ a "o!e dis$an$ ac$ ,y "eans o%
so"e 1!eceden$ ac$ <hich "&s$ ,e %i!s$ ca!!ied $h!o&gh. S&ch o!gani8a$ion is going on all $he $i"e in
in$elligen$ cond&c$. 0e o!gani8e $he %ield <i$h !e%e!ence $o <ha$ <e a!e going $o do. The!e is no<, i%
yo& li7e, a %&sion o% $he ge$$ing o% $he 1a1e! o&$ o% $he d!a<e! and $he !oo" $h!o&gh <hich <e "oe
$o acco"1lish $ha$ end, and i$ is $his so!$ o% %&sion $ha$ I !e%e!!ed $o 1!eio&sly, only in s&ch ins$ances
as !eligio&s e=1e!iences i$ $a7es 1lace in $he %ield o% social "edia$ion, and $he o,9ec$s in $he
"echanis" a!e social in $hei! cha!ac$e! and so !e1!esen$ a di%%e!en$ leel o% e=1e!ience. B&$ $he
1!ocess is analogo&s; <e a!e <ha$ <e a!e in o&! !ela$ionshi1 $o o$he! indiid&als $h!o&gh $a7ing $he
a$$i$&de o% $he o$he! indiid&als $o<a!d o&!seles so $ha$ <e s$i"&la$e o&!seles ,y o&! o<n ges$&!e,
9&s$ as a chai! is <ha$ i$ is in $e!"s o% i$s ini$a$ion $o si$ do<n@ $he chai! is so"e$hing in <hich <e
"igh$ si$ do<n, a 1hysical -"e,- i% yo& li7e. In a social -"e- $he a!io&s a$$i$&des o% all $he o$he!s a!e
e=1!essed in $e!"s o% o&! o<n ges$&!e, <hich !e1!esen$s $he 1a!$ <e a!e ca!!ying o&$ in $he social
coo1e!a$ie ac$ii$y. No< $he $hing <e ac$&ally do, $he <o!ds <e s1ea7, o&! e=1!essions, o&!
e"o$ions, $hose a!e $he -I-@ ,&$ $hey a!e %&sed <i$h $he -"e- in $he sa"e sense $ha$ all $he ac$ii$ies
inoled in $he a!$icles o% %&!ni$&!e o% $he !oo" a!e %&sed <i$h $he 1a$h %ollo<ed $o<a!d $he d!a<e!
and $he $a7ing o&$ o% $he ac$&al 1a1e!. The $<o si$&a$ions a!e iden$ical in $ha$ sense.
The ac$ i$sel% <hich I hae s1o7en o% as $he -I- in $he social si$&a$ion is a so&!ce o% &ni$y o% $he
<hole, <hile $he -"e- is $he social si$&a$ion in <hich $his ac$ can e=1!ess i$sel%. I $hin7 $ha$ <e can
loo7 a$ s&ch cond&c$ %!o" $he gene!al s$and1oin$ o% in$elligen$ cond&c$@ only, as I say, cond&c$ is
$a7ing 1lace he!e in $his social %ield in <hich a sel% a!ises in $he social si$&a$ion in $he g!o&1, 9&s$ as
$he !oo" a!ises in $he ac$ii$y o% an indiid&al in ge$$ing $o $his 1a!$ic&la! o,9ec$ he is a%$e!. I $hin7 $he
sa"e ie< can ,e a11lied $o $he a11ea!ance o% $he sel% $ha$ a11lies $o $he a11ea!ance o% an o,9ec$
in a %ield $ha$ cons$i$&$es in so"e sense a 1!o,le"@ only $he 1ec&lia! cha!ac$e! o% i$ lies in $he %ac$
$ha$ i$ is a social si$&a$ion and $ha$ $his social si$&a$ion inoles $he a11ea!ance o% $he -"e- and $he
-I- <hich a!e essen$ially social ele"en$s. I $hin7 i$ is consis$en$ $o !ecogni8e $his 1a!allelis" ,e$<een
<ha$ <e call $he -1hysical o,9ec$- oe! agains$ $he o!ganis", and $he social o,9ec$ oe! agains$ $he
sel%. The -"e- does de%ini$ely ans<e! $o all $he di%%e!en$ !eac$ions <hich $he o,9ec$s a,o&$ &s $end $o
call o&$ in &s. All s&ch o,9ec$s call o&$ !es1onses in o&!seles, and $hese !es1onses a!e $he
"eanings o! $he na$&!es o% $he o,9ec$s; $he chai! is so"e$hing <e si$ do<n in, $he <indo< is
so"e$hing $ha$ <e can o1en, $ha$ gies &s ligh$ o! ai!. Li7e<ise $he -"e- is $he !es1onse <hich $he
indiid&al "a7es $o $he o$he! indiid&als in so %a! as $he indiid&al $a7es $he a$$i$&de o% $he o$he!. I$ is
%ai! $o say $ha$ $he indiid&al $a7es $he a$$i$&de o% $he chai!. 0e a!e de%ini$ely in $ha$ sense $a7ing $he
a$$i$&de o% $he o,9ec$s a,o&$ &s@ <hile no!"ally $his does no$ ge$ in$o $he a$$i$&de o% co""&nica$ion
in o&! dealing <i$h inani"a$e o,9ec$s, i$ does $a7e $ha$ %o!" <hen <e say $ha$ $he chai! ini$es &s $o
si$ do<n, o! $he ,ed $e"1$s &s $o lie do<n. O&! a$$i$&de &nde! $hose ci!c&"s$ances is, o% co&!se, a
social a$$i$&de. 0e hae al!eady disc&ssed $he social a$$i$&de as i$ a11ea!s in $he 1oe$!y o% na$&!e, in
"y$hs, !i$es, and !i$&als. The!e <e $a7e oe! $he social a$$i$&de $o<a!d na$&!e i$sel%. In "&sic $he!e is
1e!ha1s al<ays so"e so!$ o% a social si$&a$ion, in $e!"s o% $he e"o$ional !es1onse inoled@ and $he
e=al$a$ion o% "&sic <o&ld hae, I s&11ose, !e%e!ence $o $he co"1le$eness o% $he o!gani8a$ion o% $he
!es1onse $ha$ ans<e!s $o $hose e"o$ional a$$i$&des. The idea o% $he %&sion o% $he -I- and $he -"e-
gies a e!y adeD&a$e ,asis %o! $he e=1lana$ion o% $his e=al$a$ion. I $hin7 ,ehaio!is$ic 1sychology
1!oides 9&s$ $he o11o!$&ni$y %o! s&ch deelo1"en$ o% aes$he$ic $heo!y. The signi%icance o% $he
!es1onse in $he aes$he$ic e=1e!ience has al!eady ,een s$!essed ,y c!i$ics o% 1ain$ing and
a!chi$ec$&!e.
The !ela$ionshi1 o% $he -"e- $o $he -I- is $he !ela$ionshi1 o% a si$&a$ion $o $he o!ganis". The si$&a$ion
$ha$ 1!esen$s $he 1!o,le" is in$elligi,le $o $he o!ganis" $ha$ !es1onds $o i$, and %&sion $a7es 1lace in
$he ac$. One can a11!oach i$ %!o" $he -I- i% one 7no<s de%ini$ely <ha$ he is going $o do. Then one
loo7s a$ $he <hole 1!ocess si"1ly as a se$ o% "eans %o! !eaching $he 7no<n end. O! i$ can ,e
a11!oached %!o" $he 1oin$ o% ie< o% $he "eans and $he 1!o,le" a11ea!s $hen as a decision a"ong
a se$ o% di%%e!en$ ends. The a$$i$&de o% one indiid&al calls o&$ $his !es1onse, and $he a$$i$&de o%
ano$he! indiid&al calls o&$ ano$he! !es1onse. The!e a!e a!ied $endencies, and $he !es1onse o% $he
-I- <ill ,e one <hich !ela$es all o% $hese $oge$he!. 0he$he! loo7ed a$ %!o" $he ie<1oin$ o% a 1!o,le"
<hich has $o ,e soled o! %!o" $he 1osi$ion o% an -I- <hich in a ce!$ain sense de$e!"ines i$s %ield ,y
i$s cond&c$, $he %&sion $a7es 1lace in $he ac$ i$sel% in <hich $he "eans e=1!esses $he end.
"ndnotes
1. I-Philan$h!o1y %!o" $he Poin$ o% 4ie< o% E$hics,- Intelligent Philanthropy, edi$ed ,y Fa!is,
Lane, and Dodd.K
/2# )"M$C*%C' %() 4(IV"*S%&IT' I( S$CI"T'
The!e is in h&"an socie$y a &nie!sali$y $ha$ e=1!esses i$sel% e!y ea!ly in $<o di%%e!en$ <ays?one on
$he !eligio&s side and $he o$he! on $he econo"ic side. These 1!ocesses as social 1!ocesses a!e
&nie!sal. They 1!oide ends <hich any %o!" $ha$ "a7es &se o% $he sa"e "edi&" o% co""&nica$ion
can en$e! &1on. I% a go!illa co&ld ,!ing cocoan&$s and e=change $he" in so"e so!$ o% "a!7e$ %o!
so"e$hing he "igh$ conceia,ly <an$, he <o&ld en$e! in$o $he econo"ic social o!gani8a$ion in i$s
<ides$ 1hase. All $ha$ is necessa!y is $ha$ $he ani"al sho&ld ,e a,le $o &$ili8e $ha$ "e$hod o%
co""&nica$ion <hich inoles, as <e hae seen, $he e=is$ence o% a sel%. On $he o$he! hand, any
indiid&al $ha$ can !ega!d hi"sel% as a "e",e! o% a socie$y in <hich he is?$o &se a %a"ilia! 1h!ase a
neigh,o! o% $he o$he!, also ,elongs $o s&ch a &nie!sal g!o&1. These !eligio&s and econo"ic
e=1!essions o% &nie!sali$y <e %ind deelo1ing in one %o!" o! ano$he! in $he *o"an E"1i!e, in India,
and in China. In $he o&$g!o<$h o% $he E"1i!e in$o Ch!is$iani$y <e %ind a %o!" o% 1!o1aganda iss&ing
in $he deli,e!a$e a$$e"1$ $o o!gani8e $his so!$ o% &nie!sal socie$y.
I% eol&$ion is $o $a7e 1lace in s&ch a socie$y, i$ <o&ld $a7e 1lace ,e$<een $he di%%e!en$ o!gani8a$ions,
so $o s1ea7, <i$hin $his la!ge! o!ganis". The!e <o&ld no$ si"1ly ,e a co"1e$i$ion o% di%%e!en$
socie$ies <i$h each o$he!, ,&$ co"1e$i$ion <o&ld lie in $he !ela$ionshi1 o% $his o! $ha$ socie$y $o $he
o!gani8a$ion o% a &nie!sal socie$y. In $he case o% $he &nie!sal !eligions <e hae s&ch %o!"s as $ha$
o% $he Moha""edan, <hich &nde!$oo7 ,y $he %o!ce o% $he s<o!d $o <i1e o&$ all o$he! %o!"s o%
socie$y, and so %o&nd i$sel% in o11osi$ion $o o$he! co""&ni$ies <hich i$ &nde!$oo7 ei$he! $o annihila$e
o! $o s&,o!dina$e $o i$sel%. On $he o$he! hand, <e hae $he 1!o1aganda !e1!esen$ed ,y Ch!is$iani$y
and B&ddhis", <hich "e!ely &nde!$oo7 $o ,!ing $he a!io&s indiid&als in$o a ce!$ain s1i!i$&al g!o&1
in <hich $hey <o&ld !ecogni8e $he"seles as "e",e!s o% one socie$y. This &nde!$a7ing inei$a,ly
,o&nd i$sel% &1 <i$h $he 1oli$ical s$!&c$&!e, es1ecially in $he case o% Ch!is$iani$y@ and ,ac7 o% $ha$ lies
$he ass&"1$ion, <hich %o&nd i$s e=1!ession in "issiona!y &nde!$a7ings, $ha$ $his social 1!inci1le, $his
!ecogni$ion o% $he ,!o$he!hood o% "en, is $he ,asis %o! a &nie!sal socie$y.
I% <e loo7 a$ $he econo"ic 1!oceedings, $he!e is no s&ch 1!o1aganda as $his, no ass&"1$ion o% a
single econo"ic socie$y $ha$ is &nde!$a7ing $o es$a,lish i$sel%. An econo"ic socie$y de%ines i$sel% in
so %a! as one indiid&al "ay $!ade <i$h o$he!s@ and $hen $he e!y 1!ocesses $he"seles go on
in$eg!a$ing, ,!inging a close! and close! !ela$ionshi1 ,e$<een co""&ni$ies <hich "ay ,e de%ini$ely
o11osed $o each o$he! 1oli$ically. The "o!e co"1le$e econo"ic $e=$&!e a11ea!s in $he deelo1"en$
o% $!ading i$sel% and $he deelo1"en$ o% a %inancial "edi&" ,y "eans o% <hich s&ch $!ading is
ca!!ied on, and $he!e is an inei$a,le ad9&s$"en$ o% $he 1!od&c$ion in one co""&ni$y $o $he needs o%
$he in$e!na$ional econo"ic co""&ni$y. The!e is a deelo1"en$ <hich s$a!$s <i$h $he lo<es$ so!$ o%
&nie!sal socie$y and in <hich $he o!iginal a,s$!ac$ness gies <ay $o a "o!e and "o!e conc!e$e
social o!gani8a$ion. F!o" ,o$h o% $hese s$and1oin$s $he!e is a &nie!sal socie$y $ha$ incl&des $he
<hole h&"an !ace, and in$o <hich all can so %a! en$e! in$o !ela$ionshi1 <i$h o$he!s $h!o&gh $he
"edi&" o% co""&nica$ion. They can !ecogni8e o$he!s as "e",e!s, and as ,!o$he!s.
S&ch co""&ni$ies a!e inei$a,ly &nie!sal in $hei! cha!ac$e!. The 1!ocesses e=1!essed in $he
&nie!sal !eligion inei$a,ly ca!!y <i$h $he" $ha$ o% $he logical co""&ni$y !e1!esen$ed ,y $he
&nie!se o% disco&!se, a co""&ni$y ,ased si"1ly on $he a,ili$y o% all indiid&als $o cone!se <i$h
each o$he! $h!o&gh &se o% $he sa"e signi%ican$ sy",ols. Lang&age 1!oides a &nie!sal co""&ni$y
<hich is so"e$hing li7e $he econo"ic co""&ni$y. I$ is $he!e in so %a! as $he!e a!e co""on sy",ols
$ha$ can ,e &$ili8ed. 0e see s&ch sy",ols in $he ,a!e signs ,y "eans o% <hich saage $!i,es <ho
do no$ s1ea7 $he sa"e lang&age can co""&nica$e. They %ind so"e co""on lang&age in $he &se o%
$he %inge!s, o! in sy",olic d!a<ings. They a$$ain so"e so!$ o% a,ili$y $o co""&nica$e, and s&ch a
1!ocess o% co""&nica$ion has $he $endency $o ,!ing $he di%%e!en$ indiid&als in$o close! !ela$ionshi1
<i$h each o$he!. The ling&is$ic 1!ocess is in one sense "o!e a,s$!ac$ $han $he econo"ic 1!ocess.
The econo"ic 1!ocess, s$a!$ing o%% <i$h ,a!e e=change, $&!ns oe! $he s&!1l&s o% one indiid&al in
!e$&!n %o! $he s&!1l&s o% ano$he! indiid&al. S&ch 1!ocesses !e%lec$ ,ac7 a$ once $o $he 1!ocess o%
1!od&c$ion and "o!e o! less inei$a,ly s$i"&la$e $ha$ so!$ o% 1!od&c$ion <hich leads $o 1!o%i$a,le
e=change. 0hen <e co"e $o ,a!e in$e!co&!se on $he ,asis o% signi%ican$ sy",ols, $he 1!ocess ,y
i$sel% 1e!ha1s does no$ $end $o s&ch an in$eg!a$ion, ,&$ $his 1!ocess o% co""&nica$ion <ill ca!!y o!
$end $o ca!!y <i$h i$ $he e!y 1!ocesses in <hich i$ has se!ed as a "edi&".
A 1e!son lea!ns a ne< lang&age and, as <e say, ge$s a ne< so&l. :e 1&$s hi"sel% in$o $he a$$i$&de
o% $hose $ha$ "a7e &se o% $ha$ lang&age. :e canno$ !ead i$s li$e!a$&!e, canno$ cone!se <i$h $hose
$ha$ ,elong $o $ha$ co""&ni$y, <i$ho&$ $a7ing on i$s 1ec&lia! a$$i$&des. :e ,eco"es in $ha$ sense a
di%%e!en$ indiid&al. Yo& canno$ coney a lang&age as a 1&!e a,s$!ac$ion@ yo& inei$a,ly in so"e
deg!ee coney also $he li%e $ha$ lies ,ehind i$. And $his !es&l$ ,&ilds i$sel% in$o !ela$ionshi1 <i$h $he
o!gani8ed a$$i$&des o% $he indiid&al <ho ge$s $his lang&age and inei$a,ly ,!ings a,o&$ a
!ead9&s$"en$ o% ie<s. A co""&ni$y o% $he 0es$e!n <o!ld <i$h i$s di%%e!en$ na$ionali$ies and di%%e!en$
lang&ages is a co""&ni$y in <hich $he!e <ill ,e a con$in&ed in$e!1lay o% $hese di%%e!en$ g!o&1s <i$h
each o$he!. One na$ion canno$ ,e $a7en si"1ly ,y i$sel%, ,&$ only in i$s !ela$ionshi1 $o $he o$he!
g!o&1s <hich ,elong $o $he la!ge! <hole.

The &nie!se o% disco&!se <hich deals si"1ly <i$h $he highes$ a,s$!ac$ions o1ens $he doo! %o! $he
in$e!!ela$ionshi1 o% $he di%%e!en$ g!o&1s in $hei! di%%e!en$ cha!ac$e!s. The &nie!se o% disco&!se <i$hin
<hich 1eo1le can e=1!ess $he"seles "a7es 1ossi,le $he ,!inging?$oge$he! o% $hose o!gani8ed
a$$i$&des <hich !e1!esen$ $he li%e o% $hese di%%e!en$ co""&ni$ies in$o s&ch !ela$ionshi1 $ha$ $hey can
lead $o a highe! o!gani8a$ion. The e!y &nie!sali$y o% $he 1!ocesses <hich ,elong $o h&"an socie$y,
<he$he! loo7ed a$ %!o" $he 1oin$ o% ie< o% !eligion o! $!ading o! logical $hin7ing, a$ leas$ o1ens $he
doo! $o a &nie!sal socie$y@ and, in %ac$, $hese $endencies all e=1!ess $he"seles <he!e $he social
deelo1"en$ has gone %a! eno&gh $o "a7e i$ 1ossi,le.
The 1oli$ical e=1!ession o% $his g!o<$h o% &nie!sali$y in socie$y is signali8ed in $he do"inance o% one
g!o&1 oe! o$he! g!o&1s. The ea!lies$ e=1!ession o% $his is in $he e"1i!es o% $he alleys o% $he Nile,
$he Tig!is, and $he E&1h!a$es. Di%%e!en$ co""&ni$ies ca"e in co"1e$i$ion <i$h each o$he!, and in
s&ch co"1e$i$ion is %o&nd a condi$ion %o! $he deelo1"en$ o% $he e"1i!e. The!e is no$ si"1ly $he
con%lic$ o% one $!i,e <i$h ano$he! <hich &nde!$a7es $o <i1e o&$ $he o$he!, ,&$ !a$he! $ha$ so!$ o%
con%lic$ <hich leads $o $he do"inance o% one g!o&1 oe! ano$he! ,y $he "ain$enance o% $he o$he!
g!o&1. I$ is o% i"1o!$ance $o no$ice $his di%%e!ence <hen i$ signali8es $he e=1!ession o% sel%?
conscio&sness !eached $h!o&gh a !eali8a$ion o% one>s sel% in o$he!s. In a "o"en$ o% hos$ili$y o! %ie!ce
ange! $he indiid&al o! $he co""&ni$y "ay see7 si"1ly $o <i1e o&$ i$s ene"ies. B&$ $he do"inan$
e=1!ession in $e!"s o% $he sel% has ,een, een on $he 1a!$ o% a "ili$a!is$ic socie$y, !a$he! $ha$ o%
s&,9ec$ion, o% a !eali8a$ion o% $he sel% in i$s s&1e!io!i$y $o and e=1loi$a$ion o% $he o$he!. This a$$i$&de o%
"ind is an en$i!ely di%%e!en$ a$$i$&de %!o" $ha$ o% $he "e!e <i1ing?o&$ o% one>s ene"ies. The!e is,
%!o" $his 1oin$ o% ie< a$ leas$, a de%ini$e achiee"en$ on $he 1a!$ o% $he indiid&al o% a highe! sel% in
his oe!co"ing o% $he o$he! and holding $he o$he! in s&,9ec$ion.
The sense o% na$ional 1!es$ige is an e=1!ession o% $ha$ sel%?!es1ec$ <hich <e $end $o 1!ese!e in $he
"ain$enance o% s&1e!io!i$y oe! o$he! 1eo1le. One does ge$ $he sense o% one>s sel% ,y a ce!$ain
%eeling o% s&1e!io!i$y $o o$he!s, and $ha$ $his is %&nda"en$al in $he deelo1"en$ o% $he sel% <as
!ecogni8ed ,y 0&nd$. I$ is an a$$i$&de <hich 1asses oe!, &nde! <ha$ <e conside! highe! condi$ions,
in$o $he 9&s$ !ecogni$ion o% $he ca1aci$y o% $he indiid&al in his o<n %ields. The s&1e!io!i$y <hich $he
1e!son no< has is no$ a s&1e!io!i$y oe! $he o$he!, ,&$ is g!o&nded in $ha$ <hich he can do in
!ela$ion $o $he %&nc$ions and ca1aci$y o% o$he!s. The deelo1"en$ o% $he e=1e!$ <ho is s&1e!io! in $he
1e!%o!"ance o% his %&nc$ions is o% a D&i$e di%%e!en$ cha!ac$e! %!o" $he s&1e!io!i$y o% $he ,&lly <ho
si"1ly !eali8es hi"sel% in his a,ili$y $o s&,o!dina$e so"e,ody $o hi"sel%. The 1e!son <ho is
co"1e$en$ in any 1a!$ic&la! %ield has a s&1e!io!i$y <hich ,elongs $o $ha$ <hich he hi"sel% can do and
<hich 1e!ha1s so"eone else canno$ do. I$ gies hi" a de%ini$e 1osi$ion in <hich he can !eali8e
hi"sel% in $he co""&ni$y. :e does no$ !eali8e hi"sel% in his si"1le s&1e!io!i$y $o so"eone else, ,&$
in $he %&nc$ion <hich he can ca!!y o&$@ and in so %a! as he can ca!!y i$ o&$ ,e$$e! $han anyone else he
ge$s a sense o% 1!es$ige <hich <e !ecogni8e as legi$i"a$e, as oe! agains$ $he o$he! %o!" o% sel%?
asse!$ion <hich %!o" $he s$and1oin$ o% o&! highes$ sense o% social s$anda!ds is %el$ $o ,e illegi$i"a$e.
Co""&ni$ies "ay s$and in $his sa"e 7ind o% !ela$ion $o each o$he!. The!e is $he sense o% 1!ide o%
$he *o"an in his ad"inis$!a$ie ca1aci$y as <ell as in his "a!$ial 1o<e!, in his ca1aci$y $o s&,9&ga$e
all $he 1eo1le a!o&nd $he Medi$e!!anean <o!ld and $o ad"inis$e! $he". The %i!s$ a$$i$&de <as $ha$ o%
s&,9&ga$ion, and $hen ca"e $he ad"inis$!a$ie a$$i$&de <hich <as "o!e o% $he $y1e $o <hich I hae
al!eady !e%e!!ed as $ha$ o% %&nc$ional s&1e!io!i$y. I$ <as $ha$ <hich 4i!gil e=1!essed in his de"and
$ha$ $he *o"an sho&ld !eali8e $ha$ in his !&ling he <as 1ossessed <i$h $he ca1aci$y %o!
ad"inis$!a$ion. This ca1aci$y "ade $he *o"an E"1i!e en$i!ely di%%e!en$ %!o" $he ea!lie! e"1i!es,
<hich ca!!ied no$hing ,&$ ,!&$e s$!eng$h ,ehind $he". The 1assage in $ha$ case is %!o" a sense o%
1oli$ical s&1e!io!i$y and 1!es$ige e=1!essed in a 1o<e! $o c!&sh, oe! in$o a 1o<e! $o di!ec$ a social
&nde!$a7ing in <hich $he!e is a la!ge! coo1e!a$ie ac$ii$y. The 1oli$ical e=1!ession s$a!$s o%% <i$h a
,a!e sel%?asse!$ion, co&1led <i$h a "ili$a!y a$$i$&de, <hich leads $o $he <i1ing?o&$ o% $he o$he!, ,&$
<hich leads on, o! "ay lead on, $o $he deelo1"en$ o% a highe! co""&ni$y, <he!e do"inance $a7es
$he %o!" o% ad"inis$!a$ion. Conceia,ly, $he!e "ay a11ea! a la!ge! in$e!na$ional co""&ni$y $han $he
e"1i!e, o!gani8ed in $e!"s o% %&nc$ion !a$he! $han o% %o!ce.
The ,!inging?$oge$he! o% $he a$$i$&de o% &nie!sal !eligion on $he one hand and $he <idening 1oli$ical
deelo1"en$ on $he o$he! has ,een gien i$s <ides$ e=1!ession in de"oc!acy. The!e is, o% co&!se, a
de"oc!acy s&ch as $ha$ o% $he (!ee7 ci$ies in <hich $he con$!ol is si"1ly $he con$!ol o% $he "asses in
$hei! o11osi$ion $o ce!$ain econo"ically and 1oli$ically 1o<e!%&l classes. The!e a!e, in %ac$, a!io&s
%o!"s o% de"oc!a$ic goe!n"en$@ ,&$ de"oc!acy, in $he sense he!e !elean$, is an a$$i$&de <hich
de1ends &1on $he $y1e o% sel% <hich goes <i$h $he &nie!sal !ela$ions o% ,!o$he!hood, ho<ee! $ha$
,e !eached. I$ !eceied i$s e=1!ession in $he F!ench *eol&$ion in $he conce1$ion o% %!a$e!ni$y and
&nion. Ee!y indiid&al <as $o s$and on $he sa"e leel <i$h ee!y o$he!. This conce1$ion is one
<hich !eceied i$s %i!s$ e=1!ession in $he &nie!sal !eligions. I% ca!!ied oe! in$o $he %ield o% 1oli$ics, i$
can ge$ i$s e=1!ession only in s&ch a %o!" as $ha$ o% de"oc!acy@ and $he doc$!ine $ha$ lies ,ehind i$
is e!y la!gely *o&ssea&>s conce1$ion, as %o&nd in $he Social Contract
The ass&"1$ion $he!e is o% a socie$y in <hich $he indiid&al "ain$ains hi"sel% as a ci$i8en only $o $he
deg!ee $ha$ he !ecogni8es $he !igh$s o% ee!yone else $o ,elong $o $he sa"e co""&ni$y. 0i$h s&ch
a &nie!sali$y, s&ch a &ni%o!"i$y o% in$e!es$s, i$ <o&ld ,e 1ossi,le %o! $he "asses o% $he co""&ni$y $o
$a7e $he a$$i$&de o% $he soe!eign <hile he also $oo7 $he a$$i$&de o% $he s&,9ec$s. I% $he <ill o% each
one <as $he <ill o% all, $hen $he !ela$ionshi1 o% s&,9ec$ and soe!eign co&ld ,e e",odied in all $he
di%%e!en$ indiid&als. 0e ge$ <ha$ *o&ssea& !e%e!!ed $o as $he -gene!al <ill o% $he co""&ni$y- only
<hen as a "an is a,le $o !eali8e hi"sel% ,y !ecogni8ing o$he!s as ,elonging $o $he sa"e 1oli$ical
o!gani8a$ion as hi"sel%.+,-
Tha$ conce1$ion o% de"oc!acy is in i$sel% as &nie!sal as !eligion, and $he a11ea!ance o% $his 1oli$ical
"oe"en$ <as essen$ially !eligio&s in so %a! as i$ had $he gos1el o% *o&ssea& ,ehind i$. I$
1!oceeded also <i$h a sense o% 1!o1aganda. I$ &nde!$oo7 $o oe!$h!o< $he old o!gani8a$ion o%
socie$y and s&,s$i$&$e i$s o<n %o!" o% socie$y in i$s 1lace. In $ha$ sense $hese $<o %ac$o!s?one $he
do"inance o% $he indiid&al o! g!o&1 oe! o$he! g!o&1s, $he o$he! $he sense o% ,!o$he!hood and
iden$i$y o% di%%e!en$ indiid&als in $he sa"e g!o&1?ca"e $oge$he! in $he de"oc!a$ic "oe"en$@ and
$oge$he! $hey inei$a,ly i"1ly a &nie!sal socie$y, no$ only in a !eligio&s sense, ,&$ &l$i"a$ely in a
1oli$ical sense as <ell. This ge$s an e=1!ession in $he Leag&e o% Na$ions, <he!e ee!y co""&ni$y
!ecogni8es ee!y o$he! co""&ni$y in $he e!y 1!ocess o% asse!$ing i$sel%. The s"alles$ co""&ni$y is
in a 1osi$ion $o e=1!ess i$sel% 9&s$ ,eca&se i$ !ecogni8es $he !igh$ o% ee!y o$he! na$ion $o do $he
sa"e.
0ha$ is inoled in $he deelo1"en$ o% a &nie!sal socie$y is 9&s$ s&ch a %&nc$ional o!gani8a$ion as
<e %ind in econo"ic deelo1"en$. The econo"ic deelo1"en$ is one <hich s$a!$s o%% on $he ,asis o%
$he e=change. Yo& o%%e! <ha$ yo& do no$ <an$ in e=change %o! so"e$hing <hich ano$he! does no$
<an$. Tha$ is a,s$!ac$. B&$ a%$e! yo& %ind yo& can 1!od&ce so"e$hing yo& do no$ <an$ and e=change
i$ %o! so"e$hing yo& <an$, yo& s$i"&la$e ,y $ha$ ac$ion a %&nc$ional deelo1"en$. Yo& a!e s$i"&la$ing
one g!o&1 $o 1!od&ce $his and ano$he! $o 1!od&ce $ha$@ and yo& a!e also con$!olling $he econo"ic
1!ocess, ,eca&se one <ill no$ con$in&e $o 1!od&ce "o!e $han can ,e o%%e!ed in e=change on $he
"a!7e$. The so!$ o% $hing &l$i"a$ely 1!od&ced <ill ,e $ha$ <hich ans<e!s $o $he de"and o% $he
c&s$o"e!. In $he !es&l$ing %&nc$ional o!gani8a$ion one deelo1s an econo"ic 1e!sonali$y o% a ce!$ain
so!$ <hich has i$s o<n sense o% s&1e!io!i$y ,&$ <hich is &sed in $he ca!!ying?o&$ o% i$s 1a!$ic&la!
%&nc$ion in !ela$ion $o $he o$he!s in $he g!o&1. The!e can ,e a sel%?conscio&sness ,ased on $he
a,ili$y $o "an&%ac$&!e so"e$hing ,e$$e! $han any,ody else@ ,&$ i$ can "ain$ain i$s sense o%
s&1e!io!i$y only <hen i$ ad9&s$s i$sel% $o $he co""&ni$y $ha$ needs $he 1!od&c$s in $his 1!ocess o%
in$e!change. In s&ch a si$&a$ion $he!e is a $endency $o<a!d %&nc$ional deelo1"en$, a %&nc$ional
deelo1"en$ <hich "ay $a7e 1lace een in $he 1oli$ical do"ain.
I$ "igh$ see" $ha$ $he %&nc$ional as1ec$ is con$!adic$o!y $o $he ends o% de"oc!acy in so %a! as i$
conside!s $he indiid&al in !ela$ion $o a <hole and in $ha$ <ay igno!es $he indiid&al@ and $ha$,
acco!dingly, !eal de"oc!acy "&s$ e=1!ess i$sel% "o!e in $he $one o% $he !eligio&s a$$i$&de and in
"a7ing seconda!y $he %&nc$ional as1ec$. I% <e go ,ac7 $o $he ideal o% de"oc!acy as 1!esen$ed in $he
F!ench *eol&$ion, <e do !each 9&s$ s&ch a so!$ o% con%lic$. The!e yo& hae !ecogni$ion o% D&ali$y@
yo& de"and in yo&!sel% <ha$ yo& !ecogni8e in o$he!s, and $ha$ does 1!oide $he ,asis %o! a social
s$!&c$&!e. B&$ <hen yo& conside! $he %&nc$ional e=1!ession o% $ha$ $i"e $he!e is no$ $he sa"e so!$ o%
eD&ali$y. :o<ee!, eD&ali$y in a %&nc$ional sense is 1ossi,le, and I do no$ see any !eason <hy i$
sho&ld no$ ca!!y <i$h i$ as dee1 a sense o% $he !eali8a$ion o% $he o$he! in one>s sel% as $he !eligio&s
a$$i$&de. A 1hysician <ho $h!o&gh his s&1e!io! s7ill can sae $he li%e o% an indiid&al can !eali8e
hi"sel% in !ega!d $o $he 1e!son he has ,ene%i$ed. I see no !eason <hy $his %&nc$ional a$$i$&de sho&ld
no$ e=1!ess i$sel% in $he !eali8a$ion o% one>s sel% in $he o$he!. The ,asis o% s1i!i$&al e=1!ession is $he
a,ili$y $o !eali8e one>s sel% in $he "any, and $ha$ ce!$ainly is !eached in $he social o!gani8a$ion. I$
see"s $o "e $ha$ $he a11a!en$ con%lic$ &nde! conside!a$ion !e%e!s $o $he a,s$!ac$ and 1!eli"ina!y
deelo1"en$ o% $he %&nc$ional o!gani8a$ion. 6n$il $ha$ %&nc$ional o!gani8a$ion is %&lly ca!!ied o&$,
$he!e is $he o11o!$&ni$y %o! e=1loi$a$ion o% $he indiid&al@ ,&$ <i$h $he %&ll deelo1"en$ o% s&ch
o!gani8a$ion <e sho&ld ge$ a highe! s1i!i$&al e=1!ession in <hich $he indiid&al !eali8es hi"sel% in
o$he!s $h!o&gh $ha$ <hich he does as 1ec&lia! $o hi"sel%.+.-
"ndnotes
1. I% yo& can "a7e yo&! de"and &nie!sal, i% yo&! !igh$ is one $ha$ ca!!ies <i$h i$ a
co!!es1onding o,liga$ion, $hen yo& !ecogni8e $he sa"e !igh$ in ee!yone else, and yo& can
gie a la<, so $o s1ea7, in $he $e!"s o% all $he co""&ni$y. So $he!e can ,e a gene!al <ill in
$e!"s o% $he indiid&al ,eca&se ee!yone else is e=1!essing $he sa"e $hing. The!e $hen
a!ises a co""&ni$y in <hich ee!yone can ,e ,o$h soe!eign and s&,9ec$, soe!eign in so
%a! as he asse!$s his o<n !igh$s and !ecogni8es $he" in o$he!s, and s&,9ec$ in $ha$ he o,eys
$he la<s <hich he hi"sel% "a7es A13#/B.
2. IFo! a disc&ssion o% 1!ag"a$is" in !ela$ion $o $he A"e!ican scene see -The Philoso1hies o%
*oyce, Ca"es and De<ey in $hei! A"e!ican Se$$ing, - International Journal of !thics, JL
A13'5B, #11 %%.@ %o! his$o!ical genesis o% 1!ag"a$is", see Movements of *hought in the
8ineteenth CenturyK
/6# 34*TH"* C$(SI)"*%TI$( $3 *"&IGI$4S %() "C$($MIC %TTIT4)"S
I <an$ $o s1ea7 again o% $he o!gani8ing na$&!e o% $hese la!ge! and "o!e a,s$!ac$ social !ela$ionshi1s
<hich I hae ,een disc&ssing, $hose o% !eligion and econo"ics. Each o% $he" ,eco"es &nie!sal in
i$s <o!7ing cha!ac$e!, no$ &nie!sal ,eca&se o% any 1hiloso1hical a,s$!ac$ion inoled in $he". The
1!i"i$ie "an <ho $!ades o! $he "ode!n "an on $he s$oc7 e=change is no$ in$e!es$ed in $he %o!" o%
econo"ic socie$y $ha$ is i"1lied in $he e=changes he "a7es@ no! is i$ a$ all necessa!y $o ass&"e
$ha$ $he indiid&al <ho in his i""edia$e assis$ance o% ano$he! in $!o&,le iden$i%ies hi"sel% <i$h $his
o$he!, 1!esen$s $o hi"sel% a %o!" o% socie$y in <hich $he in$e!es$ o% one is $he in$e!es$ o% all. And ye$,
as I indica$ed, $hese $<o 1!ocesses a!e in $hei! na$&!e &nie!sal@ $hey can ,e a11lied $o anyone.
One <ho can assis$ any indiid&al <ho" he %inds s&%%e!ing "ay e=$end $ha$ &nie!sali$y %a! ,eyond
"an, and 1&$ i$ in$o $he %o!" o% allo<ing no s&%%e!ing $o any sens&o&s ,eing. The a$$i$&de is one
<hich <e $a7e $o<a!d any o$he! %o!" $ha$ ac$&ally does, o! conceia,ly "ay, a11eal $o &s <hen in
dis$!ess, o! any ,eing $o <hich <e can coney i""edia$e sa$is%ac$ion ,y o&! o<n ac$s. I$ %inds i$s
e=1!ession in a ce!$ain a$$i$&de o% $ende!ness. I$ "ay ,e gene!ali8ed in indiid&als %a! ,eyond one>s
%a"ily. Loe "ay sho< i$sel% $o<a!d any yo&ng %o!" <hich e=ci$es $he 1a!en$al a$$i$&de, een <hen i$
is no$ a h&"an %o!". S"all a!$icles call o&$ a so!$ o% $ende! a$$i$&de. S&ch %ac$s sho< ho< e!y <ide
$he ac$&al &nie!sali$y o% $his a$$i$&de is@ i$ $a7es in 1!ac$ically ee!y$hing, ee!y 1ossi,le ,eing <i$h
<ho" one can hae a 1e!sonal !ela$ion. I$ is no$ al<ays do"inan$, o% co&!se, since so"e$i"es $he
hos$ile !eac$ions a!e "o!e 1o<e!%&l in $hei! e=1!ession $han any o$he!@ ,&$ $o $he e=$en$ $ha$ i$ is
1!esen$ i$ "a7es 1ossi,le a &nie!sal %o!" o% socie$y. The Ch!is$ian sain$s !e1!esen$ed $ha$ so!$ o%
socie$y $o <hich ee!y indiid&al co&ld conceia,ly ,elong. The ideal !eceied an e=1!ession in $he
!eligio&s conce1$ion o% a <o!ld <he!e all a!e $o hae a,sol&$ely iden$ical in$e!es$s.
The o$he! 1!ocess is $ha$ o% e=change in <hich one 1asses oe!, so $o s1ea7, $ha$ <hich he does
no$ need %o! so"e$hing <hich he does need. *ela$ie <an$s on a ,asis o% co""&nica$ion and
co""on in$e!es$s "a7e e=change 1ossi,le. This is a 1!ocess <hich does no$ e=$end ,elo< "an, as
$he o$he! a$$i$&de does. One canno$ e=change <i$h $he o= o! $he ass, ,&$ he "ay hae a 7indly
%eeling %o! $he".
0ha$ I <an$ $o !e%e! $o es1ecially is $he o!gani8ing 1o<e! $ha$ $hese $<o $y1es o% a$$i$&des "ay hae,
and hae had, in $he h&"an co""&ni$y. As I hae s$a$ed, $hey a!e 1!i"a!ily a$$i$&des <hich one
"ay en$e! in$o <i$h any ac$&al o! ideal h&"an ,eing <i$h <ho" he can 1ossi,ly co""&nica$e, and
in one case a$ leas$, <i$h o$he! ,eings <i$h <ho" he canno$ co""&nica$e. 0e a!e in social
!ela$ionshi1s <i$h do"es$ic ani"als, and o&! !es1onses ass&"e $he iden$i%ica$ion o% $he ani"al <i$h
o&!seles as "&ch as o&!seles <i$h $he ani"al, an ass&"1$ion <hich has no &l$i"a$e 9&s$i%ica$ion.
O&! o<n %&nda"en$al a$$i$&de is a social !ela$ionshi1 ,ased on $he sel%@ so <e $!ea$ $he ac$s o%
do"es$ic ani"als as i% $hey had seles. 0e $a7e $hei! a$$i$&de, and o&! cond&c$ in dealing <i$h $he"
i"1lies $ha$ $hey $a7e o&! a$$i$&de@ <e ac$ as i% $he dog 7ne< <ha$ <e <an$ed. I need no$ add $ha$
o&! cond&c$ <hich i"1lies seles in do"es$ic ani"als has no !a$ional 9&s$i%ica$ion.
S&ch a$$i$&des, $hen, a!e a$$i$&des $ha$ "ay lead $o a social o!gani8a$ion <hich goes ,eyond $he
ac$&al s$!&c$&!e in <hich indiid&als %ind $he"seles inoled. I$ is %o! $his !eason $ha$ i$ is 1ossi,le
%o! $hese a$$i$&des $he"seles $o <o!7 $o<a!d, o! a$ leas$ $o assis$ in, $he c!ea$ion o% $he s$!&c$&!e o%
$hese la!ge! co""&ni$ies. I% <e loo7 %i!s$ o% all a$ $he econo"ic a$$i$&de <he!e $he e=change o% one>s
o<n s&!1l&s <i$h so"e,ody else>s s&!1l&s 1&$s one in $he a$$i$&de o% 1!od&c$ion, 1!od&cing s&ch
s&!1l&ses %o! $he 1&!1ose o% e=change Aand "a7es one in 1a!$ic&la! loo7 $o<a!d $he <ays o%
e=change, o% es$a,lishing "a!7e$s, o% se$$ing &1 "eans %o! $!ans1o!$a$ion, o% ela,o!a$ing $he "edia
o% e=change, o% ,&ilding &1 ,an7ing sys$e"sB, <e !ecogni8e $ha$ all $his "ay %lo< %!o" $he "e!e
1!ocess o% e=change 1!oiding $he al&e o% i$ is !ecogni8ed so as $o lead s&%%icien$ly $o $he
1!od&c$ion o% $he s&!1l&ses <hich a!e $he ,asis o% $he o!iginal 1!ocess. T<o child!en can e=change
$hei! $oys <i$h each o$he!, $he one e=changing an old $oy <i$h a %!iend <ho is <illing $o 1a!$ <i$h his@
he!e $he!e is an e=change o% s&!1l&ses <hich does no$ lead $o 1!od&c$ion. B&$ in $he case o% h&"an
,eings <ho can loo7 ahead and see $he adan$ages o% e=change, e=change leads $o 1!od&c$ion.
A no$a,le ill&s$!a$ion o% $ha$ is $he deelo1"en$ o% $he <oolen ind&s$!y in England. A$ %i!s$ $he
e=change si"1ly $oo7 1lace in England i$sel%, <he!e $he <ool <as s1&n &nde! %e&dal condi$ions@ and
$hen ca"e $he ca!!ying o% $his %!o" one locali$y $o ano$he!, and $he s1!inging?&1 o% an oe!seas
$!ade. The changes $ha$ $oo7 1lace inside o% England>s co""&ni$ies as a !es&l$ o% $his ind&s$!y a!e
co""only 7no<n, as is $he e!y la!ge 1a!$ $ha$ i$ 1layed in $he deelo1"en$ o% %o!eign $!ade,
,!inging a,o&$ $he g!ad&al change %!o" $he ag!ic&l$&!al $o $he ind&s$!ial li%e o% $he co""&ni$y i$sel%.
And $hen as $he <oolen clo$h 1assed oe! $he na$ion>s ,o&nda!ies a ne$<o!7 o% econo"ic
o!gani8a$ion g!e< &1 <hich has &nde!lain $he <hole la$e! deelo1"en$ o% England.
0hen s&ch an i""edia$e a$$i$&de o% e=change ,eco"es a 1!inci1le o% social cond&c$, i$ ca!!ies <i$h
i$ a 1!ocess o% social deelo1"en$ in $he <ay o% 1!od&c$ion, o% $!ans1o!$a$ion, and o% all $he "edia
inoled in $he econo"ic 1!ocess, $ha$ se$s &1 so"e$hing o% $he e!y &nie!sal socie$y $ha$ $his
a$$i$&de ca!!ies <i$h i$ as a 1ossi,ili$y. I$ is a 1!ocess, o% co&!se, o% ,!inging $he "an <ho has $he
goods $o e=change in$o di!ec$ !ela$ionshi1 <i$h $he 1e!son <ho is <illing $o e=change %o! $he" <ha$
he needs. And $he 1!ocess o% 1!od&c$ion and $!ans1o!$a$ion, and o% $a7ing $he goods !eceied in
!e$&!n, !ela$es $he indiid&als "o!e closely $o $he o$he!s inoled in $he econo"ic 1!ocess. I$ is a
slo< 1!ocess o% $he in$eg!a$ion o% a socie$y <hich ,inds 1eo1le "o!e and "o!e closely $oge$he!. I$
does no$ ,!ing $he" s1a$ially and geog!a1hically $oge$he! ,&$ &ni$es $he" in $e!"s o%
co""&nica$ion. 0e a!e %a"ilia! <i$h $he a,s$!ac$ion in $he $e=$,oo7 ill&s$!a$ion o% $h!ee o! %o&! "en
loca$ed on $he dese!$ island <ho ca!!y on $he 1!ocess o% $!ading <i$h each o$he!. They a!e highly
a,s$!ac$ %ig&!es, ,&$ $hey e=is$ as a,s$!ac$ions in $he econo"ic co""&ni$y and as s&ch !e1!esen$ an
in$e!!ela$ionshi1 o% co""&nica$ion in <hich $he indiid&al in his o<n 1!ocess o% 1!od&c$ion is
iden$i%ying hi"sel% <i$h $he indiid&al <ho has so"e$hing $o e=change <i$h hi". :e has $o 1&$
hi"sel% in $he 1lace o% $he o$he! o! he co&ld no$ 1!od&ce $ha$ <hich $he o$he! <an$s. I% he s$a!$s o%%
on $ha$ 1!ocess he is, o% co&!se, iden$i%ying hi"sel% <i$h any 1ossi,le c&s$o"e!, any 1ossi,le
1!od&ce!@ and i% his "echanis" is o% $his e!y a,s$!ac$ so!$, $hen $he <e, o% co""e!ce can go
any<he!e and $he %o!" o% socie$y "ay $a7e in any,ody <ho is <illing $o en$e! in $his 1!ocess o%
co""&nica$ion. S&ch an a$$i$&de in socie$y does $end $o ,&ild &1 $he s$!&c$&!e o% a &nie!sal social
o!ganis".
As $a&gh$ in econo"ics, "oney is no$hing ,&$ a $o7en, a sy",ol %o! a ce!$ain a"o&n$ o% <eal$h. I$ is
a sy",ol %o! so"e$hing $ha$ is <an$ed ,y indiid&als <ho a!e in $he a$$i$&de o% <illingness $o
e=change@ and $he %o!"s o% e=change a!e $hen $he "e$hods o% cone!sa$ion, and $he "edia o%
e=change ,eco"e ges$&!es <hich ena,le &s $o ca!!y o&$ a$ as$ dis$ances $his 1!ocess o% 1assing
oe! so"e$hing one does no$ <an$, $o ge$ so"e$hing he does, ,y "eans o% ,!inging hi"sel% in$o $he
a$$i$&de o% $he o$he! 1e!son. The "edia o% $hese $o7ens o% <eal$h a!e, $hen, in $his 1!ocess o%
e=change 9&s$ s&ch ges$&!es o! sy",ols as lang&age is in o$he! %ields.
The o$he! &nie!sal a$$i$&de disc&ssed <as neigh,o!liness, <hich 1asses oe! in$o $he 1!inci1le o%
!eligio&s !ela$ionshi1, $he a$$i$&de <hich "ade !eligion as s&ch 1ossi,le. The i""edia$e e%%ec$ o% $he
a$$i$&de "ay ,e no$hing ,&$ sha!ing one>s %ood <i$h a 1e!son <ho is h&ng!y, giing <a$e! $o $he
$hi!s$y, hel1ing $he 1e!son <ho is do<n and o&$. I$ "ay ,e no$hing ,&$ s&!!ende!ing $o $he i"1&lse $o
gie so"e$hing $o $he "an <ho $o&ches yo& on $he s$!ee$. I$ "ay acco"1lish no$hing "o!e $han
$ha$, 9&s$ as e=change ,e$<een $<o child!en "ay no$ go ,eyond $he 1!ocess o% e=change. B&$, in
%ac$, $he a$$i$&de once ass&"ed has 1!oed $o hae eno!"o&s 1o<e! o% social !eo!gani8a$ion. I$ is
$ha$ a$$i$&de <hich has e=1!essed i$sel% in $he &nie!sal !eligions, and <hich e=1!esses i$sel% in a
la!ge 1a!$ o% $he social o!gani8a$ion o% "ode!n socie$y.
Ch!is$iani$y 1aed $he <ay %o! $he social 1!og!ess?1oli$ical, econo"ic, scien$i%ic?o% $he "ode!n <o!ld,
$he social 1!og!ess <hich is so do"inan$ly cha!ac$e!is$ic o% $ha$ <o!ld. Fo! $he Ch!is$ian no$ion o% a
!a$ional o! a,s$!ac$ &nie!sal h&"an socie$y o! social o!de!, $ho&gh o!igina$ing as a 1!i"a!ily
!eligio&s and e$hical doc$!ine, g!ad&ally los$ i$s 1&!ely !eligio&s and e$hical associa$ions, and
e=1anded $o incl&de all $he o$he! "ain as1ec$s o% conc!e$e h&"an social li%e as <ell@ and so
,eca"e $he la!ge!, "o!e co"1le= no$ion o% $ha$ "any?sided, !a$ionally &nie!sal h&"an socie$y $o
<hich all $he social !econs$!&c$ions cons$i$&$ing "ode!n social 1!og!ess inole in$ellec$&al !e%e!ence
,y $he Indiid&als ca!!ying $he" o&$.
The!e is a s$!i7ing con$!as$ ,e$<een $he ancien$?and es1ecially $he ancien$ (!ee7?<o!ld and $he
"ode!n <o!ld !ela$ie $o $he no$ion o% 1!og!ess. Tha$ no$ion o! conce1$ion <as &$$e!ly %o!eign $o, and
al"os$ co"1le$ely a,sen$ %!o", $he $ho&gh$ and ciili8a$ion o% $he ancien$ <o!ld@ <he!eas i$ is one o%
$he "os$ cha!ac$e!is$ic and do"inan$ ideas in $he $ho&gh$ and ciili8a$ion o% $he "ode!n <o!ld. Fo!
$he <o!ld?ie< o% "ode!n c&l$&!e is essen$ially a dyna"ic one ?? a <o!ld?ie< <hich allo<s %o!, and
indeed e"1hasi8es, $he !eali$y o% gen&ine c!ea$ie change and eol&$ion in $hings@ <he!eas $he
<o!ld?ie< o% ancien$ c&l$&!e <as essen$ially a s$a$ic one ?? a <o!ld?ie< <hich did no$ ad"i$ $he
occ&!!ence o! ac$&ali$y o% any gen&inely c!ea$ie change o! eol&$ion in $he &nie!se a$ all; a <o!ld?
ie< acco!ding $o <hich no$hing o% <hich $he %inal ca&se <as no$ al!eady gien Aand e$e!nally gienB
in !eali$y co&ld co"e in$o e=is$ence@ i.e., no$hing co&ld co"e in$o ,eing e=ce1$ as o! ,y $he
indiid&al !eali8a$ion o% a %i=ed &nie!sal $y1e $ha$ <as al!eady $he!e and al<ays had ,een $he!e.
Acco!ding $o "ode!n $ho&gh$, $he!e a!e no %i=ed o! de$e!"ined ends o! goals $o<a!d <hich social
1!og!ess necessa!ily "oes@ and s&ch 1!og!ess is hence gen&inely c!ea$ie and <o&ld no$
o$he!<ise ,e 1!og!ess Aindeed, c!ea$ieness is essen$ial $o $he "ode!n idea o% 1!og!essB. B&$
ancien$ $ho&gh$, on $he con$!a!y, did no$ !ecogni8e $he !eali$y o! e=is$ence o! 1ossi,ili$y o% 1!og!ess
a$ all, in $he "ode!n sense o% $he $e!"@ and $he only 1!og!ess o% any so!$ <hich i$ !ecogni8ed as
1ossi,le o! !eal <as 1!og!ess $o<a!d e$e!nally %i=ed ends o! goals ?? 1!og!ess A<hich "ode!n
$ho&gh$ <o&ld no$ conside! $o ,e gen&ine 1!og!ess a$ allB $o<a!d $he !eali8a$ion o% gien,
1!ede$e!"ined $y1es.
The no$ion o% 1!og!ess <as "eaningless %o! (!ee7 socie$y o! ciili8a$ion, ,y i!$&e o% $he dis$inc$ie
o!gani8a$ion o% $he (!ee7 s$a$e, <hich <as <holly i"1o$en$ $o deal e%%ec$iely <i$h $he social
con%lic$s?o! con%lic$s o% social in$e!es$s?$ha$ a!ose <i$hin i$. B&$ 1!og!ess is do"inan$ly cha!ac$e!is$ic
o% "ode!n socie$y o! ciili8a$ion, ,y i!$&e o% $he dis$inc$ie o!gani8a$ion o% $he "ode!n s$a$e <hich is
s&%%icien$ly %le=i,le $o ,e a,le $o co1e, $o so"e e=$en$ a$ leas$, <i$h $he social con%lic$s a"ong
indiid&als $ha$ a!ise <i$hin i$@ ,eca&se i$ lends i$sel%?in a <ay in <hich $he o!gani8a$ion o% $he (!ee7
s$a$e did no$?$o $ha$ "o!e o! less a,s$!ac$ in$ellec$&al e=$ension o% i$s ,o&nda!ies, ,y $he "inds o% $he
indiid&als i"1lica$ed in i$, <hich <e hae "en$ioned; an e=$ension <he!e,y $hese "inds a!e a,le $o
enisage a la!ge! social o!gani8a$ion o! o!gani8ed social <hole eni!oning $he", one in <hich $he
con%lic$s o% social in$e!es$s <i$hin i$ a!e in so"e deg!ee ha!"oni8ed o! canceled o&$, and ,y
!e%e!ence $o <hich, acco!dingly, $hese "inds a!e a,le $o ,!ing a,o&$ $he !econs$!&c$ions <i$hin i$ $ha$
a!e needed $o !esole o! se$$le $hose con%lic$s.
The econo"ic and !eligio&s 1!inci1les a!e o%$en 1&$ in o11osi$ion $o each o$he!. The!e is, on $he one
hand, $he ass&"1$ion o% an econo"ic 1!ocess <hich <e call -"a$e!ialis$ic- in cha!ac$e!@ and, on $he
o$he! hand, $he iden$i%ica$ion o% 1eo1le in co""on in$e!es$s <hich <e s1ea7 o% in idealis$ic $e!"s. O%
co&!se, so"e 9&s$i%ica$ion can ,e %o&nd %o! $his ie<, ,&$ i$ oe!loo7s $he i"1o!$ance o% $he %ac$ $ha$
$hese a$$i$&des hae $o ,e con$in&ally co!!ec$ed. I$ is ass&"ed $ha$ $he econo"ic 1!ocess is al<ays
a sel%?cen$e!ed one in <hich $he indiid&al is si"1ly adancing his o<n in$e!es$ oe! agains$ $he
o$he!, $ha$ one is $a7ing $he a$$i$&de o% $he o$he! only $o ge$ $he ,e$$e! o% hi". 0hile i$ has ,een
insis$ed $ha$ %!ee $!ade, $he o11o!$&ni$y $o e=change, is so"e$hing $ha$ leads $o a !ecogni$ion o%
co""on in$e!es$s, i$ has al<ays ,een ass&"ed $ha$ $his is $he ,y?1!od&c$ o% $he econo"ic 1!ocess,
and no$ inoled in $he a$$i$&de i$sel%, al$ho&gh <e do %ind econo"ic idealis" in s&ch a "an as
Ca"es B!yce. On $he o$he! hand, !eligions hae ,een as "&ch so&!ces o% <a!%a!e in $he 1as$ as
econo"ic co"1e$i$ion has ,een &nde! $he 1!esen$ condi$ions. One o% $he s$!i7ing e%%ec$s o% ee!y
<a! is $o e"1hasi8e $he na$ional cha!ac$e! o% $he !eligion o% $he 1eo1le. D&!ing $he <a! <e had $he
(od o% $he (e!"ans and $he (od o% $he Allies@ dei$y <as diided in allegiance. The e=$en$ $o <hich
$he !eligio&s li%e ad9&s$s i$sel% $o con%lic$ is %!eD&en$ly ill&s$!a$ed in his$o!y@ ill&s$!a$ions o% $he idealis$ic
1hases o% econo"ic li%e a!e no$ en$i!ely lac7ing. The!e is no D&es$ion ,&$ $ha$ $he econo"ic 1!ocess
is one <hich has con$in&ally ,!o&gh$ 1eo1le in$o close! !ela$ionshi1 <i$h each o$he! and has $ended
$o iden$i%y indiid&als <i$h each o$he!. The o&$s$anding ill&s$!a$ion o% $his is $he in$e!na$ional
cha!ac$e! o% la,o!, and $he deelo1"en$ <i$hin $he local co""&ni$y o% a la,o! o!gani8a$ion as s&ch.
The!e is ,o$h $he iden$i%ica$ion o% $he la,o!e! <i$h his %ello<?la,o!e!s in $he g!o&1, and $he
iden$i%ica$ion o% $he la,o!e!s in one co""&ni$y <i$h $hose in ano$he! co""&ni$y. In socialis" $he
la,o! "oe"en$ has ,eco"e a !eligion. The econo"ic 1!ocess is one <hich ,!ings g!o&1s
inei$a,ly close! $oge$he! $h!o&gh $he 1!ocess o% co""&nica$ion <hich inoles 1a!$ici1a$ion. I$ has
,een $he "os$ &nie!sal sociali8ing %ac$o! in o&! <hole "ode!n socie$y, "o!e &nie!sally
!ecogni8a,le $han !eligion.
The !eligion ga$he!ed a,o&$ $he c&l$ o% a co""&ni$y ,eco"es e!y conc!e$e, iden$i%ies i$sel% <i$h $he
i""edia$e his$o!y and li%e o% $he co""&ni$y, and is "o!e conse!a$ie $han al"os$ any o$he!
ins$i$&$ion in $he co""&ni$y. The c&l$ has a "ys$e!io&s al&e <hich a$$aches $o i$ $ha$ <e canno$ %&lly
!a$ionali8e, and $he!e%o!e <e 1!ese!e i$ in $he %o!" <hich i$ al<ays has had, and in i$s social se$$ing.
I$ $ends $o %i= $he cha!ac$e! o% $he !eligio&s e=1!ession, so $ha$ <hile $he !eligio&s a$$i$&de is one
<hich leads $o iden$i%ica$ion <i$h any o$he!, $he c&l$ in <hich i$ ins$i$&$ionali8es i$sel% is a1$ $o ,e
s1eciali8ed al"os$ $o $he las$ deg!ee. I$ is D&i$e 1ossi,le $o &nde!s$and any,ody <ho co"es $o yo&
<i$h so"e$hing o% al&e <hich yo& <an$ $o ge$@ i% he can e=1!ess hi"sel% in co""e!cial $e!"s, yo&
can &nde!s$and hi". I% he co"es $o yo&, ho<ee!, <i$h his 1a!$ic&la! !eligio&s c&l$, $he chances a!e
e!y g!ea$ $ha$ yo& canno$ co"1!ehend hi". The "issiona!y "oe"en$, <hich has ,een so
cha!ac$e!is$ic o% di%%e!en$ !eligions, is a "oe"en$ in <hich $he &nie!sal cha!ac$e! o% $he !eligion
has in $&!n challenged $he %i=ed conse!a$ie cha!ac$e! o% $he c&l$, as s&ch, and has had eno!"o&s
e%%ec$s on $he cha!ac$e! o% $he !eligion i$sel%. B&$ een he!e !eligion has &nde!$a7en $o $!ans%e! i$sel%
as a c&l$ <i$h all i$s cha!ac$e!, i$s c!eed and i$s dog"a, so $ha$ i$ has no$ len$ i$sel% so di!ec$ly as a
"eans o% &nie!sal co""&nica$ion as has $he econo"ic 1!ocess.
The $<o a$$i$&des, o% co&!se, a!e a$$i$&des <hich a!e D&i$e di%%e!en$ %!o" each o$he!. The one a$$i$&de
iden$i%ies $he indiid&al <i$h $he o$he! only <hen ,o$h a!e engaged in a $!ading o1e!a$ion. E=change
is $he li%e?,lood o% $he econo"ic 1!ocess, and $ha$ 1!ocess a,s$!ac$s ee!y$hing %!o" $he o$he!
indiid&al e=ce1$ <ha$ is inoled in $!ading. The !eligio&s a$$i$&de, on $he con$!a!y, $a7es yo& in$o
$he i""edia$e inne! a$$i$&de o% $he o$he! indiid&al@ yo& a!e iden$i%ying yo&!sel% <i$h hi" in so %a! as
yo& a!e assis$ing hi", hel1ing hi", saing his so&l, aiding hi" in $his <o!ld o! $he <o!ld $o co"e?
yo&! a$$i$&de is $ha$ o% sala$ion o% $he indiid&al. Tha$ a$$i$&de is %a! "o!e 1!o%o&nd in $he
iden$i%ica$ion o% $he indiid&al <i$h o$he!s. The econo"ic 1!ocess is "o!e s&1e!%icial and $he!e%o!e is
one <hich 1e!ha1s can $!ael "o!e !a1idly and "a7e 1ossi,le an easie! co""&nica$ion. The $<o
1!ocesses, ho<ee!, a!e al<ays &nie!sal in $hei! cha!ac$e!, and so %a! as $hey ge$ e=1!ession $hey
$end $o ,&ild &1 in so"e sense a co""on co""&ni$y <hich is as &nie!sal as $he a$$i$&des
$he"seles. The 1!ocesses $a7en si"1ly ,y $he"seles, as <he!e one child $!ades a $oy %o! ano$he!
child>s $oy o! <he!e one ani"al hel1s ano$he!, "ay i""edia$ely s$o1 <i$h $he e=e!cise o% $he ac$@ ,&$
<he!e one has a g!o&1 "ade &1 o% seles as s&ch, indiid&als $ha$ iden$i%y $he"seles <i$h $he
o$he!s, $ha$ a!o&se $he a$$i$&de o% $he o$he! as a "eans o% ge$$ing $hei! o<n seles, $he 1!ocesses
$hen go %a! ,eyond a "e!e sei8ing o% so"e$hing <hich one can ge$ $ha$ $he o$he! does no$ <an$, o!
,eyond $he ,a!e i"1&lse $o hel1 $he o$he!. In ca!!ying o&$ $hese ac$ii$ies $he indiid&al has se$ &1 a
1!ocess o% in$eg!a$ion <hich ,!ings $he indiid&als close! $oge$he!, c!ea$ing $he "echanis" ,y <hich
a dee1e! co""&nica$ion <i$h 1a!$ici1a$ion is 1ossi,le.
I$ is i"1o!$an$ $o !ecogni8e $his deelo1"en$ going on in his$o!y@ $he $<o 1!ocesses $a7en ,y
$he"seles $end $o ,!ing a,o&$ $he la!ge! co""&ni$y een <hen $he 1e!sons hae no$ any ideals %o!
i$s !eali8a$ion. One canno$ $a7e $he a$$i$&de o% iden$i%ying hi"sel% <i$h $he o$he! <i$ho&$ in so"e
sense $ending $o se$ &1 s&ch co""&ni$ies. I$ is $he 1a!$ic&la! %&nc$ion o% his$o!y $o ena,le &s $o loo7
,ac7 and see ho< %a! s&ch social !econs$!&c$ion has $a7en 1lace?!econs$!&c$ion $ha$ 1eo1le a$ $he
$i"e did no$ !ecogni8e, ,&$ <hich <e can !ecogni8e ,eca&se o% o&! adan$age o% g!ea$e! dis$ance.
And $he %&nc$ion o% $he leade!, $he indiid&al <ho is a,le $o g!as1 s&ch "oe"en$s and so ca!!y
along $he co""&ni$y, is $o gie di!ec$ion and i"1e$&s, <i$h a conscio&sness o% $ha$ <hich is $a7ing
1lace.
I$ see"s $o "e $ha$ s&ch a ie< o% $he sel% as I hae 1!esen$ed in de$ail !ende!s in$elligi,le $he
acc&"&la$ion o% social g!o<$h.
I% <e can !ecogni8e $ha$ an indiid&al does achiee hi"sel%, his o<n conscio&sness, in $he
iden$i%ica$ion o% hi"sel% <i$h $he o$he!, $hen <e can say $ha$ $he econo"ic 1!ocess "&s$ ,e one in
<hich $he indiid&al does iden$i%y hi"sel% <i$h $he 1ossi,le c&s$o"e!s <i$h <ho" he e=changes
$hings, $ha$ he "&s$ ,e con$in&ally ,&ilding &1 "eans o% co""&nica$ion <i$h $hese indiid&als $o
"a7e $his 1!ocess s&ccess%&l, and $ha$, <hile $he 1!ocess in i$sel% "ay ,e %i!"ly sel%?cen$e!ed, i$
"&s$ inei$a,ly lead hi" $o $a7e "o!e and "o!e conc!e$ely $he a$$i$&de o% $he o$he!. I% yo& a!e going
$o ca!!y on $he econo"ic 1!ocess s&ccess%&lly, yo& hae $o co"e in$o close! and close! !ela$ionshi1
<i$h $he o$he! indiid&al, iden$i%y yo&!sel% no$ si"1ly in $he 1a!$ic&la! "a$$e! o% e=change, ,&$ %ind o&$
<ha$ he <an$s and <hy he <an$s i$, <ha$ <ill ,e $he condi$ions o% 1ay"en$, $he 1a!$ic&la! cha!ac$e!
o% $he goods desi!ed, and so on. Yo& hae $o iden$i%y yo&!sel% <i$h hi" "o!e and "o!e. 0e a!e
!a$he! sco!n%&l o% $he a$$i$&de o% sales"anshi1 <hich "ode!n ,&siness e"1hasi8es?sales"anshi1
<hich see"s al<ays $o ca!!y <i$h i$ hy1oc!isy, $o adoca$e 1&$$ing one>s sel% in $he a$$i$&de o% $he
o$he! so as $o $!ic7 hi" in$o ,&ying so"e$hing he does no$ <an$. Een i% <e do no$ !ega!d $his as
9&s$i%ia,le, <e can a$ leas$ !ecogni8e $ha$ een he!e $he!e is $he ass&"1$ion $ha$ $he indiid&al has $o
$a7e $he a$$i$&de o% $he o$he!, $ha$ $he !ecogni$ion o% $he in$e!es$ o% $he o$he! is essen$ial $o a
s&ccess%&l $!ade. The goal o% $his is seen <hen <e ca!!y $he econo"ic 1!ocess ,eyond $he 1!o%i$
"o$ie oe! in$o 1&,lic?se!ice conce!ns. The "anage! o% a !ail!oad o! 1&,lic &$ili$y has $o 1&$
hi"sel% in $he 1lace o% $he co""&ni$y $ha$ he se!es, and <e can !eadily see $ha$ s&ch 1&,lic
&$ili$ies co&ld 1ass en$i!ely o&$ o% $he %ield o% gain and ,eco"e s&ccess%&l econo"ic &nde!$a7ings
si"1ly as a "eans o% co""&nica$ion. The socialis$ "a7es o&$ o% $his 1ossi,ili$y a $heo!y %o! all
,&siness.
/8# TH" (%T4*" $3 S'MP%TH'
The $e!" -sy"1a$hy- is an a",ig&o&s one, and a di%%ic&l$ one $o in$e!1!e$. I hae !e%e!!ed $o an
i""edia$e a$$i$&de o% ca!e, $he assis$ance o% one indiid&al ,y ano$he!, s&ch as <e %ind es1ecially in
$he !ela$ions a"ong lo<e! %o!"s. Sy"1a$hy co"es, in $he h&"an %o!", in $he a!o&sing in one>s sel%
o% $he a$$i$&de o% $he indiid&al <ho" one is assis$ing, $he $a7ing $he a$$i$&de o% $he o$he! <hen one
is assis$ing $he o$he!. A 1hysician "ay si"1ly ca!!y $h!o&gh an o1e!a$ion in an o,9ec$ie %ashion
<i$ho&$ any sy"1a$he$ic a$$i$&de $o<a!d $he 1a$ien$. B&$ in an a$$i$&de <hich is sy"1a$he$ic <e i"1ly
$ha$ o&! a$$i$&de calls o&$ in o&!seles $he a$$i$&de o% $he 1e!son <e a!e assis$ing. 0e %eel <i$h hi"
and <e a!e a,le so $o %eel o&!seles in$o $he o$he! ,eca&se <e hae, ,y o&! o<n a$$i$&de, a!o&sed in
o&!seles $he a$$i$&de o% $he 1e!son <ho" <e a!e assis$ing. I$ is $ha$ <hich I !ega!d as a 1!o1e!
in$e!1!e$a$ion o% <ha$ <e o!dina!ily call -i"i$a$ion,- and -sy"1a$hy,- in $he ag&e, &nde%ined sense
<hich <e %ind in o&! 1sychologies, <hen $hey deal <i$h i$ a$ all.
Ta7e, %o! e=a"1le, $he a$$i$&de o% 1a!en$s $o $he child. The child>s $one is one o% co"1lain$, s&%%e!ing,
and $he 1a!en$>s $one is one $ha$ is soo$hing. The 1a!en$ is calling o&$ in hi"sel% an a$$i$&de o% $he
child in acce1$ing $ha$ consola$ion. This ill&s$!a$ion indica$es as <ell $he li"i$a$ion o% sy"1a$hy.
The!e a!e 1e!sons <i$h <ho" one %inds i$ di%%ic&l$ $o sy"1a$hi8e. In o!de! $o ,e in sy"1a$hy <i$h
so"eone, $he!e "&s$ ,e a !es1onse <hich ans<e!s $o $he a$$i$&de o% $he o$he!. I% $he!e is no$ a
!es1onse <hich so ans<e!s, $hen one canno$ a!o&se sy"1a$hy in hi"sel%. No$ only $ha$, ,&$ $he!e
"&s$ ,e coo1e!a$ion, a !e1ly on $he 1a!$ o% $he 1e!son sy"1a$hi8ed <i$h, i% $he indiid&al <ho
sy"1a$hi8es is $o call o&$ in hi"sel% $his a$$i$&de. One does no$ 1&$ hi"sel% i""edia$ely in $he
a$$i$&de o% $he 1e!son s&%%e!ing a1a!$ %!o" one>s o<n sy"1a$he$ic a$$i$&de $o<a!d hi". The si$&a$ion
is $ha$ o% a 1e!son assis$ing $he o$he!, and ,eca&se o% $ha$ calling o&$ in hi"sel% $he !es1onse $ha$
his assis$ance calls o&$ in $he o$he!. I% $he!e is no !es1onse on $he 1a!$ o% $he o$he!, $he!e canno$ ,e
any sy"1a$hy. O% co&!se, one can say $ha$ he can !ecogni8e <ha$ s&ch a 1e!son "&s$ ,e s&%%e!ing
i% he co&ld only e=1!ess i$. :e $he!e,y 1&$s hi"sel% in $he 1lace o% ano$he! <ho is no$ $he!e ,&$
<ho" he has "e$ in e=1e!ience, and in$e!1!e$s $his indiid&al in ie< o% $he %o!"e! e=1e!ience. B&$
ac$ie sy"1a$hy "eans $ha$ $he indiid&al does a!o&se in ano$he! $he !es1onse called o&$ ,y his
assis$ance and a!o&ses in hi"sel% $he sa"e !es1onse. I% $he!e is no !es1onse, one canno$
sy"1a$hi8e <i$h hi". Tha$ 1!esen$s $he li"i$a$ion o% sy"1a$hy as s&ch@ i$ has $o occ&! in a
coo1e!a$ie 1!ocess. Nee!$heless, i$ is in $he %o!egoing sense $ha$ one 1e!son iden$i%ies hi"sel%
<i$h ano$he!. I a" no$ !e%e!!ing $o an iden$i%ica$ion in $he :egelian sense o% an Ego, ,&$ o% an
indiid&al <ho 1e!%ec$ly na$&!ally a!o&ses a ce!$ain !es1onse in hi"sel% ,eca&se his ges$&!e
o1e!a$es on hi"sel% as i$ does on $he o$he!.
To $a7e a dis$inc$iely h&"an, $ha$ is, sel%?conscio&s, social a$$i$&de $o<a!d ano$he! indiid&al, o! $o
,eco"e a<a!e o% hi" as s&ch, is $o iden$i%y yo&!sel% sy"1a$he$ically <i$h hi", ,y $a7ing his a$$i$&de
$o<a!d, and his !Mle in, $he gien social si$&a$ion, and ,y $h&s !es1onding $o $ha$ si$&a$ion i"1lici$ly
as he does o! is a,o&$ $o do e=1lici$ly@ in essen$ially $he sa"e <ay yo& $a7e his a$$i$&de $o<a!d
yo&!sel% in ges$&!al cone!sa$ion <i$h hi", and a!e $h&s "ade sel%?conscio&s. :&"an social
ac$ii$ies de1end e!y la!gely &1on social coo1e!a$ion a"ong $he h&"an indiid&als <ho ca!!y $he"
on, and s&ch coo1e!a$ion !es&l$s %!o" $he $a7ing. ,y $hese indiid&als o% social a$$i$&des $o<a!d one
ano$he!. :&"an socie$y endo<s $he h&"an indiid&al <i$h a "ind@ and $he e!y social na$&!e o% $ha$
"ind !eD&i!es hi" $o 1&$ hi"sel% $o so"e deg!ee in $he e=1e!ien$ial 1laces o%, o! $o $a7e $he a$$i$&des
o%, $he o$he! indiid&als ,elonging $o $ha$ socie$y and inoled <i$h hi" in $he <hole social 1!ocess
o% e=1e!ience and ,ehaio! <hich $ha$ socie$y !e1!esen$s o! ca!!ies on.
I <ish no< $o &$ili8e $his "echanis" in dealing <i$h !eligion and $he econo"ic 1!ocess. In $he
econo"ic %ield $he indiid&al is $a7ing $he a$$i$&de o% $he o$he! in so %a! as he is o%%e!ing so"e$hing $o
$he o$he! and calling o&$ in !e1ly a !es1onse o% giing in $he indiid&al <ho has a s&!1l&s. The!e
"&s$ ,e a si$&a$ion in <hich $he indiid&al ,!ings %o!<a!d his o<n o,9ec$ as so"e$hing $ha$ is
al&a,le. No<, %!o" his 1oin$ o% ie< i$ is no$ al&a,le, ,&$ he is 1&$$ing hi"sel% in $he a$$i$&de o% $he
o$he! indiid&al <ho <ill gie so"e$hing in !e$&!n ,eca&se he can %ind so"e &se %o! i$. :e is calling
o&$ in hi"sel% $he a$$i$&de o% $he o$he! in o%%e!ing so"e$hing in !e$&!n %o! <ha$ he o%%e!s@ and al$ho&gh
$he o,9ec$ has %o! $he indiid&al no di!ec$ al&e, i$ ,eco"es al&a,le %!o" $he 1oin$ o% ie< o% $he
o$he! indiid&al in$o <hose 1lace $he %i!s$ indiid&al is a,le $o 1&$ hi"sel%.
0ha$ "a7es $his 1!ocess so &nie!sal is $he %ac$ $ha$ i$ is a dealing <i$h s&!1l&ses, dealing <i$h $ha$
<hich is, so $o s1ea7, %!o" $he 1oin$ o% ie< o% $he indiid&al <i$ho&$ al&e. O% co&!se, i$ ge$s a al&e
in $he "a!7e$ and $hen one assesses i$ %!o" $he 1oin$ o% ie< o% <ha$ one can ge$ %o! i$, ,&$ <ha$
"a7es i$ a &nie!sal $hing is $ha$ i$ does no$ 1ass in$o $he indiid&al>s o<n di!ec$ &se. Een i% he
$a7es so"e$hing $ha$ he can &se and $!ades $ha$, he has $o !ega!d i$ as so"e$hing he is going $o ge$
!id o% in o!de! $o ge$ so"e$hing s$ill "o!e al&a,le@ i$ has $o ,e so"e$hing he is no$ going $o &se. The
i""edia$e al&e o% o&! o<ning a $hing di!ec$ly is $he &se $o <hich <e 1&$ i$, i$s cons&"1$ion@ ,&$ in
$he econo"ic 1!ocess <e a!e dealing <i$h so"e$hing $ha$ is i""edia$ely <i$ho&$ al&e. So <e se$
&1 a &nie!sal so!$ o% a 1!ocess. The &nie!sali$y is de1enden$ &1on $his %ac$ $ha$ each 1e!son is
,!inging $o $he "a!7e$ $he $hings he is no$ going $o &se. :e s$a$es $he" in $e!"s o% $he a,s$!ac$ion o%
"oney ,y "eans o% <hich he can ge$ any$hing else. I$ is $his nega$ie al&e $ha$ gies $he
&nie!sali$y, %o! $hen i$ can ,e $&!ned oe! $o any,ody <ho can gie so"e$hing in !e$&!n <hich can
,e &sed.
In $he 1!i"i$ie co""&ni$y <he!e ee!y,ody is !ela$ed $o ee!y,ody else, a s&!1l&s as s&ch has no
"eaning. The $hings a!c dis$!i,&$ed in acco!dance <i$h de%ini$e c&s$o"@ ee!y,ody sha!es $he
s&!1l&s. 0eal$h does no$ e=is$ &nde! s&ch condi$ions a$ all. The!e a!e ce!$ain !e$&!ns gien $o $he
a!$isan, ,&$ $hey a!e no$ !e$&!ns 1&$ in$o $he %o!" $ha$ can ,e e=1ended %o! any goods <hich he
<an$s $o ge$ in !e$&!n %o! so"e$hing he does no$ <an$. The se$$ing?&1, $hen, o% $he "edia o%
e=change is so"e$hing $ha$ is highly a,s$!ac$. I$ de1ends &1on $he a,ili$y o% $he indiid&al $o 1&$
hi"sel% in $he 1lace o% $he o$he! $o see $ha$ $he o$he! needs <ha$ he does no$ hi"sel% need, and $o
see $ha$ <ha$ he hi"sel% does no$ need is so"e$hing $ha$ ano$he! does need. The <hole 1!ocess
de1ends on an iden$i%ica$ion o% one>s sel% <i$h $he o$he!, and $his canno$ $a7e 1lace a"ong liing
%o!"s in <hich $he!e is no$ a ca1aci$y %o! 1&$$ing one>s sel% in $he 1lace o% $he o$he! $h!o&gh
co""&nica$ing in a sys$e" o% ges$&!es <hich cons$i$&$e lang&age. :e!e a!e $hen $<o 1hases in
<hich &nie!sal socie$ies, al$ho&gh highly a,s$!ac$ socie$ies, do ac$&ally e=is$, and <ha$ I hae ,een
1!esen$ing is $he i"1o!$ %!o" $he 1sychological s$and1oin$ o% $hese &nie!sal socie$ies and $hei!
$endencies $o co"1le$e $he"seles. One canno$ co"1le$e $he 1!ocess o% ,!inging goods in$o a
"a!7e$ e=ce1$ ,y deelo1ing "eans o% co""&nica$ion. The lang&age in <hich $ha$ is e=1!essed is
$he lang&age o% "oney. The econo"ic 1!ocess goes !igh$ on $ending $o ,!ing 1eo1le close! $oge$he!
,y se$$ing &1 "o!e and "o!e econo"ic $echniD&es and $he lang&age "echanis" necessa!y $o
$hese 1!oced&!es.
The sa"e is $!&e in a so"e<ha$ di%%e!en$ sense %!o" $he 1oin$ o% ie< o% $he &nie!sal !eligions.
They $end $o de%ine $he"seles in $e!"s o% co""&ni$ies, ,eca&se $hey iden$i%y $he"seles <i$h $he
c&l$ in $he co""&ni$y, ,&$ ,!ea7 o&$ ,eyond $his in $he "issiona!y "oe"en$, in $he %o!" o%
1!o1agandis$s. The !eligion "ay ,e o% a !ela$iely 1!i"i$ie so!$, as in Moha""edanis", o! in $he
"o!e co"1le= %o!"s o% B&ddhis" and Ch!is$iani$y@ ,&$ i$ inei$a,ly &nde!$a7es $o co"1le$e $he
!ela$ions inoled in $he a$$i$&de o% saing o$he! 1eo1le>s so&ls, o% hel1ing, assis$ing, o$he! 1eo1le. I$
deelo1s $he "issiona!y <ho is a 1hysician, $hose <ho a!e a!$isans, $hose <ho se$ &1 1!ocesses in
$he co""&ni$y <hich <ill lead $o $he a$$ach"en$ $o $he e!y $hings inoled in $he !eligio&s a$$i$&de.
0e see i$ %i!s$ o% all in $he "onas$e!ies o% E&!o1e, <he!e $he "on7s &nde!$oo7 $o se$ $he"seles &1
as $he a!$isans. They ill&s$!a$e $he $endency o% !eligion $o co"1le$e i$sel%, $o co"1le$e $he co""&ni$y
<hich 1!eio&sly e=is$ed in an a,s$!ac$ %o!". S&ch is $he 1ic$&!e $ha$ I <an$ed $o 1!esen$ as one o%
$he al&a,le in$e!1!e$a$ie con$!i,&$ions o% s&ch a ie< o% $he sel% as he!e deelo1ed.
/9# C$(3&ICT %() I(T"G*%TI$(
I hae ,een e"1hasi8ing $he con$in&ed in$eg!a$ion o% $he social 1!ocess, and $he 1sychology o% $he
sel% <hich &nde!lies and "a7es 1ossi,le $his 1!ocess. A <o!d no< as $o $he %ac$o!s o% con%lic$ and
disin$eg!a$ion. In $he ,ase,all ga"e $he!e a!e co"1e$ing indiid&als <ho <an$ $o ge$ in$o $he
li"eligh$, ,&$ $his can only ,e a$$ained ,y 1laying $he ga"e. Those condi$ions do "a7e a ce!$ain so!$
o% ac$ion necessa!y, ,&$ inside o% $he" $he!e can ,e all so!$s o% 9ealo&sly co"1e$ing indiid&als <ho
"ay <!ec7 $he $ea". The!e see"s $o ,e a,&ndan$ o11o!$&ni$y %o! diso!gani8a$ion in $he
o!gani8a$ion essen$ial $o $he $ea". This is so $o a "&ch la!ge! deg!ee in $he econo"ic 1!ocess.
The!e has $o ,e dis$!i,&$ion, "a!7e$s, "edi&"s o% e=change@ ,&$ <i$hin $ha$ %ield all 7inds o%
co"1e$i$ion and diso!gani8a$ions a!e 1ossi,le, since $he!e is an -I- as <ell as a -"e - in ee!y case.
:is$o!ical con%lic$s s$a!$, as a !&le, <i$h a co""&ni$y <hich is socially 1!e$$y highly o!gani8ed. S&ch
con%lic$s hae $o a!ise ,e$<een di%%e!en$ g!o&1s <he!e $he!e is an a$$i$&de o% hos$ili$y $o o$he!s
inoled. B&$ een he!e a <ide! social o!gani8a$ion is &s&ally $he !es&l$@ $he!e is, %o! ins$ance, an
a11ea!ance o% $he $!i,e oe! agains$ $he clan. I$ is a la!ge!, ag&e! o!gani8a$ion, ,&$ s$ill i$ is $he!e.
This is $he so!$ o% si$&a$ion <e hae a$ $he 1!esen$ $i"e@ oe! agains$ $he 1o$en$ial hos$ili$y o% na$ions
$o each o$he!, $hey !ecogni8e $he"seles as %o!"ing so"e so!$ o% co""&ni$y, as in $he Leag&e o%
Na$ions.
The %&nda"en$al socio?1hysiological i"1&lses o! ,ehaio! $endencies <hich a!c co""on $o all
h&"an indiid&als, <hich lead $hose indiid&als collec$iely $o en$e! o! %o!" $he"seles in$o
o!gani8ed socie$ies o! social co""&ni$ies, and <hich cons$i$&$e $he &l$i"a$e ,asis o% $hose socie$ies
o! social co""&ni$ies, %all, %!o" $he social 1oin$ o% >4ie<, in$o $<o "ain classes; $hose <hich lead $o
social coo1e!a$ion, and $hose <hich lead $o social an$agonis" a"ong indiid&als@ $hose <hich gie
!ise $o %!iendly a$$i$&des and !ela$ions, and $hose <hich gie !ise $o hos$ile a$$i$&des and !ela$ions,
a"ong $he h&"an indiid&als i"1lica$ed in $he social si$&a$ions. 0e hae &sed $he $e!" -social- in
i$s ,!oades$ and s$!ic$es$ sense@ ,&$ in $ha$ D&i$e co""on na!!o<e! sense, in <hich i$ ,ea!s an
e$hical conno$a$ion, only $he %&nda"en$al 1hysiological h&"an i"1&lses o! ,ehaio! $endencies >o%
$he %o!"e! class A$hose <hich a!e %!iendly, o! <hich "a7e %o! %!iendliness and coo1e!a$ion a"ong
$he indiid&als "o$ia$ed ,y $he"B a!e -social- o! lead $o -social- cond&c$@ <he!eas $hose i"1&lses
o! ,ehaio! $endencies o% $he la$$e! class A$hose <hich a!e hos$ile, o! <hich "a7e %o! hos$ili$y and
an$agonis" a"ong $he indiid&als "o$ia$ed ,y $he"B a!e -an$isocial- o! lead $o -an$i?social-
cond&c$. No< i$ is $!&e $ha$ $he la$$e! class o% %&nda"en$al i"1&lses o! ,ehaio! $endencies in
h&"an ,eings a!e -an$i?social- in so %a! as $hey <o&ld, ,y $he"seles, ,e des$!&c$ie o% all h&"an
social o!gani8a$ion, o! co&ld no$, alone, cons$i$&$e $he ,asis o% any o!gani8ed h&"an socie$y@ ye$ in
$he ,!oades$ and s$!ic$es$ non?e$hical sense $hey a!e o,io&sly no less social $han a!e $he %o!"e!
class o% s&ch i"1&lses o! ,ehaio! $endencies. They a!e eD&ally co""on $o, o! &nie!sal a"ong, all
h&"an indiid&als, and, i% any$hing, a!e "o!e easily and i""edia$ely a!o&sed ,y $he a11!o1!ia$e
social s$i"&li@ and as co",ined o! %&sed <i$h, and in a sense con$!olled ,y, $he %o!"e! i"1&lses o!
,ehaio! $endencies, $hey a!e 9&s$ as ,asic $o all h&"an social o!gani8a$ion as a!e $he %o!"e!, and
1lay a ha!dly less necessa!y and signi%ican$ 1a!$ in $ha$ social o!gani8a$ion i$sel% and in $he
de$e!"ina$ion o% i$s gene!al cha!ac$e!. Conside!, %o! e=a"1le, %!o" a"ong $hese -hos$ile- h&"an
i"1&lses o! a$$i$&des, $he %&nc$ioning o! e=1!ession o! o1e!a$ion o% $hose o% sel%?1!o$ec$ion and sel%?
1!ese!a$ion in $he o!gani8a$ion and o!gani8ed ac$ii$ies o% any gien h&"an socie$y o! social
co""&ni$y, le$ &s say, o% a "ode!n s$a$e o! na$ion. :&"an indiid&als !eali8e o! ,eco"e a<a!e o%
$he"seles as s&ch, al"os$ "o!e easily and !eadily in $e!"s o% $he social a$$i$&des connec$ed o!
associa$ed <i$h $hese $<o -hos$ile- i"1&lses Ao! in $e!"s o% $hese $<o i"1&lses as e=1!essed in
$hese a$$i$&desB $han $hey do in $e!"s o% any o$he! social a$$i$&des o! ,ehaio! $endencies as
e=1!essed ,y $hose a$$i$&des. 0i$hin $he social o!gani8a$ion o% a s$a$e o! na$ion $he -an$i?social-
e%%ec$s o% $hese $<o i"1&lses a!e c&!,ed and 7e1$ &nde! con$!ol ,y $he legal sys$e" <hich is one
as1ec$ o% $ha$ o!gani8a$ion@ $hese $<o i"1&lses a!e "ade $o cons$i$&$e $he %&nda"en$al 1!inci1les in
$e!"s o% <hich $he econo"ic sys$e", <hich is ano$he! as1ec$ o% $ha$ o!gani8a$ion, o1e!a$es@ as
co",ined and %&sed <i$h, and o!gani8ed ,y "eans o% $he -%!iendly- h&"an i"1&lses?$he i"1&lses
leading $o social coo1e!a$ion a"ong $he indiid&als inoled in $ha$ o!gani8a$ion?$hey a!e 1!een$ed
%!o" giing !ise $o $he %!ic$ion and en"i$y a"ong $hose indiid&als <hich <o&ld o$he!<ise ,e $hei!
na$&!al conseD&ence, and <hich <o&ld ,e %a$ally de$!i"en$al $o $he e=is$ence and <ell?,eing o% $ha$
o!gani8a$ion@ and haing $h&s ,een "ade $o en$e! as in$eg!al ele"en$s in$o $he %o&nda$ions o% $ha$
o!gani8a$ion, $hey a!e &$ili8ed ,y $ha$ o!gani8a$ion as %&nda"en$al i"1&lsie %o!ces in i$s o<n %&!$he!
deelo1"en$, o! $hey se!e as a ,asis %o! social 1!og!ess <i$hin i$s !ela$ional %!a"e<o!7. O!dina!ily,
$hei! "os$ o,io&s and conc!e$e e=1!ession o! "ani%es$a$ion in $ha$ o!gani8a$ion lies in $he a$$i$&des
o% !ial!y and co"1e$i$ion <hich $hey gene!a$e inside $he s$a$e o! na$ion as a <hole, a"ong di%%e!en$
socially %&nc$ional s&,g!o&1s o% indiid&als?s&,g!o&1s de$e!"ined Aand es1ecially econo"ically
de$e!"inedB ,y $ha$ o!gani8a$ion@ and $hese a$$i$&des se!e de%ini$e social ends o! 1&!1oses
1!es&11osed ,y $ha$ o!gani8a$ion, and cons$i$&$e $he "o$ies o% %&nc$ionally necessa!y social
ac$ii$ies <i$hin $ha$ o!gani8a$ion. B&$ sel%?1!o$ec$ie and sel%?1!ese!a$ional h&"an i"1&lses also
e=1!ess o! "ani%es$ $he"seles indi!ec$ly in $ha$ o!gani8a$ion, ,y giing !ise $h!o&gh $hei!
associa$ion in $ha$ o!gani8a$ion <i$h $he -%!iendly- h&"an i"1&lses, $o one o% $he 1!i"a!y cons$i$&$ie
ideals o! 1!inci1les o! "o$ies o% $ha$ o!gani8a$ion?na"ely, $he a%%o!ding o% social 1!o$ec$ion, and $he
lending o% social assis$ance, $o $he indiid&al ,y $he s$a$e in $he cond&c$ o% his li%e@ and ,y enhancing
$he e%%icacy, %o! $he 1&!1oses o% $ha$ o!gani8a$ion, o% $he -%!iendly- h&"an i"1&lses <i$h a sense o!
!eali8a$ion o% $he 1ossi,ili$y and desi!a,ili$y o% s&ch o!gani8ed social 1!o$ec$ion and assis$ance $o $he
indiid&al. Mo!eoe!, in any s1ecial ci!c&"s$ances in <hich $he s$a$e o! na$ion is, as a <hole,
con%!on$ed ,y so"e dange! co""on $o all i$s indiid&al "e",e!s, $hey ,eco"e %&sed <i$h $he
-%!iendly- h&"an i"1&lses in $hose indiid&als, in s&ch a <ay as $o s$!eng$hen and in$ensi%y in $hose
indiid&als $he sense o% o!gani8ed social &nion and coo1e!a$ie social in$e!!ela$ionshi1 a"ong $he"
in $e!"s o% $he s$a$e@ in s&ch ci!c&"s$ances, so %a! %!o" cons$i$&$ing %o!ces o% disin$eg!a$ion o!
des$!&c$ion <i$hin $he social o!gani8a$ion o% $he s$a$e o! na$ion, $hey ,eco"e, indi!ec$ly, $he
1!inci1les o% inc!eased social &ni$y, cohe!ence, and coo!dina$ion <i$hin $ha$ o!gani8a$ion. In $i"e o%
<a!, %o! e=a"1le, $he sel%?1!o$ec$ie i"1&lse in all $he indiid&al "e",e!s o% $he s$a$e is &ni$edly
di!ec$ed agains$ $hei! co""on ene"y and ceases, %o! $he $i"e ,eing, $o ,e di!ec$ed a"ong
$he"seles@ $he a$$i$&des o% !ial!y and co"1e$i$ion <hich $ha$ i"1&lse o!dina!ily gene!a$es ,e$<een
$he di%%e!en$ s"alle!, socially %&nc$ional g!o&1s o% $hose indiid&als <i$hin $he s$a$e a!e $e"1o!a!ily
,!o7en do<n@ $he &s&al social ,a!!ie!s ,e$<een $hese g!o&1s a!e li7e<ise !e"oed@ and $he s$a$e
1!esen$s a &ni$ed %!on$ $o $he gien co""on dange!, o! is %&sed in$o a single &ni$y in $e!"s o% $he
co""on end sha!ed ,y, o! !e%lec$ed in, $he !es1ec$ie conscio&snesses o% all i$s indiid&al
"e",e!s. I$ is &1on $hese <a!?$i"e e=1!essions o% $he sel%?1!o$ec$ie i"1&lse in all $he indiid&al
"e",e!s o% $he s$a$e o! na$ion $ha$ $he gene!al e%%icacy o% na$ional a11eals $o 1a$!io$is" is chie%ly
,ased.
F&!$he!, in $hose social si$&a$ions in <hich $he indiid&al sel% %eels de1enden$ %o! his con$in&a$ion o!
con$in&ed e=is$ence &1on $he !es$ o% $he "e",e!s o% $he gien social g!o&1 $o <hich he ,elongs, i$
is $!&e $ha$ no %eeling o% s&1e!io!i$y on his 1a!$ $o<a!d $hose o$he! "e",e!s o% $ha$ g!o&1 is
necessa!y $o his con$in&a$ion o! con$in&ed e=is$ence. B&$ in $hose social si$&a$ions in <hich he
canno$, %o! $he $i"e ,eing, in$eg!a$e his social !ela$ions <i$h o$he! indiid&al seles in$o a co""on,
&ni$a!y 1a$$e!n Ai.e., in$o $he ,ehaio! 1a$$e!n o% $he o!gani8ed socie$y o! social co""&ni$y $o <hich
he ,elongs, $he social ,ehaio! 1a$$e!n $ha$ he !e%lec$s in his sel%?s$!&c$&!e and $ha$ cons$i$&$es $his
s$!&c$&!eB, $he!e ens&es, $e"1o!a!ily Ai.e., &n$il he can so in$eg!a$e his social !ela$ions <i$h o$he!
indiid&al selesB, an a$$i$&de o% hos$ili$y, o% -la$en$ o11osi$ion,- on his 1a!$ $o<a!d $he o!gani8ed
socie$y o! social co""&ni$y o% <hich he is a "e",e!@ and d&!ing $ha$ $i"e $he gien indiid&al sel%
"&s$ -call in- o! !ely &1on $he %eeling o% s&1e!io!i$y $o<a!d $ha$ socie$y o! social co""&ni$y, o!
$o<a!d i$s o$he! indiid&al "e",e!s, in o!de! $o ,&oy hi"sel% &1 and -7ee1 hi"sel% going- as s&ch.
0e al<ays 1!esen$ o&!seles $o o&!seles in $he "os$ %ao!a,le ligh$ 1ossi,le@ ,&$ since <e all hae
$he 9o, o% 7ee1ing o&!seles going, i$ is D&i$e necessa!y $ha$ i% <e a!e $o 7ee1 o&!seles going <e
sho&ld $h&s 1!esen$ o&!seles $o o&!seles.
A highly deelo1ed and o!gani8ed h&"an socie$y is one in <hich $he indiid&al "e",e!s a!e
in$e!!ela$ed in a "&l$i1lici$y o% di%%e!en$ in$!ica$e and co"1lica$ed <ays <he!e,y $hey all sha!e a
n&",e! o% co""on social in$e!es$s,?in$e!es$s in, o! %o! $he ,e$$e!"en$ o%, $he socie$y?and ye$, on $he
o$he! hand, a!e "o!e o! less in con%lic$ !ela$ie $o n&"e!o&s o$he! in$e!es$s <hich $hey 1ossess only
indiid&ally, o! else sha!e <i$h one ano$he! only in s"all and li"i$ed g!o&1s. Con%lic$s a"ong
indiid&als in a highly deelo1ed and o!gani8ed h&"an socie$y a!e no$ "e!e con%lic$s a"ong $hei!
!es1ec$ie 1!i"i$ie i"1&lses ,&$ a!e con%lic$s a"ong $hei! !es1ec$ie seles o! 1e!sonali$ies, each
<i$h i$s de%ini$e social s$!&c$&!e?highly co"1le= and o!gani8ed and &ni%ied?and each <i$h a n&",e!
o% di%%e!en$ social %ace$s o! as1ec$s, a n&",e! o% di%%e!en$ se$s o% social a$$i$&des cons$i$&$ing i$.
Th&s, <i$hin s&ch a socie$y, con%lic$s a!ise ,e$<een di%%e!en$ as1ec$s o! 1hases o% $he sa"e
indiid&al sel% Acon%lic$s leading $o cases o% s1li$ 1e!sonali$y <hen $hey a!e e=$!e"e o! iolen$
eno&gh $o ,e 1sycho1a$hologicalB, as <ell as ,e$<een di%%e!en$ indiid&al seles. And ,o$h $hese
$y1es o% indiid&al con%lic$ a!e se$$led o! $e!"ina$ed ,y !econs$!&c$ions o% $he 1a!$ic&la! social
si$&a$ions, and "odi%ica$ions o% $he gien %!a"e<o!7 o% social !ela$ionshi1s, <he!ein $hey a!ise o!
occ&! in $he gene!al h&"an social li%e?1!ocess ?? $hese !econs$!&c$ions and "odi%ica$ions ,eing
1e!%o!"ed, as <e hae said, ,y $he "inds o% $he indiid&als in <hose e=1e!ience o! ,e$<een <hose
seles $hese con%lic$s $a7e 1lace.
Mind, as cons$!&c$ie o! !e%lec$ie o! 1!o,le"?soling $hin7ing, is $he socially acD&i!ed "eans o!
"echanis" o! a11a!a$&s <he!e,y $he h&"an indiid&al soles $he a!io&s 1!o,le"s o%
eni!on"en$al ad9&s$"en$ <hich a!ise $o con%!on$ hi" in $he co&!se o% his e=1e!ience, and <hich
1!een$ his cond&c$ %!o" 1!oceeding ha!"onio&sly on i$s <ay, &n$il $hey hae $h&s ,een deal$ <i$h.
And "ind o! $hin7ing is also?as 1ossessed ,y $he indiid&al "e",e!s o% h&"an socie$y?$he "eans
o! "echanis" o! a11a!a$&s <he!e,y social !econs$!&c$ion is e%%ec$ed o! acco"1lished ,y $hese
indiid&als. Fo! i$ is $hei! 1ossession o% "inds o! 1o<e!s o% $hin7ing <hich ena,les h&"an
indiid&als $o $&!n ,ac7 c!i$ically, as i$ <e!e, &1on $he o!gani8ed social s$!&c$&!e o% $he socie$y $o
<hich $hey ,elong Aand %!o" $hei! !ela$ions $o <hich $hei! "inds a!e in $he %i!s$ ins$ance de!iedB,
and $o !eo!gani8e o! !econs$!&c$ o! "odi%y $ha$ social s$!&c$&!e $o a g!ea$e! o! less deg!ee, as $he
e=igencies o% social eol&$ion %!o" $i"e $o $i"e !eD&i!e. Any s&ch social !econs$!&c$ion, i% i$ is $o ,e
a$ all %a!?!eaching, 1!es&11oses a ,asis o% co""on social in$e!es$s sha!ed ,y all $he indiid&al
"e",e!s o% $he gien h&"an socie$y in <hich $ha$ !econs$!&c$ion occ&!s@ sha!ed, $ha$ is, ,y all $he
indiid&als <hose "inds "&s$ 1a!$ici1a$e in, o! <hose "inds ,!ing a,o&$, $ha$ !econs$!&c$ion. And
$he <ay in <hich any> s&ch social !econs$!&c$ion is ac$&ally e%%ec$ed ,y $he "inds o% $he indiid&als
inoled is ,y a "o!e o! less a,s$!ac$ in$ellec$&al e=$ension o% $he ,o&nda!ies o% $he gien socie$y $o
<hich $hese indiid&als all ,elong, and <hich is &nde!going $he !econs$!&c$ion?an e=$ension
!es&l$ing in a la!ge! social <hole in $e!"s o% <hich $he social con%lic$s $ha$ necessi$a$e $he
!econs$!&c$ion o% $he gien socie$y a!e ha!"oni8ed o! !econciled, and ,y !e%e!ence $o <hich,
acco!dingly, $hese con%lic$s can ,e soled o! eli"ina$ed.+,-
The changes $ha$ <e "a7e in $he social o!de! in <hich <e a!e i"1lica$ed necessa!ily inole o&!
also "a7ing changes in o&!seles. The social con%lic$s a"ong $he indiid&al "e",e!s o% a gien
o!gani8ed h&"an socie$y, <hich, %o! $hei! !e"oal, necessi$a$e conscio&s o! in$elligen$
!econs$!&c$ions and "odi%ica$ions o% $ha$ socie$y ,y $hose indiid&als, also and eD&ally necessi$a$e
s&ch !econs$!&c$ions o! "odi%ica$ions ,y $hose indiid&als o% $hei! o<n seles o! 1e!sonali$ies. Th&s
$he !ela$ions ,e$<een social !econs$!&c$ion and sel% o! 1e!sonali$y !econs$!&c$ion a!e !eci1!ocal and
in$e!nal o! o!ganic@ social !econs$!&c$ion ,y $he indiid&al "e",e!s o% any o!gani8ed h&"an socie$y
en$ails sel% o! 1e!sonali$y !econs$!&c$ion in so"e deg!ee o! o$he! ,y each o% $hese indiid&als, and
ice e!sa, %o!, since $hei! seles o! 1e!sonali$ies a!e cons$i$&$ed ,y $hei! o!gani8ed social !ela$ions
$o one ano$he!, $hey canno$ !econs$!&c$ $hose seles o! 1e!sonali$ies <i$ho&$ also !econs$!&c$ing, $o
so"e e=$en$, $he gien social o!de!, <hich is, o% co&!se, li7e<ise cons$i$&$ed ,y $hei! o!gani8ed
social !ela$ions $o one ano$he!. In ,o$h $y1es o% !econs$!&c$ion $he sa"e %&nda"en$al "a$e!ial o%
o!gani8ed social !ela$ions a"ong h&"an indiid&als is inoled, and is si"1ly $!ea$ed in di%%e!en$
<ays, o! %!o" di%%e!en$ angles o! 1oin$s o% ie<, in $he $<o cases, !es1ec$iely@ o! in sho!$, social
!econs$!&c$ion and sel% o! 1e!sonali$y !econs$!&c$ion a!e $he $<o sides o% a single 1!ocess?$he
1!ocess o% h&"an social eol&$ion. :&"an social 1!og!ess inoles $he &se ,y h&"an indiid&als o%
$hei! socially de!ied "echanis" o% sel%?conscio&sness, ,o$h in $he e%%ec$ing o% s&ch 1!og!essie
social changes, and also in $he deelo1"en$ o% $hei! indiid&al seles o! 1e!sonali$ies in s&ch a <ay
as ada1$iely $o 7ee1 1ace <i$h s&ch social !econs$!&c$ion.
6l$i"a$ely and %&nda"en$ally socie$ies deelo1 in co"1le=i$y o% o!gani8a$ion only ,y "eans o% $he
1!og!essie achiee"en$ o% g!ea$e! and g!ea$e! deg!ees o% %&nc$ional, ,ehaio!is$ic di%%e!en$ia$ion
a"ong $he indiid&als <ho cons$i$&$e $he"@ $hese %&nc$ional, ,ehaio!is$ic di%%e!en$ia$ions a"ong $he
indiid&al "e",e!s i"1lying o! 1!es&11osing ini$ial o11osi$ions a"ong $he" o% indiid&al needs
and ends, o11osi$ions <hich in $e!"s o% social o!gani8a$ion, ho<ee!, a!e o! hae ,een $!ans%o!"ed
in$o $hese di%%e!en$ia$ions o! in$o "e!e s1eciali8a$ions o% socially %&nc$ional indiid&al ,ehaio!.
The h&"an social ideal?$he ideal o! &l$i"a$e goal o% h&"an social 1!og!ess?is $he a$$ain"en$ o% a
&nie!sal h&"an socie$y in <hich all h&"an indiid&als <o&ld 1ossess a 1e!%ec$ed social
in$elligence, s&ch $ha$ all social "eanings <o&ld each ,e si"ila!ly !e%lec$ed in $hei! !es1ec$ie
indiid&al conscio&snesses s&ch $ha$ $he "eanings o% any one indiid&al>s ac$s o! ges$&!es Aas
!eali8ed ,y hi" and e=1!essed in $he s$!&c$&!e o% his sel%, $h!o&gh his a,ili$y $o $a7e $he social
a$$i$&des o% o$he! indiid&als $o<a!d hi"sel% and $o<a!d $hei! co""on social ends o! 1&!1osesB
<o&ld ,e $he sa"e %o! any o$he! indiid&al <ha$ee! <ho !es1onded $o $he".
The in$e!loc7ing in$e!de1endence o% h&"an indiid&als &1on one ano$he! <i$hin $he gien o!gani8ed
social li%e?1!ocess in <hich $hey a!e all inoled is ,eco"ing "o!e and "o!e in$!ica$e and closely
7ni$ and highly o!gani8ed as h&"an social eol&$ion 1!oceeds on i$s co&!se. The <ide di%%e!ence, %o!
e=a"1le, ,e$<een $he %e&dal ciili8a$ion o% "edieal $i"es, <i$h i$s !ela$iely loose and disin$eg!a$ed
social o!gani8a$ion, and $he na$ional ciili8a$ion o% "ode!n $i"es, <i$h i$s !ela$iely $igh$ and
in$eg!a$ed social o!gani8a$ion A$oge$he! <i$h i$s $!end o% deelo1"en$ $o<a!d so"e %o!" o%
in$e!na$ional ciili8a$ionB, e=hi,i$s $he cons$an$ eol&$ion o% h&"an social o!gani8a$ion in $he
di!ec$ion o% g!ea$e! and g!ea$e! !ela$ional &ni$y and co"1le=i$y, "o!e and "o!e closely 7ni$
in$e!loc7ing and in$eg!a$ed &ni%ying o% all $he social !ela$ions o% in$e!de1endence <hich cons$i$&$e i$
and <hich hold a"ong $he indiid&als inoled in i$.
"ndnotes
1. The !e%le=ie cha!ac$e! o% sel%?conscio&sness ena,les $he indiid&al $o con$e"1la$e hi"sel%
as a <hole@ his a,ili$y $o $a7e $he social a$$i$&des o% o$he! indiid&als and also o% $he
gene!ali8ed o$he! $o<a!d hi"sel%, <i$hin $he gien o!gani8ed socie$y o% <hich he is a
"e",e!, "a7es 1ossi,le his ,!inging hi"sel%, as an o,9ec$ie <hole, <i$hin his o<n
e=1e!ien$ial 1&!ie<@ and $h&s he can conscio&sly in$eg!a$e and &ni%y $he a!io&s as1ec$s o%
his sel%, $o %o!" a single consis$en$ and cohe!en$ and o!gani8ed 1e!sonali$y. Mo!eoe!, ,y
$he sa"e "eans, he can &nde!$a7e and e%%ec$ in$elligen$ !econs$!&c$ions o% $ha$ sel% o!
1e!sonali$y in $e!"s o% i$s !ela$ions $o $he gien social o!de!, <henee! $he e=igencies o%
ada1$a$ion $o his social eni!on"en$ de"and s&ch !econs$!&c$ions.
0:# TH" 34(CTI$(S $3 P"*S$(%&IT' %() *"%S$( I( S$CI%& $*G%(I?%TI$(
0he!e a socie$y is o!gani8ed a!o&nd a "ona!ch, <he!e 1eo1le <i$hin $he sa"e s$a$e a!e so
se1a!a$e %!o" each o$he! $ha$ $hey can iden$i%y $he"seles <i$h each o$he! only $h!o&gh ,eing
s&,9ec$s o% a co""on "ona!ch, $hen, o% co&!se, $he !ela$ionshi1 o% $he s&,9ec$ $o $he "ona!ch
,eco"es o% s&1!e"e i"1o!$ance. I$ is only $h!o&gh s&ch !ela$ionshi1s $ha$ s&ch a co""&ni$y can ,e
se$ &1 and 7e1$ $oge$he!. This si$&a$ion is %o&nd in $he ancien$ e"1i!es o% Meso1o$a"ia, <he!e
1eo1le o% di%%e!en$ lang&ages and di%%e!en$ c&s$o"s had !ela$ionshi1 only $h!o&gh $he g!ea$ 7ings. I$
1!oides $he "os$ i""edia$e 1!ocess o% !ela$ionshi1@ only so %a! as $he 7ing>s a&$ho!i$y goes, and
$his co""on ,asis o% !ela$ionshi1 $o $he 7ing e=$ends, has $his $y1e o% socie$y o!gani8a$ion.
The i"1o!$ance o% $he "ona!ch oe! agains$ $he %e&dal o!de! lay in $he %ac$ $ha$ $he 7ing co&ld se$
&1 !ela$ionshi1s $o $he 1eo1le <idely se1a!a$ed e=ce1$ %o! $he !ela$ionshi1 <i$h hi". The 7ing
!e1!esen$ed $he 1eo1le in a &nie!sal %o!", <he!e 1!eio&sly $hey had no !ela$ionshi1 $o each o$he!
e=ce1$ $he hos$ili$y o% %e&dal co""&ni$ies %o! each o$he!. The!e yo& ge$ $he 1e!sonal !ela$ion, $he
!ela$ion o% s$a$&s, <hich is i"1o!$an$ in $he co""&ni$y. The !ela$ion is, o% co&!se, $ha$ o% s&,9ec$ $o
"ona!ch. I$ inoles $he acce1$ance o% an in%e!io! 1osi$ion, ,&$ $his is an acce1$ance <hich is gladly
"ade ,eca&se o% $he signi%icance $o $he co""&ni$y a$ la!ge <hich s&ch an o!de! "a7es 1ossi,le.
The co""&ni$y $o <hich $he indiid&al ,elongs is $y1i%ied in his !ela$ion $o $he 7ing, and een &nde!
a cons$i$&$ional "ona!chy $he "ona!ch ac$s $o hold i$ $oge$he!. Th!o&gh $he %eeling o% !ela$ion $o $he
7ing one can ge$ a %eeling %o! $he as$ conge!ies o% co""&ni$ies $ha$ do in so"e <ay hang $oge$he!.
In $his <ay a si$&a$ion o% s$a$&s "a7es 1ossi,le $ha$ <ide! and la!ge! co""&ni$y. I$ is 1ossi,le
$h!o&gh 1e!sonal !ela$ionshi1s ,e$<een a soe!eign and s&,9ec$ $o cons$i$&$e a co""&ni$y <hich
co&ld no$ o$he!<ise ,e so cons$i$&$ed, and $his %ac$ has 1layed a e!y i"1o!$an$ 1a!$ in $he
deelo1"en$ o% s$a$es.
I$ is in$e!es$ing $o see ho< $his si$&a$ion a11ea!ed in $he *o"an E"1i!e. The!e $he !ela$ionshi1 o%
$he e"1e!o! $o $he s&,9ec$s as s&ch <as one o% a,sol&$e 1o<e!, ,&$ i$ <as de%ined in legal $e!"s
<hich ca!!ied oe! $he de%ini$ions $ha$ ,elonged $o *o"an la< in$o $he !ela$ionshi1 ,e$<een $he
e"1e!o! and his s&,9ec$s. This, ho<ee!, cons$i$&$ed $oo a,s$!ac$ a !ela$ionshi1 $o "ee$ $he
de"ands o% $he co""&ni$y, and $he dei%ica$ion o% $he e"1e!o! &nde! $hese condi$ions <as $he
e=1!ession o% $he necessi$y o% se$$ing &1 so"e so!$ o% "o!e 1e!sonal !ela$ion. 0hen $he *o"an
"e",e! o% $he co""&ni$y o%%e!ed his sac!i%ice $o $he e"1e!o! he <as 1&$$ing hi"sel% in$o 1e!sonal
!ela$ionshi1 <i$h hi", and ,eca&se o% $ha$ he co&ld %eel his connec$ion <i$h all $he "e",e!s in $he
co""&ni$y. O% co&!se, $he conce1$ion o% $he dei$y &nde! $hose ci!c&"s$ances <as no$ co"1a!a,le
<i$h $he conce1$ion $ha$ <as deelo1ed in Ch!is$iani$y, ,&$ i$ <as $he se$$ing?&1 o% a 1e!sonal
!ela$ionshi1 <hich in a ce!$ain sense <en$ ,eyond $he 1&!ely legal !ela$ions inoled in $he
deelo1"en$ o% *o"an la<.
0e a!e all %a"ilia! <i$h $his %&nc$ion o% 1e!sonali$y in social o!gani8a$ion. 0e e=1!ess i$ in $e!"s o%
leade!shi1 o! in $he ag&e $e!" -1e!sonali$y.- 0he!e an o%%ice %o!ce is o!gani8ed ,y a good
"anage!, <e s1ea7 o% his 1e!sonali$y as 1laying a 1a!$. 0he!e $he ac$ion o% a "an in $he o%%ice is
"o!e o! less de1enden$ &1on his d!ead o% a !e1!i"and o! desi!e %o! a11!oal %!o" $he "anage!
hi"sel%, $he!e $he ele"en$ o% a 1e!sonal !ela$ionshi1 o% seles $o each o$he! 1lays a conside!a,le
1a!$, 1e!ha1s $he do"inan$ 1a!$, in $he ac$&al social o!gani8a$ion. I$ 1lays, o% course, $he do"inan$
1a!$ in $he !ela$ion o% child!en $o $hei! 1a!en$s. I$ is %o&nd in $he !ela$ion o% 1a!en$s $o each o$he!. I$
%!eD&en$ly 1lays a 1a!$ in 1oli$ical o!gani8a$ion, <he!e a leade! is one <hose 1e!sonali$y a<a7ens a
<a!" !es1onse. I$ is no$ necessa!y $o "&l$i1ly $he ins$ances in <hich $his so!$ o% !ela$ionshi1 o%
seles $o each o$he! in $e!"s o% 1e!sonali$y is o% i"1o!$ance in social o!gani8a$ion.
I$ is o% i"1o!$ance, ho<ee!, $o !ecogni8e $he di%%e!ence ,e$<een $ha$ o!gani8a$ion and an
o!gani8a$ion <hich is %o&nded, <e <ill say, &1on a !a$ional ,asis. I% 1eo1le ge$ $oge$he!, %o!" a
,&siness co!1o!a$ion, loo7 %o! a co"1e$en$ "anage!, disc&ss $he candida$es %!o" $he 1oin$ o% ie<
o% $hei! in$elligence, o% $hei! $!aining, $hei! 1as$ e=1e!ience, and %inally se$$le &1on a ce!$ain
indiid&al@ and $hen <hile $hey ge$ hi" $o $a7e $echnical con$!ol, $he "e",e!s o% $he co!1o!a$ion o%
di!ec$o!s a11oin$ed ,y $he s$oc7holde!s &nde!$a7e $o de$e!"ine <ha$ $he 1olicy shall ,e, $he!e a!ises
a si$&a$ion in <hich $his so!$ o% 1e!sonal !ela$ionshi1 is no$ essen$ial %o! $he o!gani8a$ion o% $his
1a!$ic&la! co""&ni$y. The o%%ice!s a!e de1ending &1on $he ca1aci$y o% $he chosen "an, and $he
in$e!es$s o% all inoled in $he conce!n, $o gie $he needed con$!ol. 9&s$ $o $he deg!ee $ha$ 1eo1le a!e
in$elligen$ in s&ch a si$&a$ion, $hey <ill o!gani8e in $he !ecogni$ion o% %&nc$ions <hich o$he!s hae $o
1e!%o!", and in $he !eali8a$ion o% $he necessi$y on $he 1a!$ o% each o% 1e!%o!"ing his o<n %&nc$ions in
o!de! $ha$ $he <hole "ay s&cceed. They <ill loo7 %o! an e=1e!$ $o ca!!y o&$ $he "anage!ial %&nc$ions.
The "anage!ial %o!" o% goe!n"en$ is an ill&s$!a$ion o% $he de%ini$e adance %!o" an o!gani8a$ion
<hich de1ends e!y conside!a,ly &1on 1e!sonal !ela$ions $o 1oli$ical leade!s, o! $he deo$ion o%
1a!$ies $o 1e!sons in cha!ge, $o $his so!$ o% !a$ional o!gani8a$ion on $he ,asis o% <ha$ a goe!n"en$
o&gh$ $o do in $he co""&ni$y. I% <e can "a7e $he %&nc$ion o% $he goe!n"en$ s&%%icien$ly clea!@ i% a
conside!a,le 1o!$ion o% $he co""&ni$y can ,e %ai!ly a<a!e o% <ha$ $hey <an$ $he goe!n"en$ $o do@
i% <e can ge$ $he 1&,lic 1!o,le"s, 1&,lic &$ili$ies, and so on, s&%%icien$ly ,e%o!e $he co""&ni$y so
$ha$ $he "e",e!s can say, -0e <an$ 9&s$ s&ch a so!$ o% goe!n"en$@ <e 7no< <ha$ !es&l$s a!e
<an$ed@ and <e a!e loo7ing %o! a "an ca1a,le o% giing &s $hose !es&l$s,- $hen $ha$ <o&ld ,e a
!a$ional $!ea$"en$ eli"ina$ing all ele"en$s o% 1e!sonali$y <hich hae no ,ea!ing &1on $he %&nc$ion o%
goe!n"en$. I$ <o&ld aoid $he di%%ic&l$y co""&ni$ies la,o! &nde! in !&nning $hei! co""&ni$ies ,y
"eans o% 1a!$ies. I% goe!n"en$ is ,y "eans o% 1a!$ies, i$ is necessa!y $o o!gani8e $hose 1a!$ies
"o!e o! less on 1e!sonal !ela$ions. 0hen a "an ,eco"es a good o!gani8e! o% his <a!d, <ha$ is
loo7ed %o! in s&ch a "an is one <ho ge$s hold o% 1eo1le Aes1ecially $hose <ho <an$ $o 1!o%i$ ,y
1o<e!B, a<a7ens $hei! 1e!sonal !ela$ions, and calls %o!$h <ha$ is 7no<n as -loyal$y.- S&ch a si$&a$ion
is "ade necessa!y ,y 1a!$y o!gani8a$ion, and a goe!n"en$ cond&c$ed on $ha$ ,asis canno$
eli"ina$e o! !a$ionali8e s&ch condi$ions, e=ce1$ &nde! c!ises in <hich so"e 1a!$ic&la! iss&e co"es
,e%o!e $he co&n$!y.
I <an$ $o indica$e $his diiding line ,e$<een an o!gani8a$ion de1ending on <ha$ $he co""&ni$y
<an$s $o acco"1lish $h!o&gh i$s goe!n"en$ and $he di!ec$ion o% $he goe!n"en$ %!o" $he 1oin$ o%
ie< o% 1e!sonal !ela$ions. The de1endence &1on 1e!sonal !ela$ions <e hae in so"e sense
inhe!i$ed %!o" $he 1as$. They a!e s$ill essen$ial %o! o&! o<n de"oc!acy. 0e co&ld no$ ge$ in$e!es$
eno&gh a$ $he 1!esen$ $i"e $o cond&c$ $he goe!n"en$ <i$ho&$ %alling ,ac7 on $he 1e!sonal !ela$ions
inoled in 1oli$ical 1a!$ies. B&$ i$ is o% in$e!es$, I $hin7, $o dis$ing&ish ,e$<een $hese $<o 1!inci1les o%
o!gani8a$ion. So %a! as <e hae $he "anage!ial %o!" o% goe!n"en$, i$ is <o!$h no$ing $ha$ <he!e i$
has co"e in, ha!dly any co""&ni$ies hae gien i$ &1. This ill&s$!a$es a si$&a$ion $ha$ has 1assed
,eyond 1e!sonal !ela$ionshi1s as $he ,asis %o! $he o!gani8a$ion o% $he co""&ni$y. B&$ as a !&le i$
can ,e said $ha$ o&! a!io&s de"oc!a$ic o!gani8a$ions o% socie$y s$ill a!e de1enden$ &1on 1e!sonal
!ela$ions %o! $he o1e!a$ion o% $he co""&ni$y, and es1ecially %o! $he o1e!a$ion o% $he goe!n"en$.
These 1e!sonal !ela$ions a!e also o% e!y g!ea$ i"1o!$ance in $he o!gani8a$ion o% $he co""&ni$y
i$sel%. I% loo7ed a$ %!o" $he %&nc$ional s$and1oin$, $hey "ay see" !a$he! igno,le@ and <e gene!ally $!y
$o coe! $he" &1. 0e "ay !ega!d $he" as a <ay o% !eali8ing one>s sel% ,y so"e so!$ o% s&1e!io!i$y $o
so"e,ody else. Tha$ 1hase is one <hich goes ,ac7 $o $he si$&a$ion in <hich a "an 1l&"es hi"sel%
<hen he ge$s so"e,ody else in a con%lic$ and e"e!ges ic$o!io&s. 0e hae e!y %!eD&en$ly $ha$
sense o% s&1e!io!i$y in <ha$ see"s !ela$iely &ni"1o!$an$ "a$$e!s. 0e a!e a,le $o hold on $o
o&!seles in li$$le $hings@ in $he <ays in <hich <e %eel o&!seles $o ,e a li$$le s&1e!io!. I% <e %ind
o&!seles de%ea$ed a$ so"e 1oin$ <e $a7e !e%&ge in %eeling $ha$ so"e,ody else is no$ as good as <e
a!e. Any 1e!son can %ind $hose li$$le s&11o!$s %o! <ha$ is called his sel%?!es1ec$. The i"1o!$ance o%
$his 1heno"enon co"es o&$ in $he !ela$ion o% g!o&1s $o each o$he!. The indiid&al <ho iden$i%ies
hi"sel% <i$h $he g!o&1 has $he sense o% an enla!ged 1e!sonali$y. So $he condi$ions &nde! <hich $his
sa$is%ac$ion can ,e o,$ained a!e $he condi$ions so&gh$ %o! as $he ,asis o% all si$&a$ions in <hich
g!o&1s ge$ $oge$he! and %eel $he"seles in $hei! s&1e!io!i$y oe! o$he! g!o&1s. I$ is on $his ,asis $ha$
<a!%a!e is ca!!ied on. :a$e co"es ,ac7 $o $he sense o% s&1e!io!i$y o% one co""&ni$y oe! ano$he!. I$
is in$e!es$ing $o see ho< $!iial $he ,asis o% $ha$ s&1e!io!i$y "ay ,e@ $he A"e!ican "ay $!ael a,!oad
and co"e ,ac7 <i$h si"1ly a sense o% $he ,e$$e! ho$els in A"e!ica.
A s$!i7ing di%%e!ence is %o&nd in $he %o!" in <hich al&es a$$ached $o $he sel% a11ea! in $he $<o %o!"s
o% social o!gani8a$ion <e a!e disc&ssing. In $he one case yo& !eali8e yo&!sel% in $hese 1e!sonal
!ela$ions $ha$ co"e ,ac7 $o $he s&1e!io!i$y o% yo&!sel% $o o$he!s, o! $o $he g!o&1 s&1e!io!i$y oe! o$he!
g!o&1s@ in $he o$he! case yo& co"e ,ac7 $o $he in$elligen$ ca!!ying?o&$ o% ce!$ain social %&nc$ions and
$he !eali8a$ion o% yo&!sel% in <ha$ yo& do &nde! $hose ci!c&"s$ances. The!e "ay ,e conceia,ly as
g!ea$ an en$h&sias" in one as in $he o$he! case, ,&$ <e can !eali8e $he di%%e!ence ,e$<een $he
ac$&al %el$ al&es. In $he %i!s$ case yo&! %el$ al&e de1ends di!ec$ly o! indi!ec$ly on $he sense o%
yo&!sel% in $e!"s o% yo&! s&1e!io!i$y <hich is in a ce!$ain sense s&,li"a$ed@ ,&$ yo& co"e ,ac7 $o a
di!ec$ %eeling o% s&1e!io!i$y $h!o&gh $he iden$i%ica$ion o% yo&!sel% <i$h so"e,ody else <ho is s&1e!io!.
The o$he! sense o% $he i"1o!$ance o% yo&! sel% is o,$ained, i% yo& li7e, $h!o&gh $he sense o%
1e!%o!"ing a social %&nc$ion, $h!o&gh %&l%illing yo&! d&$y as co""ande! o% $he co""&ni$y, %inding o&$
<ha$ is $o ,e done and going a,o&$ $o do i$. In $his !eali8a$ion o% yo&!sel% yo& do no$ hae $o hae
so"e,ody else <ho is in%e!io! $o yo& $o ca!!y i$ o&$. Yo& <an$ o$he! 1eo1le $o %&l%il $hei! %&nc$ions as
<ell. Yo& "ay %eel $ha$ yo& a!e ,e$$e! $han yo&! neigh,o! <ho did no$ do his 9o,, ,&$ yo& !eg!e$ $he
%ac$ $ha$ he did no$ do i$. Yo& do no$ %eel yo&! sel% in yo&! s&1e!io!i$y $o so"e,ody else ,&$ in $he
in$e!!ela$ion necessa!y in ca!!ying o&$ $he "o!e o! less co""on %&nc$ion.
I$ is $he di%%e!ence ,e$<een $hese al&es $ha$ I <an$ed $o call a$$en$ion $o, and, o% co&!se, $he
!ecogni$ion o% $he s&1e!io!i$y o% $he second oe! $he %i!s$. 0e canno$ igno!e $he i"1o!$ance o% $he
co""&ni$y ,ased on di!ec$ 1e!sonal !ela$ionshi1s, %o! i$ has ,een in a la!ge deg!ee !es1onsi,le %o!
$he o!gani8a$ion o% la!ge co""&ni$ies <hich co&ld o$he!<ise no$ hae a11ea!ed. I$ gies a co""on
g!o&nd $o 1e!sons <ho hae no o$he! ,asis %o! &nion@ i$ 1!oides $he ,asis %o! $he ideal co""&ni$ies
o% g!ea$ &nie!sal !eligions. 0e a!e con$in&ally %alling ,ac7 &1on $ha$ so!$ o% 1e!sonal !ela$ion <he!e
i$ is $h!o&gh o11osi$ion $ha$ one !eali8es hi"sel%, <he!e a !ela$ionshi1 o% s&1e!io!i$y o! in%e!io!i$y
en$e!s di!ec$ly in$o $he e"o$ional %ield. 0e a!e de1enden$ &1on i$ in "any <ays een in highly
!a$ional o!gani8a$ions, <he!e a "an <i$h 1&sh ge$s in$o a si$&a$ion and 9&s$ "a7es 1eo1le 7ee1 a$
$hei! 9o,s. B&$ <e al<ays !ecogni8e $ha$ $he sense o% $he sel% o,$ained $h!o&gh $he !eali8a$ion o% a
%&nc$ion in $he co""&ni$y is a "o!e e%%ec$ie and %o! a!io&s !easons a highe! %o!" o% $he sense o%
$he sel% $han $ha$ <hich is de1enden$ &1on $he i""edia$e 1e!sonal !ela$ions in <hich a !ela$ion o%
s&1e!io!i$y and in%e!io!i$y is inoled.
Conside! $he si$&a$ion in E&!o1e a$ $he 1!esen$ $i"e. The!e is an eiden$ desi!e on $he 1a!$ o%
na$ional co""&ni$ies $o ge$ $oge$he! in a !a$ional o!gani8a$ion o% $he co""&ni$y in <hich all $he
na$ions e=is$, and ye$ $he!e is no desi!e $o dis1ense <i$h $he sense o% hos$ili$y as a "eans o%
1!ese!ing na$ional sel%?conscio&sness. Na$ions hae $o 1!ese!e $his sense o% sel%@ $hey canno$ 9&s$
go $o 1ieces and disa11ea!. The ge$$ing o% $his na$ional sel%?conscio&sness <as a dis$inc$ s$e1
ahead, as <as $he ea!lie! se$$ing?&1 o% an e"1i!e. The co""&ni$ies a$ (enea <o&ld !a$he! go %o!
one ano$he!>s $h!oa$s $han gie &1 $he sel%?conscio&sness $ha$ "a7es $hei! o!gani8a$ions 1ossi,le.
(enea is a s$age, o! o&gh$ $o ,e a s$age, on <hich co""&ni$ies can ge$ $oge$he! in a %&nc$ional
!ela$ionshi1, !eali8ing $he"seles <i$ho&$ sha7ing $hei! %is$s a$ one ano$he!. I% $he sel% canno$ ,e
!eali8ed in any o$he! <ay, i$ is 1!o,a,ly ,e$$e! $o do i$ in $he la$$e! <ay. To !eali8e $he sel% is
essen$ial, and, i% i$ has $o ,e done ,y %igh$ing, i$ "ay ,e ,e$$e! $o 7ee1 a$ leas$ $he $h!ea$ o% a %igh$@
,&$ $he !eali8a$ion o% $he sel% in $he in$elligen$ 1e!%o!"ance o% a social %&nc$ion !e"ains $he highe!
s$age in $he case o% na$ions as o% indiid&als.
0,# $BST%C&"S %() P*$MIS"S I( TH" )"V"&$PM"(T $3 TH" I)"%& S$CI"T'
0e hae 1!esen$ed $he sel% %!o" $he side o% e=1e!ience@ i$ a!ises $h!o&gh coo1e!a$ie ac$ii$y@ i$ is
"ade 1ossi,le $h!o&gh $he iden$ical !eac$ions o% $he sel% and o$he!s. In so %a! as $he indiid&al can
call o&$ in his o<n na$&!e $hese o!gani8ed !es1onses and so $a7e $he a$$i$&de o% $he o$he! $o<a!d
hi"sel%, he can deelo1 sel%?conscio&sness, a !eac$ion o% $he o!ganis" $o i$sel%. On $he o$he! hand,
<e hae seen $ha$ an essen$ial "o"en$ in $his 1!ocess is $he !es1onse o% $he indiid&al $o $his
!eac$ion <hich does con$ain $he o!gani8ed g!o&1, $ha$ <hich is co""on $o all, $ha$ <hich is called
$he -"e.- I% indiid&als a!e so dis$ing&ished %!o" each o$he! $ha$ $hey canno$ iden$i%y $he"seles
<i$h each o$he!, i% $he!e is no$ a co""on ,asis, $hen $he!e canno$ ,e a <hole sel% 1!esen$ on ei$he!
side.
S&ch a dis$inc$ion, %o! e=a"1le, does lie ,e$<een $he in%an$ and $he h&"an socie$y in <hich he
en$e!s. :e canno$ hae $he <hole sel%?conscio&sness o% $he ad&l$@ and $he ad&l$ %inds i$ di%%ic&l$, $o
say $he leas$, $o 1&$ hi"sel% in$o $he a$$i$&de o% $he child. Tha$ is no$, ho<ee!, an i"1ossi,le $hing,
and o&! deelo1"en$ o% "ode!n ed&ca$ion !es$s on $his 1ossi,ili$y o% $he ad&l$ %inding a co""on
,asis ,e$<een hi"sel% and $he child. (o ,ac7 in$o $he li$e!a$&!e in <hich child!en a!e in$!od&ced in
$he si=$een$h, seen$een$h, and een eigh$een$h cen$&!ies, and yo& %ind child!en $!ea$ed as li$$le
ad&l$s@ $he <hole a$$i$&de $o<a!d $he" %!o" $he 1oin$ o% ie< o% "o!als, as <ell as $!aining, <as $ha$
$hey <e!e ad&l$s <ho <e!e so"e<ha$ de%icien$ and needed $o ,e disci1lined in o!de! $o ge$ $he"
in$o $he 1!o1e! a$$i$&de. Tha$ <hich $hey <e!e $o lea!n <as $o ,e ,!o&gh$ $o $he" in $he %o!" in <hich
an ad&l$ "a7es &se o% $he 7no<ledge. I$ <as no$ &n$il $he las$ cen$&!y $ha$ $he!e <as a de%ini$e
&nde!$a7ing on $he 1a!$ o% $hose in$e!es$ed in $he ed&ca$ion o% child!en $o en$e! in$o $he e=1e!ience
o% $he child and $o !ega!d i$ <i$h any !es1ec$.
Een in $he socie$y e!ec$ed on $he ,asis o% cas$es $he!e a!e so"e co""on a$$i$&des@ ,&$ $hey a!e
e!y !es$!ic$ed in n&",e!, and as $hey a!e !es$!ic$ed $hey c&$ do<n $he 1ossi,ili$y o% $he %&ll
deelo1"en$ o% $he sel%. 0ha$ is necessa!y &nde! $hose ci!c&"s$ances $o ge$ s&ch a sel% is a
<i$hd!a<al %!o" $ha$ cas$e o!de!. The "edieal 1e!iod in <hich $he!e <as a de%ini$e cas$e
o!gani8a$ion o% socie$y, <i$h se!%s, oe!lo!ds, and ecclesias$ical dis$inc$ions, 1!esen$s a si$&a$ion in
<hich $he a$$ain"en$ o% "e",e!shi1 in $he s1i!i$&al co""&ni$y !eD&i!ed $he <i$hd!a<al o% $he
indiid&al %!o" $he socie$y as o!de!ed in $he cas$e %ashion. S&ch is a$ leas$ a 1a!$ial e=1lana$ion o%
$he clois$e!ed li%e, and o% asce$icis". The sa"e $hing is !eealed in $he deelo1"en$ o% sain$s in
o$he! co""&ni$ies <ho <i$hd!a< %!o" $he social o!de!, and ge$ ,ac7 $o so"e so!$ o% a socie$y in
<hich $hese cas$es as s&ch a!e "edia$ed o! a,sen$. The deelo1"en$ o% $he de"oc!a$ic co""&ni$y
i"1lies $he !e"oal o% cas$es as essen$ial $o $he 1e!sonali$y o% $he indiid&al@ $he indiid&al is no$ $o
,e <ha$ he is in his s1eci%ic cas$e o! g!o&1 se$ oe! agains$ o$he! g!o&1s, ,&$ his dis$inc$ions a!e $o
,e dis$inc$ions o% %&nc$ional di%%e!ence <hich 1&$ hi" in !ela$ionshi1 <i$h o$he!s ins$ead o% se1a!a$ing
hi".+,-
The cas$e dis$inc$ion o% $he ea!ly <a!!io! class <as one <hich se1a!a$ed i$s "e",e!s %!o" $he
co""&ni$y. Thei! cha!ac$e!s as soldie!s di%%e!en$ia$ed $he" %!o" $he o$he! "e",e!s o% $he
co""&ni$y@ $hey <e!e <ha$ $hey <e!e ,eca&se $hey <e!e essen$ially di%%e!en$ %!o" o$he!s. Thei!
ac$ii$y se1a!a$ed $he" %!o" $he co""&ni$y. They een 1!eyed &1on $he co""&ni$y <hich $hey
<e!e s&11osed $o ,e de%ending, and <o&ld do so inei$a,ly ,eca&se $hei! ac$ii$y <as essen$ially a
%igh$ing ac$ii$y. 0i$h $he deelo1"en$ o% $he na$ional a!"y <hich $oo7 1lace a$ $he ,eginning o% $he
nine$een$h cen$&!y, $he!e <as $he 1ossi,ili$y o% ee!yone>s ,eing a <a!!io!, so $ha$ $he "an <ho <as
a %igh$ing "an <as s$ill a 1e!son <ho co&ld iden$i%y hi"sel% <i$h $he o$he! "e",e!s o% $he
co""&ni$y@ he had $hei! a$$i$&des and $hey had $he a$$i$&de o% $he %igh$ing "an. Th&s $he no!"al
!ela$ionshi1 ,e$<een $he %igh$ing "an and $he !es$ o% $he co""&ni$y <as one <hich ,o&nd 1eo1le
$oge$he!, in$eg!a$ed $he a!"y and $he ,ody o% $he s$a$e, ins$ead o% se1a!a$ing $he". The sa"e
1!og!ession is %o&nd in $he o$he! cas$es, s&ch as $he goe!ning as oe! agains$ $he goe!ned, an
essen$ial di%%e!ence <hich "ade i$ i"1ossi,le %o! $he indiid&al o% $ha$ 1a!$ic&la! g!o&1 $o iden$i%y
hi"sel% <i$h $he o$he!s, o! $he o$he!s $o iden$i%y $he"seles <i$h hi". The de"oc!a$ic o!de!
&nde!$a7es $o <i1e $ha$ di%%e!ence o&$ and $o "a7e ee!yone a soe!eign and ee!yone a s&,9ec$.
One is $o ,e a s&,9ec$ $o $he deg!ee $ha$ he is a soe!eign. :e is $o &nde!$a7e $o ad"inis$e! !igh$s
and "ain$ain $he" only in so %a! as he !ecogni8es $hose !igh$s in o$he!s. And so one "igh$ go on
$h!o&gh o$he! cas$e diisions.
E$hical ideas,+.- <i$hin any gien h&"an socie$y, a!ise in $he conscio&sness o% $he indiid&al
"e",e!s o% $ha$ socie$y %!o" $he %ac$ o% $he co""on social de1endence o% all $hese indiid&als
&1on one ano$he! Ao! %!o" $he %ac$ o% $he co""on social de1endence o% each one o% $he" &1on $ha$
socie$y as a <hole o! &1on all $he !es$ o% $he"B, and %!o" $hei! a<a!eness o! sensing o! conscio&s
!eali8a$ion o% $his %ac$. B&$ e$hical 1!o,le"s a!ise %o! indiid&al "e",e!s o% any gien h&"an socie$y
<henee! $hey a!e indiid&ally con%!on$ed <i$h a social si$&a$ion $o <hich $hey canno$ !eadily ad9&s$
and ada1$ $he"seles, o! in <hich $hey canno$ easily !eali8e $he"seles, o! <i$h <hich $hey canno$
i""edia$ely in$eg!a$e $hei! o<n ,ehaio!@ and $he %eeling in $he" <hich is conco"i$an$ <i$h $hei!
%acing and sol&$ion o% s&ch 1!o,le"s A<hich a!e essen$ially 1!o,le"s o% social ad9&s$"en$ and
ada1$a$ion $o $he in$e!es$s and cond&c$ o% o$he! indiid&alsB is $ha$ o% sel%?s&1e!io!i$y and $e"1o!a!y
o11osi$ion $o o$he! indiid&als. In $he case o% e$hical 1!o,le"s, o&! social !ela$ionshi1s <i$h o$he!
indiid&al "e",e!s o% $he gien h&"an socie$y $o <hich <e ,elong de1end &1on o&! a11osi$ion $o
$he", !a$he! $han, as in $he case o% $he deelo1"en$ o! %o!"&la$ion o% e$hical ideals, &1on o&! &ni$y,
coo1e!a$ion, and iden$i%ica$ion <i$h $he". Ee!y h&"an indiid&al "&s$, $o ,ehae e$hically,
in$eg!a$e hi"sel% <i$h $he 1a$$e!n o% o!gani8ed social ,ehaio! <hich, as !e%lec$ed o! 1!ehended in
$he s$!&c$&!e o% his sel%, "a7es hi" a sel%?conscio&s 1e!sonali$y. 0!ong, eil, o! sin%&l cond&c$ on
$he 1a!$ o% $he indiid&al !&ns co&n$e! $o $his 1a$$e!n o% o!gani8ed social ,ehaio! <hich "a7es hi",
as a sel%, <ha$ he is, 9&s$ as !igh$, good, o! i!$&o&s ,ehaio! acco!ds <i$h $his 1a$$e!n@ and $his %ac$
is $he ,asis o% $he 1!o%o&nd e$hical %eeling o% conscience?o% -o&gh$- and -o&gh$ no$- <hich <e all
hae, in a!ying deg!ees, !es1ec$ing o&! cond&c$ in gien social si$&a$ions. The sense <hich $he
indiid&al sel% has o% his de1endence &1on $he o!gani8ed socie$y o! social co""&ni$y $o <hich he
,elongs is $he ,asis and o!igin, in sho!$, o% his sense o% d&$y Aand in gene!al o% his e$hical
conscio&snessB@ and e$hical and &ne$hical ,ehaio! can ,e de%ined essen$ially in social $e!"s; $he
%o!"e! as ,ehaio! <hich is socially ,ene%icial o! cond&cie $o $he <ell?,eing o% socie$y, $he la$$e! as
,ehaio! <hich is socially ha!"%&l o! cond&cie $o $he dis!&1$ion o% socie$y. F!o" ano$he! 1oin$ o%
ie<, e$hical ideals and e$hical 1!o,le"s "ay ,e conside!ed in $e!"s o% $he con%lic$ ,e$<een $he
social and $he asocial A$he i"1e!sonal and $he 1e!sonalB sides o! as1ec$s o% $he indiid&al sel%. The
social o! i"1e!sonal as1ec$ o% $he sel% in$eg!a$es i$ <i$h $he social g!o&1 $o <hich i$ ,elongs and $o
<hich i$ o<es i$s e=is$ence@ and $his side o% $he sel% is cha!ac$e!i8ed ,y $he indiid&al>s %eeling o%
coo1e!a$ion and eD&ali$y <i$h $he o$he! "e",e!s o% $ha$ social g!o&1. The asocial o! 1e!sonal
as1ec$ o% $he sel% A<hich, nee!$heless, is also and eD&ally social, %&nda"en$ally in $he sense o%
,eing socially de!ied o! o!igina$ed and o% e=is$en$ially inoling social !ela$ions <i$h o$he!
indiid&als, as "&ch as $he i"1e!sonal as1ec$ o% $he sel% is and doesB, on $he o$he! hand,
di%%e!en$ia$es i$ %!o", o! se$s i$ in dis$inc$ie and &niD&e o11osi$ion $o, $he o$he! "e",e!s o% $he
social g!o&1 $o <hich i$ ,elongs@ and $his side o% $he sel% is cha!ac$e!i8ed ,y $he indiid&al>s %eeling
o% s&1e!io!i$y $o<a!d $he o$he! "e",e!s o% $ha$ g!o&1. The -social- as1ec$ o% h&"an socie$y?<hich is
si"1ly $he social as1ec$ o% $he seles o% all indiid&al "e",e!s $a7en collec$iely?<i$h i$s
conco"i$an$ %eelings on $he 1a!$s o% all $hese indiid&als o% coo1e!a$ion and social in$e!de1endence,
is $he ,asis %o! $he deelo1"en$ and e=is$ence o% e$hical ideals in $ha$ socie$y@ <he!eas $he -asocial-
as1ec$ o% h&"an socie$y ?<hich is si"1ly $he asocial as1ec$ o% $he seles o% all indiid&al "e",e!s
$a7en collec$iely?<i$h i$s conco"i$an$ %eelings on $he 1a!$s o% all $hese indiid&als o% indiid&ali$y,
sel%?s&1e!io!i$y $o o$he! indiid&al seles, and social inde1endence, is !es1onsi,le %o! $he !ise o%
e$hical 1!o,le"s in $ha$ socie$y. These $<o ,asic as1ec$s o% each single indiid&al sel% a!e, o%
co&!se, !es1onsi,le in $he sa"e <ay o! a$ $he sa"e $i"e %o! $he deelo1"en$ o% e$hical ideals and
$he !ise o% e$hical 1!o,le"s in $he indiid&al>s o<n e=1e!ience as o11osed $o $he e=1e!ience o%
h&"an socie$y as a <hole, <hich is o,io&sly no$hing ,&$ $he s&"?$o$al o% $he social e=1e!iences o%
all i$s indiid&al "e",e!s.
Those social si$&a$ions in <hich $he indiid&al %inds i$ easies$ $o in$eg!a$e his o<n ,ehaio! <i$h $he
,ehaio! o% $he o$he! indiid&al seles a!e $hose in <hich all $he indiid&al 1a!$ici1an$s a!e "e",e!s
o% so"e one o% $he n&"e!o&s socially %&nc$ional g!o&1s o% indiid&als Ag!o&1s o!gani8ed,
!es1ec$iely, %o! a!io&s s1ecial social ends and 1&!1osesB <i$hin $he gien h&"an socie$y as a
<hole@ and in <hich he and $hey a!e ac$ing in $hei! !es1ec$ie ca1aci$ies as "e",e!s o% $his
1a!$ic&la! g!o&1. AEe!y indiid&al "e",e! o% any gien h&"an socie$y, o% co&!se, ,elongs $o a la!ge
n&",e! o% s&ch di%%e!en$ %&nc$ional g!o&1s.B On $he o$he! hand, $hose social si$&a$ions in <hich $he
indiid&al %inds i$ "os$ di%%ic&l$ $o in$eg!a$e his o<n ,ehaio! <i$h $he ,ehaio! o% o$he!s a!e $hose in
<hich he and $hey a!e ac$ing as "e",e!s, !es1ec$iely, o% $<o o! "o!e di%%e!en$ socially %&nc$ional
g!o&1s; g!o&1s <hose !es1ec$ie social 1&!1oses o! in$e!es$s a!e an$agonis$ic o! con%lic$ing o!
<idely se1a!a$ed. In social si$&a$ions o% $he %o!"e! gene!al $y1e each indiid&al>s a$$i$&de $o<a!d $he
o$he! indiid&als is essen$ially social@ and $he co",ina$ion o% all $hese social a$$i$&des $o<a!d one
ano$he! o% $he indiid&als !e1!esen$s, o! $ends $o !eali8e "o!e o! less co"1le$ely, $he ideal o% any
social si$&a$ion !es1ec$ing o!gani8a$ion, &ni%ica$ion, co?o1e!a$ion, and in$eg!a$ion o% $he ,ehaio! o%
$he see!al indiid&als inoled. In any social si$&a$ion o% $his gene!al $y1e $he indiid&al !eali8es
hi"sel% as s&ch in his !ela$ion $o all $he o$he! "e",e!s o% $he gien socially %&nc$ional g!o&1 and
!eali8es his o<n 1a!$ic&la! social %&nc$ion in i$s !ela$ions $o $he !es1ec$ie %&nc$ions o% all o$he!
indiid&als. :e $a7es o! ass&"es $he social a$$i$&des o% all $hese o$he! indiid&als $o<a!d hi"sel%
and $o<a!d one ano$he!, and in$eg!a$es hi"sel% <i$h $ha$ si$&a$ion o! g!o&1 ,y con$!olling his o<n
,ehaio! o! cond&c$ acco!dingly@ so $ha$ $he!e is no$hing in $he leas$ co"1e$i$ie o! hos$ile in his
!ela$ions <i$h $hese o$he! indiid&als. In social si$&a$ions o% $he la$$e! gene!al $y1e on $he o$he! hand,
each indiid&al>s a$$i$&de $o<a!d $he o$he! indiid&als is essen$ially asocial o! hos$ile A$ho&gh $hese
a$$i$&des a!e o% co&!se social in $he %&nda"en$al non?e$hical sense, and a!e socially de!iedB@ s&ch
si$&a$ions a!e so co"1le= $ha$ $he a!io&s indiid&als inoled in any one o% $he" ei$he! canno$ ,e
,!o&gh$ in$o co""on social !ela$ions <i$h one ano$he! a$ all o! else can ,e ,!o&gh$ in$o s&ch
!ela$ions only <i$h g!ea$ di%%ic&l$y, a%$e! long and $o!$&o&s 1!ocesses o% "&$&al social ad9&s$"en$@ %o!
any s&ch si$&a$ion lac7s a co""on g!o&1 o! social in$e!es$ sha!ed ,y all $he indiid&als?i$ has no
one co""on social end o! 1&!1ose cha!ac$e!i8ing i$ and se!ing $o &ni$e and coo!dina$e and
ha!"onio&sly in$e!!ela$e $he ac$ions o% all $hose indiid&als@ ins$ead, $hose indiid&als a!e "o$ia$ed,
in $ha$ si$&a$ion, ,y see!al di%%e!en$ and "o!e o! less con%lic$ing social in$e!es$s o! 1&!1oses.
E=a"1les o% social si$&a$ions o% $his gene!al $y1e a!e $hose inoling in$e!ac$ions o! !ela$ions
,e$<een ca1i$al and la,o!, i.e., $hose in <hich so"e o% $he indiid&als a!e ac$ing in $hei! socially
%&nc$ional ca1aci$y as "e",e!s o% $he ca1i$alis$ic class, <hich is one econo"ic as1ec$ o% "ode!n
h&"an social o!gani8a$ion@ <he!eas $he o$he! indiid&als a!e ac$ing in $hei! socially %&nc$ional
ca1aci$y as "e",e!s o% $he la,o!ing class, <hich is ano$he! Aand in social in$e!es$s di!ec$ly
o11osedB econo"ic as1ec$ o% $ha$ social o!gani8a$ion. O$he! e=a"1les o% social si$&a$ions o% $his
gene!al $y1e a!e $hose in <hich $he indiid&als inoled s$and in $he econo"ic !ela$ions $o each
o$he! o% 1!od&ce!s and cons&"e!s, o! ,&ye!s and selle!s, and a!e ac$ing in $hei! !es1ec$ie socially
%&nc$ional ca1aci$ies as s&ch. B&$ een $he social si$&a$ions o% $his gene!al $y1e Ainoling co"1le=
social an$agonis"s and die!si$ies o% social in$e!es$s a"ong $he indiid&als i"1lica$ed in any one o%
$he", and !es1ec$iely lac7ing $he coo!dina$ing, in$eg!a$ing, &ni%ying in%l&ence o% co""on social
ends and "o$ies sha!ed ,y $hose indiid&alsB, een $hese social si$&a$ions, as occ&!!ing <i$hin $he
gene!al h&"an social 1!ocess o% e=1e!ience and ,ehaio!, a!e de%ini$e as1ec$s o% o! ing!edien$s in
$he gene!al !ela$ional 1a$$e!n o% $ha$ 1!ocess as a <hole.
0ha$ is essen$ial $o $he o!de! o% socie$y in i$s %&lles$ e=1!ession on $he ,asis o% $he $heo!y o% $he sel%
$ha$ <e hae ,een disc&ssing is, $hen, an o!gani8a$ion o% co""on a$$i$&des <hich shall ,e %o&nd in
all indiid&als. I$ "igh$ ,e s&11osed $ha$
s&ch an o!gani8a$ion o% a$$i$&des <o&ld !e%e! only $o $ha$ a,s$!ac$ h&"an ,eing <hich co&ld ,e %o&nd
as iden$ical in all "e",e!s o% socie$y, and $ha$ $ha$ <hich is 1ec&lia! $o $he 1e!sonali$y o% $he
indiid&al <o&ld disa11ea!. The $e!" -1e!sonali$y- i"1lies $ha$ $he indiid&al has ce!$ain co""on
!igh$s and al&es o,$ained in hi" and $h!o&gh hi"@ ,&$ oe! and a,oe $ha$ so!$ o% social
endo<"en$ o% $he indiid&al, $he!e is $ha$ <hich dis$ing&ishes hi" %!o" any,ody else, "a7es hi"
<ha$ he is. I$ is $he "os$ 1!ecio&s 1a!$ o% $he indiid&al. The D&es$ion is <he$he! $ha$ can ,e ca!!ied
oe! in$o $he social sel% o! <he$he! $he social sel% shall si"1ly e",ody $hose !eac$ions <hich can ,e
co""on $o hi" in a g!ea$ co""&ni$y. On $he acco&n$ <e hae gien <e a!e no$ %o!ced $o acce1$
$he la$$e! al$e!na$ie.
0hen one !eali8es hi"sel%, in $ha$ he dis$ing&ishes hi"sel%, he asse!$s hi"sel% oe! o$he!s in so"e
1ec&lia! si$&a$ion <hich 9&s$i%ies hi" in "ain$aining hi"sel% oe! agains$ $he". I% he co&ld no$ ,!ing
$ha$ 1ec&lia!i$y o% hi"sel% in$o $he co""on co""&ni$y, i% i$ co&ld no$ ,e !ecogni8ed, i% o$he!s co&ld
no$ $a7e his a$$i$&de in so"e sense, he co&ld no$ hae a11!ecia$ion in e"o$ional $e!"s, he co&ld no$
,e $he e!y sel% he is $!ying $o ,e. The a&$ho!, $he a!$is$, "&s$ hae his a&dience@ i$ "ay ,e an
a&dience $ha$ ,elongs $o 1os$e!i$y, ,&$ $he!e "&s$ ,e an a&dience. One has $o %ind one>s sel% in his
o<n indiid&al c!ea$ion as a11!ecia$ed ,y o$he!s@ <ha$ $he indiid&al acco"1lishes "&s$ ,e
so"e$hing $ha$ is in i$sel% social. So %a! as he is a sel%, he "&s$ ,e an o!ganic 1a!$ o% $he li%e o% $he
co""&ni$y, and his con$!i,&$ion has $o ,e so"e$hing $ha$ is social. I$ "ay ,e an ideal <hich he has
discoe!ed, ,&$ i$ has i$s al&e in $he %ac$ $ha$ i$ ,elongs $o socie$y. One "ay ,e so"e<ha$ ahead o%
his $i"e, ,&$ $ha$ <hich he ,!ings %o!<a!d "&s$ ,elong $o $he li%e o% $he co""&ni$y $o <hich he
,elongs. The!e is, $hen, a %&nc$ional di%%e!ence, ,&$ i$ "&s$ ,e a %&nc$ional di%%e!ence <hich can ,e
en$e!ed in$o in so"e !eal sense ,y $he !es$ o% $he co""&ni$y. O% co&!se, $he!e a!e con$!i,&$ions
<hich so"e "a7e $ha$ o$he!s canno$ "a7e, and $he!e "ay ,e con$!i,&$ions <hich 1eo1le canno$
en$e! in$o@ ,&$ $hose $ha$ go $o "a7e &1 $he sel% a!e only $hose <hich can ,e sha!ed. To do 9&s$ice $o
$he !ecogni$ion o% $he &niD&eness o% an indiid&al in social $e!"s, $he!e "&s$ ,e no$ only $he
di%%e!en$ia$ion <hich <e do hae in a highly o!gani8ed socie$y ,&$ a di%%e!en$ia$ion in <hich $he
a$$i$&des inoled can ,e $a7en ,y o$he! "e",e!s o% $he g!o&1.
Ta7e, %o! e=a"1le, $he la,o! "oe"en$. I$ is essen$ial $ha$ $he o$he! "e",e!s o% $he co""&ni$y
shall ,e a,le $o en$e! in$o $he a$$i$&de o% $he la,o!e! in his %&nc$ions. I$ is $he cas$e o!gani8a$ion, o%
co&!se, <hich "a7es i$ i"1ossi,le@ and $he deelo1"en$ o% $he "ode!n la,o! "oe"en$ no$ only
,!o&gh$ $he si$&a$ion ac$&ally inoled ,e%o!e $he co""&ni$y ,&$ inei$a,ly hel1ed $o ,!ea7 do<n $he
cas$e o!gani8a$ion i$sel%. The cas$e o!gani8a$ion $ended $o se1a!a$e in $he seles $he essen$ial
%&nc$ions o% $he indiid&als so $ha$ one co&ld no$ en$e! in$o $he o$he!. This does no$, o% co&!se, sh&$
o&$ $he 1ossi,ili$y o% so"e so!$ o% social !ela$ionshi1@ ,&$ any s&ch !ela$ionshi1 inoles $he
1ossi,ili$y o% $he indiid&al>s $a7ing $he a$$i$&de o% $he o$he! indiid&als, and %&nc$ional di%%e!en$ia$ion
does no$ "a7e $ha$ i"1ossi,le. A "e",e! o% $he co""&ni$y is no$ necessa!ily li7e o$he! indiid&als
,eca&se he is a,le $o iden$i%y hi"sel% <i$h $he". :e "ay ,e di%%e!en$. The!e can ,e a co""on
con$en$, co""on e=1e!ience, <i$ho&$ $he!e ,eing an iden$i$y o% %&nc$ion. A di%%e!ence o% %&nc$ions
does no$ 1!ecl&de a co""on e=1e!ience@ i$ is 1ossi,le %o! $he indiid&al $o 1&$ hi"sel% in $he 1lace
o% $he o$he! al$ho&gh his %&nc$ion is di%%e!en$ %!o" $he o$he!. I$ is $ha$ so!$ o% %&nc$ionally
di%%e!en$ia$ed 1e!sonali$y $ha$ I <an$ed $o !e%e! $o as oe! agains$ $ha$ <hich is si"1ly co""on $o all
"e",e!s o% a co""&ni$y.
The!e is, o% co&!se, a ce!$ain co""on se$ o% !eac$ions <hich ,elong $o all, <hich a!e no$
di%%e!en$ia$ed on $he social side ,&$ <hich ge$ $hei! e=1!ession in !igh$s, &ni%o!"i$ies, $he co""on
"e$hods o% ac$ion <hich cha!ac$e!i8e "e",e!s o% di%%e!en$ co""&ni$ies, "anne!s o% s1eech, and
so on. Dis$ing&isha,le %!o" $hose is $he iden$i$y <hich is co"1a$i,le <i$h $he di%%e!ence o% social
%&nc$ions o% $he indiid&als, ill&s$!a$ed ,y $he ca1aci$y o% $he indiid&al $o $a7e $he 1a!$ o% $he o$he!s
<ho" he is a%%ec$ing, $he <a!!io! 1&$$ing hi"sel% in $he 1lace o% $hose <ho" he is 1!oceeding
agains$, $he $eache! 1&$$ing hi"sel% in $he 1osi$ion o% $he child <ho" he is &nde!$a7ing $o ins$!&c$.
Tha$ ca1aci$y allo<s %o! e=hi,i$ing one>s o<n ?1ec&lia!i$ies, and ?a$ $he sa"e $i"e $a7ing $he a$$i$&de
o% $he o$he!s <ho" he is hi"sel% a%%ec$ing. I$ is 1ossi,le %o! $he indiid&al $o deelo1 his o<n
1ec&lia!i$ies, $ha$ <hich indiid&ali8es hi", and s$ill ,e a "e",e! o% a co""&ni$y, 1!oided $ha$ he
is a,le $o $a7e $he a$$i$&de o% $hose <ho" he a%%ec$s. O% co&!se, $he deg!ee $o <hich $ha$ $a7es 1lace
a!ies $!e"endo&sly, ,&$ a ce!$ain a"o&n$ o% i$ is essen$ial $o ci$i8enshi1 in $he co""&ni$y.
One "ay say $ha$ $he a$$ain"en$ o% $ha$ %&nc$ional di%%e!en$ia$ion and social 1a!$ici1a$ion in $he %&ll
deg!ee is a so!$ o% ideal <hich lies ,e%o!e $he h&"an co""&ni$y. The 1!esen$ s$age o% i$ is
1!esen$ed in $he ideal o% de"oc!acy. I$ is o%$en ass&"ed $ha$ de"oc!acy is an o!de! o% socie$y in
<hich $hose 1e!sonali$ies <hich a!e sha!1ly di%%e!en$ia$ed <ill ,e eli"ina$ed, $ha$ ee!y$hing <ill ,e
i!oned do<n $o a si$&a$ion <he!e ee!yone <ill ,e, as %a! as 1ossi,le, li7e ee!yone else. B&$ o%
co&!se $ha$ is no$ $he i"1lica$ion o% de"oc!acy; $he i"1lica$ion o% de"oc!acy is !a$he! $ha$ $he
indiid&al can ,e as highly deelo1ed as lies <i$hin $he 1ossi,ili$ies o% his o<n inhe!i$ance, and s$ill
can en$e! in$o $he a$$i$&des o% $he o$he!s <ho" he a%%ec$s. The!e can s$ill ,e leade!s, and $he
co""&ni$y can !e9oice in $hei! a$$i$&des 9&s$ in so %a! as $hese s&1e!io! indiid&als can $he"seles
en$e! in$o $he a$$i$&des o% $he co""&ni$y <hich $hey &nde!$a7e $o lead.
:o< %a! indiid&als can $a7e $he !Mles o% o$he! indiid&als in $he co""&ni$y is de1enden$ &1on a
n&",e! o% %ac$o!s. The co""&ni$y "ay in I$s si8e $!anscend $he social o!gani8a$ion, "ay go ,eyond
$he social o!gani8a$ion <hich "a7es s&ch iden$i%ica$ion 1ossi,le. The "os$ s$!i7ing ill&s$!a$ion o% $ha$
is $he econo"ic co""&ni$y. This incl&des ee!y,ody <i$h <ho" one can $!ade in any
ci!c&"s$ances, ,&$ i$ !e1!esen$s a <hole in <hich i$ <o&ld ,e ne=$ $o i"1ossi,le %o! all $o en$e! in$o
$he a$$i$&des o% $he o$he!s. The ideal co""&ni$ies o% $he &nie!sal !eligions a!e co""&ni$ies <hich
$o so"e e=$en$ "ay ,e said $o e=is$, ,&$ $hey i"1ly a deg!ee o% iden$i%ica$ion <hich $he ac$&al
o!gani8a$ion o% $he co""&ni$y canno$ !eali8e. 0e o%$en %ind $he e=is$ence o% cas$es in a co""&ni$y
<hich "a7e i$ i"1ossi,le %o! 1e!sons $o en$e! in$o $he a$$i$&de o% o$he! 1eo1le al$ho&gh $hey a!e
ac$&ally a%%ec$ing and a!e a%%ec$ed ,y $hese o$he! 1eo1le. The ideal o% h&"an socie$y is one <hich
does ,!ing 1eo1le so closely $oge$he! in $hei! in$e!!ela$ionshi1s, so %&lly deelo1s $he necessa!y
sys$e" o% co""&nica$ion, $ha$ $he indiid&als <ho e=e!cise $hei! o<n 1ec&lia! %&nc$ions can $a7e
$he a$$i$&de o% $hose <ho" $hey a%%ec$. The deelo1"en$ o% co""&nica$ion is no$ si"1ly a "a$$e! o%
a,s$!ac$ ideas, ,&$ is a 1!ocess o% 1&$$ing one>s sel% in $he 1lace o% $he o$he! 1e!son>s a$$i$&de,
co""&nica$ing $h!o&gh signi%ican$ sy",ols. *e"e",e! $ha$ <ha$ is essen$ial $o a signi%ican$ sy",ol
is $ha$ $he ges$&!e <hich a%%ec$s o$he!s sho&ld a%%ec$ $he indiid&al hi"sel% in $he sa"e <ay. I$ is only
<hen $he s$i"&l&s <hich one gies ano$he! a!o&ses in hi"sel% $he sa"e o! li7e !es1onse $ha$ $he
sy",ol is a signi%ican$ sy",ol. :&"an co""&nica$ion $a7es 1lace $h!o&gh s&ch signi%ican$
sy",ols, and $he 1!o,le" is one o% o!gani8ing a co""&ni$y <hich "a7es $his 1ossi,le. I% $ha$
sys$e" o% co""&nica$ion co&ld ,e "ade $heo!e$ically 1e!%ec$, $he indiid&al <o&ld a%%ec$ hi"sel% as
he a%%ec$s o$he!s in ee!y <ay. Tha$ <o&ld ,e $he ideal o% co""&nica$ion, an ideal a$$ained in logical
disco&!se <he!ee! i$ is &nde!s$ood. The "eaning o% $ha$ <hich is said is he!e $he sa"e $o one as i$
is $o ee!y,ody else. 6nie!sal disco&!se is $hen $he %o!"al ideal o% co""&nica$ion. I%
co""&nica$ion can ,e ca!!ied $h!o&gh and "ade 1e!%ec$, $hen $he!e <o&ld e=is$ $he 7ind o%
de"oc!acy $o <hich <e hae !e%e!!ed, in <hich each indiid&al <o&ld ca!!y 9&s$ $he !es1onse in
hi"sel% $ha$ he 7no<s he calls o&$ in $he co""&ni$y. Tha$ is <ha$ "a7es co""&nica$ion in $he
signi%ican$ sense $he o!gani8ing 1!ocess in $he co""&ni$y. I$ is no$ si"1ly a 1!ocess o% $!ans%e!!ing
a,s$!ac$ sy",ols@ i$ is al<ays a ges$&!e in a social ac$ <hich calls o&$ in $he indiid&al hi"sel% $he
$endency $o $he sa"e ac$ $ha$ is called o&$ in o$he!s.
0ha$ <e call $he ideal o% a h&"an socie$y is a11!oached in so"e sense ,y $he econo"ic socie$y on
$he one side and ,y $he &nie!sal !eligions on $he o$he! side, ,&$ i$ is no$ ,y any "eans %&lly
!eali8ed. Those a,s$!ac$ions can ,e 1&$ $oge$he! in a single co""&ni$y o% $he de"oc!a$ic $y1e. As
de"oc!acy no< e=is$s, $he!e is no$ $his deelo1"en$ o% co""&nica$ion so $ha$ indiid&als can 1&$
$he"seles in$o $he a$$i$&des o% $hose <ho" $hey a%%ec$. The!e is a conseD&en$ leeling?do<n, and
an &nd&e !ecogni$ion o% $ha$ <hich is no$ only co""on ,&$ iden$ical. The ideal o% h&"an socie$y
canno$ e=is$ as long as i$ is i"1ossi,le %o! indiid&als $o en$e! in$o $he a$$i$&des o% $hose <ho" $hey
a!e a%%ec$ing in $he 1e!%o!"ance o% $hei! o<n 1ec&lia! %&nc$ions
"ndnotes
1. In so %a! as s1eciali8a$ion is no!"al and hel1%&l, i$ inc!eases conc!e$e social !ela$ions.
Di%%e!ences in occ&1a$ion do no$ $he"seles ,&ild &1 cas$es. The cas$e has a!isen $h!o&gh
$he i"1o!$a$ion o% $he o&$side! in$o $he g!o&1, 9&s$ as $he ani"al is ,!o&gh$ in, <hen $h!o&gh
$he conce1$ion o% 1!o1e!$y he can ,e "ade &se%&l. The cle"en$ o% hos$ili$y $o<a!d $he
1e!son o&$side $he g!o&1 is essen$ial $o $he deelo1"en$ o% $he cas$e. Cas$e in India a!ose
o&$ o% conD&es$. I$ al<ays inoles $he g!o&1 ene"y, <hen $ha$ has ,een i"1o!$ed in$o $he
g!o&1@ so $ha$ I sho&ld no$ "ysel% ag!ee <i$h Cooley $ha$ he!edi$a!y $!ans"ission o%
di%%e!en$ia$ed occ&1a$ion 1!od&ces cas$es.
The cas$e sys$e" ,!ea7s do<n as $he h&"an !ela$ions ,eco"e "o!e conc!e$e..... Slaes
1ass oe! in$o se!%s, 1easan$s, a!$isans, ci$i8ens. In all $hese s$ages yo& hae an inc!ease o%
!ela$ions. In $he ideal condi$ion se1a!a$ion %!o" $he 1oin$ o% ie< o% cas$e <ill ,eco"e social
%&nc$ion %!o" $he 1oin$ o% ie< o% $he g!o&1..... De"oc!a$ic conscio&sness is gene!a$ed ,y
di%%e!ences o% %&nc$ions A131#B.
#. IFo! $he i"1lied e$hical 1osi$ion, see S&11le"en$a!y Essay I4.
0.# S4MM%*' %() C$(C&4SI$(
0e hae a11!oached 1sychology %!o" $he s$and1oin$ o% ,ehaio!is"@ $ha$ is, <e hae &nde!$a7en $o
conside! $he cond&c$ o% $he o!ganis" and $o loca$e <ha$ is $e!"ed -in$elligence,- and in 1a!$ic&la!,
-sel%?conscio&s in$elligence,- <i$hin $his cond&c$. This 1osi$ion i"1lies o!ganis"s <hich a!e in
!ela$ionshi1 $o eni!on"en$s, and eni!on"en$s $ha$ a!e in so"e sense de$e!"ined ,y $he selec$ion
o% $he sensi$ii$y o% $he %o!" o% $he o!ganis". I$ is $he sensi$ii$y o% $he o!ganis" $ha$ de$e!"ines
<ha$ i$s eni!on"en$ shall ,e, and in $ha$ sense <e can s1ea7 o% a %o!" as de$e!"ining i$s
eni!on"en$. The s$i"&l&s as s&ch as %o&nd in $he eni!on"en$ is $ha$ <hich se$s %!ee an i"1&lse, a
$endency $o ac$ in a ce!$ain %ashion. 0e s1ea7 o% $his cond&c$ as in$elligen$ 9&s$ in so %a! as i$
"ain$ains o! adances $he in$e!es$s o% $he %o!" o! $he s1ecies $o <hich i$ ,elongs. In$elligence is,
$hen, a %&nc$ion o% $he !ela$ion o% $he %o!" and i$s eni!on"en$. The cond&c$ $ha$ <e s$&dy is al<ays
$he ac$ion o% $he %o!" in i$s co""e!ce <i$h $he eni!on"en$. S&ch in$elligence <e "ay %ind in 1lan$s
o! ani"als <hen $he %o!" in i$s !eac$ion $o $he eni!on"en$ se$s %!ee i$s i"1&lses $h!o&gh $he s$i"&li
$ha$ co"e %!o" $he eni!on"en$.
Ea!lie! 1sychologis$s?and "any 1sychologis$s o% $he 1!esen$ $i"e, %o! $ha$ "a$$e!?ass&"e $ha$ a$ a
ce!$ain 1oin$ in $he deelo1"en$ o% $he o!ganis" conscio&sness as s&ch a!ises. I$ is s&11osed $o
a11ea! %i!s$ o% all in a%%ec$ie s$a$es, $hose o% 1leas&!e and 1ain@ and i$ is ass&"ed $ha$ $h!o&gh
1leas&!e and 1ain $he %o!" con$!ols i$s cond&c$. I$ is ass&"ed $ha$ la$e! conscio&sness %inds i$s
e=1!ession in $he sensa$ion o% $he an$eceden$ s$i"&l&s 1!ocess in $he eni!on"en$ i$sel%. B&$ $hese
sensa$ions, %!o" $he 1oin$ o% ie< o% o&! s$&dy, inole $he s$a$e"en$ o% $he eni!on"en$ i$sel%@ $ha$
is, <e canno$ s$a$e $he eni!on"en$ in any o$he! <ay $han in $e!"s o% o&! sensa$ions, i% <e acce1$
s&ch a de%ini$ion o% sensa$ion as a conscio&sness $ha$ si"1ly a!ises. I% <e $!y $o de%ine $he
eni!on"en$ <i$hin <hich sensa$ion does a!ise, i$ is in $e!"s o% $ha$ <hich <e see and %eel and $ha$
<hich o&! o,se!a$ion ass&"es $o ,e 1!esen$. The s&gges$ion I hae "ade is $ha$ conscio&sness,
as s&ch, does no$ !e1!esen$ a se1a!a$e s&,s$ance o! a se1a!a$e so"e$hing $ha$ is s&1e!ind&ced
&1on a %o!", ,&$ !a$he! $ha$ $he $e!" -conscio&sness- Ain one o% i$s ,asic &sagesB !e1!esen$s a
ce!$ain so!$ o% an eni!on"en$ in i$s !ela$ion $o sensi$ie o!ganis"s.
S&ch a s$a$e"en$ ,!ings $oge$he! $<o 1hiloso1hic conce1$s, one o% e"e!gence and one o% !ela$ii$y.
0e "ay ass&"e $ha$ ce!$ain $y1es o% cha!ac$e!s a!ise a$ ce!$ain s$ages in $he co&!se o%
deelo1"en$. This "ay e=$end, o% co&!se, %a! ,elo< $he !ange $o <hich <e a!e !e%e!!ing. 0a$e!, %o!
e=a"1le, a!ises o&$ o% a co",ina$ion o% hyd!ogen and o=ygen@ i$ is so"e$hing oe! and a,oe $he
a$o"s $ha$ "a7e i$ &1. 0hen <e s1ea7, $hen, o% s&ch cha!ac$e!s as sensa$ions a!ising, e"e!ging,
<e a!e !eally as7ing no "o!e $han <hen <e as7 $he cha!ac$e! o% any o!ganic co"1o&nd. Any$hing
$ha$ as a <hole is "o!e $han $he "e!e %o!" o% i$s 1a!$s has a na$&!e $ha$ ,elongs $o i$ $ha$ is no$ $o
,e %o&nd in $he ele"en$s o&$ o% <hich i$ is "ade.
Conscio&sness, in $he <ides$ sense, is no$ si"1ly an e"e!gen$ a$ a ce!$ain 1oin$, ,&$ a se$ o%
cha!ac$e!s $ha$ is de1enden$ &1on $he !ela$ionshi1 o% a $hing $o an o!ganis". Colo!, %o! ins$ance,
"ay ,e conceied o% as a!ising in !ela$ionshi1 $o an o!ganis" $ha$ has an o!gan o% ision. In $ha$
case, $he!e is a ce!$ain eni!on"en$ $ha$ ,elongs $o a ce!$ain %o!" and a!ises in !ela$ionshi1 $o $ha$
%o!". I% <e acce1$ $hose $<o conce1$s o% e"e!gence and !ela$ii$y, all I <an$ $o 1oin$ o&$ is $ha$ $hey
do ans<e! $o <ha$ <e $e!" -conscio&sness,- na"ely, a ce!$ain eni!on"en$ $ha$ e=is$s in i$s
!ela$ionshi1 $o $he o!ganis", and in <hich ne< cha!ac$e!s can a!ise in i!$&e o% $he o!ganis". I hae
no$ &nde!$a7en he!e+,- $o de%end $his as a 1hiloso1hic ie<, ,&$ si"1ly $o 1oin$ o&$ $ha$ i$ does
ans<e! $o ce!$ain conscio&s cha!ac$e!is$ics <hich hae ,een gien $o %o!"s a$ ce!$ain 1oin$s in
eol&$ion. On $his ie< $he cha!ac$e!s do no$ ,elong $o o!ganis"s as s&ch ,&$ only in $he
!ela$ionshi1 o% $he o!ganis" $o i$s eni!on"en$. They a!e cha!ac$e!is$ics o% o,9ec$s in $he
eni!on"en$ o% $he %o!". The o,9ec$s a!e colo!ed, odo!o&s, 1leasan$ o! 1ain%&l, hideo&s o! ,ea&$i%&l,
in $hei! !ela$ionshi1 $o $he o!ganis". I hae s&gges$ed $ha$ in $he deelo1"en$ o% %o!"s <i$h
eni!on"en$s $ha$ ans<e! $o $he" and $ha$ a!e !eg&la$ed ,y $he %o!"s $he"seles $he!e a11ea! o!
e"e!ge cha!ac$e!s $ha$ a!e de1enden$ on $his !ela$ion ,e$<een $he %o!" and i$s eni!on"en$. In one
sense o% $he $e!", s&ch cha!ac$e!s cons$i$&$e $he %ield o% conscio&sness.
This is a conce1$ion <hich a$ $i"es <e &se <i$ho&$ any hesi$ancy. 0hen an ani"al %o!" a11ea!s,
ce!$ain o,9ec$s ,eco"e %ood@ and <e !ecogni8e $ha$ $hose o,9ec$s hae ,eco"e %ood ,eca&se $he
ani"al has a ce!$ain so!$ o% diges$ie a11a!a$&s. The!e a!e ce!$ain "ic!o?o!ganis"s $ha$ a!e
dange!o&s $o h&"an ,eings, ,&$ $hey <o&ld no$ ,e dange!o&s &nless $he!e <e!e indiid&als
s&sce1$i,le $o $he a$$ac7 o% $hese ge!"s. 0e do cons$an$ly !e%e! $o ce!$ain o,9ec$s in $he
eni!on"en$ as e=is$ing $he!e ,eca&se o% $he !ela$ionshi1 ,e$<een $he %o!" and $he eni!on"en$.
The!e a!e ce!$ain o,9ec$s $ha$ a!c ,ea&$i%&l ,&$ $ha$ <o&ld no$ ,e ,ea&$i%&l i% $he!e <e!e no$
indiid&als $ha$ hae an a11!ecia$ion o% $he". I$ is in $ha$ o!ganic !ela$ion $ha$ ,ea&$y a!ises. In
gene!al, $hen, <e do !ecogni8e $ha$ $he!e a!e o,9ec$ie %ields in $he <o!ld de1enden$ &1on $he
!ela$ion o% $he eni!on"en$ $o ce!$ain %o!"s. I a" s&gges$ing $he e=$ension o% $ha$ !ecogni$ion $o $he
%ield o% conscio&sness. All $ha$ I ai" $o 1oin$ o&$ he!e is $ha$ <i$h s&ch a conce1$ion <e hae hold o%
<ha$ <e $e!" -conscio&sness,- as s&ch@ <e do no$ hae $o endo< $he %o!" <i$h conscio&sness as a
ce!$ain s1i!i$&al s&,s$ance i% <e &$ili8e $hese conce1$ions, and, as I said, <e do &$ili8e $he" <hen <e
s1ea7 o% s&ch a $hing as %ood e"e!ging in $he eni!on"en$ ,eca&se o% $he !ela$ionshi1 o% an o,9ec$
<i$h $he %o!". 0e "igh$ 9&s$ as <ell s1ea7 o% colo!, so&nd, and so on, in $he sa"e <ay.
The 1sychical in $ha$ case ans<e!s $o $he 1ec&lia! cha!ac$e! <hich $he eni!on"en$ has %o! a
1a!$ic&la! o!ganis". I$ co"es ,ac7 $o $he dis$inc$ion <hich <e "ade ,e$<een $he sel% in i$s &nie!sal
cha!ac$e! and in i$s indiid&al cha!ac$e!. The sel% is &nie!sal, i$ iden$i%ies i$sel% <i$h a &nie!sal -"e.-
0e 1&$ o&!seles in $he a$$i$&de o% all,, and $ha$ <hich <e all see is $ha$ <hich is e=1!essed in
&nie!sal $e!"s@ ,&$ each has a di%%e!en$ sensi$ii$y, and one colo! is di%%e!en$ $o "e %!o" <ha$ i$ is $o
yo&. These a!e di%%e!ences <hich a!e d&e $o $he 1ec&lia! cha!ac$e! o% $he o!ganis" as oe! agains$
$ha$ <hich ans<e!s $o &nie!sali$y.
I <an$ $o 7ee1 in $he %ield o% 1sychological analysis@ ,&$ i$ does see" $o "e $ha$ i$ is i"1o!$an$ $o
!ecogni8e $he 1ossi,ili$y o% s&ch a $!ea$"en$ o% conscio&sness, ,eca&se i$ $a7es &s in$o a %ield
<he!e $he 1sychologis$s hae ,een <o!7ing. I$ is i"1o!$an$ $o de$e!"ine <he$he! e=1e!ienced
cha!ac$e!s a!e s$a$es o% conscio&sness o! <he$he! $hey ,elong $o $he s&!!o&nding <o!ld. I% $hey a!e
s$a$es o% conscio&sness, a di%%e!en$ o!ien$a$ion !es&l$s $han i% so?called -conscio&s s$a$es- a!e
!ecogni8ed as $he cha!ac$e!s o% $he <o!ld in i$s !ela$ion $o $he indiid&al. All I a" as7ing is $ha$ <e
sho&ld "a7e &se o% $ha$ conce1$ion as <e do &se i$ in o$he! connec$ions. I$ o1ens $he doo! $o a
$!ea$"en$ o% $he conscio&s sel% in $e!"s o% a ,ehaio!is" <hich has ,een !ega!ded as inadeD&a$e a$
$ha$ 1oin$. I$ aoids, %o! e=a"1le, $he c!i$icis" "ade ,y $he con%ig&!a$ion 1sychologis$s, $ha$
1sychologis$s hae $o co"e ,ac7 $o ce!$ain conscio&s s$a$es <hich 1eo1le hae.
The -I- is o% i"1o!$ance, and I hae $!ea$ed i$ in so %a! as i$ has !ela$ion $o $he de%ini$e %ield o%
1sychology, <i$ho&$ &nde!$a7ing $o conside! o! de%end <ha$ "e$a1hysical ass&"1$ions "ay ,e
inoled. Tha$ li"i$a$ion is 9&s$i%ied, %o! $he 1sychologis$ does no$ &nde!$a7e $o "ain$ain a
"e$a1hysics as s&ch. 0hen he deals <i$h $he <o!ld a,o&$ hi", he 9&s$ acce1$s i$ as i$ is. O% co&!se,
$his a$$i$&de is sho$ $h!o&gh and $h!o&gh <i$h "e$a1hysical 1!o,le"s, ,&$ $he a11!oach is
scien$i%ically legi$i"a$e.
F&!$he!, <ha$ <e $e!" -"en$al i"ages- A$he las$ !eso!$ o% conscio&sness as a s&,s$anceB can e=is$
in $hei! !ela$ion $o $he o!ganis" <i$ho&$ ,eing lodged in a s&,s$an$ial conscio&sness. The "en$al
i"age is a "e"o!y i"age. S&ch i"ages <hich, as sy",ols, 1lay so la!ge a 1a!$ in $hin7ing, ,elong
$o $he eni!on"en$.+.- The 1assage <e !ead is "ade &1 %!o" "e"o!y i"ages, and $he 1eo1le <e
see a,o&$ &s <e see e!y la!gely ,y $he hel1 o% "e"o!y i"ages. 4e!y %!eD&en$ly <e %ind $ha$ $he
$hing 0e see and $ha$ <e s&11ose ans<e!s $o $he cha!ac$e! o% an o,9ec$ is no$ !eally $he!e@ i$ <as
an i"age. The i"age is $he!e in i$s !ela$ion $o $he indiid&al <ho no$ only has sense o!gans ,&$ <ho
also has ce!$ain 1as$ e=1e!iences. I$ is $he o!ganis" $ha$ has had s&ch e=1e!iences $ha$ has s&ch
i"age!y. In saying $his <e a!e $a7ing an a$$i$&de <hich <e a!e cons$an$ly &sing <hen <e saB, <e
hae !ead a ce!$ain $hing@ $he "e"o!y i"age is $he!e ill i$s !ela$ionshi1 $o a ce!$ain o!ganis" <i$h
ce!$ain 1as$ e=1e!iences, <i$h ce!$ain al&es also de%ini$ely $he!e in !ela$ion $o $ha$ 1a!$ic&la!
eni!on"en$ as !e"e",e!ed.
Conscio&sness as s&ch !e%e!s $o ,o$h $he o!ganis" and i$s eni!on"en$ and canno$ ,e loca$ed
si"1ly in ei$he!. I% <e %!ee $he %ield in $his sense, $hen <e can 1!oceed <i$h a ,ehaio!is$ic $!ea$"en$
<i$ho&$ haing $he di%%ic&l$ies in <hich 0a$son %o&nd hi"sel% in dealing <i$h "en$al i"ages. :e
denied $he!e <as any s&ch $hing, and $hen had $o ad"i$ i$, and $hen $!ied $o "ini"i8e i$. O% co&!se,
$he sa"e di%%ic&l$y lies in dealing <i$h e=1e!ience !ega!ded as s$a$es o% conscio&sness. I% <e
!ecogni8e $ha$ $hese cha!ac$e!s o% $hings do e=is$ in !ela$ion $o $he o!ganis", $hen <e a!e %!ee $o
a11!oach $he o!ganis" %!o" $he s$and1oin$ o% ,ehaio!is".
I do no$ !ega!d conscio&sness as haing selec$ie 1o<e!, in one c&!!en$ sense o% -selec$ion.- 0ha$
<e $e!" -conscio&sness- is 9&s$ $ha$ !ela$ion o% o!ganis" and eni!on"en$ in <hich selec$ion $a7es
1lace. Conscio&sness a!ises %!o" $he in$e!!ela$ion o% $he %o!" and $he eni!on"en$, and i$ inoles
,o$h o% $he". :&nge! does no$ c!ea$e %ood, no! is an o,9ec$ a %ood o,9ec$ <i$ho&$ !ela$ion $o h&nge!.
0hen $he!e is $ha$ !ela$ion ,e$<een %o!" and eni!on"en$, $hen o,9ec$s can a11ea! <hich <o&ld
no$ hae ,een $he!e o$he!<ise@ ,&$ $he ani"al does no$ c!ea$e $he %ood in $he sense $ha$ he "a7es
an o,9ec$ o&$ o% no$hing. *a$he!, <hen $he %o!" is 1&$ in$o s&ch !ela$ion <i$h $he eni!on"en$, $hen
$he!e e"e!ges s&ch a $hing as %ood. 0hea$ ,eco"es %ood@ 9&s$ as <a$e! a!ises in $he !ela$ion o%
hyd!ogen and o=ygen. I$ is no$ si"1ly c&$$ing so"e$hing o&$ and holding i$ ,y i$sel% Aas $he $e!"
-selec$ion- see"s $o s&gges$B, ,&$ in $his 1!ocess $he!e a11ea!s o! e"e!ges so"e$hing $ha$ <as no$
$he!e ,e%o!e. The!e is no$, I say, any$hing a,o&$ $his ie< $ha$ i"1!esses &s as inoling any so!$ o%
"agic <hen <e $a7e i$ in $he %o!" o% $he eol&$ion o% ce!$ain o$he! cha!ac$e!s, and I <an$ $o insis$
$ha$ $his conce1$ion does coe! 9&s$ $ha$ %ield <hich is !e%e!!ed $o as conscio&sness.
O% co&!se, <hen one goes ,ac7 $o s&ch a conce1$ion o% conscio&sness as ea!ly 1sychologis$s &sed,
and ee!y$hing e=1e!ienced is lodged in conscio&sness, $hen one has $o c!ea$e ano$he! <o!ld
o&$side and say $ha$ $he!e is so"e$hing o&$ $he!e ans<e!ing $o $hese e=1e!iences. I <an$ $o insis$
$ha$ i$ is 1ossi,le $o $a7e $he ,ehaio!is$ic ie< o% $he <o!ld <i$ho&$ ,eing $!o&,led o! $!i11ed &1 ,y
$he conce1$ion o% conscio&sness@ $he!e a!e ce!$ainly no "o!e se!io&s di%%ic&l$ies inoled in s&ch a
ie< as has ,een 1!o1osed $han $he!e a!e in a conce1$ion o% conscio&sness as a so"e$hing $ha$
a!ises a$ a ce!$ain 1oin$ in $he his$o!y o% 1hysical %o!"s and !&ns 1a!allel in so"e <ay <i$h s1eci%ic
ne!o&s s$a$es. T!y $o s$a$e $ha$ conce1$ion in a %o!" a11lica,le $o $he <o!7 o% $he 1sychologis$ and
yo& %ind yo&!sel% in all so!$s o% di%%ic&l$ies $ha$ a!e %a! g!ea$e! $han $hose in $he conce1$ions o%
e"e!gence and !ela$ii$y. I% yo& a!e <illing $o a11!oach $he <o!ld %!o" $he s$and1oin$ o% $hese
conce1$ions, $hen yo& can a11!oach 1sychology %!o" $he ,ehaio!is$>s 1oin$ o% ie<.
The o$he! conce1$ion $ha$ I hae ,!o&gh$ o&$ conce!ns $he 1a!$ic&la! so!$ o% in$elligence $ha$ <e
asc!i,e $o $he h&"an ani"al, so?called -!a$ional in$elligence,- o! conscio&sness in ano$he! sense o%
$he $e!". I% conscio&sness is a s&,s$ance, i$ can ,e said $ha$ $his conscio&sness is !a$ional 1e! se@
and 9&s$ ,y de%ini$ion $he 1!o,le" o% $he a11ea!ance o% <ha$ <e call !a$ionali$y is aoided. 0ha$ I
hae a$$e"1$ed $o do is $o ,!ing !a$ionali$y ,ac7 $o a ce!$ain $y1e o% cond&c$, $he $y1e o% cond&c$ in
<hich $he indiid&al 1&$s hi"sel% in $he a$$i$&de o% $he <hole g!o&1 $o <hich he ,elongs. This i"1lies
$ha$ $he <hole g!o&1 is inoled in so"e o!gani8ed ac$ii$y and $ha$ in $his o!gani8ed ac$ii$y $he
ac$ion o% one calls %o! $he ac$ion o% all $he o$he!s. 0ha$ <e $e!" -!eason- a!ises <hen one o% $he
o!ganis"s $a7es in$o i$s o<n !es1onse $he a$$i$&de o% $he o$he! o!ganis"s inoled. I$ is 1ossi,le %o!
$he o!ganis" so $o ass&"e $he a$$i$&des o% $he g!o&1 $ha$ a!e inoled in i$s o<n ac$ <i$hin $his
<hole coo1e!a$ie 1!ocess. 0hen i$ does so, i$ is <ha$ <e $e!" -a !a$ional ,eing.- I% i$s cond&c$ has
s&ch &nie!sali$y, i$ has also necessi$y, $ha$ is, $he so!$ o% necessi$y inoled in $he <hole ac$?i% one
ac$s in one <ay $he o$he!s "&s$ ac$ in ano$he! <ay. No<, i% $he indiid&al can $a7e $he a$$i$&de o% $he
o$he!s and con$!ol his ac$ion ,y $hese a$$i$&des, and con$!ol $hei! ac$ion $h!o&gh his o<n, $hen <e
hae <ha$ <e can $e!" -!a$ionali$y.- *a$ionali$y is as la!ge as $he g!o&1 <hich is inoled@ and $ha$
g!o&1 co&ld ,e, o% co&!se, %&nc$ionally, 1o$en$ially, as la!ge as yo& li7e. I$ "ay incl&de all ,eings
s1ea7ing $he sa"e lang&age.
Lang&age as s&ch is si"1ly a 1!ocess ,y "eans o% <hich $he indiid&al <ho is engaged in
coo1e!a$ie ac$ii$y can ge$ $he a$$i$&de o% o$he!s inoled in $he sa"e ac$ii$y. Th!o&gh ges$&!es,
$ha$ is, $h!o&gh $he 1a!$ o% his ac$ <hich calls o&$ $he !es1onse o% o$he!s, he can a!o&se in hi"sel%
$he a$$i$&de o% $he o$he!s. Lang&age as a se$ o% signi%ican$ sy",ols is si"1ly $he se$ o% ges$&!es
<hich $he o!ganis" e"1loys in calling o&$ $he !es1onse o% o$he!s. Those ges$&!es 1!i"a!ily a!e
no$hing ,&$ 1a!$s o% $he ac$ <hich do na$&!ally s$i"&la$e o$he!s engaged in $he coo1e!a$ie 1!ocess
$o ca!!y o&$ $hei! 1a!$s. *a$ionali$y $hen can ,e s$a$ed in $e!"s o% s&ch ,ehaio! i% <e !ecogni8e $ha$
$he ges$&!e can a%%ec$ $he indiid&al as i$ a%%ec$s o$he!s so as $o call o&$ $he !es1onse <hich ,elongs
$o $he o$he!. Mind o! !eason 1!es&11oses social o!gani8a$ion and coo1e!a$ie ac$ii$y in $his social
o!gani8a$ion. Thin7ing is si"1ly $he !easoning o% $he indiid&al, $he ca!!ying?on o% a cone!sa$ion
,e$<een <ha$ I hae $e!"ed $he -I- and $he -"e.-
In $a7ing $he a$$i$&de o% $he g!o&1, one has s$i"&la$ed hi"sel% $o !es1ond in a ce!$ain %ashion. :is
!es1onse, $he -I,- is $he <ay in <hich he ac$s. I% he ac$s in $ha$ <ay he is, so $o s1ea7, 1&$$ing
so"e$hing &1 $o $he g!o&1, and changing $he g!o&1. :is ges$&!e calls o&$ $hen a ges$&!e <hich <ill
,e sligh$ly di%%e!en$. The sel% $h&s a!ises in $he deelo1"en$ o% $he ,ehaio! o% $he social %o!" $ha$ is
ca1a,le o% $a7ing $he a$$i$&de o% o$he!s inoled in $he sa"e coo1e!a$ie ac$ii$y. The 1!econdi$ion o%
s&ch ,ehaio! is $he deelo1"en$ o% $he ne!o&s sys$e" <hich ena,les $he indiid&al $o $a7e $he
a$$i$&de o% $he o$he!s. :e co&ld no$, o% co&!se, $a7e $he inde%ini$e n&",e! o% a$$i$&des o% o$he!s, een
i% all $he ne!e 1a$hs <e!e 1!esen$, i% $he!e <e!e no$ an o!gani8ed social ac$ii$y going on s&ch $ha$
$he ac$ion o% one "ay !e1!od&ce $he ac$ion o% an inde%ini$e n&",e! o% o$he!s doing $he sa"e $hing.
(ien, ho<ee!, s&ch an o!gani8ed ac$ii$y, one can $a7e $he a$$i$&de o% anyone in $he g!o&1.

S&ch a!e $he $<o conce1$ions o% conscio&sness $ha$ I <an$ed $o ,!ing o&$, since $hey see" $o "e $o
"a7e 1ossi,le a deelo1"en$ o% ,ehaio!is" ,eyond $he li"i$s $o <hich i$ has ,een ca!!ied, and $o
"a7e i$ a e!y s&i$a,le a11!oach $o $he o,9ec$s o% social 1sychology. 0i$h $hose 7ey conce1$s one
does no$ hae $o co"e ,ac7 $o ce!$ain conscio&s %ields lodged inside $he indiid&al@ one is dealing
$h!o&gho&$ <i$h $he !ela$ion o% $he cond&c$ o% $he indiid&al $o $he eni!on"en$.
"ndnotes
1. ISee *he Philosophy of the Present and *he Philosophy of the Act %o! s&ch a de%ense.B
#. IS&11le"en$a!y Essay I deals %&!$he! <i$h $he $o1ic o% i"age!y.K
S4PP&"M"(T%*' "SS%'S
,# TH" 34(CTI$( $3 IM%G"*' I( C$()4CTI1K
aB :&"an ,ehaio!, o! cond&c$, li7e $he ,ehaio! o% lo<e! ani"al %o!"s, s1!ings %!o" i"1&lses. An
i"1&lse is a congeni$al $endency $o !eac$ in a s1eci%ic "anne! $o a ce!$ain so!$ o% s$i"&l&s, &nde!
ce!$ain o!ganic condi$ions. :&nge! and ange! a!e ill&s$!a$ions o% s&ch i"1&lses. They a!e ,es$
$e!"ed -I"1&lses,- and no$ -ins$inc$s,- ,eca&se $hey a!e s&,9ec$ $o e=$ensie "odi%ica$ions in $he
li%e?his$o!y o% indiid&als, and $hese "odi%ica$ions a!e so "&ch "o!e e=$ensie $han $hose $o <hich
$he ins$inc$s o% lo<e! ani"al %o!"s a!e s&,9ec$ $ha$ $he &se o% $he $e!" -ins$inc$- in desc!i,ing $he
,ehaio! o% no!"al ad&l$ h&"an indiid&als is se!io&sly ine=ac$.
I$ is o% i"1o!$ance $o e"1hasi8e $he sensi$ii$y $o $he a11!o1!ia$e s$i"&li <hich call o&$ $he i"1&lses.
This sensi$ii$y is o$he!<ise !e%e!!ed $o as $he -selec$ie cha!ac$e! o% a$$en$ion,- and a$$en$ion on i$s
ac$ie "o$o! side conno$es ha!dly any$hing ,eyond $his !ela$ionshi1 o% a 1!e%o!"ed $endency $o ac$
$o $he s$i"&l&s <hich se$s $he i"1&lse %!ee. I$ is D&es$iona,le <he$he! $he!e is s&ch a $hing as
1assie a$$en$ion. Een $he de1endence o% senso!y a$$en$ion &1on $he in$ensi$y o% s$i"&li i"1lies
gene!al a$$i$&des o% esca1e o! 1!o$ec$ion <hich a!e "edia$ed $h!o&gh s&ch s$i"&li o! $h!o&gh $he
1ain s$i"&li <hich a$$end in$ense s$i"&la$ion. 0he!e $h!o&gh $he "odi%ica$ion a!ising o&$ o%
e=1e!ience ?? e.g., $he indi%%e!ence $o lo&d noises <hich 0o!7"en a$$ain in %ac$o!ies?$he !es1onse o%
$he indiid&al $o $hese in$ense s$i"&li la1ses, i$ is a$ leas$ no$ &n!easona,le $o ass&"e $ha$ $he
a,sence o% 1o<e! $o hold so?called -1assie a$$en$ion- is d&e $o $he dissocia$ion o% $hese s$i"&li
%!o" $he a$$i$&des o% !e%le=ie aoidance and %ligh$.
The!e is ano$he! 1!oced&!e ,y <hich $he o!ganis" selec$s $he a11!o1!ia$e s$i"&l&s, <he!e an
i"1&lse is see7ing e=1!ession. This is %o&nd in $he !ela$ion $o i"age!y. I$ is "os$ %!eD&en$ly $he
i"age <hich ena,les $he indiid&al $o 1ic7 o&$ $he a11!o1!ia$e s$i"&l&s %o! $he i"1&lse <hich is
see7ing e=1!ession. This i"age!y is de1enden$ on 1as$ e=1e!ience. I$ can ,e s$&died only in "an,
since $he i"age as a s$i"&l&s o! a 1a!$ o% $he s$i"&l&s can only he iden$i%ied ,y $he indiid&al, o!
$h!o&gh his acco&n$ o% i$ gien in social cond&c$. B&$ in $his e=1e!ience o% $he indiid&al o! o% a g!o&1
o% indiid&als, $he o,9ec$ $o <hich $he i"age !e%e!s, in $he sa"e sense in <hich a senso!y 1!ocess
!e%e!s $o an o,9ec$, can ,e iden$i%ied, ei$he! as e=is$ing ,eyond $he i""edia$e !ange o% senso!y
e=1e!ience o! as haing e=is$ed in <ha$ is called $he -1as$.- In o$he! <o!ds, $he i"age is nee!
<i$ho&$ s&ch !e%e!ence $o an o,9ec$. This %ac$ is e",odied in $he asse!$ion $ha$ all o&! i"age!y a!ises
o&$ o% 1!eio&s e=1e!ience. Th&s, <hen one !ecalls $he %ace o% one <ho" he has "e$ in $he 1as$,
and iden$i%ies i$ $h!o&gh ac$&al ision o% $he %ace, his a$$i$&de is iden$ical <i$h $ha$ o% a "an <ho
iden$i%ies an o,9ec$ seen &nce!$ainly a$ a dis$ance. The i"age is 1!ia$e o! 1sychical only in $he
si$&a$ion in <hich $he senso!y 1!ocess "ay ,e 1!ia$e o! 1sychical. This si$&a$ion is $ha$ in <hich
!ead9&s$"en$ o% $he indiid&al o!ganis" and i$s eni!on"en$ is inoled in $he ca!!ying?o&$ o% $he
liing 1!ocess. The 1!ia$e o! 1sychical 1hase o% $he e=1e!ience is $ha$ con$en$ <hich %ails $o
%&nc$ion as $he di!ec$ s$i"&l&s %o! $he se$$ing?%!ee o% $he i"1&lse. In so %a! as $he con$en$s %!o" 1as$
e=1e!ience en$e! in$o $he s$i"&l&s, %illing i$ o&$ and %i$$ing i$ $o $he de"ands o% $he ac$, $hey ,eco"e a
1a!$ o% $he o,9ec$, $ho&gh $he !es&l$ o% $he !eac$ion "ay lead &s $o !ecogni8e $ha$ i$ %ailed, <hen o&!
9&dg"en$ is $ha$ <ha$ loo7ed ha!d o! so%$ o! nea! o! %a! 1!oes $o ,e D&i$e o$he!<ise. In $his case <e
desc!i,e $he con$en$ so es$i"a$ed as 1!ia$e o! 1sychical. Th&s con$en$s <hich !e%e! $o o,9ec$s no$
1!esen$ in $he %ield o% s$i"&la$ion and <hich do no$ en$e! in$o $he o,9ec$, i.e., i"ages o% dis$an$
o,9ec$s in $i"e and s1ace <hich a!e no$ in$eg!al 1a!$s o% $he 1hysical s&!!o&ndings as $hey e=$end
,eyond $he !ange o% i""edia$e 1e!ce1$ion, no! o% $he "e"o!y %ield <hich cons$i$&$es $he
,ac7g!o&nd o% $he sel% in i$s social s$!&c$&!e, a!e 1sychical.
This de%ini$ion o% $he 1!ia$e and 1sychical s$ands, $he!e%o!e, on an en$i!ely di%%e!en$ ,asis %!o" $ha$
<hich iden$i%ies $he 1!ia$e o! 1sychical <i$h $he e=1e!ience o% $he indiid&al, as his o<n, %o! in so %a!
as $he indiid&al is an o,9ec$ $o hi"sel% in $he sa"e sense as $ha$ in <hich o$he!s a!e o,9ec$s $o hi",
his e=1e!iences do no$ ,eco"e 1!ia$e and 1sychical. On $he con$!a!y, he !ecogni8es $he co""on
cha!ac$e!s in $he" all, and een $ha$ <hich a$$aches $o $he e=1e!ience o% one indiid&al as
dis$ing&ished %!o" o$he!s is %el$ $o !e1!esen$ a con$!i,&$ion <hich he "a7es $o a co""on
e=1e!ience o% all. Th&s <ha$ one "an alone, $h!o&gh 7eene! ision, de$ec$s <o&ld no$ ,e !ega!ded
as 1sychical in i$s cha!ac$e!. I$ is $ha$ e=1e!ience <hich %alls sho!$ o% $he o,9ec$ie al&e <hich i$
clai"s $ha$ is 1!ia$e and 1sychical. The!e a!e, o% co&!se, e=1e!iences <hich a!e necessa!ily
con%ined $o a 1a!$ic&la! indiid&al, and <hich canno$ in $hei! indiid&al cha!ac$e! ,e sha!ed ,y
o$he!s@ e.g., $hose <hich a!ise %!o" one>s o<n o!ganis", and a%%ec$ie e=1e!iences ?%eelings?<hich
a!e ag&e and inca1a,le o% !e%e!ence $o an o,9ec$, and <hich canno$ ,e "ade co""on 1!o1e!$y o%
$he co""&ni$y $o <hich one ,elongs As&ch "ys$ical e=1e!iences a!e in 1a!$ !es1onsi,le %o! $he
ass&"1$ion o% a s1i!i$&al ,eing ?? a (od?<ho can en$e! in$o and co"1!ehend $hese e"o$ional
s$a$esB. B&$ $hese s$a$es ei$he! hae, o! a!e ass&"ed $o hae, o,9ec$ie !e%e!ence. The $oo$hache
%!o" <hich a "an s&%%e!s is no less o,9ec$ie ,eca&se i$ is so"e$hing $ha$ canno$ ,e sha!ed, co"ing
as i$ does %!o" his o<n o!ganis". One>s "oods "ay hel1lessly !each o&$ $o<a!d so"e$hing $ha$
canno$ ,e a$$ained, leaing hi" "e!ely <i$h $he %eelings and a !e%e!ence <hich is no$ achieed@ ,&$
$he!e is s$ill an i"1lica$ion o% so"e$hing $ha$ has o,9ec$ie !eali$y. The 1sychical is $ha$ <hich %ails $o
sec&!e i$s !e%e!ence and !e"ains $he!e%o!e $he e=1e!ience si"1ly o% $he indiid&al. Een $hen i$
ini$es !econs$!&c$ion and in$e!1!e$a$ion, so $ha$ i$s o,9ec$ie cha!ac$e! "ay ,e discoe!ed@ ,&$ &n$il
$his has ,een sec&!ed, i$ has no ha,i$a$ e=ce1$ $he e=1e!ience o% $he indiid&al and no desc!i1$ion
e=ce1$ in $e!"s o% his s&,9ec$ie li%e. :e!e ,elong $he ill&sions, $he e!!o!s o% 1e!ce1$ion, $he
e"o$ions $ha$ s$and %o! %!&s$!a$ed al&es, $he o,se!a$ions <hich !eco!d gen&ine e=ce1$ions $o
acce1$ed la<s and "eanings. F!o" $his s$and1oin$ $he i"age. in so %a! as i$ has o,9ec$ie !e%e!ence,
is no$ 1!ia$e o! 1sychical. Th&s $he e=$ended landsca1e !eaching ,eyond o&! is&al ho!i8on,
,o&nded 1e!ha1s ,y nea!,y $!ees o! ,&ildings@ $he i""edia$e 1as$ $ha$ is s&,9ec$ $o no D&es$ion?
$hese s$and o&$ as !eal as do $he o,9ec$s o% 1e!ce1$ion, as !eal as $he dis$ance o% neigh,o!ing
ho&ses, o! $he 1olished cool s&!%ace o% a "a!,le $a,le, o! $he line o% $he 1!in$ed 1age on <hich $he
eye in i$s a11e!ce1$ie lea1s !es$s ,&$ $<o o! $h!ee $i"es. In all $hese e=1e!iences sens&o&s
con$en$s <hich <e call -i"age!y- A,eca&se $he o,9ec$s $o <hich $hey !e%e! a!e no$ $he i""edia$e
occasions o% $hei! a11ea!anceB a!e inoled, and a!e only !ende!ed 1!ia$e o! 1sychical ,y haing
$hei! o,9ec$ii$y D&es$ioned in $he sa"e "anne! in <hich $he sens&o&s con$en$s <hich ans<e! $o
i""edia$e e=ci$e"en$s o% end?o!gans "ay ,e D&es$ioned. As $he 1e!ce1$&al sens&o&s e=1e!ience
is an e=1!ession o% $he ad9&s$"en$ o% $he o!ganis" $o $he s$i"&la$ion o% o,9ec$s $e"1o!ally and
s1a$ially 1!esen$, so $he i"ages a!e ad9&s$"en$s o% $he o!ganis" $o o,9ec$s <hich hae ,een
1!esen$ ,&$ a!e no< s1a$ially and $e"1o!ally a,sen$. These "ay "e!ge in$o i""edia$e 1e!ce1$ions,
giing $he o!ganis" $he ,ene%i$ o% 1as$ e=1e!ience in %illing o&$ $he o,9ec$ o% 1e!ce1$ion@ o! $hey "ay
se!e $o e=$end $he %ield o% e=1e!ience ,eyond $he !ange o% i""edia$e 1e!ce1$ion, in s1ace o! $i"e
o! ,o$h@ o! $hey "ay a11ea! <i$ho&$ s&ch !e%e!ence, al$ho&gh $hey al<ays i"1ly a 1ossi,le
!e%e!ence, i.e., <e hold $ha$ $hey co&ld al<ays ,e !e%e!!ed $o $he e=1e!iences o&$ o% <hich $hey a!ose
i% $hei! <hole con$e=$ co&ld ,e deelo1ed.
In $he la$$e! case $he i"ages a!e s1o7en o% as e=is$ing in $he "ind. I$ is i"1o!$an$ $o !ecogni8e $ha$
$he loca$ion o% $he $he s$&%% o% $he i"age!y, %o! i"age!y in $he "ind is no$ d&e $o $he sa"e s$&%% goes
in$o o&! 1e!ce1$ions and in$o $he o,9ec$s ,eyond i""edia$e 1e!ce1$ionB <hich e=is$ ,eyond o&!
s1a$ial and $e"1o!al ho!i8ons. I$ d&e !a$he! $o $he con$!ol oe! $he a11ea!ance o% $he i"age!y in $he
"en$al 1!ocesses <hich a!e
co""only called $hose o% -associa$ion,- es1ecially in $he 1!ocess o% $hin7ing in <hich <e !ead9&s$
o&! ha,i$s and !econs$!&c$ o&! o,9ec$s.
The la<s o% associa$ion a!e no< gene!ally !ecogni8ed as si"1le 1!ocesses o% !edin$eg!a$ion, in
<hich $he i"age!y $ends $o co"1le$e i$sel% in i$s $e"1o!al, s1a$ial, o! %&nc$ional Asi"ila!i$yB 1hases. I$
has ,een %o&nd "os$ conenien$ $o deal <i$h $hese $endencies as e=1!essions o% ne&!al co?
o!dina$ions. The associa$ion o% ideas has ,een s&1e!seded ,y associa$ions o% ne!e ele"en$s. Th&s
$he sigh$ o% a !oo" !ecalls an indiid&al <ho" one has "e$ $he!e. The a!ea o% $he cen$!al ne!o&s
sys$e" a%%ec$ed on $he occasion o% $he enco&n$e! ,eing 1a!$ially a%%ec$ed ,y $he sigh$ o% $he !oo" on
$he la$e! occasion is ?a!o&sed ,y $his s$i"&la$ion and $he i"age o% $he acD&ain$ance a11ea!s. As a
1iece o% "echanis" $his is no$ di%%e!en$ %!o" $he 1e!ce1$ion o% dis$ance o! solidi$y <hich
acco"1anies o&! is&al e=1e!iences $h!o&gh $he i"age!y o% 1as$ con$ac$s %illing o&$ $he i""edia$e
is&al e=1e!ience, e=ce1$ $ha$ $he i"age o% $he acD&ain$ance does no$ %i$ in$o $he is&al e=1e!ience
so as $o ,eco"e a 1a!$ o% $he 1e!ce1$ion. In $he case o% a hall&cina$ion $his does $a7e 1lace, and
only $he a$$e"1$ $o es$a,lish con$ac$ <i$h $he acD&ain$ance 1!oes $ha$ one is dealing <i$h an i"age
ins$ead o% a 1e!ce1$&al %ac$. 0ha$ is s$ill &ne=1lained in s&ch a s$a$e"en$ o% associa$ion is $he %ac$
$ha$ one i"age a11ea!s !a$he! $han co&n$less o$he!s <hich hae also ,een a 1a!$ o% $he e=1e!ience
o% $he !oo". The c&s$o"a!y e=1lana$ion de!ied %!o" %!eD&ency and iidness and con$!as$ P!oes
inadeD&a$e, and <e "&s$ %all ,ac7 &1on $he i"1&lses see7ing e=1!ession, in o$he! <o!ds, &1on
in$e!es$, o! in s$ill o$he! $e!"s, &1on a$$en$ion. The so?called -selec$ie na$&!e- o% conscio&sness is
as necessa!y %o! $he e=1lana$ion o% associa$ion as %o! $ha$ o% a$$en$ion and sho<s i$sel% in o&!
sensi$ii$y $o $he s$i"&li <hich se$ %!ee i"1&lses see7ing e=1!ession, <hen $hose s$i"&li a!ise %!o"
o,9ec$s in $he i""edia$e %ield o% 1e!ce1$ion o! %!o" i"age!y. The %o!"e! ans<e! $o ad9&s$"en$ o% $he
o!ganis" $o o,9ec$s 1!esen$ in s1ace and $i"e, $he la$$e! $o $hose <hich a!e no longe! so 1!esen$ ,&$
<hich a!e s$ill !e%lec$ed in $he ne!o&s s$!&c$&!e o% $he o!ganis". The sensi$i8ing o% $he o!ganis"
holds %o! ,o$h classes o% s$i"&la$ion. I"age!y $h&s %a! conside!ed no "o!e e=is$s in a "ind $han do
$he o,9ec$s o% e=$e!nal sense 1e!ce1$ion. I$ cons$i$&$es a 1a!$ o% $he %ield o% s$i"&la$ion $o <hich o&!
a$$i$&des o! i"1&lses see7ing e=1!ession sensi$i8e &s. The i"age o% $he s$i"&l&s <e need is "o!e
iid $han o$he!s. I$ se!es $o o!gani8e $he 1e!ce1$&al a$$i$&de $o<a!d $he o,9ec$ <hich <e need $o
!ecogni8e, as e",odied in :e!,a!$>s 1h!ase, -a11e!ce1$ion?"ass.- The sens&o&s con$en$ o% $he
i"age!y "ay ,e !ela$iely sligh$, so sligh$ $ha$ "any 1sychologis$s hae $a&gh$ $ha$ "&ch o% o&!
$hin7ing is i"ageless@ ,&$ $ho&gh $he ad9&s$"en$ o% $he o!ganis" $o $he ca!!ying?o&$ o% $he !es1onse
inoled in $he <hole ac$ "ay ,e $he "os$ !eadily !ecogni8ed, and $h&s $his 1a!$ o% $he i"age!y ,e
!ega!ded as $he "os$ i"1o!$an$, $he!e is no !eason $o D&es$ion $he 1!esence o% $he sens&o&s
con$en$ <hich se!es as s$i"&la$ion.
The do"inan$ 1a!$ <hich $he doc$!ine o% associa$ion o% ideas has 1layed in e=1laining cond&c$ %inds
i$s g!o&nd in $he con$!ol oe! $he i"age!y <hich $ho&gh$ e=e!cises. In $hin7ing, <e indica$e $o
o&!seles i"age!y <hich <e "ay &se in !econs$!&c$ing o&! 1e!ce1$&al %ield, a 1!ocess <hich <ill ,e
$he s&,9ec$ o% la$e! disc&ssion. 0ha$ I <ish $o 1oin$ o&$ he!e is $ha$ i"age!y so con$!olled has ,een
!ega!ded as s&,9ec$ $o $he sa"e 1!inci1les o% !edin$eg!a$ion as $hose ,y <hich <e ,!ing i$ in$o $he
1!ocess o% $ho&gh$. The la$$e! 1!inci1les a!e $he !ela$ions o% $he signi%ican$ ocal ges$&!es o! signs $o
$ha$ <hich $hey signi%y. 0e s1ea7 o% <o!ds as associa$ed <i$h $hings, and ca!!y oe! $his !ela$ion $o
$he connec$ions o% i"ages <i$h each o$he!, $oge$he! <i$h $he !eac$ions $hey hel1 $o "edia$e. The
1!inci1le o% $he associa$ion o% <o!ds and $hings is in la!ge "eas&!e $ha$ o% ha,i$?%o!"ing. I$ has no
i"1o!$ %o! $he e=1lana$ion o% $he so!$ o% ha,i$ $o ,e %o!"ed. I$ has no !ela$ion $o $he s$!&c$&!e o%
e=1e!ience $h!o&gh <hich <e ad9&s$ o&!seles $o changing condi$ions. The child "a7es ha,i$s o%
a11lying ce!$ain na"es $o ce!$ain $hings. This does no$ e=1lain $he !ela$ions o% $hings in $he child>s
e=1e!ience o! $he $y1e o% his !eac$ions $o $he", ,&$ $his is 9&s$ <ha$ $he associa$ional 1sychologis$
ass&"es. A ha,i$ %i=es a ce!$ain !es1onse, ,&$ i$s ha,i$&al cha!ac$e! does no$ e=1lain ei$he! $he
ince1$ion o% $he !eac$ion o! $he o!de!ing o% $he <o!ld <i$hin <hich $he !eac$ion $a7es 1lace. In $his
1!eli"ina!y acco&n$ o% "ind <e !ecogni8e, %i!s$, con$en$s <hich a!e no$ o,9ec$ie, $ha$ is, do no$ go
$o cons$i$&$e $he i""edia$e 1e!ce1$&al <o!ld $o <hich <e !eac$?<hich a!e $hen $e!"ed -s&,9ec$ie
i"age!y-@ and, second, $he $ho&gh$?1!ocess and i$s con$en$s, a!ising $h!o&gh $he social 1!ocess o%
cone!sa$ion <i$h $he sel% as ano$he!, <hose %&nc$ion in ,ehaio! <e hae $o ines$iga$e la$e!. I$ is
i"1o!$an$ $o !ecogni8e $ha$ $he sel%, as one a"ong o$he! indiid&als, is no$ s&,9ec$ie, no! a!e i$s
e=1e!iences as s&ch s&,9ec$ie. This acco&n$ is in$!od&ced $o %!ee i"age!y as s&ch %!o" an all
incl&sie 1!edica$e o% s&,9ec$ii$y. Ce!$ain i"ages a!e $he!e 9&s$ as a!e o$he! 1e!ce1$&al con$en$s,
and o&! sensi$ii$y $o $he" se!es $he sa"e %&nc$ion as does o&! sensi$ii$y $o o$he! 1e!ce1$&al
s$i"&la$ions, na"ely, $ha$ o% selec$ing and ,&ilding o&$ $he o,9ec$s <hich <ill gie e=1!ession $o $he
i"1&lses IMSK.
,B O% i"age!y $he only $hing $ha$ can ,e said is $ha$ i$ does no$ $a7e i$s 1lace a"ong o&! dis$an$
s$i"&li <hich ,&ild &1 $he s&!!o&nding <o!ld $ha$ is $he e=$ension o% $he "ani1&la$o!y a!ea. P!o,a,ly
:&"e>s dis$inc$ion o% iidness is legi$i"a$e he!e, $ho&gh $he ,e$$e! s$a$e"en$ is $o ,e %o&nd in i$s
e%%iciency in ca!!ying o&$ $he %&nc$ion o% calling %o!$h $he "oe"en$ $o<a!d $he dis$an$ o,9ec$ and
!eceiing $he con%i!"a$ion o% con$ac$ e=1e!ience. I$ is $!&e $ha$ cha!ac$e!s in $he dis$ance e=1e!ience
1!es&"a,ly co"e in %!o" i"age!y and do call o&$ $he !es1onse. Th&s $he con$o&!s o% a %a"ilia! %ace
"ay ,e %illed in ,y i"age!y, and lead $o a11!oach $o $he indiid&al and $he g!as1 o% $he hand, <hich
&l$i"a$ely ass&!es &s o% his !eal e=is$ence in $he 1!esen$ e=1e!ience. :all&cina$ions and ill&sions
also call o&$ $hese !es1onses and lead $o $he !es&l$s <hich co!!ec$ $he %i!s$ i"1!ession. I% <e %ind $ha$
<e hae "e$ a s$!ange! ins$ead o% $he s&11osed %!iend, <e iden$i%y, 1e!ha1s, $he 1a!$ o% $he dis$ance
e=1e!ience <hich <as i"age!y as dis$inc$ %!o" <ha$ is called -sensa$ion.- 0e s1ea7 o% i"age!y as
-1sychically 1!esen$.- 0ha$ do <e "ean ,y $hisE The si"1les$ ans<e! <o&ld ,e $ha$ $he i"age!y is
$he e=1e!ience o% $he indiid&al o!ganis" $ha$ is $he 1e!ci1ien$ een$ in $he 1e!s1ec$ie. I% ,y $his <e
"ean $ha$ $he!e is an e=1e!ience in $he cen$!al ne!o&s sys$e" <hich is $he condi$ion o% $he
a11ea!ance o% $he i"age!y, $he s$a$e"en$ has a ce!$ain "eaning. B&$ i$ is con%essed $ha$ $he
dis$&!,ance in $he cen$!al ne!o&s sys$e" is no$ <ha$ <e $e!" $he -i"age!y,- &nless <e 1lace so"e
inne! 1sychical con$en$ in $he "olec&les o% $he ,!ain, and $hen <e a!e no$ $al7ing a,o&$ $he cen$!al
ne!o&s sys$e" <hich is a 1ossi,le o,9ec$ in $he %ield Io% 1e!ce1$ionK.
I"age!y is, o% co&!se, no$ con%ined $o "e"o!y. 0ha$ee! "ay ,e said a,o&$ i$s o!igin in 1as$
e=1e!ience, i$s !e%e!ence $o $he %&$&!e is as gen&ine as $o $he 1as$. Indeed, i$ is %ai! $o say $ha$ i$ only
!e%e!s $o $he 1as$ in so %a! as i$ has a %&$&!e !e%e!ence in so"e !eal sense. I$ "ay ,e $he!e <i$ho&$
i""edia$e !e%e!ence $o ei$he! %&$&!e o! $o 1as$. 0e "ay ,e D&i$e &na,le $o 1lace $he i"age. The
loca$ion o% i"age!y in a 1sychical %ield i"1lies $he sel% as e=is$en$ and canno$ ,e "ade $he acco&n$
o% i$s loc&s in a $heo!y <hich &nde!$a7es $o sho< ho< $he sel% a!ises in an e=1e!ience <i$hin <hich
i"age!y "&s$ ,e ass&"ed as an$eceden$ $o $he sel%. :e!e <e a!e $h!o<n ,ac7 on $he iidness as a
!eason %o! $he o!ganis" no$ !es1onding $o i$ as i$ does $o $he dis$an$ s$i"&l&s <hich <e do no$ call
i"age!y Pe!ha1s $he!e is so"eo$he! cha!ac$e! <hich is no$ e=1!essed in $he $e!" -iidness.- B&$ i$
is eiden$ $ha$ i% $he i"age!y had $he D&ali$y <hich ,elongs $o $he so?called -sens&o&s e=1e!ience-
<e sho&ld !eac$ $o i$, and i$s en$!ance in$o sens&o&s e=1e!ience as a,oe no$ed indica$es $ha$ i$ is
no$ e=cl&ded ,y i$s D&ali$y. In o&! o<n so1his$ica$ed e=1e!ience $he con$!olling %ac$o! see"s $o ,e i$s
%ail&!e $o %i$ in$o $he co"1le= o% $he eni!on"en$ as a con$in&o&s $e=$&!e. 0he!e as %illing o! as
hall&cina$ion i$ does so en$e!, $he!e is no hesi$ancy on $he 1a!$ o% $he o!ganis" in !eac$ing $o i$ as $o
sens&o&s s$i"&li, and i$ is $he!e in $he sa"e sense in <hich $he no!"al s$i"&li a!e $he!e, i.e., $he
indiid&al ac$s $o !each o! aoid $he con$ac$s <hich $he i"ages i"1ly. I$ is $hen i$s %ail&!e $o ,eco"e
a 1a!$ o% $he dis$ance eni!on"en$ <hich is !es1onsi,le %o! i$s e=cl&sion. Tha$ i$ is no$ $he i"age!y o%
ha!dness $ha$ cons$i$&$es $he s$&%% o% <ha$ <e see, I hae al!eady insis$ed. :e!e again i$ is $he
%&nc$ional a$$i$&de o% $he o!ganis" in &sing $he !esis$ance <hich $he dis$ance s$i"&l&s is !es1onsi,le
%o!, $ha$ cons$i$&$es $he s$&%% o% $he dis$an$ o,9ec$, and $he i"age does no$ call o&$ $his a$$i$&de.
I"age!y has $o ,e acce1$ed as $he!e ,&$ as no$ a 1a!$ o% $he %ield $o <hich <e !es1ond in $he sense
in <hich <e !es1ond $o $he dis$ance s$i"&li o% sense e=1e!ience, and $he i""edia$e !eason %o! no$
so !es1onding see"s $o lie in i$s %ail&!e $o %all in$o $he s$!&c$&!e o% $he %ield e=ce1$ as %illing, <hen i$
is indis$ing&isha,le. The ligh$ $ha$ <e ge$ &1on i$s cha!ac$e! Co"es %!o" $he eidence $ha$ I$s
con$en$s hae al<ays ,een in %o!"e! e=1e!iences, and %!o" $he 1a!$ <hich $he cen$!al ne!o&s
sys$e" see"s $o 1lay in i$s a11ea!ance. B&$ $he 1a!$ 1layed ,y $he cen$!al ne!o&s sys$e" is la!gely
in%e!ence %!o" $he %&nc$ion <hich "e"o!y and an$ici1a$ion hae in e=1e!ience. The 1!esen$
incl&des <ha$ is disa11ea!ing and <ha$ is e"e!ging. To<a!d $ha$ <hich is e"e!ging o&! ac$ion $a7es
&s, and <ha$ is disa11ea!ing 1!oides $he condi$ions o% $ha$ ac$ion. I"age!y $hen co"es in $o ,&ild
o&$ ,o$h s$!e$ches. 0e loo7 ,e%o!e and a%$e!, and sigh %o! <ha$ is no$. This ,&ilding?o&$ 1!ocess is
al!eady in o1e!a$ion in ,&ilding &1 $he 1!esen$, in ?so %a! as $he o!ganis" endo<s i$s %ield <i$h
1!esen$ e=is$ence IMSK.
cB I"age!y is an e=1e!ience $ha$ $a7es 1lace <i$hin $he indiid&al, ,eing ,y i$s na$&!e dio!ced %!o"
$he o,9ec$s $ha$ <o&ld gie i$ a 1lace in $he 1e!ce1$&al <o!ld@ ,&$ i$ has !e1!esen$a$ional !e%e!ence $o
s&ch o,9ec$s. This !e1!esen$a$ional !e%e!ence is %o&nd in $he !ela$ion o% $he a$$i$&des $ha$ ans<e! $o
$he sy",ols o% $he co"1le$ion o% $he ac$ $o $he a!ied s$i"&li $ha$ ini$ia$e $he ac$s. The ,!inging o%
$hese di%%e!en$ a$$i$&des in$o ha!"onio&s !ela$ion $a7es 1lace $h!o&gh $he !eo!gani8a$ion o% $he
con$en$s o% $he s$i"&li. In$o $his !eo!gani8a$ion en$e! $he so?called -i"ages- o% $he co"1le$ion o% $he
ac$. The con$en$ o% $his i"age!y is a!ied. I$ "ay ,e o% ision and con$ac$ o! o% $he o$he! senses. I$ is
a1$ $o ,e o% $he na$&!e o% $he ocal ges$&!es. I$ se!es as a 1!eli"ina!y $es$ing o% $he s&ccess o% $he
!eo!gani8ed o,9ec$. O$he! i"age!y is loca$ed a$ $he ,eginning o% $he ac$, as in $he case o% a "e"o!y
i"age o% an a,sen$ %!iend $ha$ ini$ia$es an ac$ o% "ee$ing hi" a$ an ag!eed !ende8o&s. I"age!y
"ay ,e %o&nd a$ any 1lace in $he ac$, 1laying $he sa"e 1a!$ $ha$ is 1layed ,y o,9ec$s and $hei!
cha!ac$e!is$ics. I$ is no$ $o ,e dis$ing&ished, $hen, ,y i$s %&nc$ion.
0ha$ does cha!ac$e!i8e i$ is i$s a11ea!ance in $he a,sence o% $he o,9ec$s $o <hich i$ !e%e!s. I$s
!ecogni8ed de1endence &1on 1as$ e=1e!ience, i.e., i$s !ela$ion $o o,9ec$s $ha$ <e!e 1!esen$, in so"e
sense !e"oes $his di%%e!ence@ ,&$ i$ ,!ings o&$ $he na$&!e o% $he i"age as $he con$in&ed 1!esence
o% $he con$en$ o% an o,9ec$ <hich is no longe! 1!esen$. I$ eiden$ly ,elongs $o $ha$ 1hase o% $he o,9ec$
<hich is de1enden$ &1on $he indiid&al in $he si$&a$ion <i$hin <hich $he o,9ec$ a11ea!s IMSK.
"ndnotes
1. ISee also -I"age o! Sensa$ion,- Co&!nal o% Philoso1hy, I A135)B, .5) %%.K
.# TH" BI$&$GIC I()IVI)4%&
The dis$inc$ion o% g!ea$es$ i"1o!$ance ,e$<een $y1es o% cond&c$ in h&"an ,ehaio! is $ha$ lying
,e$<een <ha$ I <ill $e!" $he cond&c$ o% $he -,iologic indiid&al- and $he cond&c$ o% $he -socially sel%?
conscio&s indiid&al.- The dis$inc$ion ans<e!s !o&ghly $o $ha$ d!a<n ,e$<een cond&c$ <hich does
no$ inole conscio&s !easoning and $ha$ <hich does, ,e$<een $he cond&c$ o% $he "o!e in$elligen$ o%
$he lo<e! ani"als and $ha$ o% "an. 0hile $hese $y1es o% cond&c$ can ,e clea!ly dis$ing&ished %!o"
each o$he! in h&"an ,ehaio!, $hey a!e no$ on se1a!a$e 1lanes, ,&$ 1lay ,ac7 and %o!$h in$o each
o$he!, and cons$i$&$e, &nde! "os$ condi$ions, an e=1e!ience <hich a11ea!s $o ,e c&$ ,y no lines o%
cleaage. The s7ill <i$h <hich one 1lays a %as$ ga"e o% $ennis and $ha$ ,y <hich he 1lans a ho&se o!
a ,&siness &nde!$a7ing see" $o ,elong $o $he o!ganic eD&i1"en$ o% $he sa"e indiid&al, liing in $he
sa"e <o!ld and s&,9ec$ $o $he sa"e !a$ional con$!ol. Fo! $he $ennis?1laye! c!i$ici8es his ga"e a$
$i"es and lea!ns $o 1lace $he ,all di%%e!en$ly oe! agains$ di%%e!en$ o11onen$s@ <hile in $he
so1his$ica$ed &nde!$a7ings o% 1lanning, he de1ends con%iden$ly on his %lai! %o! condi$ions and "en.
And ye$ $he dis$inc$ion is o% !eal and 1!o%o&nd i"1o!$ance, %o! i$ "a!7s $he dis$inc$ion ,e$<een o&!
,iologic inhe!i$ance %!o" lo<e! li%e and $he 1ec&lia! con$!ol <hich $he h&"an social ani"al e=e!cises
oe! his eni!on"en$ and hi"sel%.
I$ <o&ld ,e a "is$a7e $o ass&"e $ha$ a "an is a ,iologic indiid&al 1l&s a !eason, i% <e "ean ,y $his
de%ini$ion $ha$ he leads $<o se1a!a,le lies, one o% i"1&lse o! ins$inc$, and ano$he! o% !eason??
es1ecially i% <e ass&"e $ha$ $he con$!ol e=e!cised ,y !eason 1!oceeds ,y "eans o% ideas
conside!ed as "en$al con$en$s <hich do no$ a!ise <i$hin $he i"1&lsie li%e and %o!" a !eal 1a!$
$he!eo%. On $he con$!a!y, $he <hole d!i%$ o% "ode!n 1sychology has ,een $o<a!d an &nde!$a7ing $o
,!ing <ill and !eason <i$hin $he i"1&lsie li%e. The &nde!$a7ing "ay no$ hae ,een %&lly s&ccess%&l,
,&$ i$ has ,een i"1ossi,le $o aoid $he a$$e"1$ $o ,!ing !eason <i$hin $he sco1e o% eol&$ion@ and i%
$his a$$e"1$ is s&ccess%&l, !a$ional cond&c$ "&s$ g!o< o&$ o% i"1&lsie cond&c$. My o<n a$$e"1$ <ill
,e $o sho< $ha$ i$ is in $he social ,ehaio! o% $he h&"an ani"al $ha$ $his eol&$ion $a7es 1lace. On
$he o$he! hand, i$ is $!&e $ha$ !easoning cond&c$ a11ea!s <he!e i"1&lsie cond&c$ ,!ea7s do<n.
0he!e $he ac$ %ails $o !eali8e i$s %&nc$ion, <hen $he i"1&lsie e%%o!$ $o ge$ %ood does no$ ,!ing $he
%ood?and, "o!e es1ecially, <he!e con%lic$ing i"1&lses $h<a!$ and inhi,i$ each o$he!?he!e !easoning
"ay co"e in <i$h a ne< 1!oced&!e $ha$ is no$ a$ $he dis1osal o% $he ,iologic indiid&al. The
cha!ac$e!is$ic !es&l$ o% $he !easoning 1!oced&!e is $ha$ $he indiid&al sec&!es a di%%e!en$ se$ o%
o,9ec$s $o <hich $o !es1ond, a di%%e!en$ %ield o% s$i"&la$ion. The!e has ,een disc!i"ina$ion, analysis,
and a !e,&ilding o% $he $hings $ha$ called o&$ $he con%lic$ing i"1&lses and $ha$ no< call o&$ a
!es1onse in <hich $he con%lic$ing i"1&lses hae ,een ad9&s$ed $o each o$he!. The indiid&al <ho
<as diided <i$hin hi"sel% is &ni%ied again in his !eac$ion. So %a!, ho<ee!, as <e !eac$ di!ec$ly
$o<a!d $hings a,o&$ &s <i$ho&$ $he necessi$y o% %inding di%%e!en$ o,9ec$s %!o" $hose <hich "ee$ o&!
i""edia$e ision and hea!ing and con$ac$, so %a! a!e <e ac$ing i"1&lsiely@ and <e ac$ acco!dingly
as ,iologic indiid&als, indiid&als "ade &1 o% i"1&lses sensa$i8ing &s $o s$i"&li, and ans<e!ing
di!ec$ly $o $his s$i"&la$ion.
0ha$ a!e $he g!ea$ g!o&1s o% i"1&lses "a7ing &1 $his ,iologic indiid&alE The ans<e! %o! $he
1&!1oses o% $his disc&ssion need only ,e a !o&gh ans<e!. The!e a!e, %i!s$ o% all, $he ad9&s$"en$s ,y
<hich $he indiid&al "ain$ains his 1osi$ion and ,alance in "o$ion o! a$ !es$@ A#B $he o!gani8a$ion o%
!es1onses $o<a!d dis$an$ o,9ec$s, leading $o "oe"en$ $o<a!d o! %!o" $he"@ A'B $he ad9&s$"en$ o%
$he s&!%aces o% $he ,ody $o con$ac$s <i$h o,9ec$s <hich <e hae !eached ,y "oe"en$, and
es1ecially $he "ani1&la$ions o% $hese o,9ec$s ,y $he hand@ A)B a$$ac7 on, and de%ense %!o", hos$ile
%o!"s o% 1!ey, inoling s1eciali8ed o!gani8a$ion o% $he gene!al i"1&lses 9&s$ no$ed@ A+B %ligh$ and
esca1e %!o" dange!o&s o,9ec$s@ A.B "oe"en$s $o<a!d, o! a<ay %!o", indiid&als o% $he o11osi$e
se=, and $he se=&al 1!ocess@ A/B sec&!ing and inges$ing %ood@ A2B no&!ish"en$ and ca!e o% child
%o!"s, and s&c7ling and ad9&s$"en$ o% $he ,ody o% $he child $o 1a!en$al ca!e@ A3B <i$hd!a<als %!o"
hea$, cold, and dange!, and $he !ela=a$ions o% !es$ and slee1@ and A15B $he %o!"a$ion o% a!io&s so!$s
o% ha,i$a$s, se!ing $he %&nc$ions o% 1!o$ec$ion and o% 1a!en$al ca!e.
0hile $his is ,&$ a !o&ghly %ashioned ca$alog&e o% 1!i"i$ie h&"an i"1&lses, i$ does coe! $he", %o!
$he!e is no 1!i"i$ie !eac$ion <hich is no$ %o&nd in $he lis$, o! is no$ a 1ossi,le co",ina$ion o% $he", i%
<e e=ce1$ $he de,a$a,le %ield o% $he he!ding ins$inc$. The!e see" $o ,e in $he las$ analysis $<o
%ac$o!s in $his so?called -Ins$inc$-@ %i!s$, a $endency o% $he "e",e! o% $he g!o&1 $ha$ he!ds $o "oe in
$he di!ec$ion o%, and a$ $he sa"e !a$e as, o$he! "e",e!s o% $he g!o&1@ second, $he ca!!ying?o&$ o% all
$he li%e?1!ocesses "o!e no!"ally and <i$h less e=ci$a,ili$y in $he g!o&1 $han o&$side i$. The la$$e! is
eiden$ly a highly co"1osi$e %ac$o!, and see"s $o 1oin$ $o a heigh$ened sensi$ii$y $o $he s$i"&li $o
<i$hd!a<al and esca1e in $he a,sence o% $he g!o&1. I hae !e%e!!ed $o $his es1ecially ,eca&se $he
ag&eness and lac7 o% de%ini$ion o% $his g!o&1 o% i"1&lses hae led "any $o &se $his ins$inc$ $o
e=1lain 1heno"ena o% social cond&c$ $ha$ lie on an en$i!ely di%%e!en$ leel o% ,ehaio!.
I$ is c&s$o"a!y $o s1ea7 o% $he ins$inc$s in $he h&"an indiid&al as s&,9ec$ $o al"os$ inde%ini$e
"odi%ica$ion, di%%e!ing in $his %!o" $he ins$inc$s in $he lo<e! ani"al %o!"s. Ins$inc$s in $he la$$e! sense
can ha!dly ,e iden$i%ied in "an, <i$h $he e=ce1$ion o% $ha$ o% s&c7ling and 1e!ha1s ce!$ain o% $he
i""edia$e !eac$ions o% ange! <hich e!y o$ing in%an$s e=hi,i$, $oge$he! <i$h a %e< o$he!s <hich a!e
$oo &ndeelo1ed $o dese!e $he $e!". The li%e o% $he child in h&"an socie$y s&,9ec$s $hese and all
$he i"1&lses <i$h <hich h&"an na$&!e is endo<ed $o a 1!ess&!e <hich ca!!ies $he" ,eyond
1ossi,le co"1a!ison <i$h $he ani"al ins$inc$s, een $ho&gh <e hae discoe!ed $ha$ $he ins$inc$s in
lo<e! ani"als a!e s&,9ec$ $o g!ad&al changes $h!o&gh long?con$in&ed e=1e!ience o% shi%$ing
condi$ions. This 1!ess&!e is, o% co&!se, only 1ossi,le $h!o&gh $he !a$ional cha!ac$e! $ha$ %inds i$s
e=1lana$ion, i% I a" co!!ec$, in $he social ,ehaio! in$o <hich $he child is a,le $o en$e!.
This "a$e!ial o% ins$inc$ o! i"1&lse in $he lo<e! ani"als is highly o!gani8ed. I$ !e1!esen$s $he
ad9&s$"en$ o% $he ani"al $o a e!y de%ini$e and !es$!ic$ed <o!ld. The s$i"&li $o <hich $he ani"al is
sensi$ie and <hich lie in i$s ha,i$a$ cons$i$&$e $ha$ <o!ld and ans<e! $o $he 1ossi,le !eac$ions o% $he
ani"al. The $<o %i$ in$o each o$he! and "&$&ally de$e!"ine each o$he! %o! i$ is $he ins$inc$?see7ing?
e=1!ession $ha$ de$e!"ines $he sensi$ii$y o% $he ani"al $o $he s$i"&l&s, and i$ is $he 1!esence o% $he
s$i"&l&s <hich se$s $he ins$inc$ %!ee. The o!gani8a$ion !e1!esen$s no$ only $he ,alance o% a$$i$&de
and $he !hy$h" o% "oe"en$ ,&$ $he s&ccession o% ac$s &1on each o$he!, $he <hole &ni%ied s$!&c$&!e
o% $he li%e o% $he %o!" and $he s1ecies. In any 7no<n h&"an co""&ni$y, een o% $he "os$ 1!i"i$ie
$y1e, <e %ind nei$he! s&ch a &ni%ied <o!ld no! s&ch a &ni%ied indiid&al. The!e is 1!esen$ in $he
h&"an <o!ld a 1as$ and an &nce!$ain %&$&!e, a %&$&!e <hich "ay ,e in%l&enced ,y $he cond&c$ o% $he
indiid&als o% $he g!o&1. The indiid&al 1!o9ec$s hi"sel% in$o a!ied 1ossi,le si$&a$ions and ,y
i"1le"en$s and social a$$i$&des &nde!$a7es $o "a7e a di%%e!en$ si$&a$ion e=is$, <hich <o&ld gie
e=1!ession $o di%%e!en$ i"1&lses.
F!o" $he 1oin$ o% ie< o% ins$inc$ie ,ehaio! in $he lo<e! ani"als, o! o% $he i""edia$e h&"an
!es1onse $o a 1e!ce1$&al <o!ld Ain o$he! <o!ds, %!o" $he s$and1oin$ o% $he &n%!ac$&!ed !ela$ion
,e$<een $he i"1&lses and $he o,9ec$s <hich gie $he" e=1!essionB, 1as$ and %&$&!e a!e no$ $he!e@
and ye$ $hey a!e !e1!esen$ed in $he si$&a$ion. They a!e !e1!esen$ed ,y %acili$y o% ad9&s$"en$ $h!o&gh
$he selec$ion o% ce!$ain ele"en$s ,o$h in $he di!ec$ sens&o&s s$i"&la$ion $h!o&gh $he e=ci$e"en$ o%
$he end?o!gans, and in $he i"age!y. 0ha$ !e1!esen$s 1as$ and <ha$ !e1!esen$s %&$&!e a!e no$
dis$ing&isha,le as con$en$s. The s&!!oga$e o% $he 1as$ is $he ac$&al ad9&s$"en$ o% $he i"1&lse $o $he
o,9ec$ as s$i"&l&s. The s&!!oga$e o% $he %&$&!e is $he con$!ol <hich $he changing %ield o% e=1e!ience
d&!ing $he ac$ "ain$ains oe! i$s e=ec&$ion.
The %lo< o% e=1e!ience is no$ di%%e!en$ia$ed in$o a 1as$ and %&$&!e oe! agains$ an i""edia$e no<
&n$il !e%lec$ion a%%ec$s ce!$ain 1a!$s o% $he e=1e!ience <i$h $hese cha!ac$e!s, <i$h $he 1e!%ec$ion o%
ad9&s$"en$ on $he one hand, and <i$h $he shi%$ing con$!ol on $he o$he!. The ,iologic indiid&al lies
in an &ndi%%e!en$ia$ed no<@ $he social !e%lec$ie indiid&al $a7es $his &1 in$o a %lo< o% e=1e!ience
<i$hin <hich s$ands a %i=ed 1as$ and a "o!e o! less &nce!$ain %&$&!e. The no< o% e=1e!ience is
!e1!esen$ed 1!i"a!ily ,y $he ,ody o% i"1&lses lis$ed a,oe, o&!. inhe!i$ed ad9&s$"en$ $o a 1hysical
and social <o!ld, con$in&o&sly !econs$i$&$ed ,y social !e%lec$ie 1!ocesses@ ,&$ $his !econs$i$&$ion
$a7es 1lace ,y analysis and selec$ion in $he %ield o% s$i"&la$ion, no$ ,y i""edia$e di!ec$ion and
!eco",ina$ion o% $he i"1&lses. The con$!ol e=e!cised oe! $he i"1&lses is al<ays $h!o&gh selec$ion
o% s$i"&la$ions condi$ioned ,y $he sensi$i8ing in%l&ence o% a!io&s o$he! i"1&lses see7ing
e=1!ession. The i""ediacy o% $he no< is nee! los$, and $he ,iologic indiid&al s$ands as $he
&nD&es$ioned !eali$y in $he "inds o% di%%e!en$ly cons$!&c$ed 1as$s and 1!o9ec$ed %&$&!es. I$ has ,een
$he <o!7 o% scien$i%ic !e%lec$ion $o isola$e ce!$ain o% $hese %i=ed ad9&s$"en$s Ain $e!"s o% o&! ,alanced
1os$&!es, o&! "oe"en$s $o<a!d o,9ec$s, o&! con$ac$s <i$h and "ani1&la$ions o% o,9ec$sB as a
1hysical <o!ld, ans<e!ing $o $he ,iologic indiid&al <i$h i$s in$!ica$e ne!o&s sys$e".
The 1hysical <o!ld, <hich has a!isen $h&s in e=1e!ience, ans<e!s no$ only $o o&! 1os$&!es and
"oe"en$s <i$h !e%e!ence $o dis$an$ o,9ec$s and o&! "ani1&la$ions o% $hese o,9ec$s, ,&$ also $o $he
,iological "echanis", es1ecially i$s co"1le= ne!o&s coo!dina$ions ,y <hich $hese !eac$ions a!e
ca!!ied o&$. As i$ is in $his 1hysical <o!ld $ha$ <e a$$ain o&! "os$ 1e!%ec$ con$!ols, $he $endency
$o<a!d 1lacing $he indiid&al, as a "echanis", in $his 1hysical <o!ld is e!y s$!ong. C&s$ in so %a! as
<e 1!esen$ o&!seles as ,iological "echanis"s a!e <e ,e$$e! a,le $o con$!ol a co!!es1ondingly
g!ea$e! %ield o% condi$ions <hich de$e!"ine cond&c$. On $he o$he! hand, $his s$a$e"en$ in "echanical
$e!"s a,s$!ac$s %!o" all 1&!1oses and all ends o% cond&c$. I% $hese a11ea! in $he s$a$e"en$ o% $he
indiid&al, $hey "&s$ ,e 1laced in "ind, as an e=1!ession o% $he sel% ?1laced, in o$he! <o!ds, in a
<o!ld o% seles, $ha$ is, in a social <o!ld. I do no$ <ish $o en$e! $he s&,$le 1!o,le"s inoled in $hese
dis$inc$ions?$he 1!o,le"s o% "echanis" and $eleology, o% ,ody and "ind, $he 1sychological 1!o,le"
o% 1a!allelis" o! in$e!ac$ion. I desi!e si"1ly $o indica$e $he logical "o$ie <hich ca!!ies $he
"echanical s$a$e"en$ o% ,ehaio! in$o $he 1hysical %ield and $he s$a$e"en$ o% ends and 1&!1oses
in$o $he "en$al <o!ld, as $hese $e!"s a!e gene!ally &sed. 0hile $hese $<o e"1hases <hich hae
,een !ecogni8ed a,oe in $he dis$inc$ion ,e$<een $he 1as$ and $he %&$&!e a!e o% ca1i$al i"1o!$ance,
i$ is necessa!y $o &nde!sco!e $he !e$&!n <hich "ode!n scien$i%ic "e$hod Aand $his is ,&$ an ela,o!a$e
%o!" o% !e%lec$ionB inei$a,ly "a7es $o &nso1his$ica$ed i""edia$e e=1e!ience in $he &se o%
e=1e!i"en$ as $he $es$ o% !eali$y. Mode!n science ,!ings i$s "os$ a,s$!ac$ and s&,$le hy1o$heses
&l$i"a$ely in$o $he %ield o% $he -no<- $o eidence $hei! !elia,ili$y and $hei! $!&$h.
This i""edia$e e=1e!ience <hich is !eali$y, and <hich is $he %inal $es$ o% $he !eali$y o% scien$i%ic
hy1o$heses as <ell as $he $es$ o% $he $!&$h o% all o&! ideas and s&11osi$ions, is $he e=1e!ience o%
<ha$ I hae called $he -,iologic indiid&al.- The $e!" !e%e!s $o $he indiid&al in an a$$i$&de and a$ a
"o"en$ in <hich $he i"1&lses s&s$ain an &n%!ac$&!ed !ela$ion <i$h $he o,9ec$s a!o&nd hi". The %inal
!egis$e!ing o% $he 1oin$e! on a 1ai! o% scales, o% $he coincidence o% $he s$a! <i$h $he hai! line o% a
$elesco1e, o% $he 1!esence o% an indiid&al in a !oo", o% $he ac$&al cons&""a$ion o% a ,&siness
deal?$hese occ&!!ences <hich "ay con%i!" any hy1o$hesis o! s&11osi$ion a!e no$ $he"seles
s&,9ec$ $o analysis. 0ha$ is so&gh$ is a coincidence o% an an$ici1a$ed !es&l$ <i$h $he ac$&al een$. I
hae $e!"ed i$ -,iologic- ,eca&se $he $e!" lays e"1hasis on $he liing !eali$y <hich "ay ,e
dis$ing&ished %!o" !e%lec$ion. A la$e! !e%lec$ion $&!ns ,ac7 &1on i$ and endeao!s $o 1!esen$ $he
co"1le$e in$e!!ela$ionshi1 ,e$<een $he <o!ld and $he indiid&al in $e!"s o% 1hysical s$i"&li and
,iological "echanis"@ $he ac$&al e=1e!ience did no$ $a7e 1lace in $his %o!" ,&$ in $he %o!" o%
&nso1his$ica$ed !eali$y IMSK.
/# TH" S"&3 %() TH" P*$C"SS $3 *"3&"CTI$(
I$ is in social ,ehaio! $ha$ $he 1!ocess o% !e%lec$ion i$sel% a!ises. This 1!ocess sho&ld %i!s$ o% all ,e
s$a$ed in i$s si"1les$ a11ea!ance. I$ i"1lies, as I hae al!eady s$a$ed, so"e de%ea$ o% $he ac$,
es1ecially one d&e $o "&$&ally inhi,i$ing i"1&lses. The i"1&lse $o adance $o<a!d %ood o! <a$e! is
chec7ed ,y an i"1&lse $o hold ,ac7 o! <i$hd!a< $h!o&gh $he eidence o% dange! o! a sign %o!,idding
$!es1ass. The a$$i$&de o% $he ani"al lo<e! $han "an &nde! $hese condi$ions is $ha$ o% adancing and
!e$!ea$ing?a 1!ocess <hich "ay o% i$sel% lead $o so"e sol&$ion <i$ho&$ !e%lec$ion. Th&s $he ca$s in $he
$!ic7 ,o= ,y con$in&o&s e!!a$ic "oe"en$s %ind a$ las$ $he s1!ing $ha$ se$s $he" %!ee@ ,&$ $he sol&$ion
$h&s %o&nd is no$ a !e%lec$ie sol&$ion, $ho&gh con$in&o&s !e1e$i$ion "ay a$ las$ s$a"1 $his !eac$ion
in, so $ha$ $he e=1e!ienced ca$ <ill a$ once !elease $he s1!ing <hen 1laced again in $he 1&88le ,o=.
A e!y la!ge 1a!$ o% h&"an s7ill gained in 1laying ga"es, o! "&sical ins$!&"en$s, o! in a$$aining in
gene!al "&sc&la! ad9&s$"en$s $o ne< si$&a$ions, is acD&i!ed ,y $his $!ial?and?e!!o! 1!oced&!e.
In $his 1!oced&!e one o% $he o11osing i"1&lses a%$e! $he o$he! is do"inan$, gaining e=1!ession &1 $o
$he 1oin$ a$ <hich i$ is de%ini$iely chec7ed ,y $he o11osing i"1&lse o! i"1&lses. Th&s a dog
a11!oaching a s$!ange! <ho o%%e!s i$ "ea$ "ay al"os$ !each hi", and $hen &nde! $he s&""a$ion o%
$he s$i"&li o% $he s$!angeness o% $he "an s&ddenly da!$ a<ay ,a!7ing and sna!ling. S&ch a seesa<
,e$<een o11osing i"1&lses "ay con$in&e %o! so"e $i"e, &n$il, a%$e! e=ha&s$ing each o$he!, $hey
leae $he doo! o1en $o o$he! i"1&lses and $hei! s$i"&li en$i!ely o&$side $he 1!esen$ %ield. O! $his
a11!oach and !e$!ea$ "any ,!ing in$o 1lay s$ill o$he! cha!ac$e!s in $he o,9ec$s, a!o&sing o$he!
i"1&lses <hich "ay $h&s sole $he 1!o,le". A close! a11!oach $o $he s$!ange! "ay !eeal a %a"ilia!
odo! %!o" $he "an and ,anish $he s$i"&l&s <hich has se$ %!ee $he i"1&lse o% %ligh$ and hos$ili$y. In
$he o$he! ins$ance ci$ed?$ha$ o% $he ca$s in $he ,o=?? one i"1&lsie ac$ a%$e! ano$he! %inally leads ,y
chalice $o $he se$$ing?o%% o% $he s1!ing. The ,&ngling, a<7<a!d, hesi$a$ing 1lay o% $he ,eginne! a$
$ennis o! on $he iolin is an ins$ance o% $he sa"e $hing in h&"an cond&c$@ and he!e <e a!e a,le $o
!eco!d $he 1laye! hi"sel% as saying $ha$ he lea!ns <i$ho&$ 7no<ing ho< he lea!ns. :e %inds $ha$ a
ne< si$&a$ion a11ea!s $o hi" $ha$ he has no$ !ecogni8ed in $he 1as$. The 1osi$ion o% his o11onen$
and $he angle o% $he a11!oaching ,all s&ddenly ,eco"e i"1o!$an$ $o hi". These o,9ec$ie si$&a$ions
had no$ e=is$ed %o! hi" in $he 1as$. :e has no$ ,&il$ $he" &1 on any $heo!y. They a!e si"1ly $he!e,
<he!eas in $he 1as$ $hey had no$ ,een in his e=1e!ience@ and in$!os1ec$ion sho<s $ha$ he
!ecogni8es $he" ,y a !eadiness $o a ne< so!$ o% !es1onse. :is a$$en$ion is called $o $he" ,y his o<n
"o$o! a$$i$&des. :e is ge$$ing <ha$ he calls -%o!".- In %ac$, -%o!"- is a %eel %o! $hose "o$o! a$$i$&des
,y <hich <e sensi$i8e o&!seles $o $he s$i"&li $ha$ call o&$ $he !es1onses see7ing e=1!ession. The
<hole is an &n!e%lec$ie 1!ocess in <hich $he i"1&lses and $hei! co!!es1onding o,9ec$s a!e $he!e o!
a!e no$ $he!e. The !eo!gani8a$ion o% $he o,9ec$ie %ield and o% con%lic$ing i"1&lses does $a7e 1lace in
e=1e!ience. 0hen i$ has $a7en 1lace i$ is !egis$e!ed in ne< o,9ec$s and ne< a$$i$&des, and %o! $he
$i"e ,eing <e "ay 1os$1one $he "anne! in <hich $he !eo!gani8a$ion $a7es 1lace. C&!!en$
e=1lana$ions in $e!"s o% $!ial and e!!o!, s$a"1ing?in o% s&ccess%&l !eac$ions and eli"ina$ion o%
&ns&ccess%&l !eac$ions, and $he selec$ie 1o<e! o% $he 1leas&!e a$$ending s&ccess and $he 1ain
a$$ending &1on %ail&!e hae no$ 1!oed sa$is%ying, ,&$ $he 1!ocesses lie o&$side $he %ield o% !e%lec$ion
and need no$ de$ain &s a$ 1!esen$.
As an e=a"1le o% si"1le !e%lec$ion <e "ay $a7e $he o1ening o% a d!a<e! $ha$ !e%&ses $o gie <ay $o
!e1ea$ed 1&lls o% ee! inc!easing ene!gy. Ins$ead o% s&!!ende!ing one>s sel% $o $he e%%o!$ $o e=1end
all his s$!eng$h &n$il he "ay hae 1&lled o%% $he handles $he"seles, $he indiid&al e=e!cises his
in$elligence ,y loca$ing, i% 1ossi,le, $he !esis$ance, iden$i%ying a li$$le gie on $his side o! $ha$, and
&sing his s$!eng$h a$ $he 1oin$ <he!e $he !esis$ance is g!ea$es$, o! a$$ending $o $he i"age!y o% $he
con$en$s o% $he d!a<e! and !e"oing $he d!a<e! a,oe so $ha$ he "ay $a7e o&$ $he o,s$acle $ha$ has
de%ea$ed his e%%o!$s. In $his 1!oced&!e $he s$!i7ing di%%e!ence %!o" $ha$ &n!e%lec$ie "e$hod <hich <e
hae 9&s$ ,een conside!ing is %o&nd in $he analysis o% $he o,9ec$. The d!a<e! has ceased %o! $he $i"e
,eing $o ,e a "e!e so"e$hing $o ,e 1&lled. I$ is a <ooden $hing o% di%%e!en$ 1a!$s, so"e o% <hich
"ay hae s<ollen "o!e $han o$he!s. I$ is also a c!o<ded !ece1$acle o% o,9ec$s <hich "ay hae
1!o9ec$ed $he"seles agains$ $he con$aining %!a"e. This analysis, ho<ee!, does no$ $a7e &s o&$ o%
$he %ield o% $he i"1&lses. The "an is o1e!a$ing <i$h $<o hands. A sense o% g!ea$e! !esis$ance on one
side !a$he! $han on $he o$he! leads $o added e%%o!$ <he!e $he !esis$ance is $he g!ea$es$. The i"age!y
o% $he con$en$s o% $he d!a<e! ans<e!s $o a $endency $o d!ag a<ay $he o%%ending hind!ance. The
"echanis" o% o!dina!y 1e!ce1$ion, in <hich $he 1e!son>s $endencies $o ac$ lead hi" $o !e"a!7 $he
o,9ec$s <hich <ill gie $he $endencies %!ee 1lay, is D&i$e co"1e$en$ $o deal <i$h $he 1!o,le", i% he
can only sec&!e a %ield o% ,ehaio! <i$hin <hich $he 1a!$s o% $he &ni$a!y o,9ec$ "ay ans<e! $o $he
1a!$s o% $he o!gani8ed !eac$ion. S&ch a %ield is no$ $ha$ o% oe!$ ac$ion, %o! $he di%%e!en$ s&gges$ions
a11ea! as co"1e$ing hy1o$heses o% $he ,es$ 1lan o% a$$ac7, and "&s$ ,e !ela$ed $o each o$he! so as
$o ,e 1a!$s o% so"e so!$ o% a ne< <hole.
Me!e inhi,i$ion o% con%lic$ing i"1&lses does no$ 1!oide s&ch a %ield. This "ay leae &s <i$h o,9ec$s
$ha$ si"1ly nega$e each o$he!?a d!a<e! $ha$ is no$ a d!a<e!, since i$ canno$ ,e d!a<n, an indiid&al
$ha$ is ,o$h an ene"y and a %!iend, o! a !oad $ha$ is a no?$ho!o&gh%a!e@ and <e "ay si"1ly ,o< $o
$he inei$a,le, <hile $he a$$en$ion shi%$s $o o$he! %ields o% ac$ion. No! a!e <e a$ li,e!$y $o 1!edica$e a
"ind, as a loc&s %o! !e%lec$ion?a "ind $ha$ a$ a ce!$ain s$age in eol&$ion is $he!e, a heaen?gien
inne! endo<"en$ !eady $o eD&i1 "an <i$h a ne< $echniD&e o% li%e. O&! &nde!$a7ing is $o discoe! $he
deelo1"en$ o% "ind <i$hin ,ehaio! $ha$ $oo7 no $ho&gh$ $o i$sel%, and ,elonged en$i!ely $o a <o!ld
o% i""edia$e $hings and i""edia$e !eac$ions $o $hings. I% i$ is $o ,e an eol&$ion <i$hin ,ehaio!, i$
"&s$ ,e s$a$a,le in $he <ay <e hae conceied ,ehaio! $o $a7e 1lace in liing %o!"s, i.e., ee!y s$e1
o% $he 1!ocess "&s$ ,e an ac$ in <hich an i"1&lse %inds e=1!ession $h!o&gh an o,9ec$ in a
1e!ce1$&al %ield. I$ "ay ,e necessa!y again $o &$$e! a <a!ning agains$ $he easy ass&"1$ion $ha$
e=1e!iences o!igina$ing %!o" &nde! $he s7in 1!oide an inne! <o!ld <i$hin <hich in so"e o,sc&!e
"anne! !e%lec$ion "ay a!ise, and agains$ $he ass&"1$ion $ha$ $he ,ody o% $he indiid&al as a
1e!ce1$&al o,9ec$ 1!oides a cen$e! $o <hich e=1e!iences "ay ,e a$$ached, $h&s c!ea$ing a 1!ia$e
and 1sychical %ield $ha$ has in i$ $he ge!" o% !e1!esen$a$ion and so o% !e%lec$ion. Nei$he! a colic no! a
s$&,,ed $oe can gie ,i!$h $o !e%lec$ion, no! do 1leas&!es o! 1ains, e"o$ions o! "oods, cons$i$&$e
inne! 1sychical con$en$s, inei$a,ly !e%e!!ed $o a sel%, $h&s %o!"ing an inne! <o!ld <i$hin <hich
a&$och$hono&s $ho&gh$ can s1!ing &1. *e%lec$ion as i$ a11ea!s in $he ins$ance ci$ed a,oe inoles
$<o a$$i$&des a$ leas$; one o% indica$ing a noel %ea$&!e o% $he o,9ec$ <hich gies !ise $o con%lic$ing
i"1&lses AanalysisB@ and $he o$he! o% so o!gani8ing $he !eac$ion $o<a!d $he o,9ec$, $h&s 1e!ceied,
$ha$ one indica$es $he !eac$ion $o hi"sel% as he "igh$ $o ano$he! A!e1!esen$a$ionB. The di!ec$
ac$ii$ies o&$ o% <hich $ho&gh$ g!o<s a!e social ac$s, and 1!es&"a,ly %ind $hei! ea!lies$ e=1!ession in
1!i"i$ie social !es1onses. I$ <ill ,e <ell, $hen, $o conside! %i!s$ $he si"1les$ %o!"s o% social cond&c$
and !e$&!n $o !e%lec$ion <hen <e lea!n <he$he! s&ch cond&c$ 1!oides a %ield and "e$hod %o!
!e%lec$ion.
The social cond&c$ o% any indiid&al "ay ,e de%ined as $ha$ cond&c$ a!ising o&$ o% i"1&lses <hose
s1eci%ic s$i"&li a!e %o&nd in o$he! indiid&als ,elonging $o $he sa"e ,iologic g!o&1. These s$i"&li
"ay a11eal $o any o% $he sense o!gans, ,&$ $he!e is a class o% s&ch s$i"&li <hich needs $o ,e
es1ecially no$ed and e"1hasi8ed. These a!e $he "o$o! a$$i$&des and ea!ly s$ages in $he "oe"en$s
o% o$he! indiid&als <hich goe!n $he !eac$ions o% $he indiid&al in D&es$ion. They hae ,een la!gely
oe!loo7ed ,y co"1a!a$ie 1sychologis$s@ o! <hen disc&ssed, as $hey hae ,een, ,y Da!<in,
Pide!i$, and 0&nd$, $hey hae ,een $!ea$ed as a%%ec$ing o$he! indiid&als no$ di!ec$ly ,&$ $h!o&gh
$hei! e=1!ession o% e"o$ion, o% in$en$ion, o! idea@ $ha$ is, $hey hae no$ ,een !ecogni8ed as s1eci%ic
s$i"&li ,&$ as seconda!y and de!ied s$i"&li. B&$ anyone <ho s$&dies <ha$ "ay ,e called $he
-cone!sa$ion o% a$$i$&des- o% dogs 1!e1a!ing %o! a %igh$, o! $he ad9&s$"en$s o% in%an$s and $hei!
"o$he!s, o! $he "&$&al "oe"en$s o% he!ding ani"als <ill !ecogni8e $ha$ $he ,eginnings o% social
ac$s call o&$ ins$inc$ie o! i"1&lsie !es1onses as i""edia$ely as do $he ani"al %o!"s, odo!s,
con$ac$s, o! c!ies. 0&nd$ has done a g!ea$ se!ice in ,!inging $hese s$i"&li &nde! $he gene!al $e!"
o% ges$&!es, $h&s 1lacing $he &$$e!ed so&nds <hich deelo1 in$o a!$ic&la$e signi%ican$ s1eech in "an
in $his class, as ocal ges$&!es. Ano$he! co""en$ sho&ld ,e "ade &1on $he conce1$ion o% social
cond&c$. I$ "&s$ no$ ,e con%ined $o "&$&al !eac$ions o% indiid&als <hose cond&c$ acce1$s,
conse!es, and se!es $he o$he!s. I$ "&s$ incl&de $he ani"al ene"ies as <ell. Fo! $he 1&!1oses o%
social cond&c$, $he $ige! is as "&ch a 1a!$ o% $he 9&ngle socie$y as $he ,&%%alo o! $he dee!. In $he
deelo1"en$ o% $he g!o&1 "o!e na!!o<ly conceied, $he ins$inc$s o! i"1&lses o% hos$ili$y and %ligh$,
$oge$he! <i$h $he ges$&!es $ha$ !e1!esen$ $hei! ea!ly s$ages, 1lay "os$ i"1o!$an$ !Mles, no$ only in $he
1!o$ec$ion o% $he "&$&ally s&11o!$ing %o!"s, ,&$ in $he cond&c$ o% $hese %o!"s $o<a!d each o$he!.
No! is i$ a"iss $o 1oin$ o&$ $ha$ in $he eol&$ion o% ani"al %o!"s <i$hin $he li%e?1!ocess $he h&n$e! and
$he h&n$ed, $he ea$e! and $he ea$en, a!e as closely in$e!<oen as a!e $he "o$he! and $he child o! $he
indiid&als o% $he $<o se=es.
A"ong $he lo<e! %o!"s, social cond&c$ is i"1lica$ed in $he ins$inc$s o% a$$ac7 and %ligh$, o% se=,
1a!en$hood and childhood, in $hose o% $he he!ding ani"als A$ho&gh $hese a!e so"e<ha$ ag&e in
$hei! o&$lineB, and 1!o,a,ly in $he cons$!&c$ion o% ha,i$a$s. In all $hese 1!ocesses $he %o!"s
$he"seles, $hei! "oe"en$s, es1ecially $he ea!ly s$ages o% $hese "oe"en$s %o! in ad9&s$"en$ $o
$he ac$ion o% ano$he! ani"al $he ea!lies$ indica$ion o% $he onco"ing !eac$ion is o% g!ea$es$
i"1o!$ance and $he so&nds $hey &$$e! se!e as s1eci%ic s$i"&li $o social i"1&lses. The !es1onses
a!e as i""edia$e and o,9ec$ie in $hei! cha!ac$e! as a!e $he !es1onses $o non?social 1hysical
s$i"&li. :o<ee! co"1le= and in$!ica$e $his cond&c$ "ay ,eco"e, as in $he li%e o% $he ,ee and $he
an$, o! in ,&ilding s&ch ha,i$a$s as $hose o% $he ,eae!, no conincing eidence has ,een gained ,y
co"1e$en$ ani"al o,se!e!s $ha$ one ani"al gie $o ano$he! an indica$ion o% an o,9ec$ o! ac$ion
<hich is !egis$e!ed in <ha$ <e hae $e!"ed a -"ind-@ in o$he! <o!ds, $he!e is no eidence $ha$ one
%o!" is a,le $o coney in%o!"a$ion ,y signi%ican$ ges$&!es $o ano$he! %o!". The ,eas$ $ha$ !es1onds
di!ec$ly $o e=$e!nal o,9ec$s, and 1!es&"a,ly $o i"age!y also, has no 1as$ o! %&$&!e, has no sel% as an
o,9ec$?in a <o!d, has no "ind as a,oe desc!i,ed, is ca1a,le o% no !e%lec$ion, no! o% -!a$ional
cond&c$- as $ha$ $e!" is c&!!en$ly &sed.
0e %ind a"ong ,i!ds a c&!io&s 1heno"enon. The ,i!ds "a7e an e=$ensie &se o% $he ocal ges$&!e
in $hei! se=&al and 1a!en$al cond&c$. The ocal ges$&!e has in a 1ec&lia! deg!ee $he cha!ac$e! o%
1ossi,ly a%%ec$ing di!ec$ly $he ani"al $ha$ &ses i$, as i$ does $he o$he! %o!". I$ does no$ o% co&!se
%ollo< $ha$ $his e%%ec$ <ill ,e !eali8ed@ <he$he! i$ is !eali8ed o! no$ de1ends &1on $he 1!esence o%
i"1&lses !eD&i!ing $he s$i"&l&s $o se$ $he" %!ee. In $he co""on social li%e o% ani"als $he i"1&lse o%
one %o!" <o&ld no$ ,e $o do <ha$ i$ is s$i"&la$ing $he o$he! %o!" $o do, so $ha$ een i% $he s$i"&l&s
<e!e o% s&ch a cha!ac$e! as $o a%%ec$ $he sense o!gan o% $he indiid&al i$sel% as i$ does $he o$he!, $his
s$i"&l&s <o&ld no!"ally hae no di!ec$ e%%ec$ &1on his cond&c$. The!e is, ho<ee!, so"e eidence
$ha$ $his does $a7e 1lace in $he case o% ,i!ds. I$ is di%%ic&l$ $o ,eliee $ha$ $he ,i!d does no$ s$i"&la$e
i$sel% $o sing ,y i$s o<n no$es.
I% ,i!d a ,y i$s no$e calls o&$ a !es1onse in ,i!d (, and ,i!d ( no$ only !es1onds ,y a no$e <hich calls
o&$ a !es1onse in ,i!d a ,&$ has in i$s o<n o!ganis" an a$$i$&de %inding e=1!ession in $he sa"e no$e
as $ha$ <hich ,i!d a has &$$e!ed, ,i!d ( <ill hae s$i"&la$ed i$sel% $o &$$e! $he sa"e no$e as $ha$ <hich
i$ has called o&$ in ,i!d a. This i"1lies li7e a$$i$&des see7ing e=1!ession in $he $<o ,i!ds and li7e
no$es e=1!essing $hese a$$i$&des. I% $his <e!e $he case and one ,i!d sang %!eD&en$ly in $he hea!ing o%
$he o$he!, $he!e "igh$ !es&l$ co""on no$es and co""on songs. I$ is i"1o!$an$ $o !ecogni8e $ha$
s&ch a 1!ocess is no$ <ha$ is co""only called -i"i$a$ion.- The ,i!d ( does no$ %ind in $he no$e o% ,i!d
a a s$i"&l&s $o &$$e! $he sa"e no$e. On $he con$!a!y, $he s&11osi$ion he!e is $ha$ i$s !e1ly $o ,i!d a
s$i"&la$es i$sel% $o &$$e! $he sa"e no$e $ha$ ,i!d a &$$e!s. The!e is li$$le o! no conincing eidence $ha$
any 1hase o% $he cond&c$ o% one ani"al is a di!ec$ s$i"&l&s $o ano$he! $o ac$ in $he sa"e %ashion.
One ani"al s$i"&la$ing i$sel% $o $he sa"e e=1!ession as $ha$ <hich i$ calls o&$ in $he o$he! is no$
i"i$a$ing in $his sense a$ leas$, $ho&gh i$ acco&n$s %o! a g!ea$ deal $ha$ 1asses as s&ch i"i$a$ion. I$
co&ld only $a7e 1lace &nde! $he condi$ion <hich I hae e"1hasi8ed; $ha$ $he s$i"&l&s sho&ld ac$
&1on $he ani"al i$sel% in $he sa"e "anne! as $ha$ in <hich i$ ac$s &1on $he o$he! ani"al, and $his
condi$ion does o,$ain in $he case o% $he ocal ges$&!e. Ce!$ain ,i!ds, s&ch as $he "oc7ing ,i!d, do
$h&s !e1!od&ce $he connec$ed no$es o% o$he! ,i!ds@ and a s1a!!o< 1laced in $he cage <i$h a cana!y
"ay !e1!od&ce $he cana!y>s song. The ins$ance o% $his !e1!od&c$ion o% ocal ges$&!e <i$h <hich <e
a!e "os$ %a"ilia! is $ha$ o% $he acco"1lish"en$s o% $al7ing ,i!ds. In $hese cases $he co",ina$ions o%
1hone$ic ele"en$s, <hich <e call <o!ds, a!e !e1!od&ced ,y $he ,i!ds, as $he s1a!!o< !e1!od&ces $he
cana!y>s song. I$ is a 1!ocess o% in$e!es$ %o! $he ligh$ i$ "ay $h!o< on a child>s lea!ning o% $he
lang&age hea!d a,o&$ i$. I$ e"1hasi8es $he i"1o!$ance o% $he ocal ges$&!e, as 1ossi,ly s$i"&la$ing
$he indiid&al $o !es1ond $o i$sel%. 0hile i$ is essen$ial $o !ecogni8e $ha$ !es1onse o% $he ani"al $o i$s
o<n s$i"&la$ion can only $a7e 1lace <he!e $he!e a!e i"1&lses see7ing e=1!ession <hich $his
s$i"&la$ion se$s %!ee, $he i"1o!$ance o% $he ocal ges$&!e as a social ac$ <hich is add!essed $o $he
indiid&al i$sel%, as <ell as $o o$he! indiid&als, <ill ,e %o&nd $o ,e e!y g!ea$.
:e!e in $he %ield o% ,ehaio! <e !each a si$&a$ion in <hich $he indiid&al "ay a%%ec$ i$sel% as i$ a%%ec$s
o$he! indiid&als, and "ay $he!e%o!e !es1ond $o $his s$i"&la$ion as i$ <o&ld !es1ond $o $he
s$i"&la$ion o% o$he! indiid&als@ in o$he! <o!ds, a si$&a$ion a!ises he!e in <hich $he indiid&al "ay
,eco"e an o,9ec$ in i$s o<n %ield o% ,ehaio!. This <o&ld "ee$ $he %i!s$ condi$ion o% $he a11ea!ance
o% "ind. B&$ $his !es1onse <ill no$ $a7e 1lace &nless $he!e a!e !eac$ions ans<e!ing $o $hese sel%?
s$i"&la$ions <hich <ill adance and !ein%o!ce $he indiid&al>s cond&c$. So %a! as $he ocal ges$&!es
in $he <ooing o% ,i!ds o% ,o$h se=es a!e ali7e, $he e=ci$e"en$ <hich $hey a!o&se <ill gie e=1!ession
$o o$he! no$es $ha$ again <ill inc!ease e=ci$e"en$. An ani"al $ha$ is a!o&sed $o a$$ac7 ,y $he !oa! o%
i$s !ial "ay gie o&$ a li7e !oa! $ha$ s$i"&la$es $he hos$ile a$$i$&de o% $he %i!s$. This !oa!, ho<ee!,
"ay ac$ ,ac7 &1on $he ani"al i$sel% and a!o&se a !ene<ed ,a$$le e=ci$e"en$ $ha$ calls o&$ a s$ill
lo&de! !oa!. The coc7 $ha$ ans<e!s $he c!o< o% ano$he! coc7, can s$i"&la$e i$sel% $o ans<e! i$s o<n
c!o<. The dog $ha$ ,ays a$ $he "oon <o&ld no$ 1!o,a,ly con$in&e i$s ,aying i% i$ did no$ s$i"&la$e
i$sel% ,y i$s o<n ho<ls. I$ has ,een no$ed $ha$ 1a!en$ 1igeons e=ci$e each o$he! in $he ca!e o% $he
yo&ng ,y $hei! cooings. So %a! as $hese no$es a%%ec$ $he o$he! ,i!ds $hey hae $he $endency $o a%%ec$
$he ,i!d $ha$ &$$e!s $he" in $he sa"e %ashion. :e!e <e %ind social si$&a$ions in <hich $he 1!e1a!a$ion
%o! $he se=&al ac$, %o! $he hos$ile enco&n$e!, and %o! $he ca!e o% $he yo&ng, is adanced ,y ocal
ges$&!es $ha$ 1lay ,ac7 &1on $he ani"al $ha$ &$$e!s $he", 1!od&cing $he sa"e e%%ec$ o% !eadiness %o!
social ac$ii$y $ha$ $hey 1!od&ce &1on $he indiid&als $o <hich $hey a!e i""edia$ely add!essed. I%, on
$he o$he! hand, $he ocal ges$&!e calls o&$ a di%%e!en$ !eac$ion in $he o$he! %o!", <hich %inds
e=1!ession in a di%%e!en$ ocal ges$&!e, $he!e <o&ld ,e no s&ch i""edia$e !ein%o!ce"en$ o% $he
ocal ges$&!e. The 1a!en$al no$e <hich calls o&$ $he no$e o% $he child %o!", &nless i$ called o&$ in $he
1a!en$ $he !es1onse o% $he child $o s$i"&la$e again $he 1a!en$al no$e, <o&ld no$ s$i"&la$e $he 1a!en$
$o !e1ea$ i$s o<n ocal ges$&!e. This co"1lica$ion does a!ise in $he case o% h&"an 1a!en$s, ,&$
1!es&"a,ly no$ in $he !ela$ions o% 1a!en$ and o%%s1!ing in %o!"s lo<e! $han "an.
In $hese ins$ances <e !ecogni8e social si$&a$ions in <hich $he cond&c$ o% one %o!" a%%ec$s $ha$ o%
ano$he! in ca!!ying o&$ ac$s in <hich ,o$h a!e engaged. They a!e ac$s in <hich $he ges$&!es and
co!!es1onding a$$i$&des a!e so ali7e $ha$ one %o!" s$i"&la$es i$sel% $o $he ges$&!e and a$$i$&de o% $he
o$he! and $h&s !es$i"&la$es i$sel%. In so"e s$i"&la$es i$sel%. n so deg!ee $he ani"al $a7es $he !ole o%
$he o$he! and $h&s e"1hasi8es $he e=1!ession o% i$s o<n !ole. In $he %o!"s <e hae ci$ed $his is
1ossi,le only <he!e $he !Mles a!e, &1 $o a ce!$ain s$age o% 1!e1a!a$ion %o! $he social ac$, "o!e o! less
iden$ical. This ac$ion does no$, ho<ee!, ,elong $o $he $y1e o% inhi,i$ion o&$ o% <hich !e%lec$ion
s1!ings A$ho&gh in all ad9&s$"en$ o% indiid&als $o each o$he!>s ac$ion $he!e "&s$ ,e so"e inhi,i$ionB,
no! does i$ inole s&ch a!ie$y o% a$$i$&des as is essen$ial $o analysis and !e1!esen$a$ion. No! is $his
lac7 o% a!ie$y in a$$i$&de A,y -a$$i$&de- I !e%e! $o $he ad9&s$"en$ o% $he o!ganis" inoled in an
i"1&lse !eady %o! e=1!essionB d&e $o lac7 o% co"1le=i$y in cond&c$. Many o% $he ac$s o% $hese lo<e!
%o!"s a!e as highly co"1le= as "any h&"an ac$s <hich a!e !e%lec$iely con$!olled. The dis$inc$ion is
$ha$ <hich I hae e=1!essed in $he dis$inc$ion ,e$<een $he ins$inc$ and $he i"1&lse. The ins$inc$ "ay
,e highly co"1le=, e.g., $he 1!e1a!a$ion o% $he <as1 %o! $he la!al li%e $ha$ <ill co"e %!o" $he egg
<hich is laid in i$s %a,!ica$ed cell@ ,&$ $he di%%e!en$ ele"en$s o% $he <hole co"1le= 1!ocess a!e so
%i!"ly o!gani8ed $oge$he! $ha$ a chec7 a$ any 1oin$ %!&s$!a$es $he <hole &nde!$a7ing. I$ does no$
leae $he 1a!$s o% $he <hole %!ee %o! !eco",ina$ion in o$he! %o!"s. :&"an i"1&lses, ho<ee!, a!e
gene!ally s&sce1$i,le $o 9&s$ s&ch analysis and !eco",ina$ion in $he 1!esence o% o,s$acles and
inhi,i$ions.
The!e is a ci!c&"s$ance $ha$ is no$ &nconnec$ed, I $hin7, <i$h $his se1a!a,le cha!ac$e! o% $he h&"an
ac$. I !e%e! $o $he con$ac$ e=1e!iences <hich co"e $o "an $h!o&gh his hands. The con$ac$
e=1e!iences o% "os$ o% $he e!$e,!a$e %o!"s lo<e! $han "an !e1!esen$ $he co"1le$ion o% $hei! ac$s.
In %igh$ing, $he %ood 1!ocess, se=, "os$ o% $he ac$ii$ies o% 1a!en$hood o! childhood, a$$ac7, %ligh$ $o a
1lace o% sec&!i$y, sea!ch %o! 1!o$ec$ion agains$ hea$ and cold, choice o% a 1lace %o! slee1, con$ac$ is
coinciden$ <i$h $he goal o% $he ins$inc$@ <hile "a!$>s hand 1!oides an in$e!"edia$e con$ac$ $ha$ is
as$ly !iche! in con$en$ $han $ha$ o% $he 9a<s o! $he ani"al>s 1a<s. Man>s i"1le"en$s a!e
ela,o!a$ions and e=$ensions o% his hands. They 1!oide s$ill o$he! and as$ly "o!e a!ied con$ac$s
<hich lie ,e$<een $he ,eginnings and $he ends o% his &nde!$a7ings. And $he hand, o% co&!se,
incl&des in $his conside!a$ion no$ only $he "e",e! i$sel% ,&$ i$s inde%ini$e coo!dina$ion $h!o&gh $he
cen$!al ne!o&s sys$e" <i$h $he o$he! 1a!$s o% $he o!ganis". This is o% 1ec&lia! i"1o!$ance %o! $he
conside!a$ion o% $he se1a!a,ili$y o% $he 1a!$s o% $he ac$, ,eca&se o&! 1e!ce1$ions incl&de $he i"age!y
o% $he con$ac$s <hich ision o! so"e o$he! dis$ance sense 1!o"ises. 0e see $hings ha!d o! so%$,
!o&gh o! s"oo$h, ,ig o! li$$le in "eas&!e"en$ <i$h o&!seles, ho$ o! cold, and <e$ o! d!y. I$ is $his
i"aged con$ac$ $ha$ "a7es $he seen $hing an ac$&al $hing. These i"aged con$ac$s a!e $he!e%o!e o%
as$ i"1o!$ in con$!olling cond&c$. 4a!ied con$ac$ i"age!y "ay "ean a!ied $hings, and a!ied
$hings "ean a!ied !es1onses. Again I "&s$ e"1hasi8e $he %ac$ $ha$ $his a!ie$y <ill e=is$ in
e=1e!ience only i% $he!e a!e i"1&lses ans<e!ing $o $his a!ie$y o% s$i"&li and see7ing e=1!ession.
:o<ee!, "an>s "an&al con$ac$s, in$e!"edia$e ,e$<een $he ,eginnings and $he ends o% his ac$s,
1!oide a "&l$i$&de o% di%%e!en$ s$i"&li $o a "&l$i$&de o% di%%e!en$ <ays o% doing $hings, and $h&s ini$e
al$e!na$ie i"1&lses $o e=1!ess $he"seles in $he acco"1lish"en$ o% his ac$s, <hen o,s$acles and
hind!ances a!ise. Man>s hands hae se!ed g!ea$ly $o ,!ea7 &1 %i=ed ins$inc$s ,y giing hi" a <o!ld
%&ll o% a n&",e! o% $hings.
*e$&!ning no< $o $he ocal ges$&!e, le$ "e no$e ano$he! %ea$&!e o% $he h&"an s1ecies $ha$ has ,een
o% g!ea$ i"1o!$ance in $he deelo1"en$ o% "an>s 1ec&lia! in$elligence?his long 1e!iod o% in%ancy. I do
no$ !e%e! $o $he adan$age insis$ed &1on ,y Fis7e, $he o11o!$&ni$ies <hich co"e <i$h a la$e! "a$&!i$y,
,&$ $o $he 1a!$ <hich $he ocal ges$&!e 1lays in $he ca!e o% $he child ,y $he 1a!en$, es1ecially ,y $he
"o$he!. The 1hone$ic ele"en$s, o&$ o% <hich la$e! a!$ic&la$e s1eech is cons$!&c$ed, ,elong $o $he
social a$$i$&des <hich call o&$ ans<e!ing a$$i$&des in o$he!s $oge$he! <i$h $hei! ocal ges$&!es. The
child>s c!y o% %ea! ,elongs $o $he $endency $o %ligh$ $o<a!d $he 1a!en$, and $he 1a!en$>s enco&!aging
$one is 1a!$ o% $he "oe"en$ $o<a!d 1!o$ec$ion. This ocal ges$&!e o% %ea! calls o&$ $he
co!!es1onding ges$&!e o% 1!o$ec$ion.
The!e a!e $<o in$e!es$ing h&"an $y1es o% cond&c$ $ha$ see"ingly a!ise o&$ o% $his !ela$ionshi1 o%
child and 1a!en$. On $he one hand <e %ind <ha$ has ,een called $he i"i$a$ion o% $he child, and on $he
o$he! $he sy"1a$he$ic !es1onse o% $he 1a!en$. The ,asis o% each o% $hese $y1es o% cond&c$ is $o ,e
%o&nd in $he indiid&al s$i"&la$ing hi"sel% $o !es1ond in $he sa"e %ashion as $ha$ in <hich $he o$he!
!es1onds $o hi". As <e hae seen, $his is 1ossi,le i% $<o condi$ions a!e %&l%illed. The indiid&al "&s$
,e a%%ec$ed ,y $he s$i"&l&s <hich a%%ec$s $he o$he!, and a%%ec$ed $h!o&gh $he sa"e sense channel.
This is $he case <i$h $he ocal ges$&!e. The so&nd <hich is &$$e!ed s$!i7es on $he ea! o% $he
indiid&al &$$e!ing i$ in $he sa"e 1hysiological %ashion as $ha$ in <hich i$ s$!i7es on $he ea! o% $he
1e!son add!essed. The o$he! condi$ion is $ha$ $he!e sho&ld ,e an i"1&lse see7ing e=1!ession in $he
indiid&al <ho &$$e!s $he so&nd, <hich is %&nc$ionally o% $he sa"e so!$ as $ha$ $o <hich $he s$i"&l&s
ans<e!s in $he o$he! indiid&al <ho hea!s $he so&nd. The ill&s$!a$ion "os$ %a"ilia! $o &s is $ha$ o% a
child c!ying and $hen &$$e!ing $he soo$hing so&nd <hich ,elongs $o $he 1a!en$al a$$i$&de o%
1!o$ec$ion. This childish $y1e o% cond&c$ !&ns o&$ la$e! in$o $he co&n$less %o!"s o% 1lay in <hich $he
child ass&"es $he !oles o% $he ad&l$s a,o&$ hi". The e!y &nie!sal ha,i$ o% 1laying <i$h dolls
indica$es ho< !eady %o! e=1!ession, in $he child, is $he 1a!en$al a$$i$&de, o! 1e!ha1s one sho&ld say,
ce!$ain o% $he 1a!en$al a$$i$&des. The long 1e!iod o% de1endence o% $he h&"an in%an$ d&!ing <hich
his in$e!es$ cen$e!s in his !ela$ions $o $hose <ho ca!e %o! hi" gies a !e"a!7a,le o11o!$&ni$y %o! $he
1lay ,ac7 and %o!$h o% $his so!$ o% $a7ing o% $he !oles o% o$he!s. 0he!e $he yo&ng ani"al o% lo<e!
%o!"s e!y D&ic7ly %inds i$sel% !es1onding di!ec$ly $o $he a11!o1!ia$e s$i"&li %o! $he cond&c$ o% $he
ad&l$ o% i$s s1ecies, <i$h ins$inc$ie ac$ii$ies $ha$ a!e ea!ly "a$&!ed, $he child %o! a conside!a,le
1e!iod di!ec$s his a$$en$ion $o<a!d $he social eni!on"en$ 1!oided ,y $he 1!i"i$ie %a"ily, see7ing
s&11o!$ and no&!ish"en$ and <a!"$h and 1!o$ec$ion $h!o&gh his ges$&!es?es1ecially his ocal
ges$&!es. These ges$&!es inei$a,ly "&s$ call o&$ in hi"sel% $he 1a!en$al !es1onse <hich is so
"a!7edly !eady %o! e=1!ession e!y ea!ly in $he child>s na$&!e, and $his !es1onse <ill incl&de $he
1a!en$>s co!!es1onding ocal ges$&!e. The child <ill s$i"&la$e hi"sel% $o "a7e $he so&nds <hich he
s$i"&la$es $he 1a!en$ $o "a7e. In so %a! as $he social si$&a$ion <i$hin <hich $he child !eac$s is
de$e!"ined ,y his social eni!on"en$, $ha$ eni!on"en$ <ill de$e!"ine <ha$ so&nds he "a7es and
$he!e%o!e <ha$ !es1onses he s$i"&la$es ,o$h in o$he!s and hi"sel%. The li%e a,o&$ hi" <ill indi!ec$ly
de$e!"ine <ha$ 1a!en$al !es1onses he 1!od&ces in his cond&c$, ,&$ $he di!ec$ s$i"&la$ion $o ad&l$
!es1onse <ill ,e inei$a,ly %o&nd in his o<n childish a11eal. To $he ad&l$ s$i"&la$ion he !es1onds as
a child. The!e is no$hing in $hese s$i"&la$ions $o call o&$ an ad&l$ !es1onse. B&$ in so %a! as he gies
a$$en$ion $o his o<n childish a11eals i$ <ill ,e $he ad&l$ !es1onse $ha$ <ill a11ea!?,&$ <ill a11ea! only
in case $ha$ so"e 1hases o% $hese ad&l$ i"1&lses a!e !eady in hi" %o! e=1!ession. I$ is, o% co&!se,
$he inco"1le$eness and !ela$ie i""a$&!i$y o% $hese ad&l$ !es1onses $ha$ gies $o $he child>s cond&c$
one o% $he 1ec&lia! cha!ac$e!s <hich a$$ach $o 1lay. The o$he! is $ha$ $he child can s$i"&la$e hi"sel%
$o $his ac$ii$y. In $he 1lay o% yo&ng child!en, een <hen $hey 1lay $oge$he!, $he!e is a,&ndan$
eidence o% $he child>s $a7ing di%%e!en$ !Mles in $he 1!ocess@ and a soli$a!y child <ill 7ee1 &1 $he
1!ocess o% s$i"&la$ing hi"sel% ,y his ocal ges$&!es $o ac$ in di%%e!en$ !Mles al"os$ inde%ini$ely. The
1lay o% $he yo&ng ani"al o% o$he! s1ecies lac7s $his sel%?s$i"&la$ing cha!ac$e! and e=hi,i$s %a! "o!e
"a$&!i$y o% ins$inc$ie !es1onse $han is %o&nd in $he ea!ly 1lay o% child!en. I$ is eiden$ $ha$ o&$ o% 9&s$
s&ch cond&c$ as $his, o&$ o% add!essing one>s sel% and !es1onding <i$h $he a11!o1!ia$e !es1onse o%
ano$he!, -sel%?conscio&sness- a!ises. The child d&!ing $his 1e!iod o% in%ancy c!ea$es a %o!&" <i$hin
<hich he ass&"es a!io&s !oles, and $he child>s sel% is g!ad&ally in$eg!a$ed o&$ o% $hese socially
di%%e!en$ a$$i$&des, al<ays !e$aining $he ca1aci$y o% add!essing i$sel% and !es1onding $o $ha$ add!ess
<i$h a !eac$ion $ha$ ,elongs in a ce!$ain sense $o ano$he!. :e co"es in$o $he ad&l$ 1e!iod <i$h $he
"echanis" o% a "ind.
The a$$i$&de $ha$ <e cha!ac$e!i8e as $ha$ o% sy"1a$hy in $he ad&l$ s1!ings %!o" $his sa"e ca1aci$y $o
$a7e $he !ole o% $he o$he! 1e!son <i$h <ho" one is socially i"1lica$ed. I$ is no$ incl&ded in $he di!ec$
!es1onse o% hel1, s&11o!$, and 1!o$ec$ion. This is a di!ec$ i"1&lse, o! in lo<e! %o!"s, a di!ec$ ins$inc$,
<hich is no$ a$ all inco"1a$i,le <i$h $he e=e!cise on occasion o% $he o11osi$e ins$inc$s. The 1a!en$
%o!"s $ha$ on occasion ac$ in $he "os$ o!dina!y 1a!en$al %ashion "ay, <i$h see"ing hea!$lessness,
des$!oy and cons&"e $hei! o%%s1!ing. Sy"1a$hy al<ays i"1lies $ha$ one s$i"&la$es hi"sel% $o his
assis$ance and conside!a$ion o% o$he!s ,y $a7ing in so"e deg!ee $he a$$i$&de o% $he 1e!son <ho"
one is assis$ing. The co""on $e!" %o! $his is -1&$$ing yo&!sel% in his 1lace.- I$ is 1!es&"a,ly an
e=cl&siely h&"an $y1e o% cond&c$, "a!7ed ,y $his inol&$ion o% s$i"&la$ing one>s sel% $o an ac$ion ,y
!es1onding as $he o$he! !es1onds. As <e shall see, $his con$!ol o% one>s cond&c$, $h!o&gh
!es1onding as $he o$he! !es1onds, is no$ con%ined $o 7indly cond&c$. 0e $end $o !ese!e $he $e!"
-sy"1a$he$ic,- ho<ee!, %o! $hose 7indly ac$s and a$$i$&des <hich a!e $he essen$ial ,inding?co!ds in
$he li%e o% any h&"an g!o&1. 0he$he! <e ag!ee <i$h McDo&gall o! no$ in his con$en$ion $ha$ $he
%&nda"en$al cha!ac$e! o% $ende!ness <hich goes o&$ in$o <ha$ee! <e deno"ina$e as h&"ane, o!
h&"an in $he sense o% h&"ane, has i$s so&!ce in $he 1a!en$al i"1&lses, $he!e can ,e no do&,$ $ha$
$he %&nda"en$al a$$i$&de o% giing assis$ance in a!ied <ays $o o$he!s ge$s i$s s$!i7ing e=e!cise in
!ela$ion $o child!en. :el1lessness in any %o!" !ed&ces &s $o child!en, and a!o&ses $he 1a!en$al
!es1onse in $he o$he! "e",e!s o% $he co""&ni$y $o <hich <e ,elong. Ee!y adance in $he
!ecogni$ion o% a <ide! social g!o&1ing is li7e $he 7ingdo" o% heaen@ <e can en$e! i$ only as li$$le
child!en. The h&"an ad&l$ has al!eady co"e in$o socie$y $h!o&gh $he doo! o% childhood <i$h a sel% o%
so"e so!$, a sel% $ha$ has a!isen $h!o&gh ass&"ing a!io&s !Mles@ he $&!ns $o his o! he! o<n child!en
$he!e%o!e <i$h <ha$ <e $e!" -sy"1a$hy-@ ,&$ $he "o$he! and $he %a$he! e=e!cise $his a$$i$&de "os$
cons$an$ly in $hei! 1a!en$al !es1onses. Mo!e $han in any o$he! sense, 1sychologically socie$y has
deelo1ed o&$ o% $he %a"ily. The 1a!en$al a$$i$&des, li7e $he in%an$ile a$$i$&des, se!e %i!s$ o% all $he
1&!1ose o% $he sel%?s$i"&la$ion <hich <e hae no$ed in ,i!ds, and $h&s e"1hasi8e al&a,le
!es1onses, ,&$ seconda!ily $hey 1!oide $he "echanis" o% "ind.
The "os$ i"1o!$an$ ac$ii$y o% "ind $ha$ can ,e iden$i%ied in ,ehaio! is $ha$ o% so ad9&s$ing
con%lic$ing i"1&lses $ha$ $hey can e=1!ess $he"seles ha!"onio&sly. *ecalling $he ill&s$!a$ion
al!eady &sed, <hen $he i"1&lse $o go ahead $o<a!d %ood o! !es$ is chec7ed ,y an i"1&lse $o d!a<
,ac7 %!o" a sha!1 declii$y, "ind so o!gani8es $hese "&$&ally de%ea$ing $endencies $ha$ $he
indiid&al adances ,y a de$o&!, ,o$h going ahead and esca1ing $he dange! o% $he descen$. This is
no$ acco"1lished $h!o&gh a di!ec$ !eo!gani8a$ion o% "o$o! 1!ocesses. The "en$al 1!ocess is no$
one o% !ead9&s$ing a "echanis" %!o" $he inside, a !ea!!ange"en$ o% s1!ings and lee!s. Con$!ol
oe! i"1&lse lies only in $he shi%$ o% a$$en$ion <hich ,!ings o$he! o,9ec$s in$o $he %ield o% s$i"&la$ion,
se$$ing %!ee o$he! i"1&lses, o! in s&ch a !ese$$ing o% $he o,9ec$s $ha$ $he i"1&lses e=1!ess
$he"seles on a di%%e!en$ $i"e sched&le o! <i$h addi$ions and s&,$!ac$ions. This shi%$ o% a$$en$ion
again %inds i$s e=1lana$ion in $he co"ing in$o 1lay o% $endencies $ha$ ,e%o!e <e!e no$ i""edia$ely in
ac$ion. These $endencies !ende! &s sensi$ie $o s$i"&li <hich a!e no$ in $he %ield o% s$i"&la$ion, Een
s&dden 1o<e!%&l s$i"&li ac$ &1on &s ,eca&se $he!e a!e in o&! "a7e?&1 !es1onses o% s&dden
<i$hd!a<al o! a$$ac7 in $he 1!esence o% s&ch s$i"&la$ion. As I hae al!eady s$a$ed, in $he cond&c$ o%
lo<e! %o!"s s&ch con%lic$s lead $o $he s<i$ching %!o" one $y1e o% !eac$ion $o ano$he!. In $hese
ani"als $he i"1&lses a!e so %i!"ly o!gani8ed in %i=ed ins$inc$s $ha$ al$e!na$ies o% !eac$ion lie only
,e$<een one congeni$al ha,i$ and o$he!s. S$a$ed in o$he! $e!"s, $he ins$inc$ie indiid&al canno$
,!ea7 &1 his o,9ec$s and !econs$!&c$ his cond&c$ $h!o&gh $he ad9&s$"en$ $o a ne< %ield o%
s$i"&la$ion, ,eca&se i$s o!gani8ed !eac$ions canno$ ,e se1a!a$ed $o co"e $oge$he! again in ne<
co",ina$ions. The "echanical 1!o,le" o% "ind, $hen, is in sec&!ing a $y1e o% cond&c$ co"ing on
$o1 o% $ha$ o% $he ,iologic indiid&al $ha$ <ill dissocia$e $he ele"en$s o% o&! o!gani8ed !es1onses.
S&ch a dis"e",e!"en$ o% o!gani8ed ha,i$s <ill ,!ing in$o $he %ield o% 1e!ce1$ion all $he o,9ec$s $ha$
ans<e! $o $he di%%e!en$ i"1&lses $ha$ "ade &1 $he %i=ed ha,i$s.
I$ is %!o" $his s$and1oin$ $ha$ I <ish $o conside! $he social cond&c$ in$o <hich $he sel% has en$e!ed as
an in$eg!al %ac$o!. So %a! as i$ "e!ely e"1hasi8es ce!$ain !eac$ions $h!o&gh sel%?s$i"&la$ion, as in $he
case o% $he <ooing o% ,i!ds, i$ in$!od&ces no ne< 1!inci1le o% ac$ion. Fo! in $hese cases $he sel% is no$
1!esen$ as an o,9ec$ $o<a!d <hich an a$$i$&de is ass&"ed as $o<a!d o$he! o,9ec$s, and <hich is
s&,9ec$ $o $he e%%ec$s o% cond&c$. 0hen $he sel% does ,eco"e s&ch an o,9ec$ $o ,e changed and
di!ec$ed as o$he! o,9ec$s a!e a%%ec$ed, $he!e a11ea!s oe! and a,oe $he i""edia$e i"1&lsie
!es1onses a "anne! o% cond&c$ <hich can conceia,ly ,o$h analy8e $he ac$ $h!o&gh an a$$en$ion
shi%$ing <he!e o&! a!io&s $endencies $o ac$ di!ec$ i$, and can allo< !e1!esen$a$ion, ,y holding o&$
$he i"age!y o% $he !es&l$s o% $he a!io&s !eac$ions, ins$ead o% allo<ing i$ $o si"1ly en$e! in$o $he
1!esen$a$ion o! 1e!ce1$ion o% $he o,9ec$s. S&ch !e%lec$ie di!ec$ion o% ac$ii$y is no$ $he %o!" in <hich
in$elligence %i!s$ a11ea!s, no! is $his i$s 1!i"i$ie %&nc$ion. I$s ea!lies$ %&nc$ion, in $he ins$ance o% $he
in%an$, is e%%ec$ie ad9&s$"en$ $o $he li$$le socie$y &1on <hich i$ has so long $o de1end. The child is
%o! a long $i"e de1enden$ &1on "oods and e"o$ional a$$i$&des. :o< D&ic7ly he ad9&s$s hi"sel% $o
$his is a con$in&al s&!1!ise. :e !es1onds $o %acial e=1!essions ea!lie! $han $o "os$ s$i"&li and
ans<e!s <i$h a11!o1!ia$e e=1!essions o% his o<n, ,e%o!e he "a7es !es1onses $ha$ <e conside!
signi%ican$. :e co"es in$o $he <o!ld highly sensi$ie $o $his so?called -"i"ic ges$&!e,- and he
e=e!cises his ea!lies$ in$elligence in his ada1$a$ion $o his social eni!on"en$. I% he is congeni$ally
de1!ied o% $he ocal ges$&!e $ha$ a%%ec$s hi"sel% as i$ does o$he!s, and $he loss is no$ ea!ly "ade
good, in 1a!$ $h!o&gh o$he! "eans o% co""&nica$ion <hich in 1!inci1le %ollo< $he sa"e 1!oced&!e
as $ha$ o% ocal co""&nica$ion, he is con%ined $o $his ins$inc$ie "eans o% ad9&s$"en$ $o $hose a,o&$
hi", and lies a li%e ha!dly a,oe $ha$ o% $he lo<e! ani"als?indeed, lo<e! $han $hei!s ,eca&se o% his
lac7 o% $hei! a!ied ins$inc$ie !eac$ions $o $he 1hysical and social <o!ld a,o&$ $he". As <e hae
seen, in $he no!"al child $he ocal ges$&!e a!o&ses in hi"sel% $he !es1onses o% his elde!s, $h!o&gh
$hei! s$i"&la$ion o% his o<n 1a!en$al i"1&lse and la$e! o% o$he! i"1&lses <hich in $hei! childish %o!"
a!e ,eginning $o !i1en in his cen$!al ne!o&s sys$e". These i"1&lses %ind $hei! e=1!ession %i!s$ o% all
in $ones o% oice and la$e! in co",ina$ions o% 1hone$ic ele"en$s <hich ,eco"e a!$ic&la$e s1eech as
$hey do in $he ocal ges$&!e o% $he $al7ing ,i!ds. The child has ,eco"e, $h!o&gh his o<n i"1&lses, a
1a!en$ $o hi"sel%. The sa"e selec$ie 1!ocess <hich leads hi" $o &se $he 1hone$ic ele"en$s o% $he
s1eech a,o&$ hi" leads hi" $o &se $he gene!al $y1es o% a$$i$&des o% $hose a,o&$ hi", no$ ,y di!ec$
i"i$a$ion, ,&$ $h!o&gh his $ending $o call o&$ in hi"sel% in any si$&a$ion $he sa"e !eac$ion <hich he
calls o&$ in o$he!s. The socie$y <hich de$e!"ines $hese si$&a$ions <ill, o% co&!se, de$e!"ine no$ only
his di!ec$ !e1lies ,&$ also $hose ad&l$ !es1onses <i$hin hi"sel% <hich his !e1lies a!o&se. In so %a! as
he gies e=1!ession $o $hese, a$ %i!s$ in oice and la$e! in 1lay, he is $a7ing "any !Mles and
add!essing hi"sel% in all o% $he". :e is o% co&!se %i$$ing hi"sel% in his 1lay $o $a7e &1 $he ad&l$
ac$ii$ies la$e!, and a"ong 1!i"i$ie 1eo1le $his is 1!ac$ically all $he $!aining he !eceies. B&$ he is
doing %a! "o!e $han $his; he is g!ad&ally ,&ilding &1 a de%ini$e sel% $ha$ ,eco"es $he "os$ i"1o!$an$
o,9ec$ in his <o!ld. As an o,9ec$, i$ is a$ %i!s$ $he !e%lec$ion o% $he a$$i$&des o% o$he!s $o<a!d i$. Indeed,
$he child in $his ea!ly 1e!iod o%$en !e%e!s $o his o<n sel% in $he $hi!d 1e!son. :e is a co"1osi$e o% all
$he indiid&als he add!esses <hen he $a7es $he !oles o% $hose a,o&$ hi". I$ is only g!ad&ally $ha$ $his
$a7es clea! eno&gh %o!" $o ,eco"e iden$i%ied <i$h $he ,iologic indiid&al and endo< hi" <i$h a
clea!?c&$ 1e!sonali$y $ha$ <e call sel%?conscio&s. 0hen $his has $a7en 1lace he has 1&$ hi"sel% in $he
1osi$ion o% co""en$ing on <ha$ he is doing and <ha$ he in$ends $o do %!o" $he s$and1oin$ o% any o%
$he !oles $ha$ $his so?called -i"agina$ie cond&c$- %inds hi" ca!!ying. In so %a! as $hese !oles di%%e!,
$he &nde!$a7ing has a di%%e!en$ as1ec$, and di%%e!en$ ele"en$s in $he %ield o% o,9ec$s a,o&$ hi" s$and
o&$, ans<e!ing $o his o<n di%%e!en$ i"1&lses. I% he canno$ ye$ ,e said $o ,e $hin7ing, he has a$ leas$
$he "echanis" o% $ho&gh$.
I$ is necessa!y $o e"1hasi8e $he <ide s$!e$ch ,e$<een $he di!ec$ i""edia$e li%e o% $he child and $his
sel% g!o<ing in his cond&c$. The la$$e! is al"os$ i"1osed %!o" <i$ho&$. :e "ay 1assiely acce1$ $he
indiid&al $ha$ $he g!o&1 a,o&$ hi" assigns $o hi" as hi"sel%. This is e!y di%%e!en$ %!o" $he
1assiona$e asse!$ie ,iologic indiid&al, $ha$ loes and ha$es and e",!aces and s$!i7es. :e is nee!
an o,9ec$@ his is a li%e o% di!ec$ s&%%e!ing and ac$ion. In $he "ean$i"e, $he sel% $ha$ is g!o<ing &1 has
as "&ch !eali$y and as li$$le as $he !oles $he child 1lays. In$e!es$ing doc&"en$s on $his ea!ly sel% a!e
$o ,e %o&nd in $he so?called ?i"agina!y co"1anions- <i$h <hich "any child!en con%essedly, all
child!en i"1lici$ly, 1!oide $he"seles. They a!e, o% co&!se, $he i"1e!%ec$ly 1e!soni%ied !es1onses in
$he child $o his o<n social s$i"&la$ion, ,&$ <hich hae "o!e in$i"a$e and las$ing i"1o!$ in his 1lay
li%e $han o$he!s o% $he shado<y clan. As $he child co"1le$es $he ci!cle o% $he social <o!ld $o <hich he
!es1onds and <hose ac$ions he s$i"&la$es hi"sel% $o 1!od&ce, he has co"1le$ed in so"e %ashion
his o<n sel% $o<a!d <hich all $hese 1lay ac$ii$ies can ,e di!ec$ed. I$ is an acco"1lish"en$ $ha$
anno&nces i$sel% in $he 1assage %!o" $he ea!lie! %o!" o% 1lay in$o $ha$ o% ga"es, ei$he! $he
co"1e$i$ie o! $he "o!e o! less d!a"a$ic ga"es, in <hich $he child en$e!s as a de%ini$e 1e!sonali$y
$ha$ "ain$ains i$sel% $h!o&gho&$. :is in$e!es$ 1asses %!o" $he s$o!y, $he %ai!y $ale, $he %ol7 $ale, $o $he
connec$ed acco&n$s in <hich he can s&s$ain a sy"1a$he$ic iden$i$y <i$h $he he!o o! $he he!oine in
$he !&sh o% een$s. This no$ only inoles a "o!e o! less de%ini$ely o!gani8ed sel% seen %!o" $he
s$and1oin$s o% $hose a,o&$ hi" <hose a$$i$&des he $a7es, ,&$ i$ inoles, %&!$he!, a %&nc$ional
in$e!!ela$ionshi1 o% $his o,9ec$?sel% <i$h $he ,iologic indiid&al in his cond&c$. :is !eac$ions no< a!e
no$ si"1ly $he di!ec$ !es1onses $o $he social and 1hysical $hings a,o&$ hi", ,&$ a!e also $o $his sel%
<hich has ,eco"e an o,9ec$ o% con$in&ally inc!easing "o"en$. I$ is "ade &1 o% social !es1onses $o
o$he!s !ega!ded 1!i"a!ily $h!o&gh $hei! eyes as he $a7es $hei! 1a!$s. Th&s a child co"es $o !ega!d
hi"sel% as a 1lay"a$e <ho "&s$ sha!e his $oys <i$h o$he! child!en i% he is $o 7ee1 $he" as
1lay"a$es. This co"1els hi" $o see o$he! cha!ac$e!s in $he 1lay$hings ,eside $hei! i""edia$e
a$$!ac$ion $o his 1lay i"1&lse and $o $ha$ o% 1ossession. The 1lay$hing ,eco"es a co"1osi$e o,9ec$@
i$ is no$ only $ha$ <hich gies e=1!ession $o his o<n i"1&lse ,&$ so"e$hing $ha$ 7ee1s <i$h hi" his
che!ished %!iends. :is ha,i$s o% !es1onse a!e !econs$!&c$ed and he ,eco"es a !a$ional ani"al. The
!econs$!&c$ion $a7es 1lace &n<i$$ingly as he !ecogni8es $he di%%e!en$ %ea$&!es in $he o,9ec$s a,o&$
hi" <hich %o!ce $he"seles &1on his a$$en$ion as a sel%. B&$ as $he sel% ,eco"es e%%ec$iely
o!gani8ed, i$ 1!oides $he $echniD&e $ha$ hel1s $he child o&$ o% as "any si$&a$ions as i$ c!ea$es. A
s"oo$h in$e!1lay !es&l$s ,e$<een $he ,iologic indiid&al and $he sel%. All cond&c$ $ha$ 1!esen$s
di%%ic&l$ies 1asses in$o $his !e%lec$ie %o!". The s&,9ec$ is $he ,iologic indiid&al ? nee! on $he scene,
and $his sel% ad9&s$ed $o i$s social eni!on"en$, and $h!o&gh $his $o $he <o!ld a$ la!ge, is $he o,9ec$. I$
is $!&e $ha$ $he s&,9ec$ in $he cone!sa$ion ,e$<een $he $<o $a7es no< $his !ole and no< $ha$. 0e a!e
%a"ilia! <i$h $his in $ho&gh$?1!ocesses <hich <e ca!!y on in $he %o!" o% a disc&ssion <i$h ano$he!
indiid&al. One no$ in%!eD&en$ly 1&$s $he a!g&"en$s <hich he <ishes $o "ee$ in$o $he "o&$h o% so"e
adoca$e o% $he idea. I$ is $he a!g&"en$ <hich $his s&11o!$e! o% $he doc$!ine o%%e!s <hich a11ea!s in
$ho&gh$@ and <hen one has !e1lied $o $ha$, i$ is $he !e1ly <hich he <o&ld "a7e $ha$ calls o&$ $he ne=$
ans<e!. B&$ $ho&gh $he oice is $he oice o% ano$he!, $he so&!ce o% i$ all is one>s sel%?$he o!gani8ed
g!o&1 o% i"1&lses <hich I hae called $he ,iologic indiid&al. I$ is $his indiid&al in ac$ion, <i$h his
a$$en$ion on $he o,9ec$. :e does no$ co"e in$o $he %ield o% his o<n ision. B&$ in so %a! as he can
add!ess hi"sel%, and call o&$ a !es1onse, $ha$ sel% and i$s !es1onse does ,eco"e an o,9ec$, as <e
hae seen.
I$ is necessa!y $o "a7e ano$he! dis$inc$ion he!e, %o! $he e=1e!ience is s&,$le in $he e=$!e"e. A$ $he
s$age <hich <e a!e conside!ing, $ha$ o% $he yo&ng child, $he !ole o% $he o$he! <hich he ass&"es is
$a7en <i$ho&$ !ecogni$ion. The child is a<a!e o% his !es1onse $o $he !ole, no$ o% $he !ole he is $a7ing.
I$ is only $he la$e! so1his$ica$ed inne! e=1e!ience $ha$ is a<a!e o% $he cha!ac$e! &nde! <hich $he
inisi,le -I- en$e!s $he scene, and $hen only $h!o&gh a se$$ing <hich "&s$ ,e la$e! 1!esen$ed. The
"edi&" o% in$e!ac$ion ,e$<een $he s&,9ec$ and o,9ec$ is $he ocal ges$&!e <i$h $he i"age!y <hich
ga$he!s a,o&$ i$, ,&$ $his ocal ges$&!e is ,&$ 1a!$ o% a social ac$. I$ !e1!esen$s $he ad9&s$"en$ $o an
eni!on"en$, in $he a$$i$&de o% so"e oe!$ ac$ion. The ac$ion is, ho<ee!, indica$ed $o $he sel% ,y $he
ges$&!e, and $he sel% as ano$he! social ,eing $h!o&gh i$s ges$&!es $a7es $he a$$i$&de o% a!ying
!es1onses?$he cone!sa$ion o% ges$&!es <hich I hae al!eady desc!i,ed in $he cond&c$ o% ani"als.
To $his a$$i$&de and i$s ges$&!e $he ,iologic indiid&al, $he s&,9ec$, again !e1lies@ ,&$ his !e1ly is $o
$he sel%, <hile $he !es1onses o% $he sel% a!e no$ di!ec$ed $o<a!d $he s&,9ec$ ,&$ $o<a!d $he social
si$&a$ion inoled in $he a$$i$&de <hich has called i$ o&$. E=1!essed in o&! ad&l$ $ho&gh$, $his is $he
dis$inc$ion ,e$<een $he idea $ha$ co"es in$o o&! heads A$he idea $ha$ occ&!s $o &sB, and i$s !ela$ion
$o $he <o!ld, o% <hich as o,9ec$s <e a!e a 1a!$. I$ is <ha$ $he child is 1!e1a!ing $o do and $he
a$$i$&des <hich he <ill $a7e in conseD&ence. :e s$a!$s $o do so"e$hing and %inds hi"sel% in $he ea!ly
s$age o% $he 1!ocess o,9ec$ing and $a7ing so"e o$he! $ac7. In a sense he is $!ying o&$ $his
&nde!$a7ing $h!o&gh $he "edi&" o% co""&nica$ion <i$h a sel%. Th&s $he ,iologic indiid&al ,eco"es
essen$ially in$e!!ela$ed <i$h $he sel%, and $he $<o go $o "a7e &1 $he 1e!sonali$y o% $he child. I$ is $his
cone!sa$ion $ha$ cons$i$&$es $he ea!lies$ "echanis" o% "ind. In$o i$ co"es $he "a$e!ial o%
1e!ce1$ion and i"age!y <hich a!e inoled in $he ac$ions <hich $hese ges$&!es ini$ia$e. In 1a!$ic&la!
$he i"age!y o% $he !es&l$s o% $he ac$ions 1!esaged ,y $he ges$&!es ,eco"es o% 1ec&lia! in$e!es$. As
<e hae seen, $his i"age!y goes di!ec$ly in$o $he o,9ec$ &nde! condi$ions o% di!ec$ ac$ion. In $he
1!esence o% al$e!na$ie ac$ii$ies, in so"e sense co"1e$ing <i$h each o$he!, $his i"age!y o% $he
!es&l$ o% $he ac$s is, %o! $he $i"e ,eing, dissocia$ed %!o" $he o,9ec$s and se!es $o chec7 and call %o!
!ead9&s$"en$s.
I hae no$ed $<o s$and1oin$s %!o" <hich i"age!y "ay ,e !ega!ded. I$ is $he!e, as 1e!ce1$s a!e
$he!e@ and li7e 1e!ce1$s, i"age!y can ,e s$a$ed in $e!"s o% i$s !ela$ion $o $he 1hysiological o!ganis"@
,&$ <hile 1e!ce1$s a!e do"inan$ly an e=1!ession o% an i""edia$e !ela$ion ,e$<een $he o!ganis"
and i$s %ield o% o,9ec$s, i"age!y !e1!esen$s an ad9&s$"en$ ,e$<een an o!ganis" and an eni!on"en$
$ha$ is no$ $he!e. In case $ha$ $he i"age!y is %&sed <i$h $he o$he! con$en$s o% $he 1e!ce1$, i$ e=$ends
and %ills o&$ $he %ield o% o,9ec$s. In so %a! as i$ does no$ en$e! in$o $he i""edia$e eni!on"en$, i$
1!esen$s "a$e!ial %o! <hich an ins$inc$ie %o!" can hae li$$le o! no &se. I$ "ay se!e i$ as i$ does &s,
$o 1ic7 o&$ o,9ec$s <hich canno$ ,e a$ once de$ec$ed@ ,&$ as $he o,9ec$s $ha$ en$e! in$o $he %ield o%
1e!ce1$ion ans<e! $o o!gani8ed ha,i$s, and since an ins$inc$ie %o!" canno$ !econs$!&c$ i$s
congeni$al ha,i$s, i"ages can ha!dly se!e $he %&nc$ion <hich $hey do in "an>s "ind o%
!econs$!&c$ing ,o$h o,9ec$s and ha,i$s. This la$$e! %&nc$ion is a deelo1"en$ o% $he %&nc$ion o% $he
i"age in %illing o&$ $he o,9ec$, ,y 1&$$ing in$o $ha$ <hich co"es $h!o&gh $he dis$ance senses?s&ch as
ision and hea!ing ?$he con$en$ o% $he con$ac$ <hich ac$&al a11!oach $o $he o,9ec$ <ill !eeal. I$s
1!i"al %&nc$ion in !e%lec$ion is $ha$ o% de$e!"ining <ha$ co&!se o% ac$ion shall ,e 1&!s&ed, ,y $he
1!esen$a$ion o% $he !es&l$s o% di%%e!en$ co&!ses. I$ is a %&nc$ion $ha$ inei$a,ly e"1hasi8es $he con$en$
o% i"age!y, as $he !eac$ion ,eco"es de1enden$ &1on $he i"aged o&$co"e o% $he 1!ocess. And ye$
$his e"1hasis 1!es&11oses so"e$hing ,eyond $his dis$inc$ion and i$s %&nc$ion. I$ i"1lies a de%ini$e
loca$ion and iden$i%ica$ion o% i"age!y a1a!$ %!o" i$s %&sion <i$h o$he! con$en$s in $he o,9ec$. 0e hae
seen $ha$ $his $a7es 1lace in $he %o!"a$ion o% 1as$ and %&$&!e, and in $he e=$ension, $h!o&gh $hese
di"ensions o% $he i""edia$e eni!on"en$ ,eyond $he !ange o% sense 1e!ce1$ion. :o<ee!, ,e%o!e
$his loca$ion can $a7e 1lace, $he i"age!y hangs &no!ien$ed@ and es1ecially as 1as$ and %&$&!e $a7e
on "o!e de%ini$eness, $he i"age!y, <hich does no$ a$ once %all in$o 1lace, needs a local ha,i$a$ion
and is 1laced in $he "ind.
In $e!"s o% a ,ehaio!is$ic 1sychology $he 1!o,le" o% s$a$ing !e%lec$ion is $ha$ o% sho<ing ho< in
i""edia$e cond&c$, shi%$ing a$$en$ion, s1!inging %!o" a!ied i"1&lses, "ay lead $o !eo!gani8a$ion o%
o,9ec$s so $ha$ con%lic$s ,e$<een o!gani8ed i"1&lses "ay ,e oe!co"e. 0e hae 9&s$ seen $ha$
i"age!y <hich goes in$o $he s$!&c$&!e o% o,9ec$s, and <hich !e1!esen$s $he ad9&s$"en$ o% $he
o!ganis" $o eni!on"en$s <hich a!e no$ $he!e, "ay se!e $o<a!d $he !econs$!&c$ion o% $he o,9ec$ie
%ield. I$ is i"1o!$an$ $o 1!esen$ "o!e %&lly $he 1a!$ <hich $he social ac$ii$y o% $he indiid&al "edia$ed
$h!o&gh ocal ges$&!e 1lays in $his 1!ocess. Social ac$s o% $his $y1e 1!oceed co?o1e!a$iely, and $he
ges$&!es se!e $o ad9&s$ $he a$$i$&des o% $he di%%e!en$ indiid&als <i$hin $he <hole ac$ $o each o$he!>s
a$$i$&des and ac$ions. The child>s c!y di!ec$s $he a$$en$ion o% $he "o$he! $o<a!d $he loca$ion o% $he
child and $he cha!ac$e! o% his need. The "o$he!>s !es1onse di!ec$s $he child $o<a!d $he "o$he! and
$he assis$ance he is 1!e1a!ed $o acce1$. The challenging calls o% !ial ani"als, and $he <ooing no$es
o% ,i!ds, se!e analogo&s 1&!1oses. These ges$&!es and $he i""edia$e !es1onses $o $he" a!e
1!e1a!a$ions %o! a "&$&al ac$ii$y $ha$ is $o $a7e 1lace la$e!. The h&"an indiid&al, $h!o&gh his
ges$&!e and his o<n !es1onse $o i$, %inds hi"sel% in $he !ole o% ano$he!. :e $h&s 1laces hi"sel% in $he
a$$i$&de o% $he indiid&al <i$h <ho" he is $o co?o1e!a$e. The cond&c$ o% li$$le child!en, <hich is so
la!gely di!ec$ed, can only go on in co",ina$ion <i$h $ha$ o% $hei! elde!s@ and $his ea!ly %acili$y in
1laying $he !oles o% o$he!s gies $he" $he ad9&s$"en$ necessa!y %o! $his in$e!!ela$ed ac$ii$y. The
1!ohi,i$ions, $he $a,oos, inole con%lic$ing $endencies <hich a11ea! in $e!"s o% 1e!sonal
co""ands. I$ is $hese $ha$ !ec&! as i"age!y <hen $he i"1&lse again a!ises $o do $he %o!,idden
$hing. 0he!e an ani"al <o&ld only slin7 ,ac7 %!o" a %o!,idden s1o$, $he child !e1ea$s $he 1!ohi,i$ion
in $he !ole o% $he 1a!en$. 0ha$ si"1ly en$e!s in$o $he o,9ec$ $o !ende! i$ dange!o&s %o! $he ani"al
,&ilds &1 %o! $he child an i"agina!y scene, since his o<n social a$$i$&de s&""ons &1 $ha$ o% $he
o$he! in his o<n !es1onse. 0ha$ <as 1a!$ o% an &n,!o7en %lo< ,eco"es no< an een$ <hich
1!ecedes ,!ea7ing o% $he la< o! co"1liance <i$h i$.
0ha$ $he ass&"1$ion o% $he di%%e!en$ a$$i$&des "a7es 1ossi,le is $he analysis o% $he o,9ec$. In $he
!ole o% $he child $he $hing is $he o,9ec$ o% an i""edia$e <an$. I$ is si"1ly desi!a,le. Tha$ <hich
occ&1ies $he a$$en$ion is $his ans<e! $o $he i"1&lse $o sei8e and deo&!. In $he !ole o% $he 1a!en$ $he
o,9ec$ is $a,oo, !ese!ed %o! o$he! $i"es and 1eo1le, $he $a7ing o% <hich calls o&$ !e$!i,&$ion. The
child>s ca1aci$y %o! ,eing $he o$he! 1&$s ,o$h o% $hese cha!ac$e!s o% $he o,9ec$ ,e%o!e hi" in $hei!
dis1a!a$eness. The o,9ec$ does no$ si"1ly lead hi" on and d!ie hi" a<ay, as i$ does $he <ell?
"anne!ed dog. I$ is <i$h $his "a$e!ial $ha$ $he child se$s o&$ &1on his c!ea$ions o% i"agina$ion; $he
"o$he! !elen$s and !e"oes $he $a,oo, o! <hen $he o,9ec$ is ea$en $he child esca1es a$$en$ion, o! a
$ho&sand $hings "ay ha11en in $he ac$ii$ies o% $he di%%e!en$ cha!ac$e!s on $he scene so $ha$ $he
desi!a,le $hing is his and i$s cha!ac$e! as $a,oo, <hile !ecogni8ed, %ails $o ,!ing $he d!eaded
conseD&ences. O! $he "o!e "a$$e!?o%?%ac$ child "ay $a7e and ea$ and %ace $he conseD&ence o% $he
<hi11ing as <o!$h $he <hile, $h&s a%%ec$ing $he &nion o% $he con%lic$ing cha!ac$e!s in a he!oic %ashion,
,&$ s$ill <i$h $he linge!ing ho1e $ha$ $he &ne=1ec$ed "ay ha11en $ha$ <ill hide $he deed, o! change
$he la< o! i$s en%o!ce"en$. In a <o!d, $he sy"1a$he$ic ass&"1$ion o% $he a$$i$&de o% $he o$he! ,!ings
in$o 1lay a!ying i"1&lses <hich di!ec$ $he a$$en$ion $o %ea$&!es o% $he o,9ec$ <hich a!e igno!ed in
$he a$$i$&de o% di!ec$ !es1onse. And $he e!y die!se a$$i$&des ass&"ed %&!nish $he "a$e!ial %o! a
!econs$!&c$ion o% $he o,9ec$ie %ield in <hich and $h!o&gh <hich $he co?o1e!a$ie social ac$ "ay $a7e
1lace, giing sa$is%ac$o!y e=1!ession $o all $he !oles inoled. I$ is $his analysis and !econs$!&c$ion
<hich is !ende!ed 1ossi,le ,y $he a11a!a$&s o% $he ocal ges$&!e, <i$h i$s !ela$ed o!ganic eD&i1"en$.
I$ is in $his %ield $ha$ $he con$in&o&s %lo< ,!ea7s &1 in o!de!ed se!ies, in $he !ela$ion o% al$e!na$ie
s$e1s leading &1 $o so"e een$. Ti"e <i$h i$s dis$ing&isha,le "o"en$s en$e!s, so $o s1ea7, <i$h $he
in$e!als necessa!y $o shi%$ $he scene and change $he cos$&"es. One canno$ ,e ano$he! and ye$
hi"sel% e=ce1$ %!o" $he s$and1oin$ o% a $i"e <hich is co"1osed o% en$i!ely inde1enden$ ele"en$s.
I$ is i"1o!$an$ $o !ecogni8e ho< en$i!ely social $he "echanis" o% yo&ng child!en>s !e%lec$ie cond&c$
is. The e=1lana$ion lies ,o$h in $he long 1e!iod o% in%ancy, necessi$a$ing de1endency &1on $he social
cond&c$ o% $he %a"ily g!o&1, and in $he ocal ges$&!e, s$i"&la$ing $he child $o ac$ $o<a!d hi"sel% as
o$he!s ac$ $o<a!d hi", and $h&s 1&$$ing hi" in $he 1osi$ion o% %acing his 1!o,le"s %!o" $he
s$and1oin$s, as %a! as he can ass&"e $he", o% all <ho a!e inoled $he!ein. One sho&ld no$,
ho<ee!, ass&"e $ha$ $hese social a$$i$&des o% $he child i"1ly $he e=is$ence in his cond&c$ o% $he %&ll
1e!sonali$ies o% $hose <hose a$$i$&des he is $a7ing. On $he con$!a!y, $he %&ll 1e!sonali$y <i$h <hich he
%inds hi"sel% &l$i"a$ely endo<ed and <hich he %inds in o$he!s is $he co",ina$ion o% $he sel% and $he
o$he!s. As social o,9ec$s, $he o$he!s <i$h <ho" $he child 1lays a!e &nce!$ain in $hei! o&$lines and
shado<y in $hei! s$!&c$&!e. 0ha$ is clea! and de%ini$e in $he child>s a$$i$&de is $he !eac$ion in ei$he!
!ole, $ha$ o% $he sel% o! $he o$he!. The child>s ea!lies$ li%e is $ha$ o% social ac$ii$ies, incl&ding $his
!e%le=ie s$i"&la$ion and !es1onse, in a %ield in <hich nei$he! social no! "e!ely 1hysical o,9ec$s hae
a!isen <i$h de%ini$eness. I$ is a g!ea$ "is$a7e $o oe!loo7 $he social cha!ac$e! o% $hese 1!ocesses, %o!
in $he h&"an ani"al $his social %ac$o! ca!!ies <i$h i$ $he co"1lica$ion o% 1ossi,le sel%?s$i"&la$ion as
<ell. The !eac$ion o% $he h&"an ani"al $o<a!d ano$he!, in <hich a ges$&!e 1lays a 1a!$ $ha$ can
a%%ec$ $he %i!s$ indiid&al as i$ does $he o$he!, has a al&e <hich canno$ a$$ach $o $he di!ec$ ins$inc$ie
o! i"1&lsie !es1onses $o o,9ec$s, <he$he! $hey ,e o$he! liing %o!"s o! "e!e 1hysical $hings.
S&ch a !eac$ion, een <i$h i$s sel%?!e%lec$ion only i"1lici$ly $he!e, "&s$ ,e s$ill "o!e sha!1ly
dis$ing&ished %!o" o&! !eac$ions $o 1hysical $hings in $e!"s o% o&! "ode!n scien$i%ic a$$i$&de. S&ch a
1hysical <o!ld did no$ e=is$ in $he ea!lie! and less so1his$ica$ed e=1e!ience o% "an. I$ is a 1!od&c$ o%
"ode!n scien$i%ic "e$hod. I$ is no$ %o&nd in $he &nso1his$ica$ed child o! in $he &nso1his$ica$ed "an,
and ye$ "os$ 1sychologies $!ea$ $he e=1e!ience o% $he child>s !eac$ions $o $he so?called -1hysical
o,9ec$s- a,o&$ hi" as i% $hese o,9ec$s <e!e %o! hi" <ha$ $hey a!e %o! $he ad&l$. The!e is "os$
in$e!es$ing eidence o% $his di%%e!ence in $he a$$i$&de o% 1!i"i$ie "an $o<a!d his eni!on"en$. The
1!i"i$ie "an has $he "ind o% $he child ? indeed, o% $he yo&ng child. :e a11!oaches his 1!o,le"s in
$e!"s o% social cond&c$?$he social cond&c$ in <hich $he!e is $his sel%?!e%lec$ion <hich has 9&s$ ,een
$he s&,9ec$ o% disc&ssion. The child ge$s his sol&$ions o% <ha$ %!o" o&! s$and1oin$ a!e en$i!ely
1hysical 1!o,le"s, s&ch as $hose o% $!ans1o!$a$ion, "oe"en$ o% $hings, and $he li7e, $h!o&gh his
social !eac$ion $o $hose a,o&$ hi". This is no$ si"1ly ,eca&se he is de1enden$, and "&s$ loo7 $o
$hose a,o&$ hi" %o! assis$ance d&!ing $he ea!ly 1e!iod o% in%ancy, ,&$, "o!e i"1o!$an$ s$ill, ,eca&se
his 1!i"i$ie 1!ocess o% !e%lec$ion is one o% "edia$ion $h!o&gh ocal ges$&!es o% a coo1e!a$ie social
1!ocess. The h&"an indiid&al $hin7s %i!s$ o% all en$i!ely in social $e!"s. This "eans, as I hae
e"1hasi8ed a,oe, no$ $ha$ na$&!e and na$&!al o,9ec$s a!e 1e!sonali8ed, ,&$ $ha$ $he child>s
!eac$ions $o na$&!e and i$s o,9ec$s a!e social !eac$ions, and $ha$ his !es1onses i"1ly $ha$ $he ac$ions
o% na$&!al o,9ec$s a!c social !eac$ions In o$he! <o!ds, in so %a! as $he yo&ng child ac$s !e%lec$iely
$o<a!d his 1hysical eni!on"en$, he ac$s as i% i$ <e!e hel1ing o! hinde!ing hi", and his !es1onses
a!e acco"1anied <i$h %!iendliness o! ange!. I$ is an a$$i$&de o% <hich $he!e a!e "o!e $han es$iges in
o&! so1his$ica$ed e=1e!ience. I$ is 1e!ha1s "os$ eiden$ in $he i!!i$a$ions agains$ $he $o$al de1!ai$y
o% inani"a$e $hings, in o&! a%%ec$ion %o! %a"ilia! o,9ec$s o% cons$an$ e"1loy"en$, and in $he aes$he$ic
a$$i$&de $o<a!d na$&!e <hich is $he so&!ce o% all na$&!e 1oe$!y. The dis$inc$ion ,e$<een $his a$$i$&de
and $ha$ o% 1e!soni%ica$ion is $ha$ ,e$<een $he 1!i"i$ie c&l$ a$$i$&de and $he la$e! a$$i$&de o% $he
"y$h, ,e$<een $he 1e!iod o% $he Mana, o% "agic in i$s 1!i"i$ie %o!", and $he 1e!iod o% $he gods. The
essence o% $he !e%lec$ie 1!ocess a$ $his s$age is $ha$ $h!o&gh %!iendly o! hos$ile a$$i$&des di%%ic&l$ies
a!e oe!co"e .... IMSK.
0# 3*%GM"(TS $( "THICSI1K
I. I$ is 1ossi,le $o ,&ild &1 an e$hical $heo!y on a social ,asis, in $e!"s o% o&! social $heo!y o% $he
o!igin, deelo1"en$, na$&!e, and s$!&c$&!e o% $he sel%. Th&s, %o! e=a"1le, Lan$>s ca$ego!ical
i"1e!a$ie "ay ,e socially s$a$ed o! %o!"&la$ed o! in$e!1!e$ed in $hese $e!"s, $ha$ is, gien i$s social
eD&ialen$.
Man is a !a$ional ,eing ,eca&se he is a social ,eing. The &nie!sali$y o% o&! 9&dg"en$s, &1on <hich
Lan$ 1laces so "&ch s$!ess, is a &nie!sali$y $ha$ a!ises %!o" $he %ac$ $ha$ <e $a7e $he a$$i$&de o% $he
en$i!e co""&ni$y, o% all !a$ional ,eings. 0e a!e <ha$ <e a!e $h!o&gh o&! !ela$ionshi1 $o o$he!s.
Inei$a,ly, $hen, o&! end "&s$ ,e a social end, ,o$h %!o" $he s$and1oin$ o% i$s con$en$ A$ha$ <hich
<o&ld ans<e! $o 1!i"i$ie i"1&lsesB and also %!o" $he 1oin$ o% ie< o% %o!". Sociali$y gies $he
&nie!sali$y o% e$hical 9&dg"en$s and lies ,ac7 o% $he 1o1&la! s$a$e"en$ $ha$ $he oice o% all is $he
&nie!sal oice@ $ha$ is, ee!yone <ho can !a$ionally a11!ecia$e $he si$&a$ion ag!ees. The e!y %o!"
o% o&! 9&dg"en$ is $he!e%o!e social, so $ha$ $he end, ,o$h con$en$ and %o!", is necessa!ily a social
end. Lan$ a11!oached $ha$ &nie!sali$y %!o" $he ass&"1$ion o% $he !a$ionali$y o% $he indiid&al, and
said $ha$ i% his ends, o! $he %o!" o% his ac$s, <e!e &nie!sal, $hen socie$y co&ld a!ise. :e conceied
o% $he indiid&al %i!s$ o% all as !a$ional and as a condi$ion %o! socie$y. :o<ee!, <e !ecogni8e $ha$ no$
only $he %o!" o% $he 9&dg"en$ is &nie!sal ,&$ $he con$en$ also?$ha$ $he end i$sel% can ,e
&nie!sali8ed. Lan$ said <e co&ld only &nie!sali8e $he %o!". :o<ee!, <e do &nie!sali8e $he end
i$sel%. I% <e !ecogni8e $ha$ <e can &nie!sali8e $he end i$sel%, $hen a social o!de! can a!ise %!o" s&ch
social, &nie!sal ends.
#. 0e can ag!ee <i$h Lan$ $ha$ $he -o&gh$- does inole &nie!sali$y. As he 1oin$s o&$, $ha$ is $!&e in
$he case o% $he (olden *&le. 0he!ee! $he ele"en$ o% $he -o&gh$- co"es in, <he!ee! one>s
conscience s1ea7s, i$ al<ays $a7es on $his &nie!sal %o!".
Only a !a$ional ,eing co&ld gie &nie!sal %o!" $o his ac$. The lo<e! ani"als si"1ly %ollo<
inclina$ions@ $hey go a%$e! 1a!$ic&la! ends, ,&$ $hey co&ld no$ gie a &nie!sal %o!" $o ac$s. Only a
!a$ional ,eing <o&ld ,e a,le so $o gene!ali8e his ac$ and $he "a=i" o% his ac$, and $he h&"an ,eing
has s&ch !a$ionali$y. 0hen he ac$s in a ce!$ain <ay he is <illing $ha$ ee!yone sho&ld ac$ in $he
sa"e <ay, &nde! $he sa"e condi$ions. Is no$ $ha$ $he s$a$e"en$ <e gene!ally "a7e in 9&s$i%ying
o&!selesE 0hen a 1e!son has done so"e$hing $ha$ is D&es$iona,le, is no$ $he s$a$e"en$ $ha$ is %i!s$
"ade, -Tha$ is <ha$ anyone <o&ld hae done in "y 1lace-E S&ch is $he <ay in <hich one does
9&s$i%y his cond&c$ i% i$ is ,!o&gh$ in$o D&es$ion a$ all@ $ha$ i$ sho&ld ,e a &nie!sal la< is $he 9&s$i%ia,le
s&11o!$ $ha$ one gies $o a D&es$ioned ac$. This is D&i$e a1a!$ %!o" $he con$en$ o% $he ac$, as one can
,e s&!e $ha$ <ha$ he is doing is <ha$ he <an$s ee!yone else $o do &nde! $he sa"e ci!c&"s$ances.
Do &n$o o$he!s as yo& <o&ld hae $he" do &n$o yo&@ $ha$ is, ac$ $o<a!d o$he! 1eo1le as yo& <an$
$he" $o ac$ $o<a!d yo& &nde! $he sa"e condi$ions.
'. In gene!al, <hen yo& a!e $a7ing adan$age o% o$he! 1eo1le, $he &nie!sali8ing o% $he 1!inci1le o%
$he ac$ <o&ld $a7e a<ay $he e!y al&e o% $he ac$ i$sel%. Yo& <an$ $o ,e a,le $o s$eal $hings and ye$
7ee1 $he" as yo&! o<n 1!o1e!$y@ ,&$ i% ee!yone s$ole, $he!e <o&ld no$ ,e any s&ch $hing as
1!o1e!$y. 9&s$ gene!ali8e $he 1!inci1le o% yo&! ac$ and see <ha$ <o&ld %ollo< <i$h !e%e!ence $o $he
e!y $hing yo& a!e $!ying $o do. This Lan$ian $es$ is no$ a $es$ o% %eeling ,&$ a !a$ional $es$ $ha$ does
"ee$ a e!y la!ge n&",e! o% ac$s <hich <e !ecogni8e as "o!al. I$ is al&a,le in i$s <ay. 0e $!y $o
decide <he$he! <e a!e "a7ing o&!seles e=ce1$ions o! <he$he! <e sho&ld ,e <illing $o hae
ee!yone else ac$ as <e a!e doing.
I% a "an <ill se$ &1 as a "a=i" %o! his cond&c$ $he 1!inci1le $ha$ ee!y,ody else sho&ld ,e hones$
<i$h hi" <hile he <o&ld ,e dishones$ <i$h ee!y,ody else, $he!e co&ld no$ ,e a %ac$&al ,asis %o! his
a$$i$&de. :e is co""anding $he hones$y o% o$he! 1eo1le, and he is in no 1osi$ion $o co""and i$ i% he
is dishones$. The !igh$s one !ecogni8es in o$he!s one can de"and in o$he!s@ ,&$ <e canno$ de"and
%!o" o$he!s <ha$ <e !e%&se $o !es1ec$. I$ is a 1!ac$ical i"1ossi,ili$y.
Any cons$!&c$ie ac$ is, ho<ee!, so"e$hing $ha$ lies o&$side o% $he sco1e o% Lan$>s 1!inci1le. F!o"
Lan$>s s$and1oin$ yo& ass&"e $ha$ $he s$anda!d is $he!e@ and $hen i% yo& sli1 a!o&nd i$ yo&!sel% <hile
e=1ec$ing o$he! 1eo1le $o lie &1 $o i$, Lan$>s 1!inci1le <ill %ind yo& o&$. B&$ <he!e yo& hae no
s$anda!d, i$ does no$ hel1 yo& $o decide. 0he!e yo& hae $o ge$ a !es$a$e"en$, a !ead9&s$"en$, yo&
ge$ a ne< si$&a$ion in <hich $o ac$@ $he si"1le gene!ali8ing o% $he 1!inci1le o% yo&! ac$ does no$ hel1.
I$ is a$ $ha$ 1oin$ $ha$ Lan$>s 1!inci1le ,!ea7s do<n.
0ha$ Lan$>s 1!inci1le does is $o $ell yo& $ha$ an ac$ is i""o!al &nde! ce!$ain condi$ions, ,&$ i$ does
no$ $ell yo& <ha$ is $he "o!al ac$. Lan$>s ca$ego!ical i"1e!a$ie ass&"es $ha$ $he!e is 9&s$ one <ay o%
ac$ing. I% $ha$ is $he case, $hen $he!e is only one co&!se $ha$ can ,e &nie!sali8ed@ $hen $he !es1ec$
%o! la< <o&ld ,e $he "o$ie %o! ac$ing in $ha$ %ashion. B&$ i% yo& ass&"e $ha$ $he!e a!e al$e!na$ie
<ays o% ac$ing, $hen yo& canno$ &$ili8e Lan$>s "o$ie as a "eans o% de$e!"ining <ha$ is !igh$.
). Bo$h Lan$ and $he 6$ili$a!ians <ish $o &nie!sali8e, $o "a7e &nie!sal $ha$ in <hich "o!ali$y lies.
The 6$ili$a!ian says i$ "&s$ ,e $he g!ea$es$ good o% $he g!ea$es$ n&",e!@ Lan$ says $ha$ $he a$$i$&de
o% $he ac$ "&s$ ,e one <hich $a7es on $he %o!" o% a &nie!sal la<. I <an$ $o 1oin$ o&$ $his co""on
a$$i$&de o% $hese $<o schools <hich a!e so o11osed $o each o$he! in o$he! <ays; $hey ,o$h %eel $ha$
an ac$ <hich is "o!al "&s$ hae in so"e <ay a &nie!sal cha!ac$e!. I% yo& s$a$e "o!ali$y in $e!"s o%
$he !es&l$ o% $he ac$, $hen yo& s$a$e $he !es&l$s in $e!"s o% $he <hole co""&ni$y@ i% in $he a$$i$&de o%
$he ac$, i$ "&s$ ,e in $he !es1ec$ %o! la<, and $he a$$i$&de "&s$ $a7e on $he %o!" o% a &nie!sal la<, a
&nie!sal !&le. Bo$h !ecogni8e $ha$ "o!ali$y inoles &nie!sali$y, $ha$ $he "o!al ac$ is no$ si"1ly a
1!ia$e a%%ai!. A $hing $ha$ is good %!o" a "o!al s$and1oin$ "&s$ ,e a good %o! ee!yone &nde! $he
sa"e condi$ions. This de"and %o! &nie!sali$y is %o&nd in ,o$h $he 6$ili$a!ian and Lan$ian doc$!ines.
+. I% $he ca$ego!ical i"1e!a$ie is o,eyed as Lan$ <ishes, ee!yone <ill "a7e a &nie!sal la< o% his
ac$, and $hen a co",ina$ion o% s&ch indiid&als <ill ,e one $ha$ is ha!"onio&s, so $ha$ a socie$y
"ade &1 o&$ o% ,eings <ho !ecogni8e $he "o!al la< <o&ld ,e a "o!al socie$y. In $ha$ <ay Lan$ ge$s
a con$en$ in his ac$@ his s$a$e"en$ is $ha$ $he!e is no con$en$, ,&$ ,y se$$ing $he h&"an ,eing &1 as
an end in hi"sel%, and so socie$y as a highe! end, he in$!od&ces con$en$.
This 1ic$&!e o% a 7ingdo" o% ends is ha!dly $o ,e dis$ing&ished %!o" Mill>s doc$!ine, since ,o$h se$ &1
socie$y as an end. Each o% $he" has $o ge$ $o so"e so!$ o% an end $ha$ can ,e &nie!sal. The
6$ili$a!ian !eaches $ha$ in $he gene!al good, $he gene!al ha11iness o% $he <hole co""&ni$y@ Lan$
%inds i$ in an o!gani8a$ion o% !a$ional h&"an ,eings, <ho a11ly !a$ionali$y $o $he %o!" o% $hei! ac$s.
Nei$he! o% $he" is a,le $o s$a$e $he end in $e!"s o% $he o,9ec$ o% desi!e o% $he indiid&al.
Ac$&ally, <ha$ yo& hae $o &nie!sali8e is $he o,9ec$ $o<a!d <hich desi!e is di!ec$ed, $ha$ &1on <hich
yo&! a$$en$ion "&s$ ,e cen$e!ed i% yo& a!e going $o s&cceed. Yo& hae $o &nie!sali8e no$ $he "e!e
%o!" o% $he ac$ ,&$ $he con$en$ o% $he ac$.
I% yo& ass&"e $ha$ <ha$ yo& <an$ is 9&s$ 1leas&!e, yo& hae a 1a!$ic&la! een$, a %eeling <hich yo&
e=1e!ience &nde! ce!$ain condi$ions. B&$ i% yo& desi!e $he o,9ec$ i$sel%, yo& desi!e $ha$ <hich can ,e
gien a &nie!sal %o!"@ i% yo& desi!e s&ch an o,9ec$, $he "o$ie i$sel% can ,e as "o!al as $he end.
The ,!ea7 <hich $he ac$ 1&$s ,e$<een $he "o$ie and $he in$ended end $hen disa11ea!s.
.. The!e is $he D&es$ion o% $he !ela$ion o% endeao! and achiee"en$ $o <ill, $he D&es$ion as $o
<he$he! $he !es&l$ is so"e$hing $ha$ can hae any$hing $o do <i$h $he "o!ali$y o% $he ac$. Yo& do
hae $o ,!ing $he end in$o yo&! in$en$ion, in$o yo&! a$$i$&de. Yo& can, a$ ee!y s$age o% $he ac$, ,e
ac$ing <i$h !e%e!ence $o $he end@ and yo& can e",ody $he end in $he s$e1s $ha$ yo& a!e i""edia$ely
$a7ing.
Tha$ is $he di%%e!ence ,e$<een "eaning <ell and haing $he !igh$ in$en$ion. O% co&!se, yo& canno$
hae $he %inal !es&l$ in yo&! ea!ly s$e1s o% $he ac$, ,&$ yo& can a$ leas$ s$a$e $ha$ ac$ in $e!"s o% $he
condi$ions <hich yo& a!e "ee$ing.
I% yo& a!e going $o ,e s&ccess%&l, yo& hae $o ,e in$e!es$ed in an end in $e!"s o% $he s$e1s <hich a!e
necessa!y $o ca!!y i$ o&$. In $ha$ sense $he !es&l$ is 1!esen$ in $he ac$. A 1e!son <ho is $a7ing all $he
s$e1s $o ,!ing a,o&$ a !es&l$ sees $he !es&l$ in $he s$e1s. I$ is $ha$ <hich "a7es one "o!al o!
i""o!al, and dis$ing&ishes ,e$<een a "an <ho !eally "eans $o do <ha$ he says he is going $o do,
and one <ho "e!ely -"eans <ell.-
/. All o% o&! i"1&lses a!e 1ossi,le so&!ces o% ha11iness@ and in so %a! as $hey ge$ $hei! na$&!al
e=1!ession $hey lead &1 $o ha11iness. In $he "o!al ac$ $he!e <ill ,e 1leas&!e in o&! sa$is%ac$ions@ ,&$
$he end is in $he o,9ec$s, and $he "o$ies a!e in $he i"1&lses <hich a!e di!ec$ed $o<a!d $hese
o,9ec$s. 0hen a 1e!son, %o! e=a"1le, ,eco"es e=$!e"ely in$e!es$ed in so"e &nde!$a7ing, $hen he
has i"1&lses $ha$ a!e di!ec$ed $o<a!d ce!$ain ends, and s&ch i"1&lses ,eco"e $he "o$ies o% his
cond&c$. 0e dis$ing&ish s&ch i"1&lses %!o" $he "o$ie $ha$ $he 6$ili$a!ian !ecogni8es. :e
!ecogni8es only one "o$ie; $he %eeling o% 1leas&!e $ha$ <ill a!ise <hen $he desi!e is sa$is%ied. In
1lace o% $ha$ <e 1&$ $he i"1&lse <hich is di!ec$ed $o<a!d $he end i$sel% and "ain$ain $ha$ s&ch
i"1&lses a!e $he "o$ies o% "o!al cond&c$.
The D&es$ion $hen ,eco"es $he de$e!"ina$ion o% $he so!$ o% ends $o<a!d <hich o&! ac$ion sho&ld ,e
di!ec$ed. 0ha$ so!$ o% a s$anda!d can <e se$ &1E O&! ends sho&ld, %i!s$ o% all, ,e ends <hich a!e
desi!a,le in $he"seles, $ha$ is, <hich do lead $o $he e=1!ession and sa$is%ac$ion o% $he i"1&lses.
No< $he!e a!e so"e i"1&lses <hich lead si"1ly $o disin$eg!a$ion, <hich a!e no$ desi!a,le in
$he"seles. The!e a!e ce!$ain o% o&! i"1&lses <hich %ind $hei! e=1!ession, %o! e=a"1le, in c!&el$y.
Ta7en ,y $he"seles $hey a!e no$ desi!a,le ,eca&se $he !es&l$s <hich $hey ,!ing a!e na!!o<ing,
de1!essing, and de1!ie &s o% social !ela$ions. They also lead, so %a! as o$he!s a!e conce!ned, $o
in9&!y $o o$he! indiid&als.
In De<ey>s $e!"s, $he "o!al i"1&lses sho&ld ,e $hose -<hich !ein%o!ce and e=1and no$ only $he
"o$ies %!o" <hich $hey di!ec$ly s1!ing ,&$ also $he o$he! $endencies and a$$i$&des <hich a!e
so&!ces o% ha11iness. -+.- I% a 1e!son ,eco"es in$e!es$ed in o$he! 1e!sons, he %inds $he in$e!es$
<hich he has does lead $o !ein%o!cing $ha$ "o$ie and $o e=1anding o$he! "o$ies. The "o!e <e
,eco"e in$e!es$ed in 1e!sons $he "o!e <e ,eco"e in$e!es$ed in gene!al in li%e. The <hole si$&a$ion
<i$hin <hich $he indiid&al %inds hi"sel% $a7es on ne< in$e!es$. Si"ila!ly, $o ge$ an in$ellec$&al "o$ie
is one o% $he g!ea$es$ ,oons <hich one "ay hae, ,eca&se i$ e=1ands in$e!es$ so <idely. 0e
!ecogni8e s&ch ends as 1a!$ic&la!ly i"1o!$an$.
So, loo7ing a$ ha11iness %!o" $he 1oin$ o% ie< o% i"1&lses $he"seles, <e can se$ &1 a s$anda!d in
$his %ashion; $he end sho&ld ,e one <hich !ein%o!ces $he "o$ie, one <hich <ill !ein%o!ce $he i"1&lse
and e=1and o$he! i"1&lses o! "o$ies. Tha$ <o&ld ,e $he s$anda!d 1!o1osed.
0e a!e %!ee no< %!o" $he !es$!ic$ions o% $he 6$ili$a!ian and Lan$ian i% <e !ecogni8e $ha$ desi!e is
di!ec$ed $o<a!d $he o,9ec$ ins$ead o% $o<a!d 1leas&!e. Bo$h Lan$ and $he 6$ili$a!ian a!e
%&nda"en$ally hedonis$s, ass&"ing $ha$ o&! inclina$ions a!e $o<a!d o&! o<n s&,9ec$ie s$a$es ?? $he
1leas&!e $ha$ co"es %!o" sa$is%ac$ion. I% $ha$ is $he end, $hen o% co&!se o&! "o$ies a!e all s&,9ec$ie
a%%ai!s. F!o" Lan$>s s$and1oin$ $hey a!e ,ad, and %!o" $he 6$ili$a!ian>s s$and1oin$ $hey a!e $he sa"e
%o! all ac$ions and so ne&$!al. B&$ on $he 1!esen$ ie<, i% $he o,9ec$ i$sel% is ,e$$e!, $hen $he "o$ie is
,e$$e!. The "o$ie can ,e $es$ed ,y $he end, in $e!"s o% <he$he! $he end does !ein%o!ce $he e!y
i"1&lse i$sel%.
I"1&lses <ill ,e good $o $he deg!ee $ha$ $hey !ein%o!ce $he"seles and e=1and and gie e=1!ession
$o o$he! i"1&lses as <ell.
2. All $he $hings <o!$h <hile a!e sha!ed e=1e!iences. Een <hen a 1e!son is ,y hi"sel%, he 7no<s
$ha$ $he e=1e!ience he has in na$&!e, in $he en9oy"en$ o% a ,oo7, e=1e!iences <hich <e "igh$ $hin7
o% as 1&!ely indiid&al, <o&ld ,e g!ea$ly accen$&a$ed i% $hey co&ld ,e sha!ed <i$h o$he!s. Een <hen
a 1e!son see"s $o !e$i!e in$o hi"sel% $o lie a"ong his o<n ideas, he is liing !eally <i$h $he o$he!s
<ho hae $ho&gh$ <ha$ he is $hin7ing. :e is !eading ,oo7s, !ecalling $he e=1e!iences <hich he has
had, 1!o9ec$ing condi$ions &nde! <hich he "igh$ lie. The con$en$ is al<ays o% a social cha!ac$e!. O!
i$ "ay 1ass in$o $hose "ys$ical e=1e!iences in !eligio&s li%$?co""&nion <i$h (od. The conce1$ion o%
$he !eligio&s li%e is i$sel% a social conce1$ion@ i$ ga$he!s a,o&$ $he idea o% $he co""&ni$y.
I$ is only in so %a! as yo& can iden$i%y yo&! o<n "o$ie and $he ac$&al end yo& a!e 1&!s&ing <i$h $he
co""on good $ha$ yo& !each $he "o!al end and so ge$ "o!al ha11iness. As h&"an na$&!e is
essen$ially social in cha!ac$e!, "o!al ends "&s$ ,e also social in $hei! na$&!e.
3. I% <e loo7 a$ $he indiid&al %!o" $he 1oin$ o% ie< o% his i"1&lses, <e can see $ha$ $hose desi!es
<hich !ein%o!ce $he"seles, o! con$in&e on in $hei! e=1!ession, and <hich a<a7en o$he! i"1&lses,
<ill ,e good@ <he!eas $hose <hich do no$ !ein%o!ce $he"seles lead $o &ndesi!a,le !es&l$s, and
$hose <hich <ea7en $he o$he! "o$ies a!e in $he"seles eil. I% <e loo7 no< $o<a!d $he end o% $he
ac$ion !a$he! $han $o<a!d $he i"1&lse i$sel%, <e %ind $ha$ $hose ends a!e good <hich lead $o $he
!eali8a$ion o% $he sel% as a social ,eing. O&! "o!ali$y ga$he!s a,o&$ o&! social cond&c$. I$ is as social
,eings $ha$ <e a!e "o!al ,eings. On $he one side s$ands $he socie$y <hich "a7es $he sel% 1ossi,le,
and on $he o$he! side s$ands $he sel% $ha$ "a7es a highly o!gani8ed socie$y 1ossi,le. The $<o
ans<e! $o each o$he! in "o!al cond&c$.
In o&! !e%lec$ie cond&c$ <e a!e al<ays !econs$!&c$ing $he i""edia$e socie$y $o <hich <e ,elong.
0e a!e $a7ing ce!$ain de%ini$e a$$i$&des <hich inole !ela$ionshi1 <i$h o$he!s. In so %a! as $hose
!ela$ionshi1s a!e changed, $he socie$y i$sel% is changed. 0e a!e con$in&ally !econs$!&c$ing. 0hen i$
co"es $o $he 1!o,le" o% !econs$!&c$ion $he!e is one essen$ial de"and $ha$ all o% $he in$e!es$s $ha$
a!e inoled sho&ld ,e $a7en in$o acco&n$. One sho&ld ac$ <i$h !e%e!ence $o all o% $he in$e!es$s $ha$
a!e inoled; $ha$ is <ha$ <e co&ld call a -ca$ego!ical i"1e!a$ie.-
0e a!e de%ini$ely iden$i%ied <i$h o&! o<n in$e!es$s. One is cons$i$&$ed o&$ o% his o<n in$e!es$s@ and
<hen $hose in$e!es$s a!e %!&s$!a$ed, <ha$ is called %o! $hen is in so"e sense a sac!i%ice o% $his
na!!o< sel%. This sho&ld lead $o $he deelo1"en$ o% a la!ge! sel% <hich can ,e iden$i%ied <i$h $he
in$e!es$s o% o$he!s. I $hin7 all o% &s %eel $ha$ one "&s$ ,e !eady $o !ecogni8e $he in$e!es$s o% o$he!s
een <hen $hey !&n co&n$e! $o o&! o<n, ,&$ $ha$ $he 1e!son <ho does $ha$ does no$ !eally sac!i%ice
hi"sel%, ,&$ ,eco"es a la!ge! sel%.
15. The g!o&1 adances %!o" old s$anda!ds $o<a!d ano$he! s$anda!d@ and <ha$ is i"1o!$an$ %!o"
$he s$and1oin$ o% "o!ali$y is $ha$ $his adance $a7es 1lace $h!o&gh $he indiid&al, $h!o&gh a ne< $y1e
o% indiid&al ?? one <ho conceies hi"sel% as indiid&als hae no$ conceied $he"seles in $he 1as$.
The ill&s$!a$ions a!e $hose o% $he P!o1he$s a"ong $he :e,!e<s and $he So1his$s a"ong $he (!ee7s.
The 1oin$ $ha$ I <an$ $o e"1hasi8e is $ha$ $his ne< indiid&al a11ea!s as $he !e1!esen$a$ie o% a
di%%e!en$ social o!de!. :e does no$ a11ea! si"1ly as a 1a!$ic&la! indiid&al@ he conceies o% hi"sel%
as ,elonging $o ano$he! social o!de! <hich o&gh$ $o $a7e $he 1lace o% $he old one. :e is a "e",e! o%
a ne<, a highe!, o!de!. O% co&!se, $he!e hae ,een eol&$iona!y changes $ha$ $oo7 1lace <i$ho&$
indiid&al !eac$ion. B&$ "o!al changes a!e $hose $ha$ $a7e 1lace $h!o&gh $he ac$ion o% $he indiid&al
as s&ch. :e ,eco"es $he ins$!&"en$, $he "eans, o% changing $he old in$o a ne< o!de!.
0ha$ is !igh$ a!ises in $he e=1e!ience o% $he indiid&al; he co"es $o change $he social o!de!@ he is
$he ins$!&"en$ ,y <hich c&s$o" i$sel% "ay ,e changed. The 1!o1he$ ,eco"es highly i"1o!$an$ %o!
$his !eason, since he !e1!esen$s $he so!$ o% conscio&sness in <hich one decides $o change $he
conce1$ion o% <ha$ is !igh$. By as7ing <ha$ is !igh$, <e a!e in $ha$ sa"e si$&a$ion, and <e a!e hel1ing
in $his <ay $o<a!d $he deelo1"en$ o% $he "o!al conscio&sness o% $he co""&ni$y. 4al&es co"e in$o
con%lic$ <i$h each o$he! in $he e=1e!iences o% $he indiid&al@ i$ is his %&nc$ion $o gie e=1!ession $o $he
di%%e!en$ al&es and hel1 $o %o!"&la$e "o!e sa$is%ac$o!y s$anda!ds $han hae e=is$ed.
11. 0hen <e !each $he D&es$ion o% <ha$ is !igh$, I hae said $ha$ $he only $es$ <e can se$ &1 is
<he$he! <e hae $a7en in$o acco&n$ ee!y in$e!es$ inoled. 0ha$ is essen$ial is $ha$ ee!y in$e!es$
in a "an>s na$&!e <hich is inoled sho&ld ,e conside!ed. :e can conside! only $he in$e!es$s <hich
co"e in$o his 1!o,le". The scien$is$ has $o conside! all o% $he %ac$s, ,&$ he conside!s only $hose
%ac$s inoled in $he i""edia$e 1!o,le". A scien$is$ $!ying $o %ind o&$ <he$he! acD&i!ed
cha!ac$e!is$ics can ,e inhe!i$ed does no$ hae $o $a7e in$o acco&n$ $he %ac$s o% !ela$ii$y, ,&$ only
$hose %ac$s <hich a11ly $o his 1!o,le". The "o!al 1!o,le" is one <hich inoles ce!$ain con%lic$ing
in$e!es$s. All o% $hose in$e!es$s <hich a!e inoled in con%lic$ "&s$ ,e conside!ed.
In "o!al 9&dg"en$s <e hae $o <o!7 o&$ a social hy1o$hesis, and one nee! can do i$ si"1ly %!o" his
o<n 1oin$ o% ie<. 0e hae $o loo7 a$ i$ %!o" $he 1oin$ o% ie< o% a social si$&a$ion. The hy1o$hesis is
one $ha$ <e 1!esen$, 9&s$ as $he P!o1he$s 1!esen$ed $he conce1$ion o% a co""&ni$y in <hich all "en
<e!e ,!o$he!s. No<, i% <e as7 <ha$ is $he ,es$ hy1o$hesis, $he only ans<e! <e can "a7e is $ha$ i$
"&s$ $a7e in$o acco&n$ all o% $he in$e!es$s $ha$ a!e inoled. O&! $e"1$a$ion is $o igno!e ce!$ain
in$e!es$s $ha$ !&n con$!a!y $o o&! o<n in$e!es$s, and e"1hasi8e $hose <i$h <hich <e hae ,een
iden$i%ied. Yo& canno$ lay do<n in adance %i=ed !&les as $o 9&s$ <ha$ sho&ld ,e done. Yo& can %ind
o&$ <ha$ a!e $he al&es inoled in $he ac$&al 1!o,le" and ac$ !a$ionally <i$h !e%e!ence $o $he".
Tha$ is <ha$ <e as7, and all <e as7, o% anyone. 0hen <e o,9ec$ $o a 1e!son>s cond&c$, <e say $ha$
he has %ailed $o !ecogni8e $he al&es, o! $ha$ in !ecogni8ing $he" he does no$ ac$ !a$ionally <i$h
!e%e!ence $o $he". Tha$ is $he only "e$hod $ha$ an e$hics can 1!esen$. Science canno$ 1ossi,ly $ell
<ha$ $he %ac$s a!e going $o ,e, ,&$ can gie a "e$hod %o! a11!oach; !ecogni8e all $he %ac$s $ha$
,elong $o $he 1!o,le", so $ha$ $he hy1o$hesis <ill ,e a consis$en$, !a$ional one. Yo& canno$ $ell a
1e!son <ha$ "&s$ ,e $he %o!" o% his ac$ any "o!e $han yo& can $ell a scien$is$ <ha$ his %ac$s a!e
going $o ,e. The "o!al ac$ "&s$ $a7e in$o acco&n$ all $he al&es inoled, and i$ "&s$ ,e !a$ional?$ha$
is all $ha$ can ,e said.
1#. The only !&le $ha$ an e$hics can 1!esen$ is $ha$ an indiid&al sho&ld !a$ionally deal <i$h all $he
al&es $ha$ a!e %o&nd in a s1eci%ic 1!o,le". Tha$ does no$ "ean $ha$ one has $o s1!ead ,e%o!e hi"
all $he social al&es <hen he a11!oaches a 1!o,le". The 1!o,le" i$sel% de%ines $he al&es. I$ is a
s1eci%ic 1!o,le" and $he!e a!e ce!$ain in$e!es$s $ha$ a!e de%ini$ely inoled@ $he indiid&al sho&ld
$a7e in$o acco&n$ all o% $hose in$e!es$s and $hen "a7e o&$ a 1lan o% ac$ion <hich <ill !a$ionally deal
<i$h $hose in$e!es$s. Tha$ is $he only "e$hod $ha$ e$hics can ,!ing $o $he indiid&al. I$ is o% $he
g!ea$es$ i"1o!$ance $ha$ one sho&ld de%ine <ha$ $hose in$e!es$s a!e in $he 1a!$ic&la! si$&a$ion. The
g!ea$ need is $ha$ one sho&ld ,e a,le $o !ega!d $he" i"1a!$ially. 0e %eel $ha$ 1e!sons a!e a1$ $o
$a7e <ha$ <e call a sel%ish a$$i$&de <i$h !e%e!ence $o $he". I hae 1oin$ed o&$ $ha$ $he "a$$e! o%
sel%ishness is $he se$$ing?&1 o% a na!!o< sel% oe! agains$ a la!ge! sel%. O&! socie$y is ,&il$ &1 o&$ o%
o&! social in$e!es$s, O&! social !ela$ions go $o cons$i$&$e $he sel%. B&$ <hen $he i""edia$e in$e!es$s
co"e in con%lic$ <i$h o$he!s <e had no$ !ecogni8ed, <e $end $o igno!e $he o$he!s and $a7e in$o
acco&n$ only $hose <hich a!e i""edia$e. The di%%ic&l$y is $o "a7e o&!seles !ecogni8e $he o$he! and
<ide! in$e!es$s, and $hen $o ,!ing $he" in$o so"e so!$ o% !a$ional !ela$ionshi1 <i$h $he "o!e
i""edia$e ones. The!e is !oo" %o! "is$a7es, ,&$ "is$a7es a!e no$ sins.
1'. A "an has $o 7ee1 his sel%?!es1ec$, and i$ "ay ,e $ha$ he has $o %ly in $he %ace o% $he <hole
co""&ni$y in 1!ese!ing $his sel%?!es1ec$. B&$ he does i$ %!o" $he 1oin$ o% ie< o% <ha$ he conside!s
a highe! and ,e$$e! socie$y $han $ha$ <hich e=is$s. Bo$h o% $hese a!e essen$ial $o "o!al cond&c$; $ha$
$he!e sho&ld ,e a social o!gani8a$ion and $ha$ $he indiid&al sho&ld "ain$ain hi"sel%. The "e$hod
%o! $a7ing in$o acco&n$ all o% $hose in$e!es$s <hich "a7e &1 socie$y on $he one hand and $he
indiid&al on $he o$he! is $he "e$hod o% "o!ali$y.
"ndnotes
1. IC%. -S&gges$ions $o<a!d a Theo!y o% $he Philoso1hical Disci1lines,- Philosophical "evie7,
IJ A1355B, 1 %%.@ -The Social Sel%,- Journal of Philosophy, J A131'B, '/) %% @ -The Social
Se$$le"en$; I$s Basis and F&nc$ion,- 'niversity of Chicago "ecord, JII A1352B, 152 %%. -The
Philoso1hical Basis o% E$hics,- International Journal of !thics, J4III A1352B, '11 %%.,
-Scien$i%ic Me$hod and $he Mo!al Sciences,- i,id., JJJIII A13?#'B, ##3 %%.@ -Philan$h!o1y %!o"
$he Poin$ o% 4ie< o% E$hics,- in Intelligent Philanthropy, ed. ,y Ells<o!$h Pa!is e$ al. A13'5B.K
#. IDe<ey and T&%$s, E$hics A1s$ ed.B, 1. #2).K
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