Data

Scientific Method Uncertainty

1. Observation * units (metrics)
2. Define the Problem * measuring
3. Test/E!eriment * sig. figs.
". #$!othesis * Data
%. &ollect Data/'ani!ulate 'ani!ulation
(. &onclusion
Accuracy vs. Precision
)ccurac$ * closeness of results to a stan+ar+
Precision * closeness of results to each other
*use same !iece of e,ui!ment to collect +ata*
Qualitative vs. Quantitative
-ualitative * more on !recision than accurac$
-uantitative * numbers count an+ are im!ortant
Sig. Figs.
)++ition an+ .ubtraction/
*least 0 !laces after +ecimal
'ulti!lication/
*!laces after +ecimal count as sig. figs.
2 . % cm 1 1 in
Vectors
2ectors (velocit$) * has 3OT# magnitude an+ direction
.calars (s!ee+) * has magnitude O456
*time7 mass7 volume
Metric System Abbr.
'm 8 9m 8 hm 8 +9m 8 m
+m 8 cm 8 mm 8 Mm(E8() 8 nm(E8:)
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Mult. om!onent Vecctors
1. 1;m +ue .
2. 22m7 "<+eg. . of =
3. 1> m7 <;+eg. 4 of =
". 3> m +ue E
*(=?E) .um of the
2@1 (>)A (822 cos"<)A(81> cos<;)A(3>) 112. :m
*(4?.) .um of the
2@1 (81;)A (822 sin"<)A(1> sin<;)A(>) 182". 3m
*Besultant C 1
((12. :)
2
A (2". 3)
2
)
1/2
12<. %m
* D 1 tan
81
(2". 3)
(12.:) 1 (2.>+eg
R= 28m, 62deg S of E
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"inematics
Dis!lacement
Ef A itFs )=)6
Ef * itFs TO=)BD
Velocity #m$s%
Gse O456 Hhen SPEED is CONSTANT
1. +oes not inclu+e acceleration
2. +oes not inclu+e starting an+ sto!!ing
in the same !lace

v & '
t
Acceleration #m$s$s%
*s!ee+ing u! or sloHing +oHn
a & v
t
"inematic Formulas
X Direction Y Direction
( & ( o ) a t * g t
' & ' o ) Vo t ) + a t
,
* + g t
,

' & ' o ) + #( ) ( o% t ******
(
,
& ( o
,
) , a # ' * ' o% * , g #
&hange ' (o) to 6(o)
Pro-ectial Motion
#alf
* 6 +etermines time in air
*com!liment angles of "%+eg have same range
I . . 6 .
' & V @ t . & + g t
,
T 1 '
2@
Jull
* "%+eg has ma. range
.te!s/
1. ( o cos D o / ( o sin D o
2. Jin+ the TE'E (chec9 6)
3. Jin+ the height / range
I . 6 .
' & V ' t t & , ( o .
(2 1 ( o cos D o) g
(2 o 1 ( o sin D o)
y ma/ & ( o
,


,g
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Force #0%
8 &auses a change in motion (causes acceleration)
8 Es a 2E&TOB ,uantit$
E,uilibrium * no acceleration 7 forces cancel 7 Kat restL
0e1ton2s 3a1s of Motion
1. )n obMect at rest Hill remain at rest until acte+
u!on b$ an outsi+e force
E4EBTE) * +irectl$ relate+ to mass
2. )cceleration is directl relate+ to !orce
indirectl relate+ to mass
F & m a #4 5g m $ s
,
& 4 0e1ton%
3. )ction 1 e,ual an+ o!!osite reaction
8canFt have onl$ one force
F a6 b & * F b6 a
4ormal Jorce
8 able to change until brea9ing !oint of
Hhatever itFs hol+ing
8 acts !er!en+icularl$ to Khol+ingL obMect
8 comes from groun+ (ece!t Hater)
0e1tons
4 0 & 7. ,,8 lbs. 'ass is constant
J1 ma 888888 JH 1 mg 4 9g (/ :. ;)
Ng 4 ( :. ;)
Friction #Ff%
1. tHo or more things must be touching
2. energ$ is transferre+ (heat7 soun+7 etc)
3. teture mattersO 4OT .GBJ)&E )BE)
P & coefficent of friction (Batio of
!arallel force to !er!. Jorce)
P 1 Jf (3 +ecimal !laces)
J4
Jf 1 P m g Jf 1 JH (on flat surface)
P 1 tan D (Hhen ( is constant)
Pressure/ P 1 Jorce/area
". o!!oses motion Hhich causes +ecelleration
%. static * Kstarting JfL not moving (rolling)
greater force than 9inetic
9inetic * moving (rolling7 sli+ing7 flui+)
9:uilibrium
Translational/ the sum of forces e,ual Qero
Botational/ the sum of tor,ues e,uals Qero
&om!lete/ must have 3OT#
enter of ;ravity / center of +istribution of mass
<or:ue
Jorce Hith leverage causes rotation
5everage/ +istance from fulcrum to force
*Directl$ relate+ to tor,ue
" 1 J (!er!.) l
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8
ircular Motion
'oving at a constant s!ee+ Hhile accelerating
) 1 v s!ee+/ constant
+n/ constantl$ changing
entri!etal Acceleration
EnHar+ see9ing )c 1 (
,
.

r
entri!etal Force
&auses centri!etal acceleration
Jc 1 m )c (J 1 m a)
Fc & m (
,
. #0%
r
6ou 'G.T have cent. J to 9ee! something
moving in a circle
&entrifugal/ bo+$Fs inter!retation of cent. J
DOE. 4OT EIE.T feels inertia
Botation/ s!inning on ais Hithin obMect
Bevolution/ s!inning on ais outsi+e of obMect
3inear $ Angular
5inear / s!eed & distance $ time ra+ius matters
%<. 3+eg 1 1 B)DE)4
1 rotation 1 2 R Ba+ians 1 3(> +egrees
)ngular/ s!eed & = rotations or revolutions $ time
ra+ius +oes 4OT matter
* b$ +oubling the angular s!ee+
$ou +ouble the 0 of rotations
5inear )ngular
@ (m) @ 1 r D D (B)D)
C (m/s) C 1 r # # (B)D / s)
a (m/s/s) a 1 r $ $ (B)D / s / s)
J (4) Jt 1 " " (4m)
'ass (m) E (mr)
J 1 m a " 1 E $
Jor linear # & # o ) $ t
.ee other corner D & D o ) # o t ) + $ t
,
D & D o ) + ## ) # o% t
#
,
& # o
,
) , $ #D * D o%
>otational ?nertia
Besistance to begin or sto! rotation
De!en+s on amount of mass )4D Hhere
it is !lace+
.oli+ .!here ,$8 mr
,
.oli+ Dis9 + mr
,
#olloH .!here ,$@ mr
,
#olloH Dis9 4 mr
,
2elocit$ is in+irectl$ relate+ to Enertia
.ha!e of obMect s!inning ma9es the
+ifference Hhile s!inning
3 Jorces acting u!on an obMect in circular motion
1. &entri!etal )cceleration ()c)
2. )ngular )cceleration ($)
3. 5inear )cceleration ( a )
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8
onservation 3a1s
Momentum # 0 s %
'oving inertia (4eHtonFs 2
n+
laH)
%omentum &S inertia'&nertia is NOT momentum
'omentum is DEBE&T56 relate+ to mass an+ s!ee+
! 1 m ( (4 s)
causes bo+$ to Hant to fl$ off tangent
?m!ulse
) change in momentum (hoH $ou feel ! change)
Jorce / J 1 m a J 1 m v
t
Time / * hi++en variable*
F t & m ( & !
onservation of Momentum
En the absence of an eternal force7 the total
momentum of a s$stem is constant
m4 (4 ) m, (, & m4 (4 ) m, (,
Aor5 # B %
* 4ee+ to a!!l$ force A & F d
* im!lies motion
Po1er # 1att ** 1 %
P 1 = . 1 (J +)
t t
S 1 1 H 1 4 m 1 1 9g m
,
s s s
,
1 horse !oHer 1 <"( H
9nergy
)bilit$ to +o Hor9
'echanical/ energ$ of motion or !osition
Ninetic (N) / motion
N 1 T m (
,
(S)
Potential (G) / !osition
G 1 m g h (S) (= 1 J +)
=hen not given +istanceO(or force)
= 1 T m (
,
*

T m (o
,
(= 1 K)

(N final) * (N initial)

onservation of 9nergy
Energ$ change from one to the other H/o an$ net loss
GTOP 1 N3OT (mgh 1 1/2mv
2
)
Aave Motion
Sim!le Carmonic Motion
) re!eating motion in Hhich the acceleration is
+irectl$ relate+ to the +is!lacement (+istance aHa$ from
the e,uilibrium) an+ alHa$s +irecte+ toHar+s
e,uilibrium.
f = 1/T
osine urves
. & A cosD #/ E % ) D
) 1 am!litu+e ( >) / hoH much energ$ it has
&os3 1 !erio+ ( 2 PEE / t) / time7 1 oscillation
& 1 horQ. .hift / human error
D 1 vert. .hift / +istance7 to 8ais
Aaves
* Ura!he+ .#'7 transfer of energ$
2ibration / =OBN to get energ$
Pro!agates / Hhat energ$ moves through
'echanical (light) Electromagnetic (soun+)
4ee+s a me+ium +oes 4OT nee+ a me+ium
'ore +ense * better less +ense * better
Mechanical Aaves
Transverse / me+ium vibrates !er!. to energ$
'ost common e. Uuitar string7 slin9$
5ongitu+inal / me+ium vibrates !ara. to energ$
#as com!ressions e/ soun+
.urface / both !ara. an+ !er!. to energ$
K!h$sics bobL e/ earth,ua9es7 Haves
Princi!le of Su!er!osition
&onstructive Enterference / a++e+
Deconstructive / subtracting (a++ing negatives)
2 1 V W 2 1 Vf
T
Standing Aave
) continuous Have train of e,ual am!litu+e (B)D)7
Havelength (m)7 an+ fre,u. (#Q) (/sec) in the same
me+ium creating no+es an+ antino+es.
3oun+ar$ / change in me+ium
(!art of energ$ gets reflecte+7 !art gets absorbe+)
rigi+it$ / hoH much energ$ gets )3.OB3ED
close rigi+it$ more absorbe+
+ifferent rigi+it$ more reflecte+
?nterference in Diffraction
&rest A crest 1 antino+e &rest A tro!h 1 no+e
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8
Sound
) range of longitu+inal Have fre,u. to Hhich the
human ear is sensitive
Enfra sonic sonic s!ectrum ultra sonic
(beloH 2> #Q. ) (2> #Q * 2>7>>> #Q) (2>7>>> #Q A)
1. !ro+uction / nee+s vibration
2. transition / nee+s a me+ium air
3. rece!tion / must be hear+
V sound = @F7 m$s
V sound & @@4 ) . G #<em!.%
?ntensity / measurable
#oH lou+ a soun+ is * the time of floH of energ$
!er unit area
? & Po1 . # P & A %
Am! t
&ntensit is DEBE&T56 relate+ to am(litude
Dam!ing / further $ou get from the center ,uieter
it Hill be
Enverse .,uare 5aH / ?4 r4
,
& ?, r,
,
Volume ())/ subMective #decibels%
Belative Entensit$ 5evel lou+ness level
2olume is DEBE&T56 relate+ to &ntensit
2olume is DEBE&T56 relate+ to !re*uenc
f stan+ar+ 1 17>>> #Q.
Entensit$ Bange
Threshol+ of hearing (Eo) 1 1 1>
812
H / m
2

Threshol+ of soun+ 1 1 H / m
2
& 47 log # ? %
4 / 47
*4,
1 $ m
,

L#oH man$ !oHers of 1> are in that numberXL
Decibel 1 1 $ m
, .


1 $ m
,
Pitch and <one
E volume f !itch
4otes an+ tones / !itch Hith recogniQable fre,uencies
5aHs of Pitch/
1. f is E4DEBE&T56 relate+ to lengt+
2. f is D?>9<3. relate+ to tension (Jt)
3. f is E4DEBE&T56 relate+ to diameter (+)
". f is E4DEBE&T56 relate+ to densit (D)
3eats / the resultant interference !attern of 2 notes
close in fre,uenc$ but not eact
&reat no+es (shar!s an+ flats)
Do!!ler Effect / the a!!arent change in fre,uenc$ of
a soun+ +ue to the relative motion of either the observer
or the source of both
Besonate / Hhen $ou cause something to vibrate at
its natural fre,uenc$
'usic re!eating Have !attern
4oise no re!eating Have !attern
&onsonance soun+s UOOD
Dissonance soun+s 3)D
Decibel/
E 3 .
1 1>
*12
> +b

1 1>
*11
1> +b
1 1>
*1>
2> +b
8 8 8 8 8 8
1 1>
*2
1>> +b
1 1>
*1
11> +b
1 12> +b
0atural Fre:uencies l 1 1<> / #Q
3rass/.tring n name s$nm Havl (V) l f
f fun+. 1
st
har. 2 l T V v/2l
f 2 1
st
ov. 2
n+
har. l V v / l
f 3 2
n+
ov. 3
r+
har. 2/3l 3/2 V 3v/2l
f " 3
r+
ov. "
th
har. 1/2l 2 V 2v/ l
fn& n ( hn & , l fn & 0f1
, l n
=oo+Hin+ n name s$nm Havl (V) l f
f fun+. 1
st
har. " l 1/" V v/"l
f 2 888888 8888888 88888 88888 8888
f 3 1
st
ov. 2
r+
har. "/3l 3/" V 3v/"l
f " 888888 8888888 88888 88888 8888
f % 2
n+
ov. 3
r+
har. "/%l %/" V %v/"l
f n & n ( hn & F l
F l n
?nstruments
.tring
Pro+uce+ b$/ !luc9ing string7 boHing
&hange !itch / length7 +iameter7 tension7 +ensit$
3rass
Pro+uce b$ / buQQing mouth !iece
&hange !itch / length of !i!e (valves)7 buQQing
=oo+Hin+
Pro+uce+ b$ / ree+ vibrating
&hange !itch / !a+s7 holes
E+ge tones/ narroH streams of air s!lit b$ e+ge
#elmholtQ Besonance/ e+ge tone Hith bottle (o!en
hole)
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3ight
Particle =ave
A 4eHton sai+ so A Thomas 6oung * 2 slit e
A 3eams / =aves A reflection7 refraction7
A travel in straight lines +iffraction7 interference
A#ertQ * light is energ$
A Einstein * Have !article +ualit$
PolariQe+ 5ight/ 5ight oriente+ to one !lane (calc.)
5i,ui+ Jilter Dis!la$ / lets onl$ one +egree of light in
2isible .!ectrum /
Ba+io * 'icro * Enfrare+ * Gltraviolet * Ira$s* Uamma
3ig Havelength .mall Havelength
Be+ Orange 6elloH Ureen 3lue En+igo 2iolet
Trans!arent/ see through it an+ light !asses
(=in+oHs7 glass)
Translucent/ can 4OT see through it7 light !asses
(froste+ glass)
O!a,ue / can 4OT see through it7 4O light !asses
.ource/ ma9es an+ emits light
5uminous/ sun
5uminate/ moon
5ight 6ear/ ta9es ;. 3 min. to get light from sun
Dis!ersion/ brea9ing u! light into colors (!rism)
olors
&ones in e$e !ic9 u! 3 !rimar$ colors of light
Additi,e
Primar$ .econ+ar$
35GE 6E55O=
BED &6)4
UBEE4 ')UE4T)
* 'ore than one light source
* 3righter colors
Su-tracti,e
Primar$ .econ+ar$
6E55O= 35GE
&6)4 BED
')UE4T) UBEE4
* onl$ one light source
* +ar9er colors
Shades of olors
#ue/ !ro!ortion of color
.aturation / amount of Hhite mie+ Hith color
3rightness / amount of blac9 mie+ Hith color
>eflection
.mooth / D i 1 D r
Diffuse / Kscatters lightL obe$s laHs still
>efraction
En+e of Befraction n & @ / 47
H

v
(s!ee+ in Hhatever me+ium)
)ir / 1. >> =ater / 1. 33 Ulass / 1. %2
Snell2s 3a1
* n is E4DEBE&T56 relate+ to D
* n is E4DEBE&T56 relate+ to s!ee+
* ( is DEBE&T56 relate+ to D
n4 sin D 4 & n, sin D ,

3asers
&ritical angle (D c)/ the D E that !ro+uces the angle that
is larger than Dc .
Total Enternal Beflection/ no refraction
I!tics
Beflection/ mirrors
Befraction / lenses
Mirrors
&oncave / converging an+ u!si+e +oHn after foc. !t
&onve / +iverging7 u!right an+ smaller
'agnification / M & hi . 'Y1 1 big
ho 'Z1 1 small
hi & ho di f & do di do & di f di & do f
do do ) di di * f do * f

3enses
&oncave / corrects nearsig+tedness +iverging
&onve / corrects farsig+tedness converging
&f ou +a,e t+is Do t+is To get t+is
0 J .,,8 lb.
lb. K .,,8 0
0 K L.H "g
"g J L.H 0
lb. J .F8F "g
"g K .F8F lb.
?ncline ;ra!hs