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\begin{document}
\author{Milan Kunz}
\title{Maticov� kombinatorika a algebra}
\maketitle
\tableofcontents
\listoffigures
\listoftables
\pagenumbering{arabic}
\newpage
\pagenumbering{Roman}
\setcounter{page}{5}
\chapter*{P�edmluva}
Zn�me v�ak pouze jeden sv�t, ve kter�m �ijeme, pouze jednu fyziku, jednu chemii,
jednu biologii. Tak� by m�la existovat pouze jedna matematika.
Algebra je velmi abstraktn� v�da, vyjma sv� jedn� v�tve, line�rn� algebry. Studuj�
se operace s vektory maticemi. A na t�chto pojmech je zalo�ena podstata knihy.
jak ji definoval Boltzmann \cite{2} a Shannon \cite{3}, jsou dv� odli�n� funkce ze
dvou polynomick�ch koeficient�, v protikladu k obecn� p�ijat�m n�zor�m principu
negentropie.
M�l jsem tenkr�t pocit jako kadet Biegler \cite{4}. Vzpome�te na jeho zoufal�
v�k�ik: ``Jesusmarja, Herr Major, es stimmt nicht!''. Star�� d�stojn�ci klidn�
naslouchali p�edn�ce o k�dov�n�, av�ak dan� p��klad ned�val smysl, proto�e m�li po
ruce jin� svazek, ne� p�edpisovaly instrukce. Jm�no knihy bylo "S\"unde der
V\"ater". Podobn� jako ve �vejkovi si mysl�m, �e kniha se m� ��st od sv�ho prv�ho
svazku.
Pokud by tato kniha byla naps�na p�ed sto l�ty, mohla by zachr�nit jeden lidsk�
�ivot, pokud by byla publikov�na pades�ti roky, mohla by zabr�nit myln�
interpretaci teorie informace.
\begin{itemize}
\item ``v�klady matic mi ned�valy ��dn� smysl ''
jako vektor sloupec ve form� matice. Nazval jsem matice maj�c� v ka�d� ��dce
pr�v� jeden jednotkov� symbol "naivn�". Jin� vhodn� n�zvy, jako primitivn�,
element�rn� u� byly obsazeny. Matice z�skan� permutacemi nal�zaj�c� skal�rn�
sou�iny naivn� matice s jednotkov�mi vektory, se se�tou a v�sledky se zobraz� v
tabulkov� form�. V�sledn� tabulky kombinatorick�ch funkc� maj� formu matice a lze
na nich prov�d�t maticov� operace, jako je n�soben�, transpozice a inverze.
Aplikace maticov� operace byla obvykl� v kombinatorice jako Kroneckerova funkce
$\delta_{ij}$, kter� je implicitn� aplikac� inverzn� matice.
Rozd�ly sou�tu dvou naivn�ch matic jsou studov�ny v druh� ��sti knihy. Jsou zn�m�
jako grafy.
Tato kniha je element�rn�. Pouze v�jime�n� jsou uvedeny v�sledky vy��� matematik,
potom bez d�kaz�. Nicm�n� si nemysl�m, �e je to snadn� kniha. Ukazuje, jak slo�it�
sv�t je, �e v�echno je spojen� s v��m. Pokou��m se vysv�tlit n�kter� ��sti
kombinatoriky a maticov� algebry nekonven�n�m zp�sobem.
D��ve ne� za�neme, ud�lejme pozn�mku o ��seln�ch syst�mech. Ka�d� zn� decim�ln�:
s��t�n�
\begin{center}
$111 + 11 = 11\ 111$
\end{center}
ode��t�n�
\begin{center}
$111 - 11 = 1$
\end{center}
\begin{center}
\begin{tabbing}
\= \qquad 11 $\times$ 111 = \= 111 \\
a d�len�
\begin{center}
\begin{tabbing}
\= \qquad 111\, 111 $\div$ 11 = 11 \= 11\ 11 \vline \ 1\\
\> \> 11 \= 11 \vline \ 1\\
\> \> \> 11 \vline \ 1 = 111
\end{tabbing}
\end{center}
Zm�nil jsem knihy Riordana \cite{9}, kter� byly d�le�it� pro kombinatoriku.
Podobn� by se m�ly zm�nit knihy Hararyho pro grafy \cite{10,11} kniha
Cvetkovi$\breve c$e, Dooba a Sachse \cite{12} pro vlastn� hodnoty matice
sousedstv�. N�kter� ��sti t�to knihy jsou kompilov�ny z �asopiseck�ch �l�nk�. Chci
vyj�d�it sv�j vd�k zejm�na �len�m Z�h�ebsk� skupiny za mnoh� reprinty.
\pagenumbering{arabic}
\chapter{Euklidovsk�, Hilbert�v a f�zov� prostor}
\label{Euklidovsk�}
\section{P�edb�n� pozn�mky}
\label{Preliminary}
Knihy existuj� bez jak�hokoliv pohybu, av�ak kdy� je �teme, pot�ebujeme �as pro
p�enos jejich symbol� do na�eho mozku, abychom si zapamatovali podstatn� fakta a
my�lenky, k p�eps�n� knihy do na�eho mozku. Sv�t je slovo, a to velmi dlouh�
slovo, v ciz�m jazyku. Mus�me se u�it, jak mu porozum�t.
Existuje jeden podstatn� rozd�l mezi knihou a na��m sv�tem. Sv�t se pohybuje. Jako
kdyby se sama kniha neust�le p�episovala. N�kter� ��sti se n�m zdaj� b�t
stabiln�, av�ak n�kde prob�haj� neust�le neviditeln� zm�ny. Sv�t je v okam�iku a
kniha A a v p��t�m okam�iku b kniha B. V�echny mo�n� stavy sv�ta tvo�� knihovnu.
T�i rozm�ry prostoru nejsou ekvivalentn�. Pohyb vp�ed je snadn�, vzad ne�ikovn�,
Pohyby vlevo nebo vpravo, jako krabi, nejsou norm�ln�, nahoru a dol� se m�eme
pohybovat pouze v kr�tk�ch skoc�ch (dlouh� p�dy dol� kon�� nebezpe�n�). V knih�ch
o�i mus� sk�kat na p��t� ��dky, strany se mus� obracet, nov� svazky otev�rat.
Zvy�uj�c� se �sil� je pot�ebn� v ka�d�m nov�m kroku.
N� sv�t se zd� b�t omezen t�mito t�emi rozm�ry. Nejsme schopni nal�zt �tvrt�
geometrick� rozm�r, kter� by byl ortogon�ln� k prv�m t�em. To je zdrojem mnoha
pot�� a nedorozum�n�. Matematikov� pokuste si se jim vyhnout skr�vaj�ce decentn�
na�i neschopnost jako ostudu.
$$\begin{array}{ccc}
R &\vline & R \\
& \vline & \\
\hline
& \vline & \\
R & \vline & R
\end{array}$$
T�et� p��mka v rovin� mus� b�t bu� paraleln� k jedn� z nich, potom k��� jinou,
nebo k��� ob�, potom tvo�� troj�heln�k, vyjma p��mky proch�zej�c� k��en�m prv�ch
dvou p��mek.
\begin{figure}
\caption{Pythagorova v�ta. $a^2\ +\ b^2\ = \ c^2$}
\label{Pythagorean}
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Podobn� jako nejsme schopni nal�zt �tvrt� rozm�r, nejsme ani schopni rozhodnout,
zda mno�ina ��sel neodpov�d� mno�in� ortogon�ln�ch p��mek, jejich� d�lky
odpov�daj� dan�m ��sl�m. Kresleme postupn� pravo�hl� troj�heln�ky jako na
obr.\ref{Consecutive}
\begin{figure}
\caption{Postupn� Pythagorovo s��t�n�. Nov� vektory se p�i��taj� jako ortogon�ln�
k sou�tu p�edchoz�ch}
\label{Consecutive}
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\end{figure}
\begin{equation}
L^2\ = \ \sum m^2_j
\end{equation}
\label{sou�tu}
kde $m^2_j$ zastupuje $n$ rozd�ln�ch odv�sen a $L^2$ je �tverec d�lky v�ech $n$
odv�sen. M�eme oto�it postupn� ka�d� vektor roviny takov�m zp�sobem, �e tvo��
pravo�hl� troj�heln�k se sou�tem v�ech ostatn�ch $(n - 1)$ vektor�, av�ak nesm�me
uva�ovat sou�asn� v�ce p��mek nebo� zjist�me, �e nejsou ortogon�ln�, jak jasn�
vid�me na obr.\ref{Consecutive}, kde byla nakreslena s�rie pravo�hl�ch
troj�heln�k�.
Pokud bychom m�li k dispozici v�ce rozm�r�, mohli bychom rozlo�it takov� sou�ty do
n ortogon�ln�ch sm�r�.
Sou�et $n$ �tverc� s hodnotami stran (d�lkami) $m^2_j$ se m�e op�t rozlo�it do
Pythagorova troj�heln�ku, jeho� �tverce stran a, b, c jsou postupn�
\begin{equation}
a^2 = n\overline{m}
\end{equation}
\begin{equation}
b^2 = \sum m^2 - n\overline{m}
\end{equation}
\begin{equation}
c^2 = \sum m^2_j,
\end{equation}\.
\label{mean}
\begin{equation}
\overline{m} = \sum m_j/n.
\end{equation}
\label{bar}
P��mkovou d�lkou strany je jej� odmocnina. Zde se odmocnina $n$ objevuje pon�kud
p�ekvapiv�, av�ak je to d�lka diagon�ly $n$ rozm�rn� krychle. Podobn� t�et� stranu
troj�heln�ku (1.3) se m�e normalizovat jej�m d�len�m s $n$. Potom dostaneme
hodnotu $\sigma^2$ zn�mou jako {\em disperze}
\begin{equation}
\sigma^2 = 1/n\sum (m^2_j - n\overline{m}^2).
\end{equation}
\label{standard}
P�i po��t�n� pr�m�ru a standardn� odchylky nepot�ebujeme zn�t sm�ry obou odv�sen,
proto�e jsou ur�eny automaticky sv�mi d�lkami, jako kdy� se troj�heln�k
konstruuje ze zn�m�ch d�lek sv�ch t�� stran. Nakresl�me dv� kru�nice s pr�m�ry $a$
a $b$ na obou konc�ch strany $c$. Kde se kru�nice k���, le�� t�et� vrchol. Sm�r
v�ech stran v mnohorozm�rn�m prostoru je pro n�s zcela abstraktn�.
\section{Euklidovsk� prostor}
\label{Euklidovsk�ho prostor}
P�t� postul�t je nadbyte�n�. Z toho plyne p��mo z aplikace prvn�ch �ty� postul�t�
v n�sleduj�c� konstrukci.
Vezmeme �tverec ABCD. V�echny jeho prav� �hly jsou podle 4. postul�tu prav�,
v�echny jeho strany jsou p��mky. P�id�me k tomuto �tverci ABCD nov� �tverec CDEF
a vyrovn�me strany AE a BF podle 2. postul�tu. Ke z�skan�mu obd�ln�ku ABEF
p�id�me nov� �tverec EFGH, op�t vyrovn�me strany AG a BH podle 2. postul�tu.
Takov�m zp�sobem budeme pokra�ovat s p�id�v�n�m �tverc� do nekone�na, p��padn� na
jin� krat�� stran� obd�ln�ka.
Prostory s $m$ objekty jsou zn�m� ve fyzice jak f�zov� prostory\footnote {Po�et
objekt� je zde dan� jako $n$. Aby se zamezilo z�m�n� s $n$ rozm�ry, pou�ijeme
symbol $m$.}. F�zov� prostory maj� podivnou vlastnost, �e n�kter� z nich m�eme
vn�mat p��mo. V�eobecn� zn�m�m p��kladem je teplota a rychlost v�tru v soustav�
molekul vzduchu. Tyto pojmy, kter� v�ichni zn�me z vlastn� zku�enosti, odpov�daj�
matematick�m pojm�m. Ka�d� molekula m� p�i teplot� okol� pr�m�rnou rychlost
n�kolika set metr� za sekundu. N�razy nepatrn�ch molekul na st�ny n�doby
vyvol�vaj� tlak. Chaotick� kolize molekul pohybuj�c�ch se v rozd�ln�ch sm�rech
vedou k st�l�mu rozd�len� rychlost� ��stic. Tyto rychlosti se rozlo�� do dvou
slo�ek. Jedna slo�ka je tvo�ena ��st� pohybu, kterou maj� spole�nou v�echny
��stice v dan�m objemu. Tuto slo�ku, matematicky aritmetick� pr�m�r, obvykle
velkou pouze n�kolik metr� za sekundu, ve srovn�n� se shora zm�n�n�mi sty metry za
sekundu u jednotliv�ch molekul, c�t�me, kdy� jsme uvnit� soustavy jako jej�
sou��st, jako v�tr, co� je fyzik�ln� vlastnost syst�mu molekul. Jinou slo�kou je
disperze z pr�m�rn� vektorov� rychlosti. Je zn�m� jako tepeln� pohyb molekul,
teplota.
Uk�eme, �e v�echny f�zov� prostory jsou {\em isomorfn�}. N�kter� jejich vlastnosti
nez�vis� na rozm�rnosti $n$ prostoru, ve kter�m je ulo�en soustava $m$ entit,
av�ak jsou uveden� pouze po�tem entit.
Nyn� zavedeme speci�ln� m�sto v $n$ rozm�rn�m prostoru, od kter�ho budeme m��it
v�echny translace. Tento bod budeme naz�vat {\em st�ed soustavy koordin�t}. Potom
definujeme $n$ bod� na kouli (kruhu) se st�edem ve st�edu soustavy koordin�t.
P�ijmeme r�dius koule jako jednotkovou d�lku. M�eme si p�edstavit, �e body na
kouli jsou p�enesen� st�edy soustavy koordin�t a budeme naz�vat ka�d� vektor
spojuj�c� st�ed soustavy koordin�t s definovan�mi $n$ body na kouli {\em
jednotkov� vektor} ${\bf e}_j$. Notac� jednotkov�ho vektoru ${\bf e}_j$ je ��dka v
kulat�ch z�vork�ch s $n$ prvky. Ve fyzice symboly se �ipkami se pou��vaj� jako
$\vec \j$. $(n - 1)$ prvk� vektoru ${\bf e}_j$ jsou nuly a je pouze jeden
jednotkov� prvek na j-t�m m�st�
\begin{equation}
{\bf e}_j = (0_1, 0_2,\dots, 1_j, \dots, 0_n).
\end{equation}
\label{jednotkov�}
\begin{itemize}
\item {strana $ = 4.4$ cm}
\item {strana $b = 3.9$ cm}
\item {strana $c = 0.4$ cm}
\begin{itemize}
\item {objem = $4.4 \times 3.9 \times 0.4 = 6.864$.}
\end{itemize}
\end{itemize}
Jinou mo�nost� je
\begin{itemize}
\item {strana $ = 2.2 \times$ vektor ${\bf a}$ = 2 cm}
\item {strana $b = 1.3 \times$ vektor ${\bf b}$ = 3 cm}
\item {strana $c = 0.4 \times$ vektor ${\bf c}$ = 1 cm}
\begin{itemize}
\item {objem $= 2.2 \times 1.3 \times 0.4 = 1.144$}
\item {objem rovnob�n�ka = $2 \times 3 \times 1 = 6$}
\item {celkov� objem $ 1.144 \times 6 = 6.864$}.
\end{itemize}
\end{itemize}
Vektory, kter� za��naj� v jin�ch bodech prostoru jsou srovn�v�ny s t�mito vzorky
vektor� ${\bf e}_j$ za��naj�c�mi ve st�edu. Jsou pova�ovan� za {\em identick�} s
jednotkov�mi vektory ${\bf e}_j$, pokud jsou {\em koline�rn�}. Ov�em tyto vektory
mohou b�t krat�� nebo del��, mohou m�t opa�n� sm�ry, av�ak takov� rozd�ly budou
napraveny algebraick�mi prost�edky pozd�ji.
Jak se mohou dva vektory se��tat? P�edpokl�dejme, �e st�ed ${\bf 0}$ byl nejprve
p�enesen do bodu $a$ vektorem ${\bf e}_a$ potom do bodu s koordin�tami $ab$
translac� ${\bf e}_b$.
Existuj� jin� mo�nosti jak dos�hnout stejn� bod. M�eme nejprve prov�st translaci $
{\bf e}_b$ potom translaci ${\bf e}_a$. V u�ebnic�ch algebry m�ete nal�zt, �e
sumace je {\em komutativn�} operace. Toto slovo znamen�, �e v�sledek operace nen�
z�visl� na po�ad� �len� v operaci. Je pravda, �e kone�n� poloha v prostoru
neobsahuje informaci o zp�sobu, jak tato poloha byla dosa�ena. Av�ak zde existuje
je�t� jin� mo�nost, jak se vektory mohou se��tat: Oba vektory a sou�asn� bod se
posunuje p��mo ve sm�ru mezi ob�ma, jako p�i ta�en� auta dv�ma lany jako na
obr.\ref{Vektorov� akce}
\begin{figure}
\caption{Vektorov� akce. Postupn� akce A a B a simult�nn� akce S dvou vektor� $
{\bf a}$ a ${\bf b}$ vedou k stejn� kone�n� poloze R}
\label{Vektorov� akce}
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\end{figure}
\section{Matice}
%\addcontentsline{kc}{section}{Matice}
\label{Matice}
Pot�ebujeme tedy t�i mo�nosti, jak ps�t sou�et dvou vektor�. Mus�me m�t mo�nost
ps�t je jako postupn� p�sob�c� vektory nebo jako sou�asn� p�sob�c� vektory.
Sou�asn� p�sob�c� jednotkov� vektory se mohou snadno zapsat jako sou�et dvou
jednotkov�ch vektor� v jedn� ��dce. Pravidlo je jednoduch�, prvky se p�i��taj� na
sv�ch m�stech:
\begin{center}
(1, 0, 0) + (0, 1, 0) = (1, 1, 0).
\end{center}
V t�to notaci m�me celkem $n$ sou�asn� p�sob�c�ch vektor� v ��dce. Tedy mus�me
ps�t n�sledn� vektory v takov�m sou�tu jak sloupec ��dkov�ch vektor�. Dostaneme
dva rozd�ln� sloupce pro na�e p��klady
$$\begin{array}{ccc}
\left(
\begin{array}{ccc}
(1, & 0, & 0) \\
(0, & 1, & 0)
\end{array}
\right)
& \qquad &
\left(
\begin{array}{ccc}
(0, & 1, & 0) \\
(1, & 0, & 0)
\end{array}
\right)\;.
\end{array}$$
Takov� sloupce $m$ vektor-��dk� maj�c� v ka�d� ��dce $n$ prvk� jsou zn�m� jako
{\em matice}. ��dkov� z�vorky a ��rky jsou z matice vymaz�ny. V�imn�te si, �e v
matici jsou prvky uspo��d�ny do sloupc� podobn� jak do ��dk�. Je tedy mo�n� pou��t
konvenci, �e matice je tvo�ena $n$ n�sledn�mi $m$ rozm�rn�mi vektor-sloupci.
Pon�vad� m�me zaveden� pro jednotliv� sloupce doln� index $j$ jdouc� od 1 k $n$,
m�eme pou��t pro ��dky matice index $i$ jdouc� od 1 k $m$. Vzpome�te se, �e index
$i$ je p��tomn� v textech implicitn�, jako p�irozen� po��dek n�sledn�ch symbol�.
To nemus� b�t vyj�d�en� explicitn�.
N�kdy je v�hodn� nechat oba indexy vych�zet od nuly. Potom jdou a� $(m -1)$ nebo
a� $(n -1)$. Lze nal�zt jeden maticov� index napsan� jako doln� a druh� jako
horn�. Av�ak je lep�� rezervovat horn� index pro mocniny. Kdy� po sob� n�sleduj�
dva stejn� symboly, nap��klad ${\bf aa}$, p�ou se kr�tce jako ${\bf a}^2$. Kdy� to
d�l�me, zpracov�v�me n�sledn� vektory jakoby se n�sobily. N�soben� je {\em
nekomutativn�} operace. V�sledek z�vis� na po�ad� �len� v operaci. Nebudeme
pou��vat jak�koliv symbol pro n�soben� vektor� nebo matic.
M�me v na�ich p��kladech mal� kulat� z�vorky ve v�ech ��dc�ch matice uvnit�
v�t��ch z�vorek pou��van�ch pro matice. Matice se tak� ohrani�uj� dvojit�mi
svislicemi nebo jsou naps�n do r�me�ku. Budeme je ps�t n�kdy bez jak�chkoliv
ohrani�en�, av�ak kdy� se dot�kaj�, odd�l�me je jednoduchou �arou.
$$\begin{array}{ccccc}
\left(
\begin{array}{cc}
0 & 0 \\
1 & 1
\end{array}
\right) & \qquad &
\left(
\begin{array}{cc}
1 & 1 \\
0 & 0
\end{array}
\right) & \qquad &
\left(
\begin{array}{cc}
1 & 0 \\
1 & 0
\end{array}
\right)
\end{array}\;.$$
Matice s pr�zdn�mi ��dky jsou mo�n� nadbyte�n�, pon�vad� ��dn� akce neodpov�d�
dan� ��dce, av�ak v�imn�te si, �e t�et� matice m�e b�t z�skan� z druh� oto�en�m
prvk� okolo hlavn� diagon�ly, nebo z�m�nou ��dkov�ch $i$ a sloupcov�ch $j$ index�.
Matice ${\bf M}$ jsou transponovan� matice ${\bf M}^{\rm T}$. Matice s dv�ma
identick�mi jednotkov�mi vektory v n�sledn�ch ��dc�ch se mohou interpretovat jako
dv� n�sledn� translace jdouc� stejn�m sm�rem. V�sledn� poloha v prostoru m�e b�t
z�ejm� popsan� vektorem $(2, 0)$. Av�ak pokud se pokou��me interpretovat tento
vektor s jin�mi ��sly ne� 0 a 1, maje na v�dom� na�i konvenci, �e vektory v ��dce
jsou simult�nn�, m�me pot�e s interpretaci t�chto prvk�. M�eme si p�edstavit, �e
translace vy�aduje v�t�� s�lu, aby se provedla, a �e m� dvojitou intenzitu jak v
hudb� forte. Abychom byli konsistentn�, nem�eme interpretovat jin� prvky matice,
ne� 0 a 1 jednodu�e jako d�lky vektoru, pokud nezavedeme takov� vektory n�jak�mi
algebraick�mi operacemi, kter� u�in� takov� multivektory dovolen�mi prvky v na�em
prostoru.
\begin{figure}
\caption{Tv�� v 8 rozm�rn�m prostoru. Konce jednotliv�ch vektor� jsou spojen� s
jejich sousedy p��mkami}
\label{Face}
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\end{figure}
Kdy� m�me dva vektory ${\bf a}$, ${\bf b}$, m�eme nal�zt vz�jemn� projekce obou
vektor� jako na obr. \ref{Skal�rn� sou�iny}.
\begin{figure}
\caption{Skal�rn� sou�iny. Oba vektory se vz�jemn� prom�taj�}
\label{Skal�rn� sou�iny}
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\end{figure}
Projekce jsou zn�m� jako {\em skal�rn� sou�iny}. Pokud oba vektory jsou
ortogon�ln�, skal�rn� sou�in je ${\bf 0}$, pokud jsou koline�rn�, skal�rn� sou�in
je po normalizaci 1. Nenormalizovan� skal�rn� sou�in vektoru se sebou sam�m je
zn�m� jako {\em kvadratick� forma}. {\em Normalizace} znamen�, �e skal�rn� sou�in
se srovn�v� s jednotkovou d�lkou prom�tnut�ho vektoru. Skal�rn� sou�in se zd�
tedy b�t pr�v� kosinem �hlu mezi ob�ma vektory. Av�ak nen� tomu tak jednoduch�,
jak se to zd� b�t.
Slovo sou�in je spojen� s operac� {\em n�soben�}. Jak se n�sob� dva vektory?
Vezm�te vektor sloupec ${\bf v}$ a n�sobte jej vektorem ��dkou ${\bf v}^{\rm T}$.
Ka�d� prvek $j$ sloupce se n�sob� odpov�daj�c�m prvkem $i$ ��dky a sou�iny se
se��taj� do jednoho ��sla. Nap��klad: $(1, 1, 1) \times (3, 1, 0)^{\rm T}$ je
naps�n ve form�
$$\begin{array}{rrr|r}
& & & 3 \\
& & & 1 \\
& & & 0 \\
\hline
& & & \\
1 & 1 & 1 & 4
\end{array}$$
$$\begin{tabular}{cr}
(1, 1, 1) & $\times$ \\
(3, 1, 0) & \\
\hline
& \\
(3, 1, 0) & = 4
\end{tabular}$$
$$\begin{array}{rrr|r}
& & & 1 \\
& & & 1 \\
& & & 1 \\
\hline
& & & \\
3 & 1 & 0 & 4
\end{array}$$
Pokud vektor se v�� s�m sebou, dostaneme jeho {\em kvadratickou formu}
$$\begin{array}{ccc}
\begin{array}{rrr|r}
& & & 1 \\
& & & 1 \\
& & & 1 \\
\hline
& & & \\
1 & 1 & 1 & 3
\end{array}
& {\rm a} &
\begin{array}{rrr|r}
& & & 3 \\
& & & 1 \\
& & & 0 \\
\hline
& & & \\
3 & 1 & 0 & 10
\end{array}
\end{array}$$
Ve skal�rn�ch sou�inech ze dvou $n$ ($m$) rozm�rn�ch vektor� jsme z�skali jen
jedno ��slo. N�soben� sn�ilo rozm�rnost, dostali jsme jen jedno ��slo (skal�rn�)
ur�uj�c� d�lku prv�ho vektoru. Tedy sou�in vektoru ��dky n�soben� vektorem sloupem
zprava (p�irozen� po��dek obou vektor�, vektor sloupec n�sobil vektor ��dku zleva)
se naz�v� {\em vnit�n� sou�in}. Existuje tak� {\em vn�j�� sou�in}. Ten se z�sk�,
kdy� zam�n�me polohy obou vektor� a n�sob�me vektor sloupec vektorem ��dkou
zprava:
$$\begin{array}{ccc}
\begin{array}{r|rrr}
& 1 & 1 & 1 \\
\hline
& & & \\
1 & 1 & 1 & 1 \\
1 & 1 & 1 & 1 \\
1 & 1 & 1 & 1 \\
\end{array}
& \qquad &
\begin{array}{r|rrr}
& 3 & 1 & 0 \\
\hline
& & & \\
3 & 9 & 1 & 0 \\
1 & 3 & 1 & 0 \\
0 & 0 & 0 & 0 \\
\end{array}
\end{array}$$
Zde t�i jednorozm�rn� vektory sloupce p�sobily na t�i jedno rozm�rn� vektory
��dky. Cel� vektor sloupec by v�en v�emi prvky vektoru sloupce a jako v�sledek
byla z�skan� matice rozm�ru $3 \times 3$. M�sto dvou ��sel jsme dostali dv�
matice, ka�dou maj�c� 9 maticov�ch prvk�. Vn�j�� sou�in matice se naz�v� {\em
tenzor}. V�imn�te si, �e prvky obou vnit�n�ch sou�in� se objevily jako diagon�ln�
prvky vn�j��ch sou�in�. Jejich sou�ty, zn�m� jako {\em stopa matice}, jsou
identick� s kone�nou formou vnit�n�ho sou�inu.
\begin{equation}
\mbox{\rm vektor-��dka} \times {\bf M} = \mbox{\rm vektor-��dka}
\end{equation}
\begin{equation}
{\bf M} \times \mbox{\rm vektor-sloupec} = \mbox{\rm vektor-sloupec}.
\end{equation}
Pokud oba vektory jsou matice, n�soben� se mus� prov�st pro v�echny kombinace
��dk� a sloupc�. Sou�inem je op�t matice. V p��pad� �tverce maticov�ch vektor�,
oba sou�iny maj� identick� rozm�ry a odli�nost mezi vnit�n�m a vn�j��m prostorem
je ztracena.
Kvadratick� forma ${\bf J}^{\rm T}{\bf J}$ po��t� prvky jednotkov�ho vektoru $\bf
{J}$. Je sou�asn� oper�torem
\begin{equation}
{\bf J}^{\rm T}(*){\bf J}.
\label{product1}
\end{equation}
\begin{equation}
{\bf J}^{\rm T}({\bf M}){\bf J}\,
\label{product2}
\end{equation}
dostaneme sou�et prvk� matice ${\bf M}$. ${\bf J}^{\rm T} {\bf M}$ je $n$ rozm�rn�
vektor ��dka a ${\bf MJ}$ je $m$ rozm�rn� vektor sloupec. P��t� n�soben� ${\bf J}$
(nebo ${\bf J}^{\rm T}$) se��t� prvky t�chto vektor�.
\begin{equation}
({\bf v}^{\rm T})^{\rm T}\ = \ {\bf v}.
\end{equation}
\begin{equation}
({\bf J}^{\rm T}{\bf M}^{\rm T})^{\rm T} = {\bf MJ}\
{\rm a} \
({\bf M}{\bf J})^{\rm T} = {\bf J}^{\rm T}{\bf M}^{\rm T}\;.
\end{equation}
Dostaneme dv� kvadratick� formy : ${\bf J}^{\rm T}{\bf M}^{\rm T}{\bf MJ}$ a ${\bf
J}^{\rm T}{\bf M}{\bf M}^{\rm T}{\bf J}$. Vid�me, �e oba sou�iny maj� stejn� r�mce
${\bf J}^{\rm T}(*){\bf J}$, kter� p�sob� na maticov� sou�in, kter� je uvnit�.
Tento r�me�ek po��t� jen prvky vnit�n� matice. Kvadratick� formy ${\bf M}^{\rm T}
{\bf M}$ a ${\bf M}{\bf M}^{\rm T}$ jsou zaj�mav�j��, ne� kone�n� sou�in, pon�vad�
ka�d� obsahuje v�ce informace.
P�edpokl�dali jsme, �e p�vodn� matice ${\bf M}$ m�la $m$ ��dk� a $n$ sloupc�, ob�
$m$ a $n$ jsouce rozd�ln�. Tedy transponovan� matice ${\bf M}^{\rm T}$ m�la $n$
��dk� a $m$ sloupc� a byla rozd�ln� od p�vodn� matice ${\bf M}$. �ekneme, �e
takov� matice jsou {\em asymetrick�}. ob� kvadratick� formy jsou symetrick�
matice. ${\bf M}^{\rm T}{\bf M}$ m� $n$ ��dk� a $n$ sloupc�, ${\bf M}{\bf M}^{\rm
T}$ m� $m$ ��dk� a $m$ sloupc�. Na stop�ch obou maticov�ch sou�in� jsou sou�ty
�tverc� prvk� $m_{ij}^2$ matice ${\bf M}$. To je Hilbertova d�lka maticov�ho
vektoru a ob� stopy, kter� maj� stejn� d�lky le�� na kouli s pr�m�rem maticov�ho
vektoru. Mimodiagon�ln� prvky obou kvadratick�ch forem tvo�� s jejich stopami
pravo�hl� troj�heln�ky maj�c� ob� jednotkov� projekce ${\bf J}^{\rm T}{\bf M}$ a
${\bf MJ}^{\rm T}$ jako p�epony (obr. \ref{Maticov� vektorov� soustava}).
\begin{figure}
\caption{Maticov� vektorov� soustava. ${\bf M}$ -- maticov� vektor, ${\bf J}^{\rm
T}{\bf M}$ -- projekce maticov�ho vektoru do sloupce, ${\bf MJ}$ -- projekce
maticov�ho vektoru do ��dky, $Tr({\bf M}^{\rm T}{\bf M})$ -- stopa vektoru,
$Tr({\bf MJ})$ -- stopa vektoru, $\Lambda$ -- vlastn� hodnoty vektoru, ${\bf M}^{-
1}$ -- inverzn� maticov� vektor}
\label{Maticov� vektorov� soustava}
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Oba skal�rn� sou�iny transformuj� matici do vektoru, ��dky nebo sloupce. Po��taj�
jednodu�e prvky v ��dc�ch nebo sloupc�ch matice ${\bf M}$. D�vaj� n�m kone�n�
v�sledky v�ech translac�, ${\bf MJ}$ v $m$ rozm�rn�m prostoru ��dek, ${\bf
J}^{\rm T}{\bf M}$ v $n$ rozm�rn�m prostoru sloupc�. Kdy� nalezneme tyto sou�ty,
sn��me rozm�r prostoru, m�sto $mn$ prvk� m�me pouze $m$ nebo $n$ prvk�. Kdy� jsme
sn�ili rozm�r maticov�ho prostoru, zjednodu�ili jsme maticov� vektor, av�ak
ztratili jsme informaci o p�vodn�m po�ad� vektor� v matici. A mimo to, alespo� v
jednom kvadratick�m skal�rn�m sou�inu, spojili jsme dohromady rozd�ln� vektory.
Pokud tyto vektory p�edstavovaly rozd�ln� v�ci, se��t�me dohromady jablka s
hru�kami jako ovoce.
Abychom to uzav�eli: {\em Matice odpov�d� akci a jej� kvadratick� forma v�sledku
tento akce}.
Ob� kvadratick� formy maj� tuto d�le�itou vlastnost: �t�p� prostor a jeho prvky.
Budi� matice ${\bf M}$ seznamem $n$ rozd�ln�ch knih (s nezn�m�m po�tem kopi�)
pat��c�ch $m$ rozd�ln�m osob�m. Ka�d� ��dka je katalogem $i$-t� osobn� knihovny,
ka�d� sloupec je seznamem v�skyt�, kter� registruje, ve kter�ch knihovn�ch $j$-t�
kniha m�e b�t nalezena. Kvadratick� forma ${\bf M}^{\rm T}{\bf M}$ je prostor $n$
knih, na diagon�le jsou zde po�ty knihoven, ve kter�ch m�e b�t nalezena . ${\bf
M}{\bf M}^{\rm T}$ je prostor knihoven av�ak jeho prvky jsou knihy. Srovnejte to
se starov�kou sentenc�, �e existuje m�ra ve v�em nebo, �e m�rou v�eho je �lov�k.
P�edpis se zd� b�t jednoduch�: Vezm�te alespo� dva jedno rozm�rn� prostory a
n�sobte je dohromady. Mno�inov� teorie napravila n�kter� chyby, av�ak nespojila
sv� mno�inov� prostory s vektorov�mi prostory a ob� discipliny z�staly odd�len�.
(0) --- (1) --- (2) --- (3) --- (4) --- (5)
Zavedli jsme jednotkov� vektory ${\bf e}_j$ v podkapitole 1.2 jako z�kladn�
jednotky na�eho prostoru. Nejprve dovol�me pouze positivn� translace odpov�daj�c�
p�irozen�m ��sl�m. To znamen�, �e maticov� vektor m�e j�t pouze kup�edu ze st�edu
koordin�t a nikdy zp�t. �ada n�sleduj�c�ch vektor� tvo�� {\em cestu}. V�echny
mo�n� cesty v tomto prostoru tvo�� a {\em m��ku}. U� v�me, �e mus�me rozli�ovat
mezi cestou a jej�m kone�n�m bodem, {\em polohov�m vektorem}. Tato odli�nost je
stejn� jako mezi �ten�m a pouh�m po��t�n�m slov. P�edpokl�dejme, �e m�me dv�
vektorov� �ady nap��klad
$${\bf aababac}$$
$${\bf abcaaba}\;.$$
ob� vedou k bodu s koordin�tami (4, 2, 1, 0, 0, \dots). Budeme to n�kdy ps�t jako
$(a^4b^2c^1d^0e^0\dots)$. Takov� notace je u�ite�n� p�i n�kter�ch operac�ch jako
kde pot�ebujeme rozli�ovat v�znam �len� $2a$ a $a^2$. N�sobitel d�v� po�et �ad,
mocniny ur�uje d�lky vektoru. Nyn� je v�hodn�, �e z�kladna jednotkov�ch vektor� je
1. Horn� indexy maj�c� v�znam mocnin jednotkov�ch vektor� je nem�n�. Kdy�
p�ijmeme, �e $x^0 = 1$, nulov� mocnina vektoru je pr�v� n�sobitel jedna. Tedy nen�
nutn� ps�t tuto 1, proto�e nem�n� sou�in jako $a\times$ 1 $=$ 1$\times = a$.
V�echny vektorov� �ady kon��c� v bod�, jak jsou reprezentovan� naivn� matic� ${\bf
N}$, jsou {\em ekvivalentn�}. Jsou definov�ny matematick� operace, kter�
transformuj� naivn� matice v jin� ekvivalentn� matice. Pokud tato transformace
ned�v� identick� v�sledky, potom ob� matice n�le�� rozd�ln�m t��d�m. Dv�
ekvivalentn� naivn� matice maj�c� identickou kvadratickou formu ${\bf N}^{\rm T}
{\bf N}$ vedou k jednomu bodu. Nap��klad
$$ ({\bf aaba} = ({\bf a}^3{\bf b}) = ({\bf baaa})$$
Zde m�me prvn� p��klad, jak bylo u�ite�n� zav�st kvadratick� formy. Pozd�ji budeme
definovat jin� t��dy ekvivalence naivn�ch matic.
Abychom byli schopni rozli�ovat mezi $2a$ a $a^2$ (mezi paraleln�mi a n�sledn�mi
translacemi), pot�ebujeme stejn� rozd�l tak� pro konstrukci mnohorozm�rn�ho
prostoru z jednotkov�ch vektor�. Proto pro vektorov� mno�iny, jednotkov� vektory
a jejich �ady existuj�c� {\em sou�asn�}, budeme pou��vat symbol {\em s��t�n�}
$\sum $. Pro {\em n�sledn�} vektorov� mno�iny budeme pou��vat symbol pro {\em
n�soben�} $\Pi $. N�soben� se m�n� ve s��t�n� na logaritmick� stupnici. S pou�it�m
jednotkov� z�kladny logaritm�, ��slo a jeho logaritmus jsou toto�n� , nebo ne?
Nap��klad
$${\bf aaaaa} = {\bf a}^5, \ \lg_a{\bf a}^5 = 5$$
Tato konvence m�n� po�ad� obou operac� p�i konstrukci prostoru. Klasick�m zp�sobem
bylo m�t dv� osy, �ekn�me $(1 + a + a^2 + \ldots)$ a $(1 + b + b^2 + \ldots)$ a
n�sobit je. Jako v�sledek dostaneme polohy bod� �tverce
$$\begin{array}{cccc}
1 & a & a^2 &\ldots \\
b & ab & a^2b & \ldots \\
b^2 & ab^2 & a^2b^2 & \ldots \\
\vdots & \vdots & \vdots & \ddots
\end{array}$$
TaKe �tverci se m�e n�sobit pozd�ji t�et� osou a z�sk� se t�� rozm�rn� krychle,
potom se m�e pou��t �tvrt� osa a tak se z�skaj� v�ce rozm�rn� krychle, n�kdy zvan�
hyperkrychle. Mohli bychom mluvit o hyperrovin�ch, hyperhran�ch a tak d�le, av�ak
nebudeme pou��vat tuto p�edponu, proto�e by p�efoukla n� text.
\begin{equation}
(a + b)^0 + (a + b)^1 + (a + b)^2 + (a + b)^3 + \dots.
\end{equation}
$$\begin{array}{ccc}
1 & a & a^2 \\
b & 2ab & 3a^2b\\
b^2 & 3ab^2 & 6a^2b^2\;.
\end{array}$$
\begin{figure}
\caption{Dvourozm�rn� prostor. Jednotkov� vektor ${\bf I}_2$ je ortogon�ln� k
rovinn�m simplex�m}
\label{Dvourozm�rn� prostor}
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Vektorov� �ady vytvo�en� v 2 rozm�rn�m prostoru n�soben� $(a + b)^m$ jdou k bod�m
le��c�m na p��mce ortogon�ln� k diagon�le komplexu jako na obr. \ref{Dvourozm�rn�
prostor}.
Sou�et n jednotkov�ch vektor� ${\bf e}_j$ n�soben� m kr�t je {\em gener�tor}
vektorov�ho prostoru. Kdy� se pou�ije t��rozm�rn� gener�tor, vektorov� �ady jdou k
troj�heln�kov�m rovin�m(obr. \ref{T�i rozm�rn�m}).
\begin{figure}
\caption{Prvn� p�t 3 rozm�rn�ch rovinn�ch simplex�}
\label{T�i rozm�rn�m}
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Na�e vektory byly omezeny pouze na p�irozen� ��sla a tedy roviny jsou vytvo�eny
oper�torem
\begin{equation}
[\,\sum^n_{j=1}\,{\bf e}_j]^m
\end{equation}
jsou prvky {\em p�irozen�ho prostoru}. Ten zahrnuje svou limitu, body s
koordin�tami $a^0b^0$, $ab^0$, $a^0b$ a tak d�le. Prvky p�irozen�ho prostoru jsou
spo�etn� a se tvo�� vektorov�mi �adami jdouc�mi k bod�m s nez�porn�mi
koordin�tami. Jednotliv� vrstvy budeme naz�vat {\em rovinn� simplexy}. Pokud jste
sly�eli n�co simplexech, potom v�te, �e simplex v $n$ rozm�rn�m prostoru by m�l
se ur�it $(n + 1)$ body a my m�me jen $n$ bod�. P�ipome�te si v�ak, �e mluv�me o
rovin�ch. Rovina v $n$ rozm�rn�m prostore je body\footnote{M�j syn zde navrhoval
p�idat p��davn� jm�no `pevn�'. Av�ak pevn� t�leso je pevn� t�leso, zat�m co pouh�
term�n `t�leso' zahrnuje k�d, soustava, tedy je to abstraktn�j�� pojem.} v $(n -
1)$ rozm�rn�m prostoru a chyb�j�c� bod je obnoven.
Kdy� jednotkov� diagon�ln� matice ${\bf I}$ n�sob� jakoukoliv matici bu� zleva
nebo zprava, tak to zanech�v� matici nezm�n�nou:
\begin{equation}
{\bf IM} = {\bf MI} = {\bf M}.
\end{equation}
Jednotkov� diagon�ln� matice ${\bf I}$ je zn�m� jako {\em matice toto�nosti} a
byla u� zm�n�na ve sv� sofistikovan� formulaci jako Kronecker�v symbol
$\delta_{ij}$, kde $\delta_{ij} = 1$, pokud $i=j$ a $\delta_{ij} = 0$ jinak.
\begin{equation}
\sum^m_{i=0}\ [\,\sum^m_{j=1}\,{\bf e}_j]^i\,.
\end{equation}
\label{n�soben�}
Pokud $m$ jde k nekone�nu, dostaneme cel� p�irozen� vektorov� prostor dan�ho
rozm�ru.
\begin{equation}
\prod^n_{j=1}\,[\,\sum^m_{i=0}\,{\bf e}^i]_j
\end{equation}
\begin{figure}
\caption{T�i rozm�rn� rovinn� komplex}
\label{T�i rozm�rn�m rovinn� komplex}
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Vy��� simplexy se li�� od ni���ch nejen p�i��t�n�m nov� hrany ale tak� zv�en�m
po�tem �ad vedouc�m ke v�em bod�m vyjma vrcholy.
Je�t� v�t�� p�ek�ky se mus� p�ekonat, kdy� se pokou��me p�edstavit p�ti rozm�rn�
rovinn� simplex jako na obr. \ref{T�i projekce}.
$$\begin{array}{ccccl}
& b & c & d & 0 \\*
& b & c & 0 & e \\*
& b & 0 & d & e \\*
& 0 & c & d & e \\*
0 & b & c & d & e\;.
\end{array}$$
Nebo jeden �ty�st�n se m�e zplo�tit, �ekn�me abcd (obr. \ref{T�i projekce} B) a
nad touto deformovanou z�kladnou maj� m�sto �ty�i �ty�st�ny, kter� kryj� pyramidu
dvakr�t, jednou jako dva �ty�st�ny abce a acde, jednou jako dva �ty�st�ny abde a
bcde. Do 2 rozm�rn� roviny se 5 rozm�rn� rovinn� simplex prom�t� jako pentagram
(obr. \ref{T�i projekce} C). Ve v�ech p��padech rovinn� simplex je deformov�n sv�m
stla�en�m do m�n� rozm�rn�ho prostoru. V ide�ln�m stavu v�echny hrany by m�ly m�t
stejn� d�lky.
\begin{figure}
\caption{T�i projekce 5 rozm�rn�ho rovinn�ho simplexu.. A -- bipyramida, B --
jedna strana �ty�st�nu je zplo�t�n�, C -- cel� simplex je zplo�t�n.}
\label{T�i projekce}
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Doposud jsme pou��vali pouze p�irozen� ��sla a vektory. Av�ak budeme pot�ebovat
zlomkov� ��sla a vektory. Nyn� jsme schopni je zav�st, pon�vad� m�me dosti
prostoru pro nutn� konstruktivn� operace.
Polohov� vektor (1,1) proch�z� rovinn�m simplexem $(a + b)^1$ v bod�, kter�
doposud nem� ��dn� jm�no v na�em sv�t�. Zavedeme jej nalezen�m jeho koordin�t na
obou os�ch. To se provede s pou�it�m rovnob�ek s ob�ma osami. Nov� ��sla jsou
definov�na jako pom�r koordin�ty $a$ polohov�ho vektoru a mocniny jej�ho simplexu
nebo jako pom�r koordin�ty $b$ polohov�ho vektoru a mocniny jej�ho simplexu.. V
p��klad� je pom�r 1/2.
\begin{figure}
\caption{Konstrukce racion�ln�ch ��sel. Vektor (1, 1) prot�n� prvn� rovinn�
simplex v bod� s koordin�tou (0.5, 0.5).}
\label{Konstrukce rational}
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Samotn� nekone�n� rovinn� simplex z�stal p�i t�to operaci nerozd�len, jak byl ve
sv�m p�irozen�m stavu. Pou�ijeme op�t jednu vlastnost Euklidovsk�ho prostoru, �e
toti� rovnob�ky se nikdy nest�kaj� a p�eneseme jemn� d�len� racion�ln�ch ��sel z
prv�ho simplexu do nekone�n� roviny (obr. \ref{Konstrukce irrational}).
\begin{figure}
\caption{Konstrukce iracion�ln�ch ��sel. Vektor vedouc� k projekci prv�ch
racion�ln�ch ��sel $a$ do nekone�n�ho rovinn�ho simplexu m� jako koordin�tu
iracion�ln� ��slo $b$}
\label{Konstrukce irrational}
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Ostatn� pot�ebujeme takov� ��sla, kter� nejsme schopni ps�t explicitn�. Pokud se
vr�t�me k simplexov� rovin� a pokus�me se zm��it d�lku vektoru vedouc�ho k bodu
(0.5, 0.5), nebo (1, 1), oto�en�mu na osu, nenalezneme jej mezi racion�ln�mi
��sly. Odmocnina ze 2 ($\sqrt{2}$) nen� racion�ln� ��slo.
\section{Komplexn� ��sla}
\label{Komplexn� ��sla}
Uk�zali jsme, �e maticov� vektor ${\bf M}$ se m�e prom�tnout na jednotkov� vektor
��dku ${\bf J}^{\rm T}$ nebo sloupec ${\bf J}$ a �e kvadratick� formy ${\bf
M}^{\rm T}{\bf M}$ a ${\bf MM}^{\rm T}$ se mohou rozd�lit do pravo�hl�ch
troj�heln�k�. To plat� pro maticov� vektory, ve kter�ch v�echny prvky jsou bu�
kladn� nebo z�porn�. Pokud maticov� vektor obsahuje ��sla obou znam�nek, jeho
projekce je krat��, ne� samotn� maticov� vektor. Potom p�epona pravo�hl�ho
troj�heln�ka (obr. 1.2), reprezentovan� stopou kvadratick� formy, je del��, ne�
vn�j�� sou�in, kde Mimodiagon�ln� prvky tvo�� odv�snu. Mimodiagon�ln� prvky mohou
b�t bu� kladn� nebo z�porn�. Nap��klad:
\begin{center}
\begin{tabular}{rrrrcrrrcr}
\ & \ & \ & \ & \vline\ & -3 & -2 & 1 & \vline\ & \ $\Sigma$ \\
\hline
\ & \ & \ & \ & \vline\ & & & & \vline\ & \\
\ & \ & \ & 3 & \vline\ & 9 & -6 & 3 & \vline\ & 6 \\
\ & \ & \ & -2 & \vline\ & -6 & 4 & -2 & \vline\ & -4 \\
\ & \ & \ & 1 & \vline\ & 3 & -2 & 1 & \vline\ & 2 \\
\hline
\ & \ & \ & \ & \vline\ & & & & \vline\ & \ \\
& \ & \ & \ $\Sigma$ & \vline\ & 6 & -4 & 2 & \vline\ & 4 \\
& & & & \vline & & & & \vline & Stopa = 14.
\end{tabular}
\end{center}
\begin{figure}
\caption{Komplexn� ��sla. Jsou slo�ena z re�ln� a imagin�rn� ��sti}
\label{Komplexn� ��sla}
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\end{figure}
\begin{equation}
z = (x + iy) \
{\rm nebo} \ z = r(\cos \phi + i\sin \phi)\;,
\end{equation}
\section{Vytvo�uj�c� funkce}
\label{Vytvo�uj�c�}
Uk�zali jsme jak se komplex konstruuje ze sv�ch simplex�. Tato technika se pou��v�
intensivn� v kombinatorice pro vytvo�uj�c� funkce. Prostor je definov�n n�jak�m
funk�n�m vztahem, obvykle sou�tem nebo sou�inem, jeho� argument jde od 0 a�
$\infty$. Vytvo�uj�c� funkce se vyhodnocuje s fale�nou prom�nnou, nap��klad $t$,
a vypo�tou se koeficienty p�i rozd�ln�ch mocnin�ch $t$.
Pon�vad� �ady ${\bf x}_a{\bf x}_b$ a ${\bf x}_b{\bf x}_a$ jsou nerozli�iteln� v
komutativn�m procesu, bylo pova�ov�no za nemo�n� formulovat vytvo�uj�c� funkci,
kter� by ukazovala po�ad� symbol� v sou�inech (permutace). Nicm�n� enumer�tory se
snadno naleznou ve form�
\begin{equation}
\sum^n_{k=0}\ t^k/k!\;.
\end{equation}
\section{Trigonometrick� funkce}
\label{Trigonometric}
\begin{itemize}
\item $\sin\, \alpha \ = a/c$
\item $\cos\, \alpha \ = b/c$
\item $\tan\, \alpha \ = a/b$
\item $\cot\, \alpha \ = b/ = 1/tan \alpha$
\item $\sin\, \alpha \ = cos \beta.$
\end{itemize}
Vzorec
\begin{center}
$sin^2 \alpha + cos^2 \alpha = $1
\end{center}
\begin{center}
$(a/c)^2 + (b/c)^2 = (c/c)^2$,
\end{center}
nebo
\begin{center}
$\sin^2 \alpha + \sin^2 \bet =$ 1.
\end{center}
Dv� z�kladn� definice p�irozen�ch ��sel jsou Peanova axiomatick� a von Neumann�v
mno�inov� model. Ob� definice jsou p��sn� funk�n�, nedbaj� na vztahy mezi ��sly
a ��slovkami jako p�irozen�mi jm�ny p�irozen�ch ��sel a jejich psan� formy, jejich
notace.
Peano definoval p�irozen� ��sla algoritmem, kter� tvo�� z ��sla $k$ v�t�� ��slo
p�i��t�n�m jednotky $(k + 1)$. Je to jemn� p��stup, kter� jsme u� vyu�ili pro
vytvo�en� prostoru, kde m�sto 1 se p�idala nov� simplexov� vrstva.
Von Neumann�v mno�inov� model vytv��� ��sla po��t�n�m mno�iny. Pr�zdn� mno�ina \
{0\} m� jeden prvek, to vytv��� 1. Mno�ina obsahuj�c� \{0, 1\} m� dva prvky, to
vytv��� 2, a tak d�le.
V�echny jazyky, kter� zn�m, maj� ��slovky $k$ pro ��sla 0 a� deset. ��slovky pro
11 -- 19 se tvo�� jako (10 + $k$) nap��klad v angli�tin� fourteen. Eleven a twelve
jsou deformov�ny, pon�vad� se pou��vala �asto.
Notace ��slic m�la rozd�ln� formy: V primitivn� form�, jeden z��ez na holi
odpov�dal ka�d�mu se�ten�mu objektu. Egyp�an� zavedli zvl�tn� znaky pro mocniny 10
a� $10^7$, av�ak ��slovky jedna a� dev�t vyjad�ovali primitivn� znakem
odpov�daj�c�m ��slu. F�ni�an� zavedli p�smena pro 1 -- 9, 10 -- 90 a 100 -- 900.
To zkr�tilo v�znamn� notaci. Tento soustava p�evzali Hebrejci a �ekov�. ��man�
pou��vali sv�j vlastn� soustava. Specifick� symboly byly omezeny na I, V, X, L, C,
D, M a po�et nutn�ch symbol� v jedn� ��slovce s pou�it�m polohov� soustavy IV =
jedna ruka bez jednoho prstu, IX = dv� ruce bez jednoho prstu. Kone�n� m�me
Indicko arabskou decim�ln� polohovou soustavu.
M�li bychom zm�nit mayskou dvac�tkovou soustavu s polohovou notac�, kde nula s
��slovkou znamenala n�soben� 20 kr�t(quatre-vingt v francouz�tin�) babylonskou
nedes�tkovou soustavu (n�mecky Schock, �esky kopa), kde mocniny t�� dvac�tek se
vyjad�ovaly velikost� jejich symbolu (srovnej tucet -- veletucet -- velk�
veletucet).
{\em P�irozen� ��sla jsou vytvo�ena s�ri� modul�rn�ch operac�, srovn�vaj�c�ch dv�
mno�iny, porovn�vanou mno�inu $\{n\}$ a modul�rn� mno�ina $\{m\}$}.
Pr�zdn� mno�ina \{0\} je ze z�ejm�ch d�vod� nevhodn� jako modul�rn� mno�ina \{m\}.
Mno�ina \{1\} jako modul�rn� mno�ina $\{m\}$ vytv��� pouze p�irozen� ��slo 0,
pon�vad�
\begin{itemize}
\item 135 : 4 = 33 + 3
\item \ 33 : 4 = \ 8 + 1
\item \ \ 8 : 4 = \ 2 + 0
\item \ \ 2 : 4 = \ 0 + 2
\end{itemize}
A�koliv mno�ina \{1\} se zd� b�t p�irozenou z�kladnou ��seln� soustavy a objekty v
mno�in�ch u� existuj� takov� form�, s�rie modul�rn� porovn�v�n� s 1 d�v� pouze
s�rii nul. D�len� jednou nesni�uje digit�ln� velikost ��sla a nestla�uje jeho
notaci. Proto takov� ��seln� soustava je nepraktick�. Bin�rn� soustava je prvou
pou�itelnou.
\begin{center}
\begin{tabular}{lrrrr}
***** & mod & **: & ** & \ \\*
\ & \ & \ & ** & \ \\*
Zbytek & \ & \ & * & = 1.
\end{tabular}
\end{center}
Jeden sloupec �pln�ch ��dk� se transponuje do ��dku a operace se opakuje
\begin{center}
\begin{tabular}{lrrl}
** & mod & **: & ** \\*
Zbytek & & & \ 0 = 0.
\end{tabular}
\end{center}
Jeden �pln� sloupec z�skan� druhou modul�rn� operac� se op�t podobn� srovn�v�
dokud v�echny prvky se nevy�erpaj�
$$\begin{tabular}{lccl}
* & mod & **: & 0 (po�et �pln�ch ��dk�) \\
Zbytek & & & * = 1.
\end{tabular}$$
Dv� p�irozen� ��sla jsou stejn�, pokud se z�skaj� ze stejn� mno�iny $\{n\}$, a
jsou srovnateln� ,pokud jsou ur�ena s pou�it�m stejn� modul�rn� mno�iny $\{m\}$.
V porovn�n� s von Neumann mno�inov�m modelem, kde spojen� mno�iny \{\{0\}, \{1\}\}
vyvol�vaj� ��slo 2, zde vytvo�uj�c� mno�ina \{2\} kryje ��sla 0 a 1.
\chapter{Line�rn� oper�tory}
\label{Line�rn� oper�tory}
\section{�vod}
\label{�vod 3}
Vektory jsou oper�tory, kter� posouvaj� bod na jin� m�sto v prostoru. V t�to
kapitole budeme diskutovat speci�ln� oper�tory, kter� p�sob� na mno�iny bod� nebo
na mno�iny vektor� jakoby byly jedn�m bodem nebo pevn�m t�lesem. N�kter� z t�chto
operac� byly u� zm�n�n�, av�ak nyn� se jim dostane systemati�t�j�� pozornosti.
Nicm�n� n�kter� d�le�it� vlastnosti oper�tor� se stanou jasn�j�� pouze pozd�ji, po
zaveden� grafov�ch oper�tor� a jejich vyu�it� k dosa�en� praktick�ch v�sledk�.
\section{Transponov�n� a transverzov�n�}
\label{Transponov�n� a Transverzov�n�}
Transponov�n� maticov�ch vektor� u� bylo definov�no. M�n� jednodu�e ��dkov� indexy
$i$ a sloupcov� indexy $j$ v�ech maticov�ch prvk�
\begin{equation}
{\bf M}^{\rm T} \rightarrow {\rm m}^{\rm T}_{ij} = {\rm m}_{ji}\;
\end{equation}
Pokud ${\bf M}^{\rm T} = {\bf M}$, matice je {\em symetrick�}. Tato vlastnost m�
d�le�it� d�sledky pro jin� vlastnosti matice. Je zaj�mav�, �e transpozice m�n�
po�ad� �len� v maticov�ch sou�inech:
\begin{equation}
({\bf ABC})^{\rm T} = {\bf C}^{\rm T}{\bf B}^{\rm T}{\bf A}^{\rm T}\;.
\end{equation}
\begin{figure}
\caption{Transponov�n� (A) a transverzov�n� (B) matice}
\label{Transposing}
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\end{figure}
\section{Translace a permutace}
\label{Translace a permutace}
P�ekl�d�me v�tu z jednoho jazyka do jin�ho, nebo ji p�ekl�d�me jako blok z jednoho
m�sta v textu na jin� m�sto. Podobn� m�eme p�ekl�dat vektory nebo jejich �ady.
Nyn� mus�me nal�zt techniky, jak vyj�d�it rozd�ln� druhy translace abstraktn�m
zp�sobem. Z�sadn� existuj� dv� mo�nosti, jak takov� translace se mohou uskute�nit.
Oper�tory mohou b�t aditivn� nebo multiplikativn�.
Aditivn� oper�tor se definuje jako rozd�l. Vezmeme dva stavy maticov�ho vektoru,
p�vodn� ${\bf M}_1$ a kone�n� ${\bf M}_2$ a hledan� oper�tor ${\bf S}$ je jejich
rozd�l:
\begin{equation}
{\bf S}= {\bf M}_2 - {\bf M}_1 \;.
\end{equation}
Nap��klad
$$\begin{array}{ccc}
\begin{array}{c}
{\bf N}_1 \\
\\
\left(
\begin{array}{ccc}
0 & 1 & 0 \\
1 & 0 & 0 \\
1 & 0 & 0 \\
0 & 0 & 1
\end{array}
\right)
\end{array} &
\begin{array}{c}
{\bf N}_2 \\
\\
\left(
\begin{array}{ccc}
1 & 0 & 0 \\
0 & 0 & 1 \\
0 & 1 & 0 \\
0 & 0 & 1
\end{array}
\right)
\end{array} &
\begin{array}{c}
{\bf S} \\
\\
\left(
\begin{array}{ccc}
1 & -1 & 0 \\
-1 & 0 & 1 \\
-1 & 1 & 0 \\
0 & 0 & 0
\end{array}
\right)
\end{array}
\end{array}$$
Vypad� to trivi�ln�, av�ak speci�ln� v�tev matematiky, teorie graf�, studuje pouze
tyto oper�tory a vektory k nim ortogon�ln�. Podle na�� konvence ��dka p�esouv�
jeden symbol na jin�. To odpov�d� k�dov�n� zpr�vy, v transponovan� form� tv���m
uk�zan�m na obr. \ref{Face}.
Ka�d� ��dka oper�tor ${\bf S}$ je rozd�l dvou jednotkov�ch vektor� ${\bf e}_j$.
Z�porn� ${\bf e}_a$ jde od vrcholu $a$ zp�t ke st�edu a cesta prostorem pokra�uje
vektorem ${\bf e}_b$ k vrcholu $b$. V�sledn� simult�nn� translace je vektor jdouc�
p��mo z vrcholu $a$ k vrcholu $b$ bez dotknut� se st�edu (obr.
\ref{Reprezentace}).
\begin{figure}
\caption{Reprezentace orientovan�ch a neorientovan�ch hran jako vektorov�ch sou�t�
nebo rozd�l�}
\label{Reprezentace}
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\end{figure}
Jednotkov� vektory ${\bf e}_j$ jsou {\em prim�rn�} vektory, jejich sou�ty nebo
rozd�ly ${\rm s}_{ij}$ jsou {\em sekund�rn�} vektory. Jejich prostor je oto�en v
�hlu $45^0$ k prim�rn�mu prostoru. Ke ka�d�mu sou�tu $(i + j)$ n�le�� dva rozd�ly,
$(i - j)$ a $(j - i)$.
Oper�tor ${\bf S}$ je �ada takov�ch sekund�rn�ch vektor�. Tyto vektory tvo�� hrany
rovinn�ho simplexu $n^1$. Nevych�zej� ze st�edu k n�jak�mu bodu prostoru, av�ak
m�n� vektorovou �adu v jinou jdouc� k stejn�mu simplexu. Pon�vad� ob� vektorov�
�ady jsou kontinu�ln� cesty, oper�tor, kter� p�ekl�d� jednu v druhou le�� na plo�e
v n rozm�rn�m prostoru (obr. \ref{Rozd�l dvou vektorov�ch �ad}).
\begin{figure}
\caption{ Rozd�l dvou vektorov�ch �ad {\bf A} a {\bf B} tvo�� plochu {\bf S}}
\label{Rozd�l dvou vektorov�ch �ad}
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$$\begin{tabular}{rrrrcrrrr}
\ & \ & \ & \ & \vline\ & 0 & 1 & 0 & 0 \\
\ & \ & \ & \ & \vline\ & 0 & 0 & 1 & 0 \\
\ & \ & \ & \ & \vline\ & 0 & 0 & 0 & 1 \\
\ & \ & \ & \ & \vline\ & 1 & 0 & 0 & 0 \\
\hline
& & & & \vline\ & & & & \\
1 \ & 0 & 0 & 0 & \vline\ & 0 & 1 & 0 & 0 \\
1 \ & 0 & 0 & 0 & \vline\ & 0 & 1 & 0 & 0 \\
0 \ & 1 & 0 & 0 & \vline\ & 0 & 0 & 1 & 0 \\
0 & 0 & 1 & 0 & \vline\ & 0\ & 0\ & 0\ & 1
\end{tabular}$$
Prvn� sloupec se objev� v sou�inu jako druh�, pon�vad� matice ${\bf P}$ m� 1 v
druh�m sloupci prvn� ��dky. Posledn� (nulov�) sloupec se podobn� p�em�st� na prv�
m�st� posledn�m jednotkov�m prvkem v prv�m sloupci.
$$\begin{tabular}{rrrrcrrrr}
\ & \ & \ & \ & \vline\ & 1 & 0 & 0 & 0 \\
\ & \ & \ & \ & \vline\ & 1 & 0 & 0 & 0 \\
\ & \ & \ & \ & \vline\ & 0 & 1 & 0 & 0 \\
\ & \ & \ & \ & \vline\ & 0 & 0 & 1 & 0 \\
\hline
& & & & \vline\ & & & & \\
0 \ & 1 & 0 & 0 & \vline\ & 1 & 0 & 0 & 0\\
0 \ & 0 & 1 & 0 & \vline\ & 0 & 1 & 0 & 0 \\
0 \ & 0 & 0 & 1 & \vline\ & 0 & 0 & 1 & 0 \\
1 & 0 & 0 & 0 & \vline\ & 1\ & 0\ & 0\ & 0
\end{tabular}$$
\begin{figure}
\caption{Grupa symetrie ${\rm S}_3$. A -- identita, v�echny prvky z�st�vaj� na
sv�ch m�stech; B, C, D -- reflexe, dva prvky si zam�n� sv� m�sta; E, F -- oto�en�,
t�� prvky vym�n� si sv� m�sta v cyklech}
\label{Grupa symetrie $S_3$}
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Na obr. \ref{Grupa symetrie $S_3$}, kde jsou zobrazeny ��inky 6 permuta�n�ch matic
grupy $S_3$ na t��rozm�rn� rovinn� simplex, m�eme vid�t ��inek takov�ho n�soben�
sloupce. Jednotkov� diagon�ln� matice nech�v� simplex nezm�n�n�, dv� matice ji
ot��� pod�l jej�ho st�edu a t�i matice m�n� polohy pouze dvou vrchol� jakoby se
troj�heln�k zrcadlil pod�l roviny ortogon�ln� k odpov�daj�c� hran� (nebo se ot��el
pod�l osy le��c� v rovin�). To jsou {\em operace symetrie}. Budou studov�ny
pozd�ji podrobn�ji.
\section{Inverzn� prvky}
%\addcontentsline{kc}{section}{Inverzn� prvky}
\label{Inverzn� prvky}
Kdy� m�me ��slo, �ekn�me 5, m�eme definovat jeho inverzn� prvek op�t dv�ma
zp�soby, aditivn�m a multiplikativn�m. Podobn� se prvky mohou definovat pro
vektory.
\begin{figure}
\caption{Aditivn� a multiplikativn� vyva�ov�n� ��sel}
\label{Aditivn�}
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Z toho zjist�me, �e $a^-1 = 1/a$. Na ��seln� stupnici inverzn� prvky ��sel v�t��ch
ne� 1 jsou v intervalu (0,1), kter� se zd� b�t nevyv�en�, viz obr. \ref{Aditivn�},
av�ak je vyv�en� na logaritmick� stupnici.
$$\begin{array}{ccc}
\begin{tabular}{rrrcr}
& & & \vline & 3 \\
& & & \vline & 1/2 \\
& & & \vline & 1 \\
\hline
& & & \vline & \\
1/6 & 1 & 0 & \vline & 1
\end{tabular} & \qquad &
\begin{tabular}{rrrcr}
& & & \vline & 1/6 \\
& & & \vline & 1 \\
& & & \vline & 0 \\
\hline
& & & \vline & \\
3 & 1/2 & 1 & \vline & 1
\end{tabular}
\end{array}$$
Av�ak takov� inverze maj� jednu podstatnou nev�hodu: Nejsou jedine�n�. Existuje
nekone�n� mnoho takov�ch inverz�, kter� vyva�uj� ka�d� vektor-sloupec (nebo ka�d�
vektor-��dku), tedy jsou {\em neur�it�}, nap��klad jin� vhodn� �e�en� je:
$$\begin{array}{ccc}
\begin{tabular}{rrrcr}
& & & \vline & 3 \\
& & & \vline & 1/2 \\
& & & \vline & 1 \\
\hline
& & & \vline & \\
1/9 & 2/3 & 1/3 & \vline & 1
\end{tabular} & \qquad &
\begin{tabular}{rrrcr}
& & & \vline & 1/9 \\
& & & \vline & 2/3 \\
& & & \vline & 1/3 \\
\hline
& & & \vline & \\
3 & 1/2 & 1 & \vline & 1
\end{tabular}
\end{array}$$
Pokud se pokou��me nal�zt levou (pravou) inverzn� matici, jej� ��dky mus� b�t lev�
(prav�) inverze pro odpov�daj�c� sloupce (��dky), av�ak sou�asn� nulov� vektory
pro jin� sloupce (��dky). V dan�m p��pad� nulov� vektor je op�t neur�it�:
$$\begin{array}{ccc}
\begin{tabular}{lrrcr}
& & & \vline & 3 \\
& & & \vline & 1/2 \\
& & & \vline & 1 \\
\hline
& & & \vline & \\
1 & 0 & -3 & \vline & 0 \\
-4/3 & 2 & 3 & \vline & 0
\end{tabular}
& \qquad &
\begin{tabular}{rrrcrr}
& & & \vline & 1 & -4/3 \\
& & & \vline & 0 & 2 \\
& & & \vline & -3 & 3 \\
\hline
& & & \vline & \\
3 & 1/2 & 1 & \vline & 0 & 0 \\
& & & & &
\end{tabular}
\end{array}$$
Jin� pot� s inverzn� prvky vektor� je, �e nem�eme nal�zt pravou inverzi k vektoru-
sloupci (levou inverzi k vektoru-��dce):
$$\begin{array}{ccc}
\begin{tabular}{rcrrr}
& \vline & ? & ? & ? \\
& \vline & ? & ? & ? \\
& \vline & ? & ? & ? \\
\hline
& \vline & & & \\
3 & \vline & 1 & 0 & 0 \\
1/2 & \vline & 0 & 1 & 0 \\
1 & \vline & 0 & 0 & 1
\end{tabular} & \qquad &
\begin{tabular}{rrrcrcr}
& & & & & & \\
& & & & & & \\
& & & \vline & 3 & 1/2 & 0 \\
\hline
& & & \vline & & & \\
? & ? & ? & \vline & 1 & 0 & 0 \\
? & ? & ? & \vline & 0 & 1 & 0 \\
? & ? & ? & \vline & 0 & 0 & 1
\end{tabular}
\end{array}$$
Byla by tu 1/3 jako prvn� inverzn� prvek ${\rm m}^{-1}_{ij}$, av�ak nem�e se
vynulovat v n�sleduj�c�ch ��dc�ch v prv�m sloupci. Pro jej� vynulov�n� bychom
pot�ebovali n�jak� nenulov� prvky v druh�m a t�et�m sloupci lev� matice. Pro
maticov� vektory m�eme, alespo� n�kdy, nal�zt matice, kter� transformuj� v�echny
jejich vektor sloupce do diagon�ln� matice. Jeden vektor sloupec nem� ��dnou
inverzi zprava, av�ak jejich soustava ji m�. Kter� vlastnosti matice mus� m�t, aby
byla invertovateln�. Budou uk�zan� pozd�ji. Pokud matice m� ob� inverze, zleva i
zprava, potom ob� inverze jsou identick� a existuje pouze jedna inverze, jej� akce
je stejn� z obou stran. To je prav� inverze dan� matice.
Mohli bychom hledat inverze n�hodn�m zkou�en�m n�hodn�m vhodn�ch vektor�. Lep�� je
pou��t n�jak� ov��en� algoritmy, kter� budou zavedeny pozd�ji.
$$\begin{tabular}{ccccccc}
& & & \vline & 1 & 1 & 1 \\
& & & \vline & 1 & -2 & 0 \\
& & & \vline & 1 & 1 & -1 \\
\hline
& & $\Pi$ & \vline & 0 & 3 & -1 \\
\hline
& & & \vline & & & \\
1 & -1 & 0 & \vline & 0 & 3 & 1 \\
-1 & 2 & -1 & \vline & 0 & -6 & 0 \\
0 & -1 & 1 & \vline & 0 & 3 & -1
\end{tabular}$$
Prvn� sloupec je nulov� vlastn� vektor, v�ech hodnoty sou�inu v jeho sloupci jsou
nulov�, vlastn� hodnota druh�ho vlastn�ho vektoru je 3, vlastn� hodnota posledn�ho
vlastn�ho vektoru je 1. Existuje je�t� jin� podm�nka pro vlastn� vektory, viz
p��t� odd�l.
$$\begin{tabular}{ccccccc}
& & & \vline & 1 & & \\
& & & \vline & -2 & 1 & \\
& & & \vline & 1 & -2 & 1 \\
\hline
& & & \vline & & & \\
1 & & & \vline & 1 & & \\
2 & 1 & & \vline & & 1 & \\
3 & 2 & 1 & \vline & & & 1 \\
\end{tabular}$$
\section{Diagonalizace matic}
\label{Diagonalizace matic}
P�edstavte si, �e pozorujete matici jako mezi dv�ma polarizuj�c�mi filtry. Kdy�
filtry oto��te, pohled se vyjasn� nebo ztmavne, av�ak p�i jedn� poloze filtru je
transparentn�. Takov� transparentn� matice hled�me. Ob� diagonaliza�n� matice
p�sob� jako polarizuj�c� filtry, sni�uj� mimodiagon�ln� prvky a zvy�uj�
diagon�ln�. Diagon�ln� matice je transparentn�, pon�vad� diagon�ln� prvky nejsou
zatemn�ny mimodiagon�ln�mi. P�ipome�te si obr. \ref{Maticov� vektorov� soustava}.
Z�skan� diagon�ln� matice je ekvivalentn� k matici ${\bf M}$
Zvl�t� u�ite�n� ��inek se z�sk�, kdy� sou�in obou diagonaliza�n�ch matic ${\bf L}$
a ${\bf R}$ je jednotkov� diagon�ln� matice
\begin{equation}
{\bf LR} = {\bf I}\;,
\end{equation}
nebo ekvivalentn�, kdy� jejich akce nem�n� jednotkovou diagon�ln� matici v jejich
r�me�ku:
\begin{equation}
{\bf L} = {\bf R}^{\rm T}\;,
\end{equation}, �e tyto matice jsou {\em vlastn� vektory} dan� matice. Diagon�ln�
matice z�skan� jako v�sledek takov�ho n�soben� jsou zn�m� jako matice {\em
vlastn�ch hodnot}. Sou�et vlastn�ch hodnot je rovn� stop� diagonalizovan� matice a
diagon�ln� matice vlastn�ch hodnot je ekvivalentn� maticov�mu vektoru
diagonalizovan� matice.
Vektorov� mno�ina pou��van� pro nalezen� vlastn�ch hodnot d�v� diagon�ln� matici,
nikoliv v�ak jednotkovou matici ${\bf I}$:
$$\begin{tabular}{ccccccc}
& & & \vline & 1 & 1 & 1 \\
& & & \vline & 1 & -2 & 0 \\
& & & \vline & 1 & 1 & -1 \\
\hline
& & & \vline & & & \\
1 & 1 & 1 & \vline & 3 & 0 & 0 \\
1 &-2 & 1 & \vline & 0 & 6 & 0 \\
1 & 0 &-1 & \vline & 0 & 0 & 2 \\
\end{tabular}$$
Vlastn� vektory se mus� nyn� normalizovat d�len�m odmocninami 1/3, 1/6 1/2.
Normalizovan� vlastn� vektory jsou
$$\left(
\begin{array}{ccc}
\sqrt{1/3} & \sqrt{1/6} & \sqrt{1/2} \\
\sqrt{1/3} & \sqrt{-4/6} & \sqrt{0} \\
\sqrt{1/3} & \sqrt{1/6} & \sqrt{-1/2}
\end{array}
\right)$$
\section{Maticov� aritmetika}
\label{Maticov� aritmetika}
\begin{figure}
\caption{Uspo��d�n� matic podle sv�ch index�}
\label{Uspo��d�n� matic}
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\put(10.00,40.00){\framebox(20.00,20.00)[cc]{{\bf A}}}
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\end{figure}
��dkov� indexy jdou v ka�d� matici od 1 do $m$, sloupcov� indexy jdou v ka�d�
matici od 1 do $n$. To je vnit�n� indexov�n�. Podobn� jako �idovsk�, k�es�ansk� a
isl�msk� letopo�ty, mno�iny index� v porovn�van�ch matic�ch nemus� b�t stejn�,
nebo jeden mno�ina m�e b�t stejn�, nebo ob� mno�iny mohou souhlasit. Tedy pravidlo
maticov� aritmetiky pro s��t�n� a ode��t�n� matic je jednodu�e s��t�n� a ode��t�n�
jednotliv�ch prvk� matic podle pravidla:
\begin{equation}
{\rm pokud}\ {\bf A} \pm {\bf B}= {\bf C}, \; {\rm potom}\
{\rm a}_{ij} \pm {\rm b}_{ij} = {\rm c}_{ij}\;.
\end{equation}
\begin{figure}
\caption{Mo�nosti s��t�n� a ode��t�n� matic}
\label{Matice s��t�n�}
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\begin{picture}(150.00,70.00)
\put(10.00,30.00){\framebox(20.00,20.00)[cc]{{\bf A}}}
\put(30.00,30.00){\framebox(20.00,20.00)[cc]{{\bf B}}}
\put(60.00,30.00){\framebox(20.00,20.00)[cc]{{\bf A}}}
\put(60.00,10.00){\framebox(20.00,20.00)[cc]{{\bf B}}}
\put(100.00,30.00){\framebox(28.00,20.00)[cc]{${\bf A} + {\bf B}$}}
\end{picture}
\end{figure}
Pot� spo��v� v ot�zce, co d�lat s nezn�m�mi prvky matice. Pokud jsou nulov�,
v�sledky mohou b�t jako na obr. \ref{Matice s��t�n�}. D��ve ne� se provede
aritmetick� operace, jedna nebo ob� matice se dopln� na stejn� rozm�ry p�i�ten�m
nulov�ch prvk� v chyb�j�c�ch ��dc�ch a sloupc�ch. P��pady aritmetick�ch operac� v
bloc�ch jsou zn�m� jako p��m� sou�et nebo rozd�l matic. Pokud nezn�m� prvky matice
nejsou nulov�, operace vedou k chyb�m.
Z�sadn� stejn� podm�nky plat� pro n�soben� matic. Vysv�tlili jsme ��inek
permuta�n�ch matic a skal�rn� sou�iny vektor�. Pokud n�sob�me matici vektorem
sloupcem zprava, prvky ��dk� ${\bf v}$ matice n�sob� v�echny prvky sloupce. Pokud
prvky ${\bf v}$ jsou men�� ne� 1, zmen�uj� v�echny prvky tohoto sloupce, pokud
prvky ${\bf v}$ jsou v�t�� ne� 1, zv�t�uj� je. Dva simult�nn� procesy se
vyskytuj� p�i n�soben�: prvky ��dk� matice se v�� a s��taj�, nebo pokud prvky
vektoru jsou z�porn�, ode��taj� se. N�soben� zleva m� transponovan� ��inek.
N�soben� matice vektorem transformuje matici na vektor. Obvykle se to definuje
jinak, matice transformuje vektor v jin�.
Je u�ite�n� tak� definovat {\em p��m� sou�in} dvou matic. Pro jeho odli�en� od
skal�rn�ho sou�inu, zapisuje se se znakem pro n�soben� $\times$:
$${\bf C}= {\bf A}\times{\bf B}\;.$$
V p��m�m sou�inu se n�sob� pouze prvky obou matic maj�c� oba indexy identick�:
Je to stejn�, jako kdyby ob� matice byly $nm$ rozm�rn� diagon�ln� vektory a
nalezly se slo�ky jejich skal�rn�ho sou�inu:
$$\begin{array}{ccccc}
\left(
\begin{array}{cc}
3 & 2 \\
2 & 1 \\
\end{array}
\right)
& \times &
\left(
\begin{array}{cc}
1 & -3 \\
5 & 3 \\
\end{array}
\right)
& \ = &
\left(
\begin{array}{cc}
3 & -6 \\
10 & 3 \\
\end{array}
\right)
\end{array}$$
$$\begin{array}{cccc}
\left(
\begin{array}{cccc}
3 & 0 & 0 & 0 \\
0 & 2 & 0 & 0 \\
0 & 0 & 2 & 0 \\
0 & 0 & 0 & 1
\end{array}
\right) &
\left(
\begin{array}{cccc}
1 & 0 & 0 & 0 \\
0 &-3 & 0 & 0 \\
0 & 0 & 5 & 0 \\
0 & 0 & 0 & 3
\end{array}
\right) & \ = &
\left(
\begin{array}{cccc}
3 & 0 & 0 & 0 \\
0 &-6 & 0 & 0 \\
0 & 0 & 10& 0 \\
0 & 0 & 0 & 3
\end{array}
\right)
\end{array}$$
Podobn� se m�e vysv�tlit s��t�n� matic. Ob� matice se rozlo�� do $nm$ rozm�rn�ch
diagon�ln�ch vektor� naleznou se sou�ty:
$$\begin{array}{ccccc}
\left(
\begin{array}{cc}
3 & 2 \\
2 & 1 \\
\end{array}
\right)
& $\ + $ &
\left(
\begin{array}{cc}
1 & -3 \\
5 & 3 \\
\end{array}
\right)
& \ = &
\left(
\begin{array}{cc}
4 & -1 \\
7 & 4 \\
\end{array}
\right)
\end{array}$$
$$\begin{array}{ccccc}
\left(
\begin{array}{cccc}
3 & 0 & 0 & 0 \\
0 & 2 & 0 & 0 \\
0 & 0 & 2 & 0 \\
0 & 0 & 0 & 1
\end{array}
\right)
& \ + &
\left(
\begin{array}{cccc}
1 & 0 & 0 & 0 \\
0 & -3 & 0 & 0 \\
0 & 0 & 5 & 0 \\
0 & 0 & 0 & 3
\end{array}
\right)
& \ = &
\left(
\begin{array}{cccc}
4 & 0 & 0 & 0 \\
0 & 1 & 0 & 0 \\
0 & 0 & 7 & 0 \\
0 & 0 & 0 & 4
\end{array}
\right)
\end{array}$$
\section{Normalizace matic}
\label{Normalizace matic}
Prodiskutovali jsme probl�m simult�nn� akce v�ce vektor� nebo vektor� maj�c�ch
jinou intenzitu ne� 1. To lze n�kdy vy�e�it normalizac� vektor�. C�lem tohoto
tvarov�n� vektor� a matic je ud�lat je srovnateln�. Normalizace vektor� se prov�d�
vlastn�mi vektory, kter� mus� d�vat jednotkovou diagon�ln� matici ${\bf I}$.
Zavedli jsme jednotkov� vektory ${\bf e}_j$. ��dkov� vektor je srovnateln� s
jednotkov�m vektorem pokud m� stejnou d�lku. Euklidovsk� d�lka je kriteriem, tedy
vektor je normalizovan� pokud jeho prvky se d�l� odmocninou jeho Euklidovsk�
d�lky. Nap��klad vektor $(2,1,1,0)^{\rm T}$ se normalizuje jeho d�len�m s $\sqrt
6$. D�lky jeho skal�rn�ho sou�inu je potom 1. Maticov� vektor se normalizuje jeho
n�soben�m odmocninou diagon�ln� matice z obou stran. Zde m�me dv� mo�nosti. Bu�
normalizujeme pouze diagon�ln� prvky nebo v�echny ��dky a sloupce. Pro normalizaci
matice mus� b�t symetrick�. Normalizac� diagon�ln�ch prvk� se maticov� vektor
orientuje ve sm�ru jednotkov�ho vektoru ${\bf I}$. To m� n�kter� d�sledky na
vlastnosti takov� normalizovan� matice.
\section{Ko�eny matic}
\label{Ko�eny matic}
$$\begin{array}{cccc}
\left(
\begin{array}{ccc}
1 & 0 & 0 \\
0 & 1 & 0 \\
0 & 0 & 1
\end{array}
\right) &
\left(
\begin{array}{ccc}
0 & 1 & 0 \\
1 & 0 & 0 \\
0 & 0 & 1
\end{array}
\right) &
\left(
\begin{array}{ccc}
0 & 0 & 1 \\
1 & 0 & 0 \\
0 & 1 & 0
\end{array}
\right) &
\left(
\begin{array}{ccc}
1 & 0 & 0 \\
0 & -1 & 0 \\
0 & 0 & 1
\end{array}
\right)
\end{array}$$
Jednotkov� diagon�ln� matice tvo�� ko�en sama sob�, pon�vad� nem�eme odli�it
formy
\begin{equation}
{\bf I} = {\bf I}^2 = {\bf I}^{-1} = {\bf I}^{\rm T}{\bf I} =
{\bf I}{\bf I}^{\rm T}\;.
\end{equation}
\chapter{Rozd�len�}
\label{Rozd�len�}
\section{P�edb�n� pozn�mky}
\label{P�edb�n� pozn�mky}
Rozd�len� �t�p� ��slo $m$ do $n$ ��st�, jejich� sou�et se rovn� ��slu $m$, �ekn�me
7:\ \ 3, 2, 1, 1. Rozd�len� je uspo��dan� mno�ina. Jej� objekty, {\em ��sti} jsou
naps�ny v ��dce v klesaj�c�m po��dku:
$$ m_{j-1} \geq m_j \geq m_{j+1}\;.$$
V�echny jednotkov� permutace vektoru maj� stejn� d�lky. Tedy rozd�ln� rozd�len�
tvo�� z�kladny pro jin� vektory slo�en� ze stejn�ch ��st�. Vektory pat��c� stejn�m
rozd�len�m jsou spojen� s jin�mi body v t��rozm�rn�m simplexu kru�nic�. Ve vy���ch
rozm�rech kru�nice se m�n� v sf�ry a proto budeme naz�vat rozd�len� {\em orbity
rozd�len�} nebo jednodu�e orbity.
Po�et vektor� v rozd�len� bude uv�d�n jako $n$, velikost prvn�ho vektoru jako
$m_1$. Z�vorka $(m,n)$ znamen� v�echna rozd�len� ��sla $m$ do nejv�e $n$ ��st�.
Pon�vad� nap�eme rozd�len� jako n rozm�rn� vektor povol�me nulov� ��sti v
rozd�len�, aby zaplnily pr�zdn� m�sta vektoru. Je to jist� inovace proti tradici,
kter� bude velmi u�ite�n�. Av�ak je nutn� rozli�ovat p��sn� oba druhy rozd�len�, s
nulami a bez nich.
\section{Ferrersovy grafy}
\label{Ferrers}
\begin{figure}
\caption{Konstrukce Ferrersov�ch graf�. Nov� pol��ka se p�i��taj� na voln�ch
m�stech}
\label{Ferrersovy grafy}
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\begin{equation}
\sum^n_{j=1} m_j = \sum^{\infty}_{k=0}n_km_k =m \;.
\end{equation}
Je z�ejm�, �e Ferrers�v graf je matice ${\bf F}$, kter� m� sv� jednotkov� prvky
uspo��d�ny postupn� v po��te�n�ch ��dc�ch a sloupc�ch. Kdy� se srovnaj� s naivn�mi
maticemi, Ferrersovy grafy vypadaj� jako stla�en� naivn� matice ${\bf N}$ ve
kter�ch v�echny jednotkov� prvky byl stla�eny k z�kladn� ��dce (to je v matici
nahoru) odstran�n�m pr�zdn�ch prvk�:
$$\begin{array}{ccccc}
\begin{array}{c}
${\bf N}$ \\
\\
\left(
\begin{array}{ccc}
0 & 1 & 0 \\
1 & 0 & 0 \\
1 & 0 & 0 \\
0 & 0 & 1 \\
1 & 0 & 0 \\
0 & 1 & 0
\end{array}
\right)
\end{array} &
\leftrightarrow &
\begin{array}{c}
{\bf N}_2 \\
\\
\left(
\begin{array}{ccc}
1 & 0 & 0 \\
1 & 0 & 0 \\
1 & 0 & 0 \\
0 & 1 & 0 \\
0 & 1 & 0 \\
0 & 0 & 1
\end{array}
\right)
\end{array} &
\rightarrow &
\begin{array}{c}
{\bf F} \\
\\
\left(
\begin{array}{ccc}
1 & 1 & 1 \\
1 & 1 & 0 \\
1 & 0 & 0
\end{array}
\right)\\
\\
\\
\\
\end{array}
\end{array}$$
Zaveden�m Ferrersov�ch graf� jako matic, dostaneme se nutn� k pojmu {\em omezen�ch
rozd�len�}. ��sti rozd�len� nemohou b�t v�t�� ne� po�et ��dk� matice a po�et
��st� v�t�� ne� po�et jej�ch sloupc�.
\begin{figure}
\caption{Kr�cen� rozd�len� omezen�m ��dk� a sloupc�}
\label{Kr�cen�}
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\end{figure}
\begin{equation}
p(M)_{neomezen�} = p(M,M,M)\;.
\end{equation}
P�eme zde nejprve po�et ��dk� $m$, potom po�et ��st� $n$, a naposled sou�et
jednotkov�ch prvk� (po�et vypln�n�ch box�) {\bf M}.
\begin{equation}
p(m, n, M) = p(n, m, M)\;.
\end{equation}
Rozd�len� jsou konjugovan�. Po�et rozd�len� do p�esn� $n$ ��st� s nejv�t�� ��st�
$m$ je stejn� jako po�et rozd�len� do $m$ ��st� maj�c� nejv�t�� ��st $n$.
Ferrers�v graf lze ode��st od matice obsahuj�c� pouze jednotkov� prvky (definovan�
jako ${\bf JJ}^{\rm T}$) a v�sledn� matice se transverzuje (Tr), nap��klad
$$\begin{array}{ccccc}
\left(
\begin{array}{cc}
1 & 1 \\
1 & 1
\end{array}
\right)
& - &
\left(
\begin{array}{cc}
1 & 0 \\
0 & 0
\end{array}
\right)
& = &
\left(
\begin{array}{cc}
0 & 1 \\
1 & 1
\end{array}
\right)
\end{array}$$
$$\begin{array}{ccc}
\left(
\begin{array}{cc}
0 & 1 \\
1 & 1
\end{array}
\right)^{\rm Tr}
& = &
\left(
\begin{array}{cc}
1 & 1 \\
1 & 0
\end{array}
\right)
\end{array}$$
Vztah mezi po�tem omezen�ch rozd�len� dvou rozd�ln�ch ��sel se z�sk� pomoc�
rovnice
\begin{equation}
p(m, n, M) = p(n, m, mn - M)
\end{equation}
Tato identita byla odvozen� operac� velmi u�ite�nou pro z�sk�v�n� prvk� sch�mat
rozd�len� (viz p��t� kapitolu) a omezen�ch rozd�len� v�ech druh�. Omezen�
rozd�len� do p�esn� $n$ ��st�, maj�c� $m$ jako nejv�t�� ��st, m� $(m + na - 1)$
jednotek v�zan�ch prvky tvo��c�mi prvn� ��dku a sloupec odpov�daj�c�ho
FerrersovGrafu (obr. \ref{Ferrersovy grafy}). Pouze $(M - m - n + 1)$ prvk� je
voln�ch pro rozd�len� v omezen�m r�me�ku $(m-1)$ a $(n-1)$. Tedy
\begin{equation}
p(m, n, M) = p(m-1, n-1, M-m-n+1)
\end{equation}
\begin{equation}
p(m, *, M) = \sum_{j=1}^M \ p(m, j, M)
\end{equation}
\begin{equation}
p(*, n, M) = \sum_{i=1}^M \ p(i, n, M)
\end{equation}
\section{Matice rozd�len�}
\label{Matice rozd�len�}
\begin{equation}
p(*, N, M) = p(*, N-1, M-1) + p(*, N, M-N-1)
\end{equation}
V�echna rozd�len� do p�esn� $N$ ��st� se d�l� do dvou mno�in. V jedn� mno�in� jsou
rozd�len� maj�c� v posledn�m sloupci 1, jejich po�et se po��t� �lenem $p(*,N-1,M-
1)$, co� je po�et rozd�len� ��sla $(M-1)$ do p�esn� $(N-1)$ ��st� k, kter� se
p�idala 1 na n-t�m m�st� a v jin� mno�in� jsou rozd�len�, kter� maj� v posledn�m
sloupci 2 a v�ce. Ty se z�skaly p�i�ten�m jednotkov� ��dky ${\bf J}^{\rm T}$) s
$n$ jednotkov�mi prvky rozd�len�m $(M - N)$ do $N$ ��st�.
Podobn� vzorec se m�e odvodit pro rozd�len� $M$ do nejv�e $N$ ��st�. Tato
rozd�len� mohou m�t nulu alespo� v posledn�m sloupci nebo jsou rozd�len� p�esn� do
$n$ ��st�:
\begin{equation}
p(*, *=N, M) = p(*, *=N-1, M) + p(*, *=N, M-N)
\end{equation}
�len p(*, *=N-1, M) jsou rozd�len� $M$ do $(N - 1)$ ��st� transformovan� do
rozd�len� do $N$ ��st� p�i�ten�m nuly v n-t�m sloupci, �len p(*, *=N, M-N) jsou
rozd�len� $(M - 1)$ do $N$ ��st�, ke kter�m se p�idala jednotkov� ��dka.
$$p(0,0,0) = 1\;.$$
\begin{equation}
\lim{0^0} = \lim_{x\rightarrow\infty}\;(1/x)^0 = 1/x^0 = 1\;.
\end{equation}
\begin{table}
\caption{Rozd�len� do p�esn� $n$ ��st�}
\label{Rozd�len� do p�esn� $n$ ��st�}
\begin{tabular}{|r|rrrrrrr|r|}
\hline
n & 0 & 1 & 2 & 3 & 4 & 5 & 6 & $\Sigma$ \\
\hline
m=0 & 1 & & & & & & & 1 \\
1 & & 1 & & & & & & 1 \\
2 & & 1 & 1 & & & & & 2 \\
3 & & 1 & 1 & 1 & & & & 3 \\
4 & & 1 & 2& 1 & 1& & & 5 \\
5 & & 1 & 2 & 2 & 1 & 1 & & 7 \\
6 & & 1 & 3 & 3 & 2 & 1 & 1 & 11 \\
\hline
\end{tabular}
\end{table}
\begin{table}
\caption{Rozd�len� do nejv�e n ��st�}
\label{Rozd�len� do nejv�e n ��st�}
\begin{tabular}{|r|rrrrrrr|}
\hline
n & 0 & 1 & 2 & 3 & 4 & 5 & 6 \\
\hline
m=0 & 1 & 1 & 1 & 1 & 1 & 1 & 1 \\
1 & & 1 & 1 & 1 & 1 & 1 & 1 \\
2 & & 1 & 2 & 2 & 2 & 2 & 2 \\
3 & & 1 & 2 & 3 & 3 & 3 & 3 \\
4 & & 1 & 3 & 4 & 5 & 5 & 5 \\
5 & & 1 & 3 & 5 & 6 & 7 & 7 \\
6 & & 1 & 4 & 7 & 9 & 10& 11 \\
\hline
\end{tabular}
\end{table}
Tabulka 4.2 se z�sk� z tabulky 4.1 jako ��ste�n� sou�ty jej�ch ��dek, co� znamen�
n�soben�m jednotkovou troj�heln�kov� matic� ${\bf T}^T$ zprava. Prvky matice ${\bf
T}^{\rm T}$ jsou
\begin{equation}
h_{ij} = 1\
{\rm if}\ j \geq i\;\ h_{ij} = 0 {\rm pokud}\ j > i\;.
\end{equation}
Na druh� stran� se tabulka 4.1 z�sk� z tabulky 4.2 n�soben�m matic� ${\bf T}^{\rm
-T}$ zprava. Inverzn� prvky jsou
\begin{equation}
h_{ii}^{-1} = 1\;,\ h_{i,i+1}^{-1} = -1\;,\ h_{ij} = 0\;, {\rm jinak}\;.
\end{equation}
\begin{figure}
\caption{Omezov�n� orbit rozd�len�. Nejni��� dovolen� ��st r p�esouv� rovinn�
simplex}
\label{Omezov�n�}
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Kdy� op�t n�sob�me tabulku 4.1 matic� ${\bf T}^{\rm T}$, dostaneme rozd�len�
maj�c� jako nejmen�� dovolenou ��st ��slo 2. ��inek t�chto oper�tor� si lze
p�edstavit na 2 rozm�rn�m komplexu, oper�tory posouvaj� hranici po��tan�ch orbit
(obr. \ref{Omezov�n�}). Oper�tor ${\bf T}^{\rm T}$ diferencuje n rozm�rn�
komplexy, posouvaje jejich hranici ke kladn�m ��sl�m od�ez�vaje men�� ��sla. Nula
tvo�� p�irozenou z�kladn� hranici.
Pokud po�et stejn�ch ��st� $n_k$ je naps�no jako vektor ��dka pod vektorem
tvo�en�m ��selnou stupnic�, po�et rozd�len� je nez�visl� na p�esouv�n� ��seln�
stupnice, viz tabulku 4.3. Rozd�len� jsou v�dy odvozen� posouv�n�m dvou vektor�,
jeden o 1 polohu nahoru, druh� o 1 polohu dol�. Ka�d� rozd�len� odpov�d� vektoru.
Pokud je nap�eme jako sloupce, potom jejich skal�rn� sou�in s ��selnou stupnic�,
tvo��c� vektor ��dku ${\bf m}^{\rm T}$, d�v� konstantn� sou�et:
\begin{equation}
{\bf m}^{\rm T}{\bf p} = \sum_{k \geq r}\; m_k n_k = m\;.
\end{equation}
Zde je notace nekonsistentn�, prvky vektoru ${\bf p}$ jsou ��sla vektor� maj�c�ch
stejn� d�lky a p�smeno $n$ s indexem $k$ se pro n� pou��v�. Pro hodnoty ��seln�
stupnice p�smeno $m$ se pou��v� s obvykl�m indexem $k$, kter� jde od nejni���
mo�n� hodnoty ��sti $r$ a� nejvy��� mo�n� hodnot�. Index $k$ b�� k nekone�nu,
av�ak v�ech p��li� vysok� hodnoty $n_k$ jsou nuly.
\begin{table}
\caption{Rozd�len� jako vektory}
\label{Rozd�len� jako Vektory}
\begin{tabular}{|l|r|rrrrr|lr|}
\hline
Parametr & r & & & & & & & \\
\hline
Vektor {\bf m} & -2 & -1 & 0 & 1 & 2 & 3 & {\bf mp}= & -5 \\
& -1& 0 & 1 & 2 & 3 & 4 & & 0 \\
& 0 & 1 & 2 & 3 & 4 & 5 & & 5 \\
& 1 & 2 & 3 & 4 & 5 & 6 & & 10 \\
& 2 & 3 & 4 & 5 & 6 & 7 && 15 \\
\hline
& 0 & 1 & 2 & 3 & 4 & 5 & & \\
\hline
Vektor p & 4 & & & & & 1 & & \\
& 3 & 1 & & & 1 & & & \\
& 3 & & 1 & 1 & & & & \\
& 2 & 2 & & 1 & & & & \\
& 2 & 1 & 2 & & & & & \\
& 1 & 3 & 1 & & & & & \\
& 1 & 2 & 2 & & & & & \\
& & 5 & & & & & & \\
\hline
\end{tabular}
\end{table}
\begin{eqnarray*}
(4 \times -2) + (1 \times 3) = -5\, \\
(3 \times -1) + (1 \times 0) + (1 \times 3) =\> 0\, \\
(3 \times 0) + (1 \times 2) + (1 \times 3) =\> 5\, \\
(2 \times 1) + (1 \times 2) + (2 \times 3) =\, 10\, \\
(1 \times 2) + (3 \times 3) + (1 \times 4) =\, 15.
\end{eqnarray*}
Parametr $r$ p�esouv� tabulku rozd�len�, jej� �elo se ot��� okolo nulov�ho bodu.
Pokud $r$ bylo $-\infty$, potom $p(-\infty, 1) = 1$ av�ak $p(-\infty, 2)$ by bylo
neur�it�, proto�e sou�et kone�n�ho ��sla s nekone�n�m ��slem je op�t nekone�n�.
Parametr $r$ se bude zapisovat rozd�len�m jako jeho horn� index, aby uk�zal, �e
rozd�ln� z�kladny rozd�len� diferencuj� rovinn� simplexy.
Je snadn� naleznout po�et rozd�len�, ve kter�ch v�echny ��sti jsou sud�. Nen�
mo�n� vytvo�it sud� rozd�len� z lich�ho ��sla, tedy:
\begin{equation}
p_{\rm sud�}(2n) = p_{\rm neomezen�}(n)\;.
\end{equation}
Nesnadn�j�� �loha je nal�zt po�et rozd�len�, ve kter�ch v�echny ��sti jsou lich�.
Jin� zam�tnut� rozd�len� obsahuj� sm�en� lich� a sud� ��sti. Vztah mezi
rozd�ln�mi rozd�len�mi je ur�en jako
\begin{equation}
p_{\rm neomezen�}(n) = p_{\rm lich�}(n) + p_{\rm sud�}(n) +
p_{\rm sm�en�}(n)\;.
\end{equation}
\begin{table}
\caption{Lich�, sud� a sm�en� rozd�len�}
\label{Lich�, sud� a sm�en� rozd�len�}
\begin{tabular}{|r|rrrrrrrrr|r|r|r|r|}
\hline
& \multicolumn{9}{|c|}{Po�et lich�ch rozd�len�}& \multicolumn{4}
{|c|}{ Sou�ty}\\
\hline
n & 1 & 2 & 3 & 4 & 5 & 6 & 7 & 8 & 9 &
Lich� & Sud� & Sm�en� & p(m) \\
\hline
m=1 & 1 & & & & & & & & & 1 & 0 & 0 & 1 \\
2 & & 1 & & & & & & & & 1 & 1 & 0 & 2 \\
3 & 1 & & 1 & & & & & & & 2 & 0 & 1 & 3 \\
4 & & 1 & & 1 & & & & & & 2 & 2 & 1 & 5 \\
5 & 1 & & 1 & & 1 & & & & & 3 & 0 & 4 & 7 \\
6 & & 2 & & 1 & & 1 & & & & 4 & 3 & 4 & 11 \\
7 & 1 & & 2 & & 1 & & 1 & & & 5 & 0 & 10 & 15 \\
8 & & 2 & & 2 & & 1 & & 1 & & 6 & 5 & 11 & 22 \\
9 & 1 & & 3 & & 2 & & 1 & & 1 & 8 & 0 & 22 & 30\\
\hline
\end{tabular}
\end{table}
V�imn�te si, jak ��dk� se z�sk� matice lich�ch rozd�len� z tabulky 4.1. Jej�
prvky, vyjma prv�ho v ka�d�m sloupci, jsou posunuty dol� na k��en� diagon�l. Lich�
��slo mus� b�t d�len� do lich�ho ��sla lich�ch ��st� a sud� ��slo do sud�ho ��sla
lich�ch ��st�. Tedy matice m�e b�t zapln�na pouze z poloviny. Rekurence je dan�
dv�ma mo�nostmi, jak zvy�ovat ��slo $m$. Bu� p�id�me lich� 1 k lich�m rozd�len�m $
(m - 1)$ s p�esn� $(j - 1)$ ��stmi nebo p�id�me $2j$ k lich�m ��sl�m rozd�len� $(m
- 2j)$ s p�esn� $j$ ��stmi. Vztah se vyj�d�� jako
\begin{equation}
o(i,j) = p[(i+j)/2,j]\;.
\end{equation}
$$\begin{tabular}{rrrr}
10 & & & \\
& 9,1 & & \\
& 8,2 & & \\
& 7,3 & 7,2,1 & \\
& 6,3 & 6,3,1 & \\
& & 5,4,1 & \\
& & 5,3,2 & \\
& & & 4,3,2,1
\end{tabular}$$
\begin{table}
\caption{Rozd�len� s nerovn�mi ��stmi}
\label{Rozd�len� s nerovn�mi ��stmi}
\begin{tabular}{|r|rrrr|c|c|}
\hline
n & 1 & 2 & 3 & 4 & $\Sigma$ & Rozd�l ($n_{lich�} -
n_{sud�})$ \\
\hline
m=1 & 1 & & & & 1 & 1 \\
2 & 1 & & & & 1 & 1 \\
3 & 1 & 1 & & & 2 & 0 \\
4 & 1 & 1 & & & 2 & 0 \\
5 & 1 & 2 & & & 3 & -1 \\
6 & 1 & 2 & 1 & & 4 & 0 \\
7 & 1 & 3 & 1 & & 5 & -1 \\
8 & 1 & 3 & 2 & & 6 & 0 \\
9 & 1 & 4 & 3 & & 8 & 0 \\
10 & 1 & 4 & 4 & 1 & 10 & 0 \\
11 & 1 & 5 & 5 & 1 & 12 & 0 \\
12 & 1 & 5 & 7 & 2 & 15 & 1 \\
\hline
\end{tabular}
\end{table}
$$\begin{array}{ccccc}
\begin{array}{c}
(1)\\
\\
\left(
\begin{array}{ccc}
1 & 1 & 1 \\
1 & 1 & 0
\end{array}
\right)\\
\\
\left(
\begin{array}{ccccc}
1 & 1 & 1 & 1 & 1 \\
1 & 1 & 1 & 1 & 0 \\
1 & 1 & 1 & 0 & 0
\end{array}
\right)
\end{array}
& \quad &
\begin{array}{c}
(1 1) \\
\\
\left(
\begin{array}{cccc}
1 & 1 & 1 & 1 \\
1 & 1 & 1 & 0
\end{array}
\right)\\
\\
\left(
\begin{array}{cccccc}
1 & 1 & 1 & 1 & 1 & 1 \\
1 & 1 & 1 & 1 & 1 & 0 \\
1 & 1 & 1 & 1 & 0 & 0
\end{array}
\right)
\end{array}
& \quad &
\begin{array}{c}
1, 2\\
\\
5, 7 \\ \\ \\
12, 15 \\ \\ \\
\end{array}
\end{array}$$
M�me uspo��d�ny omezen� rozd�len� podle po�tu nenulov�ch ��st� v tabulce 4.1. Je
mo�n� klasifikovat rozd�len� podle po�tu vektor� v rozd�len� maj�c�ch jakoukoliv
hodnotu. S pou�it�m hodnoty 1, dostaneme jin� druh diference rozd�len� jako v
tabulce 4.6.
\begin{table}
\caption{Rozd�len� podle jednotkov�ch ��st�}
\label{Rozd�len� podle jednotkov�ch ��st�}
\begin{tabular}{|r|rrrrrrr|}
\hline
n & 0 & 1 & 2 & 3 & 4 & 5 & 6 \\
\hline
m=0 & 1 & & & & & & \\
1 & 0 & 1 & & & & & \\
2 & 1 & 0 & 1 & & & & \\
3 & 1 & 1 & 0 & 1 & & & \\
4 & 2 & 1 & 1 & 0 & 1 & & \\
5 & 2 & 2 & 1 & 1 & 0 & 1 & \\
6 & 4 & 2 & 2 & 1 & 1 & 0 & 1\\
\hline
\end{tabular}
\end{table}
\begin{equation}
p_{i0} = p(i) - p(i - 1),\
p_{ij} = p_{i-1, j-1}\ ,{\rm jinak}\;.
\end{equation}
Tabulka 4.6 se z�sk� z n�sleduj�c� tabulky 4.7 ��dk� neomezen�ch rozd�len� jej�m
n�soben�m matic� ${\bf T}^{-1}$. Nulov� sloupec tabulky 4.6 je rozd�l dvou
n�sledn�ch neomezen�ch rozd�len� podle $m$. Ke v�em rozd�len�m $p(m-k)$ se p�idaly
k. Rozd�len� v nulov�m sloupci obsahuj� pouze ��sla v�t�� ne� 1. Tato rozd�len�
nemohou b�t tvo�en z ni���ch rozd�len� p�i�ten�m jednotek, jsou tedy rozd�lem
funkce rozd�len� podle ��sla $n_1$. Pon�vad� tabulka 4.6 je slo�en�, je to sou�in
dvou matic a jej� inverzn� matice je tak� slo�en�.
Pokud nap�eme n�sledn� rozd�len� jako sloupcov� nebo ��dkov� vektory jako v
tabulce 4.7, jej� prvky jsou
\begin{equation}
p_{ij} = p(i - j + 1)\;,
\end{equation}
najdeme dosti snadno jej� inverzn� matici, kter� je uveden� v druh� ��sti stejn�
tabulky.
\begin{table}
\caption{Rozd�len� a jejich Eulerova inverze}
\label{Rozd�len� a jejich Eulerova inverze}
\begin{tabular}{|r|rrrrrrc|rrrrrr|}
\hline
& \multicolumn{6}{|c}{Tabulka rozd�len�}& \qquad & \multicolumn{6}
{|c|}{Eulerova inverze} \\
\hline
j & 0 & 1 & 2 & 3 & 4 & 5 & & 0 & 1 & 2 & 3 & 4 & 5 \\
\hline
i=0 & 1 & & & & & & & 1 & & & & & \\
1 & 1 & 1 & & & & & & -1 & 1 & & & & \\
2 & 2 & 1 & 1 & & & & & -1 & -1 & 1 & & & \\
3 & 3 & 2 & 1 & 1 & & & & 0 & -1 & -1 & 1 & & \\
4 & 5 & 3 & 2 & 1 & 1 & & & 0 & 0 & -1 & -1 & 1 & \\
5 & 7 & 5 & 3 & 2 & 1 & 1 & & 1 & 0 & 0 & -1 & -1 & 1 \\
\hline
\end{tabular}
\end{table}
\begin{equation}
(1 - t)(1 - t^2)(1 - t^3)... =
1 + \sum_{i = 1}^\infty\; (-1)^i\; [t^{3i^2 - i)/2} + t^{3i^2 + i)/2}]\;.
\end{equation}
\begin{equation}
\prod_{i=1}^\infty \; (1 - t^i)\;.
\end{equation}
\begin{equation}
\prod_i=1^\infty (1 - t^i)^{-1}\;,
\end{equation}
dostaneme 1. Z tohoto vztahu plyne, �e rozd�len� jsou vytvo�ena inverz� Eulerovy
funkce, kter� je {\em vytvo�uj�c� funkc�} rozd�len�. �leny $t^i$ se mus� pova�ovat
za p�edstavuj�c� nerovn� ��sti.
V�echny ��sti v $p(n)$ maj�c� alespo� jednu ��st rovnou 1 se z�skaj� z $p(n-1)$.
Rozd�lem $p(n) - p(n)$ je zp�sobena n�jak�mi �leny $p(n-2)$. Mus�me p�idat ke
ka�d�mu rozd�len� $p(n-2)$ 2, vyjma v�ech rozd�len� $p(n-2)$ obsahuj�c�ch 1. Ta se
mus� bu� odstranit nebo pou��t v transponovan� form� s pou�it�m transponovan�ch
Ferrersov�ch graf�, pon�vad� jsou pot�eba velk� ��sti. Jedno rozd�len� z
konjugovan�ho p�ru je nadbyte�n�. Tato nepou��van� rozd�len� se mus� ode��st.
Nap��klad pro $p(8)$:
$$\begin{array}{cccccc}
6; & 1^6; & \qquad & Tvo��:& 8; & 62; \\
\underline{51};& 21^4;& & & 53; & \\
42; & 2^21^2;& & & 44;& 2^4; \\
\underline{33};& 2^3; & & & 3^22; & \\
41^2;& \underline{31^3}; & & & 42^2; & \\
\underline{321}; & & & & &
\end{array}$$
\begin{center}
p(1) + 5: 51; \qquad p(3) + 3: 33; 321; 31
\end{center}
\begin{table}
\caption{Inverzn� matice rozd�len� do n ��st�}
\label{Inverzn� matice rozd�len� do n ��st�}
\begin{tabular}{|r|rrrrrr|}
\hline
n & 1 & 2 & 3 & 4 & 5 & 6 \\
\hline
m=1 & 1 & & & & & \\
2 & -1 & 1 & & & & \\
3 & 0& -1 & 1 & & & \\
4 & 1 & -1 & -1 & 1 & & \\
5 & 0 & 1 & -1 & -1 & 1 & \\
6 & 0 & 1 & 0 & -1 & -1 & 1 \\
\hline
\end{tabular}
\end{table}
\begin{table}
\caption{Inverzn� matice jednotkov�ch rozd�l�}
\label{Inverzn� matice jednotkov�ch rozd�l�}
\begin{tabular}{|r|rrrrrr|}
\hline
n & 1 & 2 & 3 & 4 & 5 & 6 \\
\hline
m=1 & 1 & & & & & \\
2 & 0 & 1 & & & & \\
3 & -1 & 0 & 1 & & & \\
4 & -1 & -1 & 0 & 1 & & \\
5 & -1 & -1 & -1 & 0 & 1 & \\
6 & 0 & -1 & -1 & -1 & 0 & 1 \\
\hline
\end{tabular}
\end{table}
Zat�m co sloupce tabulky 4.8 jsou nepravideln� a prvky ka�d�ho sloupce se mus�
nal�zt odd�len�, sloupce tabulky 4.9 se opakuj�, jak jsou pouze posunuty v ka�d�m
sloupci o jednu ��dku dol�, podobn� jako jsou posunuty prvky jejich p�vodn�
matice. Mohou se snadno nal�zt n�soben�m matice Eulerovy funkce (tabulka 4.7)
matic� ${\bf T}$ zleva.
\begin{table}
\caption{Orbity v 3 rozm�rn�ch krychl�ch}
\label{Orbity v 3 rozm�rn�ch krychl�ch}
\begin{tabular}{|r|c|c|c|c|}
\hline
Velikost hrany & 0 & 1 & 2 & 3 \\
\hline
m=0 & 000 & 000 & 000 & 000 \\
1 & & 100 & 100 & 100 \\
2 & & 110 & 200; 110 & 210; 110 \\
3 & & 111 & 210; 111 & 300; 210; 111 \\
4 & & & 220; 211 & 310; 220; 211 \\
5 & & & 221 & 320; 311; 221 \\
6 & & & 222 & 330; 321; 222 \\
7 & & & & 331; 322 \\
8 & & & & 332 \\
9 & & & & 333 \\
\hline
\end{tabular}
\end{table}
Rovnice 4.3 se m�e pou��t pro krychle. Ukazuje jejich d�le�itou vlastnost, jsou
symetrick� pod�l hlavn� diagon�ly, jdouc� ze st�edu koordin�t, simplexu $n^0$, k
nejvzd�len�j��mu vrcholu krychle, ve kter�m v�echny $n$ koordin�ty jsou $(m-1)$.
Diagon�lu krychle p�edstavuj� v tabulce 4.10 $k$ indexy. Mimo to krychle je
konvexn�, tedy
\begin{equation}
M \leq mn/2 \ {\rm potom} \ p(m,n,M) \geq p(m,n,M-1)
\end{equation}
pokud
\begin{equation}
M \geq mn/2 \ {\rm potom} \ p(m,n,M) \leq p(m,n,M-1)
\end{equation}
Zde vid�me d�le�itost omezen�ch rozd�len�. Z tabulky 4.10 najdeme rekurenci, kter�
je dan� faktem, �e ve v�t�� krychli je v�dy men�� krychle p��tomn� jako jej�
z�kladna. Nov� orbity, kter� jsou na jej�ch roz���en�ch stran�ch se k n�
p�i��taj�. Av�ak nesta�� zn�t orbity jedn� roz���en� strany, proto�e jin� strany
se tvo�� t�mito orbity. Roz���en� strana n rozm�rn� krychle je $(n - 1)$ rozm�rn�
krychle. Rekurentn� vztah pro rozd�len� v krychli je tedy
\begin{equation}
p(m,n,M) = p(m-1,n,M) + p(m,n-1,M)
\end{equation}
\begin{equation}
{\rm ��sti\ 1:}\; (1 + t_1^1 + t_1^2 + \dots\; t_1^{\infty})
\end{equation}
\begin{equation}
{\rm ��sti\ 2:}\; (1 + t_2^1 + t_2^2 + \dots\; t_2^{\infty})
\end{equation}
a tak d�le a�
\begin{equation}
{\rm ��sti}\ \infty:\; (1 + \dots\; t^1_{\infty})
\end{equation}
\begin{equation}
1 + t_1^1 + [t_2^1 + t_1^2] + [t_3^1 + \dots\;.
\end{equation}
\begin{equation}
u(t) = \prod_{k=1}^\infty (1 - t_k)\;.
\end{equation}
\chapter{M��ky orbit}
\label{M��ky orbit}
\section{Sch�mata rozd�len�}
\label{Sch�mata rozd�len�}
Klasifikovali jsme ji� orbity v rovinn�ch simplexech podle po�tu $k$ nenulov�ch
��st�. Tento po�et ukazuje rozm�rnost podsimplex�, jejich vrcholy, hrany, (k-1)
rozm�rn� t�lesa. Pozd�ji jsme zavedli po�et jednotkov�ch vektor� jako n�stroj
diferencuj�c� simplex. Nyn� uspo��d�me rozd�len� jako dvourozm�rn� tabulky. Tyto
tabulky se budou naz�vat {\em sch�mata rozd�len�}.
\begin{figure}
\caption{M��ka orbit rozd�len� (7, 7)}
\label{M��ka rozd�len�}
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\begin{table}
\caption{Sch�ma rozd�len� (7,7)}
\label{Sch�ma rozd�len� (7,7)}
\begin{tabular}{|r|rrrrrrr|r|}
\hline
na & 1 & 2 & 3 & 4 & 5 & 6& 7 & $\Sigma$ \\
\hline
m = 7 & 1& & & & & & & 1 \\
6 & & 1 & & & & & & 1 \\
5 & & 1 & 1 & & & & & 2 \\
4 & & 1 & 1 & 1 & & & & 3 \\
3 & & & 2 & 1 & 1 & & & 4 \\
2 & & & & 1 & 1 & 1& & 3 \\
1 & & & & & & & 1 & 1 \\
\hline
$\Sigma$ & 1 & 3 & 4 & 3 & 2 & 1 & 1 & 11 \\
\hline
\end{tabular}
\end{table}
\begin{equation}
(x + 1)^2 + (x - 1)^2 > (2x)^2\;.
\end{equation}
Po�et nenulov�ch vektor� v rozd�len� bude uv�d�n jako $n$, velikost prv�ho vektoru
jako $m$. Nuly se nebudou zapisovat, aby se u�et�ila pr�ce. Z�vorka $(m,n)$
znamen� v�echna rozd�len� ��sla $m$ do nejv�e $n$ ��st�. Pon�vad� nap�eme
rozd�len� jako vektor, povol�me jako d��ve nulov� ��sti k dopln�n� rozd�len�.
\begin{table}
\caption{Sch�ma rozd�len� m = 13}
\label{Sch�ma rozd�len� m = 13}
\begin{tabular}{|r|rrrrrr|rrrrrrr|}
\hline
n & 1 & 2 & 3 & 4 & 5 & 6 & 7 & 8 & 9 & 10 & 11& 12 & 13 \\
\hline
m=13& 1 & & & & & & & & & & & & \\
12 & & 1& & & & & & & & & & & \\
11 & & 1& 1 & & & & & & & & & & \\
10 & & 1 & 1 & 1 & & & & & & & & & \\
9 & & 1 & 2 & 1 & 1 & & & & & & & & \\
8 & & 1 & 2 & 2 & 1 & 1 & & & & & & & \\
7 & & 1 & 3 & 3 & 2 & 1 & 1 & & & & & & \\
\hline
6 & & & 3 & 5 & 2 & 2 & 1 & 1 & & & & & \\
5 & & & 2 & * & 5 & 5 & 2 & 1 & 1 & & & & \\
4 & & & & * & 2 & 3 & 3 & 2 & 1 & 1 & & & \\
3 & & & & & * & * & 3 & 2 & 2 & 1 & 1 & & \\
2 & & & & & & & 1 & 1 & 1 & 1 & 1 & 1 &
\\
1 & & & & & & & & & & & &
& 1 \\
\hline
$\Sigma$ & 1 & 6 & 14 & 18 & 18 & 14 & 11 & 7 & 5 & 3&
2 & 1 & 1 \\
\hline
\end{tabular}
\end{table}
Sch�ma rozd�len� se rozd�l� do �ty� blok�. Diagon�ln� bloky se opakuj� tabulku 4.1
(lev� horn� blok), prav� doln� blok je naps�n v transponovan� form� pro $n >
m/2$. Lich� a sud� sch�mata se chovaj� pon�kud odli�n�, jak lze vid�t na
tabulk�ch 5.2 a 5.3
\begin{table}
\caption{Sch�ma rozd�len� m = 14}
\label{Sch�ma rozd�len� m = 14}
\begin{tabular}{|r|rrrrrr|rrrrrrrr|}
\hline
n & 1 & 2 & 3 & 4 & 5 & 6 & 7 & 8 & 9 & 10 & 11& 12 & 13& 14 \\
\hline
m=14& 1 & & & & & & & & & & & & & \\
13 & & 1 & & & & & & & & & & & & \\
12 & & 1 & 1 & & & & & & & & & & & \\
11 & & 1 & 1 & 1 & & & & & & & & & & \\
10 & & 1 & 2 & 1 & 1 & & & & & & & & & \\
9 & & 1 & 2 & 2 & 1 & 1 & & & & & & & & \\
8 & & 1 & 3 & 3 & 2 & 1& 1 & & & & & & & \\
7 & & 1 & 3 & 4 & 3 & 2 & 1 & 1 & & & & & & \\
\hline
6 & & & * & * & * & * & 2 & 1 & 1 & & & & & \\
5 & & & 2 & * & * & * & 3 & 2 & 1 & 1 & & & & \\
4 & & & & 3 & * & * & 4 & 3 & 2 & 1 & 1& & & \\
3 & & & & & 2 & * & 3 & 3 & 2 & 2 & 1 & 1 & & \\
2 & & & & & & & 1 & 1 & 1 & 1 & 1 & 1 & 1 & \\
1 & & & & & & & & & & & & && 1 \\
\hline
$\Sigma$ & 1 & 7& 16 & 23 & 23 & 20 & 15 & 11 & 7 & 5 & 3 &2 & 1 & 1\\
\hline
\end{tabular}
\end{table}
V lev�m doln�m bloku nenulov� prvky ozna�en� hv�zdi�kou * mohou b�t um�st�ny pouze
nad ��dkou, kter� d�v� dostate�n� velk� sou�in $mn$ pro um�st�n� v�ech jednotek do
odpov�daj�c�ch Ferrersov�ch graf� a jejich sou�ty mus� souhlasit nejen s ��dkov�mi
a sloupcov�mi sou�ty ale tak� s diagon�ln�mi sou�ty, jak uk�eme n�e. To lze vyu��t
pro v�po�ty jejich po�tu spole�n� s pravidly pro omezen� rozd�len�.
\begin{itemize}
\item Sch�mata rozd�len� jsou symetrick� podle sv�ch transverz�l, z p���iny
konjugovan�ch rozd�len� z�skan�ch transponov�n�m Ferrersov�ch graf�.
\item Horn� lev� �tvrtina (transponovan� doln� prav� �tvrtina) obsahuj� prvky
tabulky 4.1 rozd�len� do p�esn� $n$ ��st� posunut� o jeden sloupec nahoru.
\item Sch�mata maj� formu matice v doln� diagon�ln� form� s jednotkovou
diagon�lou. Proto maj� inverze. Je snadn� je nal�zt, nap��klad pro $n=7$ (tabulka
\ref{Sch�ma rozd�len� (7,7) a jeho inverze}).
\end{itemize}
Rozd�len� v ��dc�ch mus� b�t vyv�ena jin�mi s prvky inverzn�ch sloupc�. T�et�
sloupec zahrnuje nebo vyd�luje 331 a 322 s 3211 a $31^4$; $2^31$ a $2^21^3$ s
$2\times 21^5$.
\begin{table}
\caption{Sch�ma rozd�len� (7,7) a jeho inverze}
\label{Sch�ma rozd�len� (7,7) a jeho inverze}
\begin{tabular}{|r|rrrrrrr|crrrrrrr|}
\hline
na & 1 & 2 & 3 & 4 & 5 & 6 & 7 &\qquad &1 & 2 & 3 & 4 & 5 & 6 & 7 \\
\hline
m = 7 & 1 & & & & & & & & 1 & & & & & & \\
6 & & 1 & & & & & & & & 1 & & & & & \\
5 & & 1 & 1 & & & & & & & 0 & 1 & & & & \\
4 & & 1 & 1 & 1 & & & & & & 0 & -1 & 1 & & & \\
3 & & & 2 & 1 & 1 & & & & & 2 & -1 & -1 & 1 & & \\
2 & & & & 1 & 1 & 1 & & & & -2 & 2 & 0 & -1& 1 & \\
1 & & & & & & & 1 & & & 0 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 1 \\
\hline
\end{tabular}
\end{table}
\section{M��ky orbit}
\label{M��ky orbity}
Uk�zali jsme v ��sti 4.4, �e jedna orbita se m�e z�skat z jin� posunut�m pr�v�
dvou vektor�, jednoho nahoru a druh�ho dol�, na ��seln� stupnici. M�eme si
p�edstavit, �e oba vektory se sraz� a vym�n� si sv� hodnoty jako si dv� ��stice
ide�ln�ho plynu vym�n� sv� energie. Pokud omez�me v�sledek takov� v�m�ny na 1
jednotku, m�eme pova�ovat takov� dv� orbity za orbity nejbli���ho sousedstv�.
Vzd�lenost mezi t�mto p�rem je $\sqrt{2}$. Spoj�me je v sch�matu ��rou. N�kter�
orbity jsou tak spojen� s mnoha sousedn�mi orbity, jin� maj� pr�v� jednoho
souseda, srovnej s obr. 5.1. Orbity (3,3,0) a (4,1,1) nejsou nejbli���mi sousedy,
proto�e se mus� transformovat v dvou kroc�ch:
$$(3,3,0) \leftrightarrow ((3,2,1) \leftrightarrow (4,1,1)$$
nebo
$$(3,3,0) \leftrightarrow (4,2,0) \leftrightarrow (4,1,1)\;.$$
Sch�mata rozd�len� nejsou obecn� vhodn� pro konstrukci m��ky orbit, proto�e p�i
$m=n > 7$ se objevuje v�ce orbit na n�kter�ch m�stech tabulky. Je nutn�
konstruovat alespo� 3 rozm�rn�m m��ky, aby se uk�zala v�echna existuj�c� spojen�.
Nap��klad:
$$\begin{array}{ccccc}
(5,2,1) & \leftrightarrow & (4,3,1) & \leftrightarrow & (3,3,2) \\
& \searrow \nwarrow & \updownarrow & \swarrow \nearrow & \\
& & (4,2,2) & &
\end{array}$$
\begin{figure}
\caption{M��ka rozd�len� soubor�. Soubor se m�e rozd�lit do dvou nov�ch nebo dva
soubory se mohou spojit do jednoho}
\label{M��ka rozd�len� soubor�}
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\end{figure}
V m��ce je mo�n� po��tat po�et nejbli���ch soused�. Pokud studujeme po�et soused�
o jednu jednotku nebo spojuj�c� hrany mezi sloupci sch�mat rozd�len�, dostaneme
zaj�mavou tabulku \ref{Right Hand Jedena-jednotkov� Neighbors Rozd�len� Orbity}.
\begin{table}
//
\caption{Pravostrann� soused� o jednu jednotku v orbit�ch rozd�len�}
\label{Right Hand Jedena-jednotkov� Neighbors Rozd�len� Orbity}
//
\begin{tabular}{|r|rrrrrr|r|}
\hline
n & 1 & 2 & 3 & 4 & 5 & 6 & $\Sigma$ \\
\hline
m=2 & 1 & & & & & & 1 \\
3 & 1 & 1 & & & & & 2 \\
4 & 1 & 2 & 1 & & & & 4 \\
5 & 1 & 3 & 2 & 1 & & & 7 \\
6& 1 & 4 & 4 & 2 & 1 & & 12 \\
7 & 1 & 5 & 6 & 4 & 2 & 1& 19 \\
\hline
D(7-6) & 0 & 1 & 2 & 2 & 1& 1 & 7\\
\hline
\end{tabular}
\end{table}
\begin{figure}
\caption{M��ky sousedstv� mezi rovinn�mi simplexy}
\label{M��ky sousedstv� mezi rovinn�mi simplexy}
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\end{figure}
\begin{equation}
P(n) = \sum_{k=0}^{n-2}\;p(k)\;.
\end{equation}
Abychom nalezli v�echny sousedy, mus�me p�idat sousedy uvnit� sloupc�. Po�et prvk�
ve sloupc�ch je po�et rozd�len� do p�esn� $n$ ��st� $p(m,n)$, rozd�l v ka�d�m
sloupci se mus� sn�it o 1, av�ak existuj� dal�� spojen�, viz obr. 5.2.
Tato spojen� se mus� se��tat odd�len�. V�sledn� ��sla jsou u� zn�m�. Konstrukce
sch�mat rozd�len� d�v� v�sledek, kter� je zn�m jako tabulka 4.1 �ten� od diagon�ly
do leva.
$$\begin{array}{cccc}
x & x & x & x \\
x & & & \\
x & & & \\
x & & &
\end{array}$$
Prvky vedlej��ch diagon�l po��taj� rozd�len�, kter� maj� v t�to vrstv� men�� po�et
jednotek, jin� jsou uvnit� t�to z�kladny.
\begin{table}
\caption{Diagon�ln� rozd�ly rozd�len�}
\label{Diagon�ln� rozd�ly rozd�len�}
\begin{tabular}{|r|rrrrrrrrr|r|}
\hline
k & 1 & 2 & 3 & 4 & 5 & 6 & 7 & 8 & 9 & $\Sigma$ \\
\hline
n= 1 & 1 & & & & & & & & & 1 \\
2 & 2 & & & & & & & & & 2 \\
3 & 3 & & & & & & & & & 3 \\
4 & 4 & 1 & & & & & & & & 5 \\
5 & 5 & 2 & & & & & & & & 7 \\
6 & 6 & 3 & 2 & & & & & & & 11 \\
7 & 7 & 4 & 4 & & & & & & & 15 \\
8 & 8 & 5 & 6 & 3 & & & & & & 22 \\
9 & 9 & 6 & 8 & 6 & 1 & & & & & 30 \\
10 & 10 & 7 & 10 & 9 & 6 & & & & & 42 \\
11 & 11 & 8 & 12 & 12 & 11 & 2 & & & & 56 \\
12 & 12 & 9 & 14 & 15 & 16 & 9 & 2 & & & 77 \\
13 & 13 & 10 & 16 & 18 & 21 & 16 & 7 & & & 101 \\
14 & 14 & 11 & 18& 21& 26 & 23 & 18 & 4 & & 135 \\
15& 15 & 12& 20& 24& 31 & 30 & 29 & 12 & 3 & 176 \\
\hline
\end{tabular}
\end{table}
\begin{itemize}
\item 1n po��t� prvky v n sloupc�ch (��dc�ch) maj�c� tvar $(n - k)1^k$, $k = 0$ --
$(n -1)$;
\item 1(n-3) po��t� prvky v (n - 2) sloupc�ch (��dc�ch) z�skan� ze z�kladn�ho
rozd�len� 2,2 p�i�ten�m jednotek v prv� ��dce a sloupci;
\item 2(n-5) po��t� prvky v (n - 2) sloupc�ch (��dc�ch) z�skan� ze z�kladn�ch
rozd�len� 3,3 a 2,2,2 p�i�ten�m jednotek v prv� ��dce a sloupci;
\item 3(n-7) po��t� prvky v (n - 2) sloupc�ch (��dc�ch) z�skan� ze z�kladn�ho
rozd�len� 4,4; 3,3,2 a 2,2,2,2 p�i�ten�m jednotek v prv� ��dce a sloupci;
\item 5(n-9) + 1. Na t�to �rovni se objevuje rozd�len� 3,3,3, kde prvky za��naj�
obsazovat t�et� L vrstvu;
\item 7(n-11) + 2.
\end{itemize}
Hodnoty v z�vork�ch jsou ��sla pro rozd�len�, kter� le�� uvnit� L r�me�ku maj�c�ho
$(2k-1)$ jednotek. Ve vy���ch diagon�ln�ch vrstv�ch se objevuj� tyto mo�nosti
p�idat nov� prvky pozd�ji. Rozd�len� 4, 4, 4 a 3, 3, 3, 3, pro $n=12$, se po��taj�
v sedm� vrstv�. Pro $n=13$, vrstva po��t� sedm rozd�len�:
$$\begin{array}{ccccc}
5,5,3; & & \\
5,4,4; & & \\
& 4,4,4,1; & \\
& 4,4,3,2; & \\
& 4,3,3,3; & \\
& & 3,3,3,3,1; \\
& & 3,3,3,2,1.
\end{array}$$
\section{Zobecn�n� m��ky}
\label{Zobecn�n� m��ky}
\begin{figure}
\caption{Nejbli��� soused� v 00111 m��ce}
\label{Nejbli��� soused� v 00111 m��ce}
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Pojem m��ky se bude pou��vat tak� pro mo�n� transformace bod� maj�c�ch zvl�tn�
vlastnosti mezi nimi samotn�mi, nap��klad mezi v�emi 10 permutacemi p�tice slo�en�
ze 3 symbol� jednoho druhu a 2 symbol� jin�ho druhu. Kdy� se soused� li�� pouze o
jeden vym�n� si polohy pouze jak�koliv p�r dvou druh� symbol�, dostaneme m��ku
jako na obr. \ref{Nejbli��� soused� v 00111 m��ce}. Ka�d� ze t�� jednotkov�ch
symbol� m� dv� mo�nosti, jak zam�nit 0 za 1. Uspo��dejte jako jednoduch�
troj�heln�k. Sou�asn� v�m�na dvou p�r� (nebo dv� n�sledn� v�m�ny jednoho p�ru
d�vaj� vzor jako na obr. \ref{Petersen�v graf}, zn�m� jako Petersen�v graf.
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\caption{Petersen�v graf. Soused�c� vrcholy jsou ve vzd�lenosti 4}
\label{Petersen�v graf}
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\begin{figure}
\caption{M��ka t��rozm�rn� jednotkov� krychle}
\label{M��ka t��rozm�rn� jednotkov� krychle}
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M��ky se tvo�� vrcholy n rozm�rn� krychle. Nejbli��� vrcholy se li�� pouze o jednu
koordin�tu. M��ka 3 rozm�rn� krychle je na obr. \ref{M��ka t��rozm�rn� jednotkov�
krychle}. Porovnej linie grafu s re�lnou 3 rozm�rnou krychl� a pokuste si
p�edstavit 4 rozm�rnou krychli (obr. \ref{�ty� rozm�rn� krychle}).
\begin{figure}
\caption{ Projekce �ty� rozm�rn� krychle. Jedna 3 rozm�rn� krychle je oto�ena o
$45^0$}
\label{�ty� rozm�rn� krychle}
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Prvky maj� v�dy pouze dv� vlastnosti. Vlastnosti soused�c� svisle a vodorovn� se
vz�jemn� vylu�uj�. N�co nem�e b�t sou�asn� tepl� a chladn�, nebo vlhk� a such�
\footnote { P�esn�ji, je nutn� kreslit hranici (nulov� bod) mezi t�mito
vlastnostmi. V z�vislosti na sv� saturaci, vodn� p�ra m�e b�t such� stejn� jako
mokr�.}.
V t�to kapitole zavedeme d�le�it� pojem {\em d�litel}. ��slo $k$ je d�litelem
��sla $m$ pokud $m\ \equiv 0\ {\rm mod}\ k$, to znamen�, �e $m$ je identick� s 0,
se $k$. Nebo jinak, $m = kn$, ��slo $m$ �t�p� do $n$ stejn�ch ��st� $k$. Z toho
plyne, �e ka�d� ��slo m� alespo� dva d�litele, ��slo 1, kter� nech�v� ��slo
nezm�n�n� a ��slo samotn�, kdy d�len� d�v� 1 jako v�sledek. Pokud existuj� pouze
tyto dva d�litel�, tak se takov� ��slo naz�v� {\em prvo��slo}.
Lze nal�zt prvo��sla $p$ pomoc� Erasthothenesova s�ta. Tento algoritmus pracuje
jako s�to. ��slo polo�en� na prvn� sloupec s�ta propad� sv�m sloupcem. Pokud
dos�hne diagon�lu bez st�etnut� se s d�litelem, je to prvo��slo. D�litel� j
reprezentovan� jednotkami v ��dc�ch d�litel� odpov�daj�c�ch sloupc� pracuj� jako
oka s�ta. Tedy Erasthothenesovo s�to je matice, jej� prvky jsou
$$e_{ij} = 1\;,$$
pokud ��slo j je d�litelem ��sla i, a
$$e_{ij} =0\;,$$
jinak. V tabulce 6.1 je Erasthotenesovo s�to a jeho Moebiusova inverzn� funkce.
\begin{table}
\caption{Erasthotenesovo s�to a jeho Moebiusova inverzn� funkce}
\label{Erasthothenes}
\begin{tabular}{|r|rrrrrrr|crrrrrrr|}
\hline
& \multicolumn{7}{|c|}{Erasthothenovo s�to}& &\multicolumn{7}
{c|}{Moebiusova inverze}\\
\hline
j & 1 & 2 & 3 & 4 & 5 & 6 & 7&\qquad & 1 & 2 & 3 &
4 & 5 & 6 & 7 \\
\hline
i=1& 1 & & & & & & & & 1 & & & &
& & \\
2& 1 & 1 & & & & & & & -1 & 1 & & &
& & \\
3& 1& 0 & 1 & & & & & & -1 & 0 & 1 & &
& & \\
4& 1 & 1 & 0 & 1 & & & & & 0 & -1 & 0 & 1 &
& & \\
5& 1 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 1 & & & & -1 & 0 & 0 & 0 &
1 & & \\
6& 1 & 1 & 1 & 0 & 0 & 1 & & & 1 & -1 & -1 & 0 &
0 & 1 & \\
7& 1 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 1& & -1 & 0 & 0 & 0 &
0 & 0 & 1 \\
\hline
\end{tabular}
\end{table}
D�litel� tvo�� pravideln� vzor, jsou ve v�ech ��dc�ch $i\ \equiv 0\ {\rm mod}\ j$.
Prvo��sla ��dnou, jako matice roste, av�ak je v�dy mo�n� naleznout jin� prvo��slo
$p(n)$ jako sou�in v�ech p�edchoz�ch prvo��sel zv�t�en� o 1
\begin{equation}
p(n) = \prod^n_{j=1}\; p_j +1\;.
\end{equation}
��dkov� sou�ty Erasthothenova s�ta $({\bf EJ})$ jsou po�ty d�litel�. Objevuj� se
na diagon�le kvadratick� formy ${\bf EE}^{\rm T}$ matice ${\bf E}$. Jsou zn�m�
jako {\em Eulerova funkce} $\sigma^0\;(n)$. Tato funkce je spojena s logaritmy
d�litel�. Pokud pou�ijeme jako z�kladnu logaritm� ��slo $n$ samotn�, dostaneme
(vyjma $n = 1$)
\begin{equation}
\sigma^0 (n) = 2\sum \lg (d|n)
\end{equation}
\begin{equation}
\sigma^0 (n) = 2\sum \lg (d|n)/\lg n
\end{equation}
V tabulce 6.1 byla uk�z�na Moebiusova funkce jako inverzn� matice ${\bf E}^{-1}$.
Prvky jej�ho prv�ho sloupce jsou
\begin{itemize}
\item $e^{-1}_{i1} = 1, {\rm pokud} i = 1\;,$ nebo v p��pad� sou�inu sud�ho po�tu
prvo��sel;
\item $e^{-1}_{i1} = -1$, pokud i je prvo��slo nebo sou�in lich�ho po�tu prvo��sel
a
\item $e^{-1}_{i1} = 0$, pokud i je sou�in vy��� mocniny prvo��sel jako $4 = 2^2$
v tabulce 6.1.
\end{itemize}
Tyto prvky se objevuj� v dal��ch sloupc�ch na m�stech, kde pom�r $i/j$ je cel�
��slo jinak jsou tam nuly. Jednotkov� prvky jsou �id�� ve vy���ch sloupc�ch.
Moebiusova inverze je klasick�m p��kladem kombinatorick�ho {\em principu inkluse a
exkluse}. N�kter� objekty se po��taj� ve sv�ch kombinac�ch dvakr�t nebo v�cekr�t,
potom se tyto p�ev�en� ��sti ode��taj� v jin�ch kombinac�ch, abychom dostali
spr�vnou hodnotu . Formulovali jsme tento princip v sofistikovan� technice sou�in�
matic. Tato technika se m�e pou��t pro v�echny matice, kter� maj� jednotkovou
diagon�lu a v�echny nenulov� prvky pod nebo na diagon�le. Jednotkov� matice ${\bf
I}$ se ode�te od takov� matice a rozd�l se potom n�sob� s�m se sebou a� v�echny
nenulov� prvky zmiz� (nejv�e $n$ kr�t). Nap��klad
$$\begin{array}{ccc}
\begin{array}{c}
\\
({\bf E}- {\bf I})\\
\\
\left(
\begin{array}{cccc}
0 & 0 & 0 & 0 \\
1 & 0 & 0 & 0 \\
1 & 0 & 0 & 0 \\
1 & 1 & 0 & 0
\end{array}
\right)
\end{array} &
\begin{array}{c}
\\
({\bf E}-{\bf I})^2\\
\\
\left(
\begin{array}{cccc}
0 & 0 & 0 & 0 \\
0 & 0 & 0 & 0 \\
0 & 0 & 0 & 0 \\
1 & 0 & 0 & 0
\end{array}
\right)
\end{array} &
\begin{array}{c}
\\
({\bf E}-{\bf I})^3\\
\\
\left(
\begin{array}{cccc}
0 & 0 & 0 & 0 \\
0 & 0 & 0 & 0 \\
0 & 0 & 0 & 0 \\
0 & 0 & 0 & 0
\end{array}
\right)
\end{array}
\end{array}$$
Rozvojem sou�inu $({\bf E}- {\bf I})^k$, kdy� se rovn� ${\bf 0}$, jednotkov�
diagon�ln� matice se vyj�d�� jako
\begin{equation}
\sum_{i=1}^n\; (-1)^i { n \choose k}\;{\bf E}^i = {\bf I}
\end{equation}
N�soben�m obou stran s ${\bf E}^{-1}$ a odstran�n�m ${\bf E}^{-1}{\bf E} = {\bf I}
$ dostaneme
\begin{equation}
{\bf E}^{-1} = \sum_{i=1}^n\; (-1)^{i-1} { n \choose k}\;{\bf
E}^{i-1}\;.
\end{equation}
Objekty ${ n \choose k}$ vypadaj�c� jako jeden sloupec matice v obou rovnic�ch
jsou zn�m� jako binomi�ln� koeficienty. Po��taj� v�echny mo�nosti, jak vybrat $k$
objekt� z $n$ objekt�. Inverzn� matice ${\bf E}^{-1}$ je sou�et kladn�ch a
z�porn�ch n�sobk� kladn�ch mocnin ${\bf E}^k$. To zn� zcela tajemn�.
\section{Funkce d�litel�}
\label{Funkce d�litel�}
$$\begin{tabular}{|r|rrrrrrrrrrr|}
\hline
n & 1 & 2 & 3 & 4 & 5 & 6 & 7 & 8 & 9 & 10 & 11 \\
\hline
$\sigma^0(n)$ & 1 & 2 & 2 & 3 & 2 & 4 & 2 & 4 & 3 & 4 & 2 \\
$\sigma^1 (n)$ & 1 & 3 & 4 & 7 & 6 & 12 & 8 & 15 & 13 & 16 & 12 \\
$\sum[\sigma^0(n)]$ & 1 & 3 & 5 & 8 & 10 & 14 & 16 & 20 & 23 &
27 & 29 \\
\hline
\end{tabular}$$
\begin{equation}
\sum[\sigma^0 (n)] = \sum_{j=1}^n\;[n/j]\;,
\end{equation}
kde [n/j] znamen� celou ��st dan�ho zlomku. Tedy sou�et $\sum[\sigma^0(n)]$ m�
jako limitu sou�in $n\sum_{j=1}^n\;n/j$. Nap��klad
Pokud uspo��d�me prvky stop ${\bf E}^{\rm T}{\bf E}$ (to je druh� kvadratick�
forma Erasthothenova s�ta), nebo postupn� spo��t�me prvky ve sloupc�ch matice $
{\bf E}$ do tabulky a nalezneme jej� inverzi, potom jej� ��dkov� sou�ty d�vaj�
hodnoty Moebiusovy funkce (tabulka\ref{Erasthothenes Sieve Diagonal Values}).
\begin{table}
\caption{Diagon�ln� hodnoty Erasthothenova s�ta a jejich Moebiusovy inverze}
\label{Erasthothenes Sieve Diagonal Values}
\begin{tabular}{|r|rrrrrrr|r|rrrrrrr|r|}
\hline
& \multicolumn{7}{|c|}{ Diagon�ln� hodnoty}& $\;\Sigma\;$ &\multicolumn{7}
{|c|}{Moebiusova inverze} & $\;\Sigma\;$ \\
\hline
j & 1 & 2 & 3 & 4 & 5 & 6 & 7& & 1 & 2 & 3 & 4 & 5 & 6 & 7 & \\
\hline
i=1 & 1 & & & & & & & 1 & 1 & & & & & & & 1 \\
2 & 2 & 1 & & & & & & 3 & -2 & 1 & & & & & & -1 \\
3 & 3 & 1 & 1 & & & & & 5 & -1 & -1 & 1 & & & & & -1 \\
4 & 4 & 2 & 1 & 1 & & & & 8 & 1 &-1 &-1 & 1 & & & & 0 \\
5&5 & 2 & 1 & 1 & 1 & & & 10 & -1 & 0 & 0 &-1 & 1 & & & -1 \\
6&6 & 3 & 2 & 1 & 1 & 1 & & 14 & 2 & 0 &-1 & 0 &-1 & 1 & & 1 \\
7&7 & 3 & 2 & 1 & 1 & 1 & 1 & 16 & -1 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 0 &-1 & 1 & -1 \\
\hline
\end{tabular}
\end{table}
Prvky ��dk� p�edchoz� matice ${\bf M}$ jsou ${\bf J}^{\rm T}{\bf E}$, tedy
Moebiusova funkce je ${\bf M}^{-1}{\bf J}$.
A je�t� d�le�it�j�� funkc� je sou�et hodnot d�litel�. Ty lze vyj�d�it jako sou�in
matic maj�c� v r�me�ku ${\bf E}(*){\bf E}^{\rm T}$ diagon�ln� matici index�
$\Delta(j)$. ${\bf E}\Delta(j)$ je matice hodnot d�litel�. Sou�ty hodnot d�litel�
$\sigma^1 (n)$ jsou diagon�ln�mi prvky matice ${\bf E}\Delta(j){\bf E}^{\rm T}$:
$$\begin{array}{cc}
\begin{array}{c}
{\bf E}\Delta(j) \\
\\
\left(
\begin{array}{cccc}
1 & & & \\
1 & 2 & & \\
1 & 0 & 3 & \\
1 & 2 & 0 & 4
\end{array}
\right)
\end{array} &
\begin{array}{c}
{\bf E}\Delta(j){\bf E}^{\rm T} \\
\\
\left(
\begin{array}{cccc}
1 & 1& 1 & 1 \\
1 & 3 & 1 & 3 \\
1 & 1 & 4 & 1 \\
1 & 3 & 1 & 7
\end{array}
\right)
\end{array}
\end{array}$$
Po�et d�litel� $j$, kter� tak� d�v� pod�ly $n/d$ se z�sk� jako jin� sou�in matic:
\begin{equation}
\Delta(j){\bf E}[\Delta(j)]^{-1}
\end{equation}
$$\left(
\begin{array}{ccccc}
1 & & & & \\
2 & 1 & & & \\
3 & 0 & 1 & & \\
4 & 2 & 0 & 1 & \\
5 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 1
\end{array}
\right)\;.$$
Pokud n�sob�me tuto matici inverzn� matic� ${\bf E}^{-1}$, dostaneme matici, jej�
prvky po��taj� po�ty t�ch ��sel mezi 1 a $n$, kter� jsou d�lena dan�m d�litelem s
v�hradou, �e u� nebyl d�len v�t��m d�litelem. Tedy ��dkov� sou�ty v tabulce jsou
v�dy $n$.
\begin{table}
\caption{Po�ty ��sel d�len�ch dan�mi d�liteli}
\label{Po�ty ��sel d�len�ch dan�mi d�liteli}
\begin{tabular}{|r|rrrrrrrr|r|}
\hline
n & 1 & 2 & 3 & 4 & 5 & 6 & 7 & 8 &$\Sigma$ \\
\hline
m=1& 1 & & & & & & & & 1 \\
2 & 1 & 1 & & & & & & & 2 \\
3 & 2 & 0 & 1 & & & & & & 3 \\
4 & 2 & 1 & 0 & 1 & & & & & 4 \\
5 & 4 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 1 & & & & 5 \\
6 & 2 & 2 & 1 & 0 & 0 & 1 & & & 6 \\
7 & 6 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 1 & & 7 \\
8 & 4 & 2 & 0 & 1 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 1 & 8 \\
\hline
\end{tabular}
\end{table}
Jej� inverzn� funkce m� op�t tabulkovou formu (viz tabulku \ref{Inversn� funkce
po�tu ��sel}).
\begin{table}
\caption{Inversn� funkce po�tu ��sel}
\label{Inversn� funkce po�tu ��sel}
\begin{tabular}{|r|rrrrrrrr|r|}
\hline
n & 1 & 2 & 3 & 4 & 5 & 6 & 7 & 8 & $\Sigma$ \\
\hline
m=1& 1 & & & & & & & & 1 \\
2 & -1 & 1 & & & & & & & 0 \\
3 & -2 & 0 & 1 & & & & & & -1 \\
4 & -1 & -1 & 0 & 1 & & & & & -1 \\
5 & -4 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 1 & & & & -3 \\
6 & 2 & -2 & -1 & 0 & 0 & 1 & & & 0 \\
7 & -6 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 1 & & -5 \\
8 & -1 & -1 & 0 & -1 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 1 & -2 \\
\hline
\end{tabular}
\end{table}
$$\begin{tabular}{|l|rrrrrrrr|r|}
\hline
D�litel� & 1 & 2 & 3 & 5 & 6 & 10 & 15 & 30 &
$\Sigma$\\
\hline
D�len� ��sla $d_{i1}$ & 8 & 8 & 4 & 2 & 4 & 2 & 1 & 1 &
30\\
$d_{i1}^{-1}$ & 1 & -1 & -2 & -4& 2 & 4 & 8 & -8 & \\
\hline
$d_{i1}d_{i1}^{-1}$ & 8 & -8 & -8 & -8 & 8 & 8 & 8 & -8 & 0 \\
\hline
\end{tabular}$$
Jinou funkc� d�len� je funkce $\varphi(n)$. Tato funkce po��t� ��sla, kter� nejsou
d�liteln� d�liteli $n$ vyjma 1. Jsou to
$$\begin{tabular}{|l|ccccccc|}
\hline
n & 1 & 2 & 3 & 4 & 5 & 6 & 7 \\
\hline
$\varphi(n)$ & 1 & 1 & 2 & 2 & 4 & 2 & 6 \\
\hline
Po��tan� ��sla & 1; & 1; & 1,2; & 1,3;& 1 -- 4; & 1,5; & 1 --
6 \\
\hline
\end{tabular}$$
\begin{equation}
\varphi(n) = n\prod_{p=2}^n\;(1- 1/p)
\end{equation}
kde $p$ jsou prvo��sla, kter� jsou d�liteli $n$. Pom�r $n/p$ se od�t�p� od ��sla
$n$ ka�dou inverz� prvo��sla $1/p$. Sou�et po��t� v�echny ode�ten� ��sti z cel�ho
$n$. Funkce $\varphi(n)$ sou�inu dvou ��sel je jednodu�e sou�in hodnot pro ka�d�
��slo
\begin{equation}
\varphi(nm) = \varphi(n)\varphi(m)\;.
\end{equation}
\begin{equation}
\sum_{n_{d|n}} \varphi(d) = n\;.
\end{equation}
Nap��klad pro $n = 6$: $\varphi(1) + \varphi(2) + \varphi(3) + \varphi(6) = 1 +1
+2 +2 = 6$.
D�vodem pro� bylo zavedeno Erasthothenovo s�to, je jeho vyu�it� p�i po��t�n�
rozd�len�. V ka�d�m neomezen�m rovinn�m simplexu je $p(m)$ rozd�len� ��sla $m$.
Sou�et jejich ��st� je $m\times p(m)$. Tento sou�in se z�sk� z Erasthothenova
s�ta, pokud se n�sob� zleva diagon�ln� matic� $\Delta$ neomezen�ch rozd�len�
napsan�ch v klesaj�c�m po��dku: $p(i) = p(m-i)$ a zprava diagon�ln� matic�
$\Delta$ index� $i$. Nap��klad
$$\begin{array}{ccc}
\left(
\begin{array}{ccccc}
5 & & & & \\
& 3 & & & \\
& & 2 & & \\
& & & 1 & \\
& & & & 1
\end{array}
\right) &
\left(
\begin{array}{ccccc}
1 & & & & \\
1 & 1 & & & \\
1 & 0 & 1 & & \\
1 & 1 & 0 & 1 & \\
1 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 1
\end{array}
\right) &
\left(
\begin{array}{ccccc}
1 & & & & \\
& 2 & & & \\
& & 3 & & \\
& & & 4 & \\
& & & & 5
\end{array}
\right)
\end{array}$$
$$\begin{array}{cc}
= &
\begin{array}{c}
\left(
\begin{array}{ccccc}
5 & & & & \\
3 & 6 & & & \\
2 & 0 & 6 & & \\
1 & 2 & 0 & 4 & \\
1 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 5
\end{array}
\right) \\
\hline
\begin{array}{ccccc}
12 & 8 & 6 & 4 & 5
\end{array}
\end{array}
\end{array}$$
Sou�et prvk� sou�inu je $35 = 5 \times 7$. Rozd�len� $p(5)$ se z�skalo z hodnoty
��st� p�idan�ch k ni���m simplex�m, kter� se se�etly. Jednotky se po��taj� v prv�m
sloupci. P�idaly se k $p(m-1)$ rozd�len�m. Av�ak tato mno�ina obsahuje sou�asn�
v�echny jednotky z ni���ch rozd�len� zv�t�en� takov�m zp�sobem v p�ede�l�ch
kroc�ch, a� na jednotku p�edstavuj�c� p(1). V druh�m sloupci dv� se p�id�vaj� ke 3
rozd�len�m 3. Jedno z nich, (2,1), u� obsahovalo jednu 2, kdy� se toto rozd�len�
z�skalo z $p(1)$. Podobn� se po��taj� jin� ��sla v n�sleduj�c�ch sloupc�ch.
Tento sou�in t�� matic se m�e vlo�it do r�me�ku ${\bf J}^{\rm T}(*){\bf J}$, kter�
se��t� prvky or�movan� matice. Vlo�ka v r�me�ku je:
\begin{equation}
{\bf J}^{\rm T}{\Delta}[p(m-i)]{\bf E}\ \times\ {\Delta}(i){\bf J}\;
\end{equation}
$$\begin{tabular}{rrrrr|rrrrr}
& & & & & 1 & 1 & 1 & 1 & 1 \\
& & & & & & 2 & 2 & 2 & 2 \\
& & & & & & & 3 & 3 & 3 \\
& & & & & & & & 4 & 4 \\
& & & & & & & & & 5 \\
\hline
& & & & & & & & & \\
1 & & & & & 1 & 1 & 1 & 1 & 1 \\
2 & 1 & & & & 2 & 4 & 4 & 4 & 4 \\
4 & 1 & 1 & & & 4 & 6 & 9 & 9 & 9 \\
7 & 3 & 1 & 1 & & 7 & 13 & 16 & 20 & 20 \\
12 & 4 & 2 & 1 & 1 & 12 & 20 & 26 & 30 & 35
\end{tabular}$$
Lev� matice po��t� ��sla $n_k$ v rozd�len�ch, prav� matice je v�� jako $m_k$.
Diagon�ln� prvky $mp(m)$ se mohou rozlo�it v jin� p�ry vektor� a tak existuje jin�
sou�in dvou matic maj�c� identickou diagon�lu. Lev� matice je matic� n�sledn�ch
rozd�len� (tabulka 4.8), prav� matice je matic� sou�t� d�litel� $\sigma^1(i)$,
napsanou podobn� jako matice n�sledn�ch rozd�len�, av�ak v horn� troj�heln�kov�
form� ve sloupc�ch
\begin{equation}
{\bf S}: s_{ij} = \sigma^1(i)\ {\rm pokud}\ i \leq j, s_{ij} = 0,
\ {\rm jinak}\;.
\end{equation}
$$\begin{tabular}{rrrrr|rrrrr}
& & & & & 1 & 1 & 1 & 1 & 1 \\
& & & & & & 3 & 3 & 3 & 3 \\
& & & & & & & 4 & 4 & 4 \\
& & & & & & & & 7 & 7 \\
& & & & & & & & & 6 \\
\hline
& & & & & & & & & \\
1 & & & & & 1 & 1 & 1 & 1 & 1 \\
1 & 1 & & & & 1 & 4 & 4 & 4 & 4 \\
2 & 1 & 1& & & 2 & 5 & 9 & 9 & 9 \\
3 & 2 & 1& 1 & & 3 & 9 & 13 & 20 & 20 \\
5 & 3 & 2& 1 & 1 & 5 & 14 & 22 & 29 & 35 \\
\end{tabular}$$
\begin{equation}
P(x) = \sum_{m=1}^\infty\;p(m)\;q^m
\end{equation}
\begin{equation}
dP(x) = \sum_{m=1}^\infty\;mp(m)\;q^{m-1}\;.
\end{equation}
\begin{equation}
d\lg[P(x)] = dP(x)/P(x) = \sum_{m=1}^\infty\; \varphi(m)q^m\;.
\end{equation}
Pom�r $dP(x)/P(x)$ je rozd�l logaritmu funkce $P(x)$. Sou�ty d�litel� jsou tedy
rozd�ly logaritmick� m�ry vytvo�uj�c� funkce rozd�len�. To uv�d� ve vztah d�litele
a funkce rozd�len� a vyu�ilo se pro nalezen� asymptotick�ho chov�n� $p(m)$ funkce.
\section{Nuly v rozd�len�}
\label{Nuly v rozd�len�}
Pokud je sou�et hodnot v�ech ��st� rovinn�ho simplexu $mp(m)$, m�eme nal�zt tak�
po�et nul ve v�ech ��stech $n_0(m)$. Tyto po�ty tvo�� prvn� sloupec v tabulce,
kter� po��t� v�echny ��sti klasifikovan� podle sv�ch hodnot (tabulka 6.2)
\begin{table}
\caption{Po�et ��st� v rozd�len�ch}
\label{Po�et ��st� v rozd�len�ch}
\begin{tabular}{|r|rrrrrrr|r|}
\hline
n & 0 & 1 & 2 & 3 & 4 & 5 & 6 & $\Sigma$ \\
\hline
m=0 & 1 & & & & & & & 1 \\
1 & 0 & 1 & & & & & & 1 \\
2 & 1 & 2 & 1 & & & & & 4 \\
3 & 3 & 4 & 1 & 1 & & & & 9 \\
4 & 8& 7 & 3 & 1 & 1 & & & 20 \\
5 & 15& 12 & 4 & 2 & 1 & 1 & & 35 \\
6 & 31 & 19 & 8 & 4 & 2 & 1 & 1 & 66 \\
\hline
\end{tabular}
\end{table}
Maticov� prvky tabulky 6.2, vyjma jej�ho prv�ho sloupce, se z�skaj� jako ��ste�n�
v�sledek sou�inu matic pou��van�ch pro nalezen� sou�tu hodnot ��st� v rozd�len�ch
pomoc� rovnice 5.3. Jsou to prvky sou�inu dvou matic $\Delta[p(m-i)]{\bf E}$.
Prvn� sloupec je op�t maticov� sou�in matice rozd�len� do p�esn� $n$ ��st�
(tabulka 4.2) a matice kladn�ch $(j -i)$ prvk� a jednotkov�ho vektoru sloupce $
{\bf J}$, kter� se��t� ��dkov� hodnoty mezisou�inu. Lze snadno vysv�tlit tento
vztah: V ka�d�m rozd�len�, kdy� se $m$ �t�p� do p�esn� $n$ ��st�, existuje $(m -
n)$ nul. Nap��klad pro $m = 4: 8= 3\times1 +2\times2 +1\times1 +0\times1$. Po�et
nul je vyv�en jin�mi ��sly. To vede k jednoduch�mu tvaru n�kter�ch prvk� inverzn�
matice
$$m^{-1}_{i0} = (1-i)\;.$$
\begin{itemize}
\item Start 0:\qquad 1 \qquad 2 \qquad 3 \qquad 4 \qquad 5 \qquad 6
Prvn� t�� objekty se permutuj� v {\em cyklu d�lky 3}, prvn� objekt se objevil po
t�et�m, p��t� dva objekty tvo�� cyklus d�lky 2, se vym�nily sv� m�sta, posledn�ho
objekt z�stal na sv�m m�st�. Opakov�n�m procedury dostaneme permutace 2 a� 6:
\item Krok 2: \qquad 3 \qquad 1 \qquad 2 \qquad 4 \qquad 5 \qquad 6
\item Krok 3: \qquad 1 \qquad 2 \qquad 3 \qquad 5 \qquad 4 \qquad 6
\item Krok 4: \qquad 2 \qquad 3 \qquad 1 \qquad 4 \qquad 5 \qquad 6
\item Krok 5: \qquad 3 \qquad 1 \qquad 2 \qquad 5 \qquad 4 \qquad 6
\item Krok 6: \qquad 1 \qquad 2 \qquad 3 \qquad 4 \qquad 5 \qquad 6
\item Krok 7: \qquad 2 \qquad 3 \qquad 1 \qquad 5 \qquad 4 \qquad 6
\end{itemize}
�ada se vr�t� v 6 t�m kroku do po��te�n�ho uspo��d�n� a nov� cykl startuje v 7 t�m
kroku.
Po�et prvk� $n$ se �t�p� do $k$ cykl�, $k$ jde od 1 do $n$. Cyklick� struktura je
popsan� {\em orbitami rozd�len�}.
Mohli bychom mapovat zm�ny cykl� aditivn�mi oper�tory ${\bf S}$ maj�c�mi $-1_{ij}$
pro opou�t�j�c� objekt j, $1_{ij}$ pro objevuj�c� se objekt j, nulov� ��dky pro
nehybn� objekty (+1 a -1 se objevuj� na stejn�m m�st�). Tento oper�tor byl zaveden
v kapitole 3 a podrobn�ji bude studov�n v kapitole 12. Nyn� budeme studovat {\em
multiplikativn� oper�tory} ${\bf P}$. Jejich matice, {\em jednotkov� permuta�n�
matice}, jsou naivn�, maj� v ka�d� ��dce pouze jeden jednotkov� prvek a mimo to
maj� pouze jeden jednotkov� prvek v ka�d�m sloupci. Matice ${\bf P}$ jsou sou�asn�
notace permutac�, pon�vad� jejich ��dkov� jednotkov� prvky $p_{ij}$ odpov�daj�
index�m (nebo rovnocenn� abecedn�m symbol�m) $j$.
\begin{figure}
\caption{Cyklus permuta�n�ch matic. Kladn� mocniny se m�n� v z�porn�}
\label{Cyklus permuta�n�ch matic}
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\begin{equation}
{\bf P}^{n-1} = {\bf P}^{-1} = {\bf P}^{\rm T}\;.
\end{equation}
Mno�ina v�ech permuta�n�ch matic ${\bf P}$, s $n$ ��dky a $n$ sloupci, p�edstavuje
v�echny mo�n� permutace. Zvl�tn� t��dou permuta�n�ch matic jsou symetrick� matice,
pro kter� plat�
\begin{equation}
{\bf P} = {\bf P}^{-1} = {\bf P}^{\rm T}\;.
\end{equation}
Takov� matice maj� v�echny jednotkov� prvky bu� na diagon�le, nebo jinak tvo��
cykly d�lky 2. Tyto permutace jsou zn�m� jako {\em konvoluce}. Uk�eme p�ekvapiv�
jednoduchou techniku pro jejich vytvo�en�.
\section{Youngovy tabulky}
\label{Youngovy tabulky}
\begin{figure}
\caption{Sekvence Youngov�ch tabulek}
\label{Sekvence Youngov�ch tabulek}
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\end{figure}
Budeme rekonstruovat po�ad� Ferrersov�ch graf� nalezen�m v�ech zp�sob�, jak mohou
b�t tvo�eny z ni���ch graf� p�i�ten�m nov�ho prvku. Abychom dostali toto
uspo��d�n�, indexuje se ka�d� box p�id�van� k men��mu Ferrersovu grafu p�i jeho
roz�i�ov�n� do v�t��ho Ferrersovu grafu. Rovnocenn� boxy budou m�t rozd�ln�
indexy, proto�e je lze dos�hnout rozd�ln�mi kroky. Takto ozna�en� Ferrersovy
grafy jsou zn�m� jako Youngovy tabulky (obr.\ref{Sekvence Youngov�ch tabulek}).
$$\begin{array}{lllllll}
3412 & \rightarrow & 3\ 4 & \rightarrow & 1\ 4 &
\rightarrow & 1\ 2\;. \\
& & & & 3 & & 3\ 4
\end{array}$$
T�et� prvek 1 sk��e do prvn�ho sloupce a p�esouv� 3 dol�, potom 2 p�esouv� 4 dol�.
Nebo:
$$\begin{array}{lllllllll}
4231 & \rightarrow & 4 & \rightarrow & 2 & \rightarrow & 2\ 3 &
\rightarrow & 1\ 3\;. \\
& & & & 4 & & 4 & & 2\\
& & & & & & & & 4
\end{array}$$
Jedna vlastnost algoritmu se zd� b�t nev�hodn�, av�ak tato vlastnost pouze
reprodukuje vztahy mezi permutacemi. To umo��uje, aby se asymetrick� permuta�n�
matice rozlo�ily rozd�ln� podle sv�ch ��dk� a sloupc�. Av�ak ob� Youngovy tabulky
n�le�� k stejn�mu typu Ferrersov�ch graf�. Nap��klad:
$$\begin{array}{|rrrrrrr|c|}
\hline
& & & & & & & $\Sigma$\\
\hline
0 & 0 & 0 & 1 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 4 \\
0 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 1 & 0 & 6 \\
0 & 1 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 2 \\
0 & 0 & 0& 0 & 1 & 0 & 0 & 5 \\
0 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 1 & 7 \\
1 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 1 \\
0 & 0 & 1 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 3 \\
\hline
6 & 3 & 7 & 1 & 4 & 2 & 5 & \\
\hline
\end{array}$$
$$\begin{array}{cccc}
Sloupce &
\begin{array}{ccc}
1 & 2 & 5 \\
3 & 4 & \\
6 & 7 &
\end{array}
& ��dky &
\begin{array}{ccc}
1 & 3 & 7 \\
2 & 5 &\\
4 & 6 &
\end{array}
\end{array}$$
$$\begin{array}{ccc|ccc}
& & & \ 1& 0 & 0 \\
& & & 0 & 0 & 1 \\
& & & 0 & 1 & 0 \\
\hline
& & & & & \\
0 & 1& 0 & 0 & 0 & 1 \\
1 & 0& 0 & 1 & 0 & 0 \\
0 & 0& 1 & 0 & 1& 0
\end{array}$$
$$(a,c,b)\times(b,a,c) = (c,a,b)$$
Objevuje se zde vztah mezi po�tem orbit rozd�len� $p(n)$ a po�tem Youngov�ch
tabulek $Y(n)$ a po�tem permuta�n�ch matic $P(n)$.
\begin{equation}
\sum y^0(k) = p(n)\;; \sum y(k) = Y(n)\;; \sum y^2(k) = P(n) = n!
\end{equation}
\begin{equation}
\prod_{k=1}^n\;k = n!\;.
\label{faktori�l}
\end{equation}
Vysv�tl�me tuto funkci pozd�ji, a� budeme hledat jin� vzorce ur�uj�c� po�et
permutac�. P�ed t�m budeme studovat konvoluce. Zde je dan� p��klad jak rovnice
(\ref{faktori�l}) pracuje:
$$\begin{tabular}{|l|ccccccc|r|}
\hline
Rozd�len�: & 5 & 4,1& 3,2& $3,1^2$ & $2^21$ & $2,1^3$ & $1^5$ &
$\Sigma$ \\
\hline
$y^0(k)$ & 1 & 1 & 1 & 1 & 1 & 1 & 1 & 7 \\
$y^1(k)$ & 1 & 4 & 5 & 6 & 5 & 4 & 1 & 26 \\
$y^2(k)$ & 1 & 16 & 25 & 36 & 25 & 16 &1 & 120 \\
\hline
\end{tabular}$$
\begin{table}
\caption{Rozd�len� konvoluc�}
\label{Rozd�len� konvoluc�}
\begin{tabular}{|r|rrrrrrr|r|}
\hline
Ona diagon�le & 0 & 1 & 2 & 3 & 4 & 5 & 6 & $\Sigma$ \\
\hline
n=0 & 1 & & & & & & & 1 \\
1 & 0 & 1 & & & & & & 1 \\
2 & 1 & 0 & 1 & & & & & 2 \\
3 & 0 & 3 & 0 & 1 & & & & 4 \\
4 & 3 & 0 & 6 & 0 & 1 & & & 10 \\
5 & 0 & 15 & 0 & 10 & 0 & 1 & & 26 \\
6 & 15 & 0 & 45 & 0 & 15 & 0 & 1 & 76 \\
\hline
\end{tabular}
\end{table}
\begin{equation}
y_{00} = 1\;; y_{ij} = (i - 1)y_{i-2,j} + y_{i-1,j-1}\;.
\end{equation}
Inverzn� tabulka m� stejn� prvky, pouze znam�nka prvk�, jejich� indexy i se li��
od index� j o hodnotu $(4k + 2)$, jsou z�porn�. Jejich rekurence je
\begin{equation}
y_{00}^{-1} = 1\;; y_{ij}^{-1} = (1 - i)y_{i-2,j} + y_{i-1,j-1}\;.
\end{equation}
\begin{equation}
Y(n) = (n - 1)Y(n - 2) + Y(n - 1)
\end{equation}
\begin{equation}
y_{ij} = i !/j!t!2^t
\end{equation}
\label{konvoluce}
\begin{equation}
Y(n) = (1 + y_i)^n
\end{equation}
kde �leny v prv�m sloupci tabulky 7.1 $y_{k0}$ se pova�uj� za mocniny $y^k$, kdy�
se sou�ty $(1 + y)$ n�sob� samy se sebou. Nap��klad
Konvoluce po��tan� t�mito �leny nemaj� ��dn� prvky na hlavn� diagon�le a z�skaj�
se n�soben�m lich�ch ��sel. Jsou to {\em lich� faktori�ly}, pon�vad� se z�skaj�
n�sledn�m n�soben�m lich�ch ��sel: $1\times3\times5\times7\times9\times11\times
13\times15\times$ a tak d�le.
Faktori�ln� funkce m� zaj�mavou vlastnost. Pokud $p$ je prvo��slo, potom $(p -1)!\
{\rm mod}\ p = (p - 1)$ a sou�asn� $(p -2)!\ {\rm mod}\ p = 1$. Faktori�l je
d�liteln� v�emi sv�mi faktory, �ekn�me $b$. Pokud by modul�rn� hodnota byla
rozd�ln�, �ekn�me $a$, potom tato hodnota by mohla b�t vybr�na takov�m zp�sobem,
�e $a + b = p$. Faktori�l by byl d�liteln� prvo��slem v�t��m ne� jeho faktory, co�
je nemo�n�. Nap��klad: $p =7,\ 720\ {\rm mod}\ 7 \equiv 6;\ 120\ {\rm mod}\ 7
\equiv 1$.
Faktori�ln� funkce je definov�na pro p�irozen� ��sla, v�etn� nuly. Dopln�me jej�
definici �lenem 0! = 1. U� jsme ud�lali n�co podobn�ho p�i definov�n� pr�zdn�ch
rozd�len�.
Kombinatorick� funkce jsou definov�ny pro indexov�n� objekt�, kter� mus� b�t cel�.
Mohou se objevit ot�zky, co je objekt, nebo zv��e, nebo �lov�k, kdy za��naj�
odpov�dat sv�m definic�m a kdy jsou pon�kud rozd�ln�. V matematice se takov� mal�
rozd�ly mohou vyj�d�it ��sly.
Ve vy��� matematice faktori�ln� funkce je pouze speci�ln�m p��padem {\em gamma
funkce}, kterou definoval Euler jako
\begin{equation}
\Gamma(z+1) = z\Gamma(z)
\end{equation}
Kdy� $\Gamma(1) = 1$, potom
Tedy
$$\Gamma(n+1) = n!\;.$$
Kdy� kresl�me graf gamma funkce, m�eme ji interpolovat pro jak�hokoliv re�ln�
��slo. Gamma funkce je definov�na integr�lem\footnote{e v integr�lu je z�kladnou
p�irozen�ch logaritm�. Logaritmy mohou b�t dekadick� $\lg a$, bin�rn� $\lb a$,
p�irozen� $\ln a$, nebo s jakoukoliv z�kladnou b $\log_b a$}.
\begin{equation}
\Gamma(z+1) = \int_0^\infty x^z e^{-x}dx\;.
\end{equation}
\begin{equation}
\Gamma(1/2) = \sqrt\pi.
\end{equation}
\begin{figure}
\caption{Graf funkce $\Gamma(n)$}
\label{Graf funkce Gamma}
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Z n� se vypo��taj� snadno jin� $n/2$ hodnoty gamma funkce, kter� padnou v�born� do
d�r mezi faktori�ly, aby se vykreslila jedna hladk� funkce (obr. \ref{Graf funkce
Gamma}).
dostaneme
$$\Gamma(0) = \Gamma(1)/0 = \infty$$
$$\Gamma(0) = (-1)\Gamma(-1)$$
$$\Gamma(-1) = \Gamma(0)/(-1) = -\infty\;.$$
Eulerova gamma funkce se m�e pou��t pro nalezen� aproximace faktori�ln� funkce pro
velk� n. Stirlingova aproximace je
\begin{equation}
n! = n^n e^{-n} \sqrt{2\pi n}\;.
\end{equation}
\label{Stirling aproximace}
\begin{equation}
n!/\prod n_k!s_k^tak\;.
\end{equation}
Nap��klad pro n = 4:
$$\begin{tabular}{|l|l|c|c|}
\hline
Orbita & Cyklick� index & Hodnota & \\
\hline
4 & $4!/1!^4$ & 6 & Jeden cykl d�lky 4\\
31 & $4!/1!^1!3!^1$ & 8 & Jeden cykl d�lky 3,jeden cykl d�lky 1\\
22 & $4!/2!2$ & 3 & Dva cykly d�lky 2\\
211 & $4!/1!^!2!^1$ & 6 & Jeden cykl�m d�lky 2, dva cykly d�lky 1\\
1 & $4!/4!^1$ & 1 & �ty�i cykly d�lky 1\\
\hline
$\Sigma$ & & 24 & \\
\hline
\end{tabular}$$
\section{Sch�mata permutac�}
\label{Sch�mata permutac�}
Zavedli jsme sch�mata orbit a nyn� m�me prvn� mo�nost je pou��t pro indexov�n�
��ste�n�ch sou�t� cyklick�ch index�. Tyto ��ste�n� sou�ty jsou zn�m� jako rozd�ln�
{\em kombinatorick� identity}. Nejprve uspo��d�me sch�mata rozd�len� podle po�tu
cykl� v permutaci a d�lky nejdel��ho cyklu k. Nap��klad pro $n = 6$ dostaneme
\begin{tabular}{|r|rrrrrr|}
\hline
n & 1 & 2 & 3 & 4 & 5 & 6 \\
\hline
$k=6$ & 120 & & & & & \\
5 & & 144 & & & & \\
4 & & 90 & 90 & & & \\
3 & & 40 & 120 & 40 & & \\
2 & & & 15& 45 & 15 & \\
1 & & & & & & 1 \\
\hline
$\Sigma$& 120 & 274& 225 & 85 & 15 & 1 \\
\hline
\end{tabular}
\\
��dkov� sou�ty n�sledn�ch sch�mat d�vaj� tabulku 7.2. Jej� prvky jsou zn�m� jako
{\em Stirlingova ��sla prv�ho druhu}. Jejich jm�no nazna�uje, �e existuje v�ce
druh� Stirlingov�ch ��sel. Existuj� v r�zn�ch vztaz�ch, jak uvid�me pozd�ji.
\begin{table}
\caption{Stirlingova ��sla prv�ho druhu}
\label{Stirlingova ��sla prv�ho druhu}
\begin{tabular}{|r|rrrrrr|r|}
\hline
t & 1 & 2 & 3 & 4 & 5 & 6 & $\Sigma$\\
\hline
n=1 & 1 & & & & & & 1 \\
2 & 1 & 1 & & & & & 2 \\
3 & 2 & 3 & 1 & & & & 6 \\
4 & 6 & 11 & 6 & 1 & & & 24 \\
5 & 24 & 50 & 35 & 10 & 1 & & 120 \\
6 & 120 & 274 & 225 & 85 & 15 & 1 & 720 \\
\hline
\end{tabular}
\end{table}
\begin{equation}
s_{ij} = (n - 1)s_{i-1,j} + s_{i-1,j-1}\;.
\end{equation}
Vzorec byl vysv�tlen popisem, jak permuta�n� matice ${\bf P}_{n-1}$ se zv�t�uj�
nov�mi ��dky a sloupci. M�me $(n - 1)$ mimodiagon�ln�ch poloh v posledn� ��dce,
kter� �t�p� $(n - 1)$ rozm�rnou permuta�n� matici a prodlu�uj� n�jak� existuj�c�
cykl, av�ak nem�n� jejich po�et. Potom jednotkov� prvek lze p�idat na diagon�le,
av�ak tato operace zvy�uje po�et cykl� jednotkov� d�lky. T�mto zp�sobem dostaneme
mezisou�ty v�ce cyklick�ch index� p��mo beze zm�n v�ech odpov�daj�c�ch orbit.
Vzpome�te si, �e t�mto sou�t�m odpov�daj� vrcholy, hrany, a obecn� n rozm�rn�
podsimplexy plo�n�ho simplexu. Av�ak zde �t�p� pouze jednu p�vodn� orbitu ve
st�edu rovinn�ho simplexu nebo centr�ln� orbitu v krychli (obr. \ref{Centr�ln�
orbita v 3 rozm�rn� krychle se stranou 0-2}).
\begin{figure}
\caption{Centr�ln� orbita v 3 rozm�rn� krychli se stranami 0-2. ��ry spojuj� body
se vzd�lenost� 2}
\label{Centr�ln� orbita v 3 rozm�rn� krychle se stranou 0-2}
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\section{Po�et p�em�st�n�}
\label{Po�et p�em�st�n�}
Jinou mo�nost�, jak po��tat permutace je pou��t po�et jednotkov�ch cykl�. Ten se
ur�� podle jednotkov�ch prvk� na hlavn� diagon�le jednotkov� permuta�n� matice
zn�m�ch jako {\em nehybn� prvky}. Po�ty rozd�len� se mohou z�skat podle po�tu
jednotek v rozd�len�ch. S pou�it�m t�to techniky pro uspo��d�n� do tabulek
permuta�n�ch index�, dostaneme sloupcov� sou�ty zn�m� jako {\em po�et p�em�st�n�}.
Jsou uk�zan� v tabulce \ref{Po�ty p�em�st�n�}.
\begin{table}
\caption{Po�ty p�em�st�n�}
\label{Po�ty p�em�st�n�}
\begin{tabular}{|r|rrrrrrr|r|}
\hline
s & 0 & 1 & 2 & 3 & 4 & 5 & 6 & $\Sigma$ \\
\hline
n=0 & 1 & & & & & & & 1 \\
1 & 0 & 1 & & & & & & 1 \\
2 & 1 & 0 & 1 & & & & & 2 \\
3 & 2 & 3 & 0 & 1 & & & & 6 \\
4 & 9 & 8 & 6 & 0 & 1 & & & 24 \\
5 & 44 & 45 & 20 & 10 & 0 & 1 & & 120 \\
6 & 265 & 264 & 135 & 40 & 15 & 0 & 1 & 720 \\
\hline
\end{tabular}
\end{table}
\begin{equation}
r_{ij} = { i \choose j}r_{i-j,0}
\end{equation}
\label{rij}
\begin{equation}
n! = 1 + (1 -1/1!)n + (1 -1/1! +1/2!)n(n-1) + \dots
\end{equation}
\begin{equation}
n! = \sum_{k=0}^n\;( -1/k!)^k(n)_k\;.
\end{equation}
\label{Sigma}
Po�ty p�em�st�n� $r_{i0}$ po��taj� permuta�n� matice s $i$ ��dky a sloupci, kter�
nemaj� ��dn� jednotkov� prvky na diagon�le (��dn� nehybn� objekt). Tyto matice se
kombinuj� s diagon�ln� jednotkovou matic� ${\bf I}$ s $(i-j)$ ��dky a sloupci
v�emi mo�n�mi zp�soby po��tan�mi binomi�ln�m koeficientem.
Po�ty p�em�st�n� $r_{i0}$ jsou zn�m� tak� jako {\em subfaktori�ly}, pon�vad�
d�vaj� faktori�ly podle n�sleduj�c� rovnice, jej� �leny byly ur�eny podle
\ref{rij}. Nyn� jsou vlo�eny jako form�ln� mocniny subfaktori�l� $r^i = r_i$:
\begin{equation}
n! = (r_i + 1)^n
\end{equation}
Je mo�n� formulovat rovnici (\ref{Sigma}) tak� v maticov� form� jako p��m� sou�in
\begin{equation}
\Delta(n!) = {\bf R}\times{\bf B},
\end{equation}
kde ${\bf R}$ je matice subfaktori�l� v ��dc�ch a ${\bf B}$ je matic� binomi�ln�ch
koeficient�. Invertov�n�m form�ln�ch mocnin dostaneme $r(n)_0 = (k!^n - 1)$.
Vlo�en�m $(k!)^n = n!$ dostaneme vzorec
\begin{equation}
n! - { n \choose 1}(n-1)! + { n \choose 2}(n-2)! - \dots \pm
{ n \choose n}(n-n)! =(k!)^n
\end{equation}
\begin{equation}
n![1 - 1 + 1/2! - 1/3! + \dots] \approx n^n/e^n\;,
\end{equation}
kde $e$ je z�kladna p�irozen�ch logaritm�. Tento p�ibli�n� vzorec d�v� hrubou
Stirlingovu aproximaci faktori�l� velk�ch ��sel. Srovnej s p�esn�m vzorcem
(\ref{Stirling aproximace}).
M�li bychom zm�nit je�t� jinou form�ln� notaci pro subfaktori�ly. Je to notace
teorie kone�n�ch diferenc�\footnote{Bude to vysv�tleno v podkapitole 9.4.}.
\begin{equation}
r_0(n) = [E - 1]^n0! = \Delta^n0!\;.
\end{equation}
Zde $\Delta^n$ nen� diagon�ln� matice, ale diference n-t�ho stupn�, nebo $n$ kr�t
se opakuj�c� diference z�kladn�ho stavu $E$.
\begin{equation}
r_{n0} = nr_{n-1,0} + (-1)^n
\end{equation}
nap��klad $5\times9 - 1 = 44$; $6\times44 + 1 = 245$. Kdy� se vr�t�me k sch�matu
rozd�len� v tabulce 7.3 a p�eklasifikujeme permutace bez podle po�tu cykl�, nebo,
kdy� vynech�me z p�vodn�ho sch�matu (tabulka 7.2) v�echny permutace s jednotkov�mi
cykly, dostaneme tabulku \ref{P�i�azen� Stirlingova ��sla prv�ho druhu}
p�i�azen�ch Stirlingov�ch ��sel prv�ho druhu.
\begin{table}
\caption{P�i�azen� Stirlingova ��sla prv�ho druhu}
\label{P�i�azen� Stirlingova ��sla prv�ho druhu}
\begin{tabular}{|r|rrrr|r|}
\hline
j & 0 & 1 & 2 & 3 & $\Sigma= r$\\
\hline
i=0 & 1 & & & & 1 \\
1 & & 0 & & & 0 \\
2 & & 1 & & & 1 \\
3 & & 2 & & & 2 \\
4 & & 6 & 3 & & 9 \\
5 & & 24& 20 & & 44 \\
6 & & 120& 130 & 15 & 265 \\
\hline
\end{tabular}
\end{table}
Rekurence je
\begin{equation}
a_{i+1,j} = i[a_{ij} + a_{i-1,j-1}]\;.
\end{equation}
\section{Eulerova ��sla}
\label{Eulerova ��sla}
\begin{equation}
e_{11} = 1\;; e_{ij} = je_{i-1,j} + (i - j + 1)e_{i-1,j-1}\;.
\end{equation}
Pokud d�me i-t� prvek na konec ka�d�ho segmentu, po�et segment� z�st�v� nezm�n�n�.
Pokud jej d�me na prv� m�sto, zv�t�ujeme po�et segment�. Podobn� pokud jej d�me
dovnit� existuj�c�ho segmentu, ten se potom �t�p� do dvou segment�. Uvnit�
segment� je $(i - j)$ m�st. Alternativn�m v�kladem je, �e tato statistika po��t�
prvky permuta�n�ch matic, kter� jsou nad hlavn� diagon�lou. Zde index $j$ jde od 0
do $(n-1)$. Odpov�daj�c� matice je tabulka \ref{Eulerova ��sla}.
\begin{table}
\caption{ Eulerova ��sla}
\label{ Eulerova ��sla}
\begin{tabular}{|r|rrrrrr|r|}
\hline
j & 1 & 2 & 3 & 4 & 5 & 6 & $\Sigma$ \\
\hline
i=1 & 1 & & & & & & 1 \\
2 & 1& 1 & & & & & 2 \\
3 & 1 & 4 & 1 & & & & 6 \\
4 & 1 & 11 & 11 & 1 & & & 24 \\
5 & 1 & 26 & 66 & 26 & 1 & & 120 \\
6 & 1 & 57 & 302 & 302 & 57 & 1 & 720 \\
\hline
\end{tabular}
\end{table}
Doposud jsme se��tali permutace jako objekty. Nyn� budeme ur�ovat jejich momenty
vyj�d�en� po�tem inverz� v permutaci. Po��taj� se podle po�tu nulov�ch prvk� nad
jednotkov�mi prvky, kter� jsou pod hlavn� diagon�lou jako v p��klad�, kde 4 na
prvn� m�st� m� 3 inverze a 3 na druh�m m�st� pouze 2
$$\left(
\begin{array}{cccc}
x & x & 1 & 0 \\
x & x & 0 & 1 \\
x & 1 & 0 & 0 \\
1 & 0 & 0 & 0
\end{array}
\right)\;.$$
Permutace klasifikovan� podle t�to metody d�vaj� Mac Mahonova ��sla jako v tabulce
\ref{Mac Mahonova ��sla}.
\begin{table}
\caption{Mac Mahonova ��sla}
\label{Mac Mahonova ��sla}
\begin{tabular}{|r|rrrrrrrrrrr|}
\hline
k & 0 & 1 & 2 & 3 & 4 & 5 & 6 & 7 & 8 & 9 & 10 \\
\hline
n=1 & 1 & & & & & & & & & & \\
2 & 1 & 1 & & & & & & & & & \\
3 & 1 & 2 & 2 & 1 & & & & & & & \\
4 & 1 & 3 & 5 & 6 & 5 & 3 & 1 & & & & \\
5 & 1 & 4 & 9 & 15 & 20& 22 & 20 & 15 & 9 & 4 & 1 \\
\hline
\end{tabular}
\end{table}
V�imn�te si, �e zde parametr $k$ nekon�� ��slem $n$ av�ak pokra�uje k hodnot�
$n(n-1)/2$. Je to jako kdybychom se��tali tyto hodnoty na diagon�le �tverce.
Maxim�ln� moment $k$ je sou�et hodnot $(i-1)$, kde $i$ jde od 1 a� k $n$
\begin{equation}
\sum_{i=1}^n\;(i - 1) = { n \choose 2}\;.
\end{equation}
\begin{equation}
m_{ik} = m_{i,[i(i-1)/2]-k}\;.
\end{equation}
\begin{equation}
m_{ij} = \sum_{k=0}^n\;(m-k,n-1)\;;\ m_{10} = 1
\end{equation}
\begin{equation}
m_{ij} = m_{i-1,j} + m_{i,j-1}\;.
\end{equation}
\begin{figure}
\caption{24 permutac� �ady {\bf abcd}. Jsou rozd�leny do �ty� mno�in za��naj�c�mi
kapit�lkami. Uspo��dejte zb�vaj�c� t�� symboly a v�echny permutace na kouli}
\label{24 permutace}
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$$\begin{tabular}{|l|rrrrr|l|}
\hline
Referen�n� bod:\ & 1 & 2 & 3 & 4 & 5 & $\Sigma$ \\
Permuta�n� bod: & 5 & 2 & 4 & 3 & 1 & \\
\hline
(2-1) & 4 & 0 & 1 & -1 & -4 & 0 \\
\hline
�tverce & 16& 0 & 1 & 1 & 16 & 34\\
\hline
\end{tabular}$$
Pokud pod�l�me z�skan� hodnoty nejv�t��m mo�n�m sou�tem �tverc�, kter� je 40 pro
$n=5$, dostaneme hodnoty jdouc� od 0 k 1, kter� charakterizuj� permutace a jsou
zn�m� jako {\em Spearman�v korela�n� koeficient}. Pou��v� se pro vyhodnocen�
pravd�podobnosti z�skan� po��dkov� statistiky.
\begin{center}
(�erven�)-(modr�)-(b�l�)-(zelen�)-(�lut�)
\end{center}
Pokud najdeme takovou �adu n�hodn�, nem�eme ��ci, z kter� strany ji m�me ��st.
V�sledkem je, �e nem�eme odli�it polovinu permutac� jako:
$$123 \leftrightarrow 321;\ 213 \leftrightarrow 312;\ 132 \leftrightarrow 231\;. $
$
Jm�no takov� grupy, kter� je nerozli�uje �ten� z obou stran je {\em dihedr�ln�}.
Je�t� slo�it�j�� situace vznikne, pokud �ada barevn�ch kor�lk� tvo�� n�hrdeln�k.
Potom nem�eme nal�zt ani sm�r �ten� ani po��tek permutace. Tedy m�me
nerozli�iteln� permutace:
$$ (123-231-312)\leftrightarrow (213-132-321)\;.$$
\begin{figure}
\caption{Probl�m zasedac�ch po��dk�. Dva zasedac� po��dky pro �ty�i dvojice}
\label{Probl�m zasedac�ch po��dk�}
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\end{figure}
$$\begin{tabular}{|r|rrrrrrr|}
\hline
n & 0 & 1 & 2 & 3 & 4 & 5 & 6 \\
\hline
M(n)& 2 & -1 & 0 & 1 & 2 & 13 & 80 \\
\hline
\end{tabular}$$
\begin{equation}
(n - 2)U_n = n(n - 2)U_{n-1} + nU_{n-2} +4(-1)^{n+1}\;.
\end{equation}
\section{Grupy symetrie}
\label{Grupy symetrie}
$$\begin{array}{ccc}
\begin{array}{c}
{\bf I}\\
\\
\left(
\begin{array}{cc}
1 & 0 \\
0 & 1
\end{array}
\right) \\
\\
{\bf A}\\
\\
\left(
\begin{array}{cc}
1 & 0 \\
0 & -1
\end{array}
\right)
\end{array} &
\begin{array}{c}
{\bf D} \\
\\
\left(
\begin{array}{cc}
-1/2 & \sqrt 3/2 \\
\sqrt 3/2 & 1/2
\end{array}
\right) \\
\\
{\bf G}\\
\\
\left(
\begin{array}{cc}
-1/2 & -\sqrt 3/2 \\
\sqrt 3/2 & -1/2
\end{array}
\right)
\end{array} &
\begin{array}{c}
{\bf E} \\
\\
\left(
\begin{array}{cc}
-1/2 & -\sqrt 3/2 \\
\sqrt 3/2 & -1/2
\end{array}
\right) \\
\\
{\bf P} \\
\\
\left(
\begin{array}{cc}
-1/2 & \sqrt 3/2 \\
\sqrt 3/2 & 1/2
\end{array}
\right)
\end{array}
\end{array}$$
Jsou tu {\em osy ot��en�}. Pokud obr�zek m� $k$ rozm�rnou osu ot��en�, m� $k$
ekvivalentn�ch poloh a vr�t� se do sv� p�vodn� polohy po $k$ translac�ch, kter�
jej ot��ej� okolo osy.
Jin�m druhem prvk� symetrie je {\em rovina zrcadlen�}, kter� odr�� obr�zek jako
dvojstrann� zrcadlo.
Tyto z�kladn� prvky symetrie se kombinuj� rozd�ln�mi zp�soby a jejich syst�my jsou
zn�m� pod rozd�ln�mi jm�ny.
\section{Vierer Gruppe}
\label{Vierer Gruppe}
Jedna soustava 4 jednotkov�ch permuta�n�ch matic $4\times4$ je:
$$\begin{array}{cc}
\begin{array}{c}
{\bf I}\\
\\
\left(
\begin{array}{cccc}
1 & & & \\
& 1 & & \\
& & 1 & \\
& & & 1
\end{array}
\right) \\
\\
{\bf A} \\
\\
\left(
\begin{array}{cccc}
& 1 & & \\
1 & & & \\
& & & 1 \\
& & 1 &
\end{array}
\right)
\end{array} &
\begin{array}{c}
{\bf B}\\
\\
\left(
\begin{array}{cccc}
& & 1 & \\
& & & 1 \\
1 & & & \\
& 1 & &
\end{array}
\right) \\
\\
{\bf C} \\
\\
\left(
\begin{array}{cccc}
& 1 & & \\
& & 1 & \\
& & & 1 \\
1 & & &
\end{array}
\right)
\end{array}
\end{array}$$
\begin{equation}
{\bf UPU}^{-1} = {\bf P}_a\;;\ {\bf UU}^{-1} = {\bf I}\;.
\end{equation}
$$\begin{array}{cc}
\begin{array}{c}
{\bf I}\\
\\
\left(
\begin{array}{cccc}
1 & & & \\
& 1 & & \\
& & 1 & \\
& & & 1
\end{array}
\right)\\
\\
{\bf A} \\
\\
\left(
\begin{array}{cccc}
1 & & & \\
& 1 & & \\
& & -1 & \\
& & & -1
\end{array}
\right)
\end{array} &
\begin{array}{c}
{\bf B}\\
\\
\left(
\begin{array}{cccc}
1 & & & \\
& -1 & & \\
& & 1 & \\
& & & -1
\end{array}
\right) \\
\\
{\bf C} \\
\\
\left(
\begin{array}{cccc}
1 & & & \\
& -1 & & \\
& & -1 & \\
& & & 1
\end{array}
\right)
\end{array}
\end{array}\;.$$
V�imn�te si, �e odpov�daj�c� matice v obou grup�ch maj� identick� stopy, kter�
jsou zn�m� jako {\em charaktery grupy}.
D��ve ne� budeme studovat v�echny naivn� matice ${\bf N}$, budeme pracovat
nejprve s naivn�mi maticemi v {\em doln� troj�heln�kov� form�}, kter� tvo�� a
podgrupu naivn�ch matic. Zb�vaj�c� naivn� matice se z nich mohou z�skat
permutov�n�m sloupc� jednotkov�mi permuta�n�mi maticemi ${\bf P}$ zprava.
P�ipome�te si, �e naivn� matice ${\bf N}$ maj� jeden jednotkov� prvek v ka�d�
��dce. Pokud matice je v doln� troj�heln�kov� form�, potom v�echny jej� nenulov�
prvky mus� b�t na nebo pod hlavn� diagon�lou. Podobn�, pokud matice je v horn�
troj�heln�kov� form�, potom v�echny jej� nenulov� prvky mus� b�t na nebo nad
hlavn� diagon�lu. Ze v�ech permuta�n�ch matic ${\bf P}$ pouze {\em matice
identity} ${\bf I}$ m� troj�heln�kov� tvar. Av�ak ta existuje sou�asn� v obou
troj�heln�kov�ch tvarech jako v�echny diagon�ln� matice.
Existuje pouze jedno m�sto v prv� ��dce doln� troj�heln�kov� formy pro jednotkov�
prvek, dv� m�sta jsou v druh� ��dce a v�dy o jedno m�sto v�ce v ka�d� n�sleduj�c�
��dce pro jednotkov� prvek. Tato situace je pr�v� opa�n� ke konstrukci permuta�n�
matice. Tam se mo�nosti um�st�n� jednotkov�ch prvk� sni�ovaly v ka�d� ��dce.
Nicm�n� oba p��stupy d�vaj� stejn� v�sledek. Tedy existuje n! naivn�ch matic v
doln� troj�heln�kov� form� (nebo v p��pad� transponovan� naivn� matice ${\bf
N}^{\rm T}$ v horn� troj�heln�kov� form�). Transponovan� naivn� matice lze
mapovat na body s p�irozen�mi koordin�tami v m rozm�rn� krychli.
Pokud ponech�me prvn� sloupec jako fale�nou prom�nnou (indexovanou jako nulov�
sloupec) pro st�ed soustavy koordin�t: ${\bf e}_{0j} = 1$, naivn� matice v doln�
troj�heln�kov� form� se m�e srovn�vat s �leny form�ln�ho n�soben�
\begin{equation}
(1)(1 + a)(1 + a + b)(1 + a +\dots) = \prod_{j=1}^n\;(\sum_{j=1}^n\;
{\bf e}_j)\;.
\end{equation}
\begin{equation}
\sum_{i=1}^k\;n_{ij} \geq \sum_{i=1}^k\;n_{i,j+1}\;.
\end{equation}
Nap��klad dv� naivn� matice $n=3$ jsou vylou�eny t�mto pravidlem:
$$\begin{array}{cc}
\begin{array}{c}
${\bf A}$ \\
\\
\left(
\begin{array}{ccc}
1 & 0 & 0 \\
0 & 1 & 0 \\
0 & 1 & 0
\end{array}
\right)
\end{array}
&
\begin{array}{c}
${\bf B}$ \\
\\
\left(
\begin{array}{ccc}
1 & 0 & 0 \\
1 & 0 & 0 \\
0 & 0 & 1
\end{array}
\right)\;.
\end{array}
\end{array}$$
${\bf A}$ je vylou�en� pon�vad� $b^2 > a$, ${\bf B}$ je vylou�en� pon�vad� $c >
b^0$.
Tato ��sla po��taj� naivn� matice klasifikovan� podle po�tu $k$ prvk� na hlavn�
diagon�le
\begin{equation}
s_{nk} = (n - 1)s_{n-1,k} +s_{n-1,k-1}\;.
\end{equation}
Pod diagon�lou v n t� ��dce je $(n - 1)$ m�st, kter� lze p�idat s $k$ prvky na
hlavn� diagon�le bez zm�ny $k$. To n�sob� prvn� �len.
To nen� v�echno, co m�e b�t �e�eno o Stirlingov�ch ��slech prv�ho druhu. Pokud
n�sob�me Stirlingova ��sla prv�ho druhu p��mo mocninami $2^{j-1}$ dostaneme
tabulku, jej� ��dkov� sou�ty jsou stejn� polovin� vy���ho faktori�lu $(i+1)!/2$
jako v
$$\begin{tabular}{|r|rrrrr|r|}
\hline
& 1 & 2 & 3 & 4 & 5 & $\Sigma$ \\
\hline
m=1& 1 & & & & & 1 \\
2 & 1 & 2 & & & & 3 \\
3 & 2 & 6 & 4 & & & 12 \\
4 & 6 & 22 & 24 & 8 & & 60 \\
5& 24 & 100 & 140 & 80 & 16 & 360 \\
\hline
\end{tabular}$$
Kdy� n�sob�me Stirlingova ��sla mocninami $2^(i-j)$, potom ��dkov� sou�ty d�vaj�
$(2i - 1)!/i!2^i$ nebo sou�iny $m$ lich�ch ��sel $1\times3\times5\times\dots$.
Faktori�l je zbaven sud�ch ��sel.
$$\begin{tabular}{|r|rrrrr|r|}
\hline
& 1 & 2 & 3 & 4 & 5 & $\Sigma$ \\
\hline
m=1 & 1 & & & & & 1 \\
2 & 2 & 1 & & & & 3 \\
3 & 8 & 6 & 1 & & & 15 \\
4 & 48 & 44 & 12 & 1 & & 105 \\
5 & 384 & 400 & 140 & 20 & 1 & 945 \\
\hline
\end{tabular}$$
\section{Eulerovy polynomi�ly}
\label{Eulerovy polynomi�ly}
Eulerova ��sla (tabulka 7.5) klasifikuj� naivn� matice podle po�tu $k$ nenulov�ch
sloupc�. M�eme p�idat nov� prvek v posledn� ��dce do $k$ u� obsazen�ch sloupc�
nebo jej m�eme d�t do $(n - k)$ neobsazen�ch sloupc�. Je jasn�, �e index $k$ zde
nem�e b�t 0, jak bylo v�hodn� u permuta�n�ch matic.
Eulerova ��sla jsou jen po��tek s�rie polynomi�l� $E_n(r)$ kde $r = 1$. Euler�v
polynomi�l $E_n(2)$ se z�sk� n�soben�m ka�d�ho p�edchoz�ho sloupce, vyjma prv�ho,
mocninami 2 jako kdyby prvky naivn� matice ve sloupc�ch m�ly znam�nka $\pm$ a
v�echny kombinace znam�nek byly p�ijateln� a nalezly se rozd�ly n�sleduj�c�ch se
sloupc�. V�sledn� ��sla jsou uvedena v tabulce 8.1, jej� prvky jsou rozd�ly matice
z�skan� n�soben�m matice Eulerov�ch ��sel matic� m-t� mocniny 2:
$$\begin{tabular}{rrrr|rrrrr|rrrrr}
& & & & \ & 1 & 1 & 1 & 1 & \ & 1 & -1 & & \\
& & & & & & 2 & 2 & 2 & & & 1 & -1 & \\
& & & & & & & 4 & 4 & & & & 1 & \\
& & & & & & & & 8 & & & & & 1 \\
\hline
1 & & & & & 1 & 1 & 1 & 1 & &1 & & & \\
1 & 1 & & & & 1 & 3 & 3 & 3 & &1 & 2 & & \\
1 & 4 & 1 & & & 1 & 9 & 13 & 13 & &1 & 8 & 4 & \\
1 & 11 & 11 & 1 & & 1 & 23 & 67 & 75 & &1 & 22 & 44 & 8 \\
\end{tabular}$$
\begin{table}
\caption{Eulerovy polynomi�ly $E_n(2)$}
\label{Eulerovy polynomi�ly $E_n(2)$}
\begin{tabular}{|r|rrrrrr|r|}
\hline
k & 1 & 2 & 3 & 4 & 5 & 6 & $\Sigma$ \\
\hline
n=1 & 1 & & & & & & 1 \\
2 & 1 & 2 & & & & & 3 \\
3 & 1 & 8 & 4 & & & & 13 \\
4 & 1 & 22 & 44 & 8 & & & 75 \\
5 & 1 & 52 & 264 & 208 & 16 & & 541 \\
6 & 1 & 114 & 1208 & 2416 & 912 & 32 & 4683 \\
\hline
\end{tabular}
\end{table}
��dkov� sou�ty tabulky 7.1 jsou zaj�mav�. Generuj� se p��mo form�ln� rovnic�
\begin{equation}
[1 + E(k)]^m = 2E(m)
\end{equation}
\begin{equation}
2E(1) = { 1 \choose 0}E(0) + { 1 \choose 1}E(1)\;,
\end{equation}
z toho E(1) = 1 a tak d�le. Tato ��sla se budou objevovat pozd�ji mnohokr�t jako
rozd�ly �pln�ch rovinn�ch simplex�, av�ak zde se objevuj� jako roz���en�
faktori�ln�ch simplex� nebo jako maticov� sou�in Eulerova ��sla s diagon�ln�
matic� mocnin $2^{j-1}$.
Tato statistika (tabulka 7.6) po��t� naivn� matice podle jejich moment� (nebo
po��t�n�m pr�zdn�ch m�st ve v�ech ��dc�ch k prvn�mu jednotkov�mu prvku), kter� se
z�skaj� n�soben�m naivn� matice diagon�ln� matic� s indexy $\Delta(j - 1)$.
Rekurence se z�sk� z men��ch matic opakov�n�m �len� $n$ kr�t p�edposledn� ��dky
tabulky Mac Mahonov�ch ��sel se stejn�mi nebo zv�en�mi momenty. Pokud jednotkov�
prvek v posledn� ��dce se um�st� v prv�m sloupci, moment z�st�v� stejn� a zv�� se
a� na $(n-1)$, pokud se um�st� v n-t�m sloupci. Z ka�d� matice s $(n-1)$ ��dky
vznikne $n$ nov�ch matic. Jejich momenty se po��taj� jako nap��klad pro $n = 5$:
$$\begin{tabular}{|r|rrrrrrrrrrr|}
\hline
Momenty: & 0 & 1 & 2 & 3 & 4 & 5 & 6 & 7 & 8 & 9 &10 \\
\hline
4 ��dky a sloupce& 1 & 3 & 5 & 6 & 5 & 3 & 1 & & & & \\
�len 6 & & & & & & & 1 & 1 & 1 & 1 & 1\\
�len 5 & & & & & & 3 & 3 & 3 & 3 & 3 & \\
�len 4 & & & & & 5 & 5 & 5 & 5 & 5 & & \\
�len 3 & & & & 6 & 6 & 6 & 6 & 6 & & & \\
�len 2 & & & 5 & 5 & 5 & 5 & 5 & & & & \\
�len 1 & & 3 & 3 & 3 & 3 & 3 & & & & & \\
�len 0 & 1 & 1 & 1 & 1 &1 & & & & & & \\
\hline
Mac Mahonova ��sla & 1 & 4 & 9 &15& 20 &22 &20 &15 &9 & 4 & 1 \\
\hline
\end{tabular}$$
Toto sch�ma d�v� automaticky faktori�ly.
Kdy� se pod�v�me na sekvenci $aac$, vid�me, �e v jej� matici chyb� sloupec $b$.
Vylou�ili jsme takov� �ady jako chybn� Youngovy tabulky nebo konvoluce, av�ak �ady
jako $abb$ nebyly tak� mo�n�, kde $b$ se objevilo dvakr�t a $a$ pouze jednou. V
t�chto dvou p��padech existuje rozd�l: Pokud nejsou v�echny sloupce obsazen�
postupn�, p�eskakujeme v prostoru n�kter� polohy. Budeme tedy nyn� po��tat v�echny
naivn� matice v doln� troj�heln�kov� form� s postupn� obsazen�mi sloupci. Jejich
rekurence je
\begin{equation}
s_{11} = 1;\ s_{ij} = js_{i-1,j} + s_{i-1,j-1}
\end{equation}
Je mo�n� um�stit nov� prvek do $j$ u� obsazen�ch sloupc� a existuje pouze jedna
mo�nost, jak zv�it po�et obsazen�ch sloupc�. T�mto zp�sobem dostaneme tabulku
��sel, kter� jsou zn�m� jako {\em Stirlingova ��sla druh�ho druhu} (tabulka
\ref{Stirlingova ��sla druh�ho druhu}).
\begin{table}
\caption{Stirlingova ��sla druh�ho druhu}
\label{Stirlingova ��sla druh�ho druhu}
\begin{tabular}{|r|rrrrrr|r|}
\hline
j & 1 & 2 & 3 & 4 & 5 & 6 & $\Sigma$ \\
\hline
n=1 & 1 & & & & & & 1 \\
2 & 1 & 1 & & & & & 2 \\
3 & 1 & 3 & 1 & & & & 5 \\
4 & 1 & 7 & 6 & 1 & & & 15 \\
5 & 1 & 15 & 25 & 10 & 1 & & 52 \\
6 & 1 & 31 & 90 & 65 & 15 & 1 & 203 \\
\hline
\end{tabular}
\end{table}
Stirlingova ��sla druh�ho druhu jsou inverz� Stirlingov�ch ��sel prv�ho druhu.
Podobn� Stirlingova ��sla prv�ho druhu jsou inverze Stirlingov�ch ��sel druh�ho
druhu. Inverze se z�sk�, kdy� jedna ze dvou matic ( Tabulka 7.2 a Tabulka 8.2) se
n�sob� st��daj�c�mi se znam�nky $(-1)^{i-j}$.
Stirling nalezl ��sla nesouc� jeho jm�no, kdy� srovn�val mocniny jak�hokoliv ��sla
$t$ s jeho {\em faktori�ln�mi momenty} $(t)_k$ definovan� sou�iny
\begin{equation}
(t)_k = t(t - 1)...(t - k + 1)\;.
\end{equation}
\begin{equation}
S(n) = (S_i + 1)^{n-1},\ {\rm kde}\ S^i = S_i
\end{equation}
nebo s pou�it�m matic. Potom ��sla S(n) se z�skaj� na diagon�le sou�inu. M�eme
d�le n�sobit sou�iNa diagon�le matic� index�, abychom dostali momenty
$$\begin{tabular}{rrrr|rrrr|rrrr}
\hline
& & & & \ 1 & 1 & 1 & 1 & \ 1 & & & \\
& & & & & 1 & 2 & 3 & & 2 & & \\
& & & & & & 1 & 3 & & &3 & \\
& & & & & & & 1 & & & & 4 \\
\hline
& & & & & & & & & & & \\
1 & & & & 1 & 1 & 1 & 1 &1 & 2 & 3 & 4 \\
1 & 1 & & & 1 & 2 & 3 & 4 &1 & 4 & 9 &16 \\
1 & 1 & 2 & & 1 & 2 &5 &10 &1 & 4 &15 &40 \\
1 & 1 & 2 & 5 & 1 & 2 & 5 &15 &1 & 4 &15 &60 \\
\end{tabular}$$
\begin{equation}
s_{jj}^{-1} = 1;\ s_{j-1,j}^{-1} = -[S_{j-1} /S_{j}];\
s_{ij} = 0,\ {\rm jinak}\;.
\end{equation}
Uk�zali jsme jeden vztah mezi Stirlingov�mi ��sly druh�ho druhu a binomi�ln�mi
koeficienty. Av�ak zde se objevuje je�t� jin� vztah. Diference dvou n�sledn�ch
sou�t� Stirlingov�ch ��sel je vytvo�ena op�t binomem
\begin{equation}
kde op�t vlo��me $S^k = S_k$. Nap��klad: $S_6 - S_5 = 1\times1 +4\times2 +
6\times5 + 4\times15 + 1\times52 = 151$.
\begin{equation}
\Delta_n^1(m)^n = m^{n-1}[(1 +1/m)^{n-1} + (1 + 1/m)^{n-2} \dots
+(1 - 1/m)^0]\;.
\end{equation}
\begin{equation}
\Delta^m1^n = (m + 1)\Delta^m1^{n-1} + \Delta^{m-1}1^{n-1}
\end{equation}
\begin{equation}
S(m,n) - S(m-1,n) = \Delta^{n-1}2^m
\end{equation}
\begin{table}
\caption{Diference Stirlingov�ch ��sel druh�ho druhu}
\label{Diference Stirlingov�ch ��sel druh�ho druhu}
\begin{tabular}{|r|rrrrrr|r|}
\hline
j & 1 & 2 & 3 & 4 & 5 & 6 & $\Sigma$ \\
\hline
m=1 & 1 & & & & & & 1 \\
2 & 0 & 1 & & & & & 1 \\
3 & 0 & 2 & 1 & & & & 3 \\
4 & 0 & 4 & 5 & 1 & & & 10 \\
5 & 0 & 8 & 19 & 9 & 1 & & 37 \\
6 & 0 & 16 & 65 & 55 & 14 & 1 & 151 \\
\hline
\end{tabular}
\end{table}
Nyn� se zde op�t objevily binomi�ln� koeficienty jako vytvo�uj�c� faktory. Naivn�
matice bez jak�chkoliv sloupc� obsahuj�c�ch pouze jeden jednotkov� prvek se
kombinuj� s $n$ sloupci s pouze jedn�m jednotkov�m prvkem a v�sledek d�v� prvky
matice. Tedy sou�t�m Stirlingov�ch ��sel druh�ho druhu se z�skaj� form�ln�m
binomem:
\begin{equation}
S_n = (s_{n0} + 1)^n,\ {\rm kde}\ s^k = s_{n0}\;.
\end{equation}
Jin� mo�nost, jak se z�skaj� Stirlingova ��sla druh�ho druhu, je p��m� po��t�n�
odpov�daj�c�ch matic uspo��dan�ch podle mocniny a. Nap��klad:
$$\begin{array}{ccc}
a & & \\
ab & aa & \\
abb,\ abc;& aab,\ aba; & aaa \\
\end{array}$$
Dostaneme tabulku, kde naivn� matice jsou uspo��d�ny podle ��dk� obsahuj�c�ch
symbol a. Op�t se tyto matice z�skaj� n�soben�m ni���ch matic (bez tohoto
symbolu) binomi�ln�mi koeficienty ukazuj�c� kombinatorick� mo�nosti:
\begin{tabular}{|r|rrrrrr|r|}
\hline
j & 1 & 2 & 3 & 4 & 5 & 6 & $\Sigma$ \\
\hline
m=1 & 1 & & & & & & 1 \\
2 & 1 & 1 & & & & & 2 \\
3 & 2 & 2 & 1 & & & & 5 \\
4 & 5 & 6 & 3 & 1 & & & 15 \\
5 & 15& 20 & 12 & 4 & 1 & & 52 \\
6 & 52& 75 & 50 & 20 & 5 & 1 & 203 \\
\hline
\end{tabular}
\begin{table}
\caption{Asociovan� Stirlingova ��sla druh�ho druhu}
\label{Asociovan� Stirlingova ��sla druh�ho druhu}
\begin{tabular}{|r|rrrr|r|}
\hline
j & 0 & 1 & 2 & 3 & $\Sigma$ \\
\hline
m=0&1 & & & & 1 \\
1& 0 & 0 & & & 0 \\
2& & 1 & & & 1 \\
3& & 1 & & & 1 \\
4& & 1 & 3 & & 4 \\
5& & 1 &10 & & 11 \\
6& & 1 &25 &15 & 41 \\
\hline
\end{tabular}
\end{table}
\begin{figure}
\caption{T�i statistiky. A je Eulerova, B je Mac Mahonova, C je Stirlingova.
Uspo��dan� �ady jsou a, horizont�ln� symbol, vertik�ln� symbol}
\label{T�i statistiky}
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\begin{table}
\caption{Sch�ma �ty� statistik pro ${\bf N}_4$ v doln� troj�heln�kov� form�}
\label{Sch�ma �ty� statistik}
\begin{tabular}{|r|r|rrrr|rrrrrrr|}
\hline & & \multicolumn{4}{|c|}{Stirling\ I}& \multicolumn{7}
{|c|}{Mac\ Mahon} \\
\hline
& & 6 & & & & & & & & & & \\
& & & 8 & & & & & & & & & \\
& & & 3 & 6 & & & & & & & & \\
& & & & & 1 & 1 & 3 & 5 & 6 & 5 & 3 &1 \\
\hline
Euler & 1 & {\bf 1} & & & & & & & & & & 1 \\
& 11 & 4 & {\bf 7} & & & & &1 & 2 & 5 & 3 & \\
& 11 & 1 & 4 & {\bf 6} & & & 3 & 4 & 4 & & & \\
& 1 & & & & {\bf 1} & 1 & & & & & & \\
\hline
& & 6 &11 & 6 & 1 & $\nwarrow$ & \multicolumn{6}{c|}
{Stirling\ II} \\
\hline
\end{tabular}
\end{table}
Kdy� se binom, �ekn�me $(a+b)$, n�sob� s�m sebou m kr�t a �leny sou�inu se
seskup�, dostaneme nap��klad:
Prvn� �len 4 u $a^3b$ po��t� �ady ${\bf aaab}$, ${\bf aaba}$,$ {\bf abaa}$ a ${\bf
baaa}$, t�et� �len 4 u $ab^3$ po��t� �ady ${\bf abbb}$, ${\bf babb}$, ${\bf bbab}$
a ${\bf bbba}$. Binomi�ln� koeficient je naps�n jako ��slo m um�st�n� nad ��slo k
v z�vork�ch
\begin{equation}
{ m \choose k}\;.
\end{equation}
\begin{equation}
{ m \choose k} = { m \choose m-k}\;.
\end{equation}
Rozd�len� ��sla $m$ do $n$ ��st� je n rozm�rn� vektor ${\bf m}$, jeho� prvky jsou
uspo��dan� v klesaj�c�m po��dku, $m_j \geq m_{j+1}$. Z tohoto vektoru se mohou
generovat v�echny jin� vektory na dan� orbit�, kdy� se jeho prvky permutuj�
jednotkovou permuta�n� matic� p�sob�c� na vektor rozd�len� zprava. T�mto vektor�m
odpov�daj� skal�rn� sou�iny naivn� matice ${\bf N}$ s jednotkov�m vektorem ��dkou
${\bf J}^{\rm T}$ nebo kvadratick� forma ${\bf N}^{\rm T}{\bf N}$, proto�e
\begin{equation}
{\bf J}^{\rm T}{\bf N}= {\bf J}^{\rm T}{\bf N}^{\rm T}{\bf N}\;.
\end{equation}
Rozd�l�me prvky vektoru do dvou skupin, jedn� se v�emi nulov�mi prvky, to je $n_0$
prvky, druh� skupiny se v�emi zb�vaj�c�mi $(n-n_0)$ prvky. Po�et mo�n�ch permutac�
se sn�� z faktori�lu $n!$ na binomi�ln� koeficient ${ n \choose n_0}$, nebo
$n!/n_0!(n-n_0)!$.
V p��t�m kroku vyd�l�me druhou skupinu vektor� s d�lkou 1, jejich po�et je $n_1$.
V�echny jin� vektory se se�tou t�et�m �lenem $(n- n_0 -n_1)$ a odpov�daj�c�
permutace binomi�ln�m koeficientem $(n-n_0)!/n_1!(n- n_0 -n_1)!$. T�mto zp�sobem
budeme pokra�ovat, a� v�echny mo�n� hodnoty $m_k$ se vy�erpaj�. Pokud n�jak� $n_k
= 0$, potom v�hodn� $0! = 1$ a odpov�daj�c� �len je ne��inn�. Na konci dostaneme
sou�in binomi�ln�ch koeficient�:
\begin{eqnarray}
\left(\frac{ n!}{n_0!(n-n_0)!}\right)
\left(\frac{(n-n )!}{(n- n_0 -n_1)!}\right)
\left(\frac{(n- n_0 -n_1)!}{n_2!(n- n_0 - n_1 - n_2)!}\right)
\dots \nonumber \\
\left(\frac{(n-\sum_{k=0}^{m-1}n_k)!}{n_m!0!}\right)
\end{eqnarray}
Budeme jej naz�vat {\em polynomi�ln� koeficient pro n permutace} pon�vad� se z�sk�
permutov�n�m $n$ sloupc�. Pozd�ji zkonstruujeme jin� polynomi�ln� koeficient pro
permutace ��dk� naivn� matice.
Pros�m, v�imn�te si d�le�itosti tohoto kroku. Zn�me vektor ${\bf m}$ p�esn�, av�ak
nahrazujeme jej odpov�daj�c�m rozd�len�. V�echny body na dan� orbit� se pova�uj�
za {\em ekvivalentn�}. Nahrazen� vektoru ${\bf m}$ rozd�len�m je logick�
abstrakce. M�eme pokra�ovat d�le, rozd�len� se srovn�v� s analytickou funkc� a
orbita se popisuje hustotou rozd�len�.
\section{Simplexov� sou�ty polynomi�ln�ch koeficient�}
\label{Simplexov� sou�ty polynomi�ln�ch koeficient�}
\begin{equation}
\sum_{k\geq0} n!/\prod n_k! = { m+n-1 \choose m}
= { m+n-1 \choose n-1}
\end{equation}
\label{binomi�ln� koeficient}
\begin{eqnarray}
\left(\frac{(m+n-2)!}{m!(n-2)!}\right) +
\left(\frac{(m+n-2)!}{(m-1)!(n-1)!}\right) = \nonumber \\
\left(\frac{(m+n-2)![(n-1)+m]}{m!(n-1)!}\right) = { m+n-1 \choose m}\;.
\end{eqnarray}
\label{sou�tu 2}
Jako bylo �e�eno, nebudou n�s zaj�mat vektory se z�porn�mi znam�nky, av�ak je
pou�n� uk�zat v�sledky podle doln� limity hodnoty $r$, kter� se objevuje jako
parametr $(1-r)$ �lenu $n$ v binomi�ln�ch koeficientech. Hodnotu $r$ lze
pova�ovat za faktor diferencuj�c� simplex
$$\begin{tabular}{|l|cccc|}
\hline
Doln� limita & -1 & 0 & 1 & 2 \\
\hline
& & & & \\
Body simplexu & ${ m+2n-1 \choose n-1}$ &
${ m+n-1 \choose n-1}$
& ${ m-1 \choose n-1}$ & ${ m-n-1 \choose n-1}$ \\
& & & & \\
\hline
\end{tabular}$$
Binomi�ln� koeficienty ${ m+3-1 \choose m}$ jsou zn�m� jako troj�heln�kov� ��sla.
Po��taj� body 3 rozm�rn�ch rovin, co� jsou rovnostrann� troj�heln�ky.
Spo��tali jsme p��mo body rovinn�ch simplex�, nyn� pou�ijeme sch�mata rozd�len� a
vlo��me do nich polynomi�ln� koeficienty, podobn� jako jsme to provedli u
cyklick�ch index� v kapitole 7. Omez�me se na p��pady, kdy $m=n$. Jako p��klad
d�me sch�ma pro $m=n=6$:
$$\begin{tabular}{|r|rrrrrr|}
\hline
na & 1 & 2 & 3 & 4 & 5 & 6 \\
\hline
m=6 & 6 & & & & & \\
5 & & 30 & & & & \\
4 & & 30 & 60 & & & \\
3 & & 15 & 120 & 60 & & \\
2 & & & 20 & 90 & 30 & \\
1 & & & & & & 1 \\
\hline
$\sum$ & 6 & 75 & 200 & 150 & 30 & 1 \\
\hline
\end{tabular}$$
\begin{table}
\caption{Van der Mondova identita}
\label{Van der Mondova identita}
\begin{tabular}{|r|rrrrrr|r|}
\hline
k & 1 & 2 & 3 & 4 & 5 & 6 & $\Sigma$ \\
\hline
m=1 & 1 & & & & & & 1 \\
2 & 2 & 1 & & & & & 3 \\
3 & 3 & 6 & 1 & & & & 10 \\
4 & 4 & 18 & 12 & 1 & & & 35 \\
5 & 5 & 40 & 60 & 20 & 1 & & 126 \\
6 & 6& 75 & 200 & 150 & 30 & 1 & 462 \\
\hline
\end{tabular}
\end{table}
Prvky v ka�d� ��dce lze zapsat jako sou�iny dvou binomi�ln�ch koeficient�,
nap��klad $75 = (6!/4!2!)\times(5!/4!1!)$. To je speci�ln� p��pad identity
\begin{equation}
\sum_{i=0}^{m-k}{ m \choose k+i}{ m-k \choose i}
= { m+k \choose m}
= { m+n-1 \choose n-1}
\end{equation}
Sou�et sou�in� dvou binomi�ln�ch koeficient� lze zapsat jako form�ln� mocniny
binomi�lu
\begin{equation}
\left({ m \choose i} + 1\right)^n =
{ m+n \choose m}
\end{equation}
Tento vztah po��t� body rovinn�ch simplex� v jednom sm�ru. Jeho speci�ln�m
p��padem je {\em Waltisova identita} pro $m=n$:
\begin{equation}
\sum_{i=0}^{n/2}{ n \choose i}^2 = { 2n \choose n}
\end{equation}
$$\begin{tabular}{|l|c|ccc|cc|c|r|}
\hline
Orbity & 4000 & 3100 & 1300 & 2200 & 2110 & 1210 & 1111& $\sum$ \\
\hline Body & 1 & 3 & 3 & 3 & 3 & 6 & 1 & 20 \\
\hline Po�ty & 1 & \multicolumn{3}{|c|} { 9} &
\multicolumn{2}{|c|} { 9} & 1 & 20 \\ \hline
\end{tabular}$$
$$\begin{tabular}{|r|rrrrrr|}
\hline
$n_1$ & 0 & 1 & 2 & 3 & 4 & 5 \\
\hline
m=5 & 5 & & & & & \\
4 & & 20 & & & & \\
3 & 20 & & 30 & & & \\
2 & & 30 & & 20 & & \\
1 & & & & & & 1 \\
\hline
$\sum$ & 25 & 50 & 30 & 20 & 0 & 1 \\
\hline
\end{tabular}$$
\begin{table}
\caption{Diference podle jednotkov�ch prvk�}
\label{Diference podle jednotkov�ch prvk�}
\begin{tabular}{|r|rrrrrrr|r|}
\hline
$n_1$ & 0 & 1 & 2 & 3 & 4 & 5 & 6 & $\Sigma$ \\
\hline
m=0 &1 & & & & & & & 1 \\
1 & 0 & 1 & & & & & & 1 \\
2 & 2 & 0 & 1 & & & & & 3 \\
3 & 3& 6 & 0 & 1 & & & & 10 \\
4 &10 & 12 & 12 & 0 & 1 & & & 35 \\
5 &25 & 50 & 30 & 20 & 0 & 1 & &126 \\
6 &71 &150 &150 & 60 & 30 & 0 & 1 &462 \\
\hline
\end{tabular}
\end{table}
��sla $b_{i0}$ tvo�� vektory bez jednotkov�ch prvk�. Ty lze nazvat {\em podrovinn�
��sla}, proto�e generuj� po�et bod� norm�ln�ho rovinn�ho simplexu n�soben�m
binomi�ln�mi koeficienty:
\begin{equation}
(b_i + 1)^m = { m+n-1 \choose m}
\end{equation}
Existuje $(n-k)$ rozm�rn�ch vektor� bez jednotkov�ch prvk� av�ak s nulov�mi prvky.
Jejich $(n-k)$ prvk� se kombinuje s $k$ jednotkov�mi prvky. Kdy� $m \neq n$, potom
tyto vztahy jsou slo�it�j��. Odpov�daj�c� podrovinn� ��sla se z�skaj� v�po�ty
rozd�len� bez jednotkov�ch ��st�. Po��tek tabulky je
$$\begin{tabular}{|r|rrrrrrr|}
\hline
n & 0 & 1 & 2 & 3 & 4 & 5 & 6 \\
\hline
m=0 & 1& 1 & 1 & 1& 1& 1 & 1 \\
1 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 0 \\
2 & 0 & 1 & 2 & 3& 4& 5 & 6 \\
3 & 0 & 1 & 2 & 3 & 4& 5 & 6 \\
4 & 0 & 1 & 3 & 6 &10& 15 &21 \\
5 & 0 & 1 & 4 & 9 &16& 25 &36 \\
6 & 0 & 1 & 5 &13 &26& 45 &71 \\
\hline
\end{tabular}$$
$$\begin{tabular}{|l|l|rrrrrr|c|}
\hline
$m_a$ & & 0 & 1 & 2 & 3 & 4 & 5 & Orbita \\
\hline
Body &0 & * & * & * & * & * & * & 0,m\\
&1 & & * & * & * & * & * & 1,(m-1) \\
&2 & & & * & * & * & * & 2,(m-2)\\
&3 & & & & * & * & * & 3,(m-3)\\
&4 & & & & & * & * & 4,(m-4)\\
&5 & & & & & & * & 5,(m-5)\\
\hline
Po�et & & 1 & 2 & 3 & 4 & 5 & 6 & \\
\hline
\end{tabular}$$
2 rozm�rn� komplex tvo�� 3 rozm�rn�m simplex a jeho body pro rozd�ln� hodnoty
vektoru ${\bf a}$ se po��taj� sloupcov�mi sou�ty. Je to podobn� situaci, kdy� body
(n-1) rozm�rn�ho komplexu se po��taj� pro rozd�ln� hodnoty $m$, $m_k$ jdou od 0 k
$m$. Body se po��taj� binomi�ln�mi koeficienty ${ m+k-2 \choose k}$. Nap��klad
pro $n=m=7$:
$$\begin{tabular}{|l|rrrrrrrr|}
\hline
$m_k$ & 0& 1 & 2 & 3 & 4 & 5 & 6 & 7\\
\hline
Binomi�ln� koeficient& 792& 462& 252 & 123 & 56 & 21 & 6 & 1\\
\hline
\end{tabular}$$
Dostaneme identitu
\begin{equation}
\sum_{k=0}^m { m+k-2 \choose k} = { m+n-1 \choose m}
\end{equation}
\begin{figure}
\caption{ Diference rovinn�ho simplexu. Je tvo�ena jedn�m vrcholem, jednou
ne�plnou hranou, jednou ne�plnou stranou, atd.}
\label{Rozd�l of}
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\end{figure}
$$\begin{tabular}{|r|ccccc|r|}
\hline
n & 1 & 2 & 3 & 4 & 5 & $\Sigma$ \\
\hline
m=5& 5& & & & & 1 \\
4& & 41;14 & & & & 2 \\
3& & 32;23 & 311;131;113, & & & 5 \\
2& & & 221;212;122; & 2111;1211;1121;1112 & & 7 \\
1& & & & &11111 & 1 \\
\hline
$\sum$ & 1& 4 & 6 & 4 & 1 & 16\\
\hline
\end{tabular}$$
\begin{table}
\caption{Matice binomi�ln�ch koeficient� {\bf B}}
\label{Binomi�ln� koeficient�}
\begin{tabular}{|r|rrrrrr|r|}
\hline
k & 1 & 2 & 3 & 4 & 5 & 6 & $\Sigma$ \\
\hline
m=1 & 1 & & & & & & 1 \\
2 & 1 & 1 & & & & & 2 \\
3 & 1 & 2 & 1 & & & & 4 \\
4 & 1 & 3 & 3 & 1 & & & 8 \\
5 & 1 & 4 & 6 & 4 & 1 & & 16 \\
6 & 1 & 5 & 10 &10 & 5 & 1 & 32 \\
\hline
\end{tabular}
\end{table}
\begin{table}
\caption{Matice ${\bf B}{\bf B}^{\rm T}$ binomi�ln�ch koeficient�}
\label{Matice bf B}
\begin{tabular}{|r|rrrrrr|}
\hline
k & 1 & 2 & 3 & 4 & 5 & 6 \\
\hline
m=0 & 1 & 1 & 1 & 1 & 1 & 1 \\
1 & 1 & 2 & 3 & 4 & 5 & 6 \\
2 & 1 & 3 & 6 & 10 & 15 & 21 \\
3 & 1 & 4 & 10 & 20 & 35 & 56 \\
4 & 1 & 5 & 15 & 35 & 70 &126 \\
5 & 1 & 6 & 21 & 56& 126 &252 \\
\hline
\end{tabular}
\end{table}
\begin{equation}
b_{11} = 1;\ b_{ij} = b_{i-1,j} + b_{i-1,j-1}
\end{equation}
Generuj� se binomem
\begin{equation}
(1_i + 1)^m = 2^m.
\end{equation}
Inverzn� matice ${\bf B}^{-1}$ k matici ${\bf B}$ se z�sk� z form�ln�ho binomu
\begin{equation}
(1_i - 1)^m = 0\;.
\end{equation}
Je to pr�v� matice ${\bf B}$, jej� prvky se n�sob� st��dav� znam�nky $(-1)^{j-i}$.
\section{Rozd�l $\Delta(m)$}
\label{Rozd�l (m)}
Kdy� jsme uspo��dali vektorov� kompozice do tabulky, zab�vali jsme se pouze jej�mi
sloupcov�mi sou�ty. Existuj� tak� ��dkov� sou�ty, kter� po��taj� kompozice
klasifikovan� podle nejv�t��ho vektoru $m_k$. N�sledn� v�sledky pro $n=m$ lze
uspo��dat do tabulky \ref{Kompozice vektor� s m ��stmi}
\begin{table}
\caption{Kompozice vektor� s m ��stmi}
\label{Kompozice vektor� s m ��stmi}
\begin{tabular}{|r|rrrrrrrrr|}
\hline
n & 1 & 2 & 3 & 4 & 5 & 6 & 7 & 8 & 9 \\
\hline
m =1 & 1& 1& 1 & 1& 1 & 1 &1 &1 &1 \\
2 & & 1 & 2 & 4 & 7 &12 &20 &33 &54 \\
3 & & & 1 & 2 & 5 &11 &23 &47 &94 \\
4 & & & & 1 & 2 & 5 &12 &25 &59 \\
5 & & & & & 1 & 2 &5 &12 &28 \\
6 & & & & & & 1 &2 &5 &12 \\
& & & & & & &1 &2 & 5\\
& & & & & & & &1 &2 \\
& & & & & & & & &1 \\
\hline
$\sum$ &1 & 2 & 3 & 8 &16 &32&64 &128 &256 \\
\hline
\end{tabular}
\end{table}
$$\begin{tabular}{|c|c|}
\hline
Orbita & \Po�et kompozic \\
\hline
$m-3,3$ & 2 \\
$m-3,2,1$ & 6 \\
$m-3,1^3$ & 4 \\
\hline
$\sum$ & 12. \\
\hline
\end{tabular}$$
Pro $i=2$ prvky $c_{2j}$ jsou sou�ty binomi�ln�ch koeficient� a jejich rekurence
je
\begin{equation}
c_{2j} = \sum_{k=1}^{j/2}{ j-k \choose k} = 2c_{2,j-1} - c_{2,j-3}
\end{equation}
kde k je po�et 2.
Kdy� p�ipust�me jako nejmen�� prvek 2, dostaneme tabulku \ref{ Fibonacciho ��sla}
bod� useknut�ch rovinn�ch simplex�. Jej� ��dkov� sou�ty jsou zn�m� jako {\em
Fibonacciho ��sla}. V st�edov�k� aritmetick� knize se objevily jako odpov�� na
ot�zku o po�tu p�r� kr�l�k� v n�sleduj�c�ch vrz�ch.
\begin{table}
\caption{Fibonacciho ��sla}
\label{Fibonacciho ��sla}
\begin{tabular}{|r|rrr|r|}
\hline
n & 1 & 2 & 3 & $\Sigma$ \\
\hline
m=2 & 1 & & & 1 \\
3 & 1 & & & 1 \\
4 & 1 & 1 & & 2 \\
5 & 1 & 2 & & 3 \\
6 & 1 & 3& 1 & 5 \\
7 & 1 & 4 & 3 & 8 \\
\hline
\end{tabular}
\end{table}
Vektory po��tan� pro $m=7$ jsou: 7; 52, 25, 43, 34; 322, 232,
223.
V�imn�te si, �e prvky tabulky \ref{ Fibonacciho ��sla} jsou binomi�ln� koeficienty
posunut� v ka�d�m sloupci o 2 ��dky. Fibonacciho ��sla $F_m$ maj� rekurenci
\begin{equation}
F_m = F_{m-1} + F_{m-2}\;.
\end{equation}
\begin{equation}
f_{21} = 1;\ f_{ij} = f_{i-2,j-1} + f_{i-1,j}
\end{equation}
V ka�d� ��dce se opakuj� v�echny prvky obou p�edch�zej�c�ch ��dk�, co� d�v�
rekurenci Fibonacciho ��sel.
Jin� zp�sobem dosa�en� Fibonacciho ��sla jsou kompozice, ve kter� v�echny prvky
jsou lich�. Dostaneme ��dk� Pascal�v troj�heln�k:
$$\begin{tabular}{|r|rrrrrr|r|}
\hline
k & 1 & 2 & 3 & 4 & 5 & 6 & $\Sigma$ \\
\hline
m=1 & 1 & & & & & & 1 \\
2 & 0 & 1 & & & & & 1 \\
3 & 1& 0 & 1 & & & & 2 \\
4 & 0 & 2 & 0 & 1 & & & 3 \\
5 & 1 & 0 & 3 & 0 & 1 & & 5 \\
6 & 0 & 3 & 0 & 4 & 0 & 1 & 8 \\
\hline
\end{tabular}$$
\section{Fibonacciho spir�ly}
\label{Fibonacciho spir�ly}
\begin{figure}
\caption{Fibbonacciho spir�la. �tverce p�epon pravo�hl�ch troj�heln�k� s
n�sledn�mi Fibbonacciho odv�snami jsou lich� Fibbonacciho ��sla}
\label{Fibbonacciho spir�la}
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\end{figure}
\begin{equation}
F_{2k+1} = F_{k+1}^2 + F_k^2
\end{equation}
Podobn� identita se z�sk� pro sud� ��sla z diference dvou �tverc� Fibonacciho
��sel, nap��klad $F_8 = F_5^2 - F_3^2 = 21 = 25 - 4$. Tato diference m�e b�t
naps�na jako sou�et sou�in� Fibonacciho ��sel.
\begin{equation}
F_{2k} = F_{k+1}^2 - F_{k-1}^2 = F_{k}^2 + F_kF_{k-1}
\end{equation}
\begin{equation}
F_{2k+1} = F_2F_{2k} + F_1F_{2k-1} = F_3F_{2k-1} + F_2F_{2k-2} =
\dots
\end{equation}
Objevuje se tu je�t� jin� vzorec
\begin{equation}
F_{n+1} F_{n-1} - F^2_n = (-1)^n
\end{equation}
$$\begin{array}{ccc}
\left(
\begin{array}{cc}
F_{n+1} & F_{n} \\
F_{n} & F_{n-1}
\end{array}
\right)
& = &
\left(
\begin{array}{ccc}
1 & 1 \\
1 & 0
\end{array}
\right)^n\;.
\end{array}$$
Tento vztah vede ke dv�ma skute�nostem. Prvou jsou vlastn� hodnoty matice, viz
pozd�j�� kapitoly, druhou je nulov� mocnina t�to matice:
$$\begin{array}{ccccc}
\left(
\begin{array}{cc}
1 & 1 \\
1 & 0
\end{array}
\right)^0
& = &
\left(
\begin{array}{ccc}
1 & 0 \\
0 & 1
\end{array}
\right)
& = &
\left(
\begin{array}{cc}
F_1 & F_0 \\
F_0 & F_{-1}
\end{array}
\right)\;.
\end{array}$$
$$\left(
\begin{array}{cc}
0 & 1 \\
1 & -1
\end{array}
\right)^n\;.$$
\chapter{Mocninov� s�rie}
\label{Mocninov� s�rie}
\begin{equation}
m!/\prod_{j=1}^n m_j! = m!/\prod_{k\geq0}m_k!^{n_k};\
{\rm kde}\ m = \sum_{j=1}^n m_j = \sum_{k\geq0} n_km_k\;.
\end{equation}
\label{m permutace}
V kapitole 7 jsme studovali symetrii zvl�tn� t��dy naivn�ch matic, maj�c�ch jeden
jednotkov� prvek nejen v ��dc�ch av�ak sou�asn� v sloupc�ch. V�echny jdou k orbit�
sest�vaj�c� se pouze z jednoho bodu.
Nyn� m�me nal�zt index symetrie dvou grup cyklick�ch permutac� p�sob�c�ch sou�asn�
na jin� naivn� matice zleva a zprava:
\begin{equation}
{\bf P}_m{\bf N}{\bf P}_n\;.
\end{equation}
Akce permuta�n�ch matic zleva po��t� polynomi�ln� koeficient pro m
permutace(\ref{m permutace}), akce permuta�n�ch matic zprava po��t� polynomi�ln�
koeficient pro n permutace (9.1). ��inek permutace zprava je identick� s n
permutacemi sloupce vektoru-��dky ${\bf m}$ sloupcov�ch sou�t� naivn� matice:
\begin{equation}
{\bf J}^{\rm T}{\bf NP}_n\ =\ {\bf m}{\bf P}_n\;.
\end{equation}
Ob� akce jsou nez�visl� a tedy kone�n�m v�sledkem je pr�v� sou�in obou
koeficient�
\begin{equation}
\sum (n!/\prod_{k\geq 0}n!)(m!/\prod_{k\geq 0}m_k^{n_k}!)
= n^m
\end{equation}
$$\begin{tabular}{|r|rrrrrr|c|}
\hline
k & 1 & 2 & 3 & 4 & 5 & 6 & $\Sigma$ \\
\hline
m =6 & 6 & & & & & & 6 \\
5 & & 180 & & & & & 180 \\
4 & & 450 & 1800 & & & & 2250 \\
3 & & 300 & 7200 & 7200 & & & 14700 \\
2 & & & 1800 & 16200 & 10800 & & 18800 \\
1 & & & & & & 720 & \\
\hline
$\Sigma$ &6 & 930 & 10800 & 23800 & 10800 & 720 & $46656= 6^6$ \\
\hline
\end{tabular}$$
\begin{table}
\caption{Sekvence mocninov� s�rie}
\label{Mocninov� s�rie}
\begin{tabular}{|r|rrrrrr|r|}
\hline
k & 1 & 2 & 3 & 4 & 5 & 6 & $\Sigma$ \\
\hline
m=1 & 1 & & & & & & 1 \\
2 & 2 & 2 & & & & & 4 \\
3 & 3 & 18 & 6 & & & & 27 \\
4 & 4 & 84 & 144 & 24 & & & 256 \\
5 & 5 & 300 & 1500 & 1200 & 120 & & 3125 \\
6 & 6 & 930 &10800 &23400 &10800 & 720 & 46656 \\
\hline
\end{tabular}
\end{table}
V tabulce \ref{Mocninov� s�rie}, pouze prvn� sloupec a ��dkov� sou�ty jsou z�ejm�
spojen� s $m$ a $n^m$. Mimo to se zde objevuj� faktori�ly av�ak jin�ho prvky
rostou p��li� rychle, aby se analyzovaly p��mo. Av�ak v�echny prvky jsou d�liteln�
$m$. T�mto zp�sobem se tabulka \ref{Mocninov� s�rie} rozlo�� do p��m�ho sou�inu
dvou matic. Jednou z nich je matice binomi�ln�ch koeficient� ${ m \choose k}$. To
je matice ${\bf B}^{\rm T}$. Druhou matic� je matice diferenc� $\Delta^n{\bf
0}^m$:
\begin{table}
\caption{Diference $\Delta^n{\bf 0}^m$}
\label{Diference D bf 0}
\begin{tabular}{|r|rrrrrrr|r|}
\hline
n & 0 & 1 & 2 & 3 & 4 & 5 & 6 & $\Delta^n{\bf 0}^m$ \\
\hline
m=0 & 1 & & & & & & & 1 \\
1 & & 1 & & & & & & 1 \\
2 & & 1 & 2 & & & & & 3 \\
3 & & 1 & 6 & 6 & & & & 13 \\
4 & & 1 & 14 & 36 & 24 & & & 75 \\
5 & & 1 & 30 &150 & 240 & 120 & & 541 \\
6 & & 1 & 62 & 540 &1560 &1800 &720 & 4683 \\
\hline
\end{tabular}
\end{table}
$$\begin{tabular}{|l|c|ccc|ccc|c|}
\hline
n & 1 & & 2 & & & 3 & & 4 \\
\hline
Z�kladn� �ada & aaa &aaab& aabb &abbb &aabc& abbc &abcc &abcd \\
Permutace & 1 & 4 & 6 & 4 &12 & 12 & 12 & 24 \\
\hline
Po�ty & 1 & & 14 & & & 36 & & 24 \\
\hline
\end{tabular}$$
\begin{equation}
m_{00} = 1;\ m_{ij} = j(m_{i-1,j-1} + m_{i-1,j})
\end{equation}
V ka�d�m sloupci m�me $j$ mo�nosti, jak p�idat nov� prvek. Bu� se p�id� do
obsazen�ch sloupc�, nebo se p�id� do nov�ho sloupce. Potom se jin� sloupce pouze
posunou bez permutov�n�.
$$\begin{tabular}{rrrr|rrrrr}
& & & & 1 & 1 & 1 &1 & 1 \\
& & & & & 1 & 2 & 3 & 4 \\
& & & & & & 1 & 3 & 6 \\
& & & & & & & 1 & 4 \\
\hline
1 & & & & 1 &1 &1 &1 & 1 \\
& 1 & & & & 1 & 2 & 3 & 4 \\
& 1 & 2 & & & 1 & 4 & 9 &16 \\
& 1 & 6 & 6 & & 1 & 8 &27 &64 \\
\end{tabular}$$
Ani tabulka 10.2 nen� element�rn�. Lze ji rozlo�it op�t do matice Stirlingov�ch
��sel druh�ho druhu (tabulka 8.2) a diagon�ln� matice faktori�l� $\Delta(j!)$,
kter� n�sob� Stirlingovu matici zprava. Stirlingova ��sla druh�ho druhu po��taj�
naivn� matice v doln� troj�heln�kov� form�. Tato podm�nka zaji��uje, �e v�echny
sloupce tvo�� z�kladnu pro sloupcov� permutace, kdy� se odstran� restrikce doln�
troj�heln�kov� formy.
\begin{table}
\caption{Diference mocninov� s�rie}
\label{Diference mocninov� s�rie}
\begin{tabular}{|r|r|rrrr|}
\hline
k & 0 & 1 & 2 & 3 & 4 \\
\hline
m=0 & 1 & & & & \\
1 & 0 & 1 & & & \\
2 & 1 & 1 & 1 & & \\
3 & 14 & 3 & 1 & 1 & \\
4 &181 & 13 & 3 & 1 & 1 \\
\hline
\end{tabular}
\end{table}
V nulov�m sloupci se po��taj� �ady simplexu, kter� nejsou v jeho diferenci. Prvky
v dal��ch sloupc�ch jsou postupn� rozd�ly. Nap��klad prvky v $d_{30}=14$ jsou:
$b^3$, $c^3$, $b^3$, 3$b^2c$, 3$bc^2$, 3$a^2c$, 3$ac^2$. Sloupcov� indexy
odpov�daj� mocnin�m prv�ho indexu, nap��klad $d_{41}=13= ab^3 + 3ab^2c + 3abc^2
+6abcd,\d_{42}=3 = a^2b^2 + 2a^2bc$. Kdy� n�sob�me tuto matici transponovanou
matic� binomi�ln�ch koeficient� ${\bf B}^{\rm T}$, dostaneme na diagon�le sou�inu
odpov�daj�c� mocniny $n^n$. Binomi�ln� koeficient permutuje prv� vektor s jin�mi
u� permutovan�mi vektory.
\section{Oper�torov� algebra}
\label{Oper�torov� algebra}
Pou��vali jsme oper�torovou notaci v�cekr�t. Nyn� bychom m�li tuto notaci
vysv�tlit. Existuje {\em funkce identity} $E$ a {\em funkce diference} $\Delta$.
Mimo to existuj� form�ln� mocniny $0^n$. Tyto funkce jsou definov�ny recipro�n�
jako
\begin{equation}
\Delta^m0^n = [E^m0^n -1]^m = \sum_{j=0}^m
{ m \choose j}(-1)^j(m-j)^m
\end{equation}
\begin{itemize}
\item $\Delta^m0^1 = 1\times1^m$,
\item $\Delta^m0^2 = 1\times2^m - 2\times1^m$,
\item $\Delta^m0^3 = 1\times3^m - 3\times2^m + 3\times1^m$.
\end{itemize}
$$\begin{array}{lcll}
$\Delta^m0^3$ & $m=1=$& $1\times3-3\times2+3\times1$ & $=0$,\\
& $m=2=$ & $ 1\times9-3\times4+3\times1$ & $=0$, \\
& $m=3=$ & $1\times27-3\times8+3\times1$ & $=6$, \\
& $m=4=$ & $1\times81-3\times16+3\times1$ & $=36$\;. \\
\end{array}$$
\begin{equation}
n^m = E^m 0^n =(1 + \Delta^m0^n)^m\;.
\end{equation}
\begin{equation}
d_{ij} = j(d_{i-1,j-1} + d_{i-1,j})
\end{equation}
Kdy� provedeme diferenci $d_1 -2(d_1 +d_2) +3(d_2 +d_3) - \dots = -d_1 + d_2
-d_3 \dots$, dostaneme prvky p�edch�zej�c� ��dky s jin�mi znam�nky, jejich� sou�et
byl +/-1.
Mocnina $n^m$ je binom, pokud nap�eme n jako sou�et $n = (n-1) +1$. Potom
\begin{equation}
n^m = [(n-1) + 1]^m = \sum_{k=0}^m{ m \choose k}(n-1)^k\;.
\end{equation}
Funkce $n^m$ se m�e diferencovat je�t� jin�m zp�sobem. Kdy� se pod�v�me na jej�
tabulku 10.3, vid�me, �e mocniny lze definovat jejich ��dkov�mi rozd�ly
\begin{equation}
(n^m - 1) = (n - 1)\sum_{i=0}^m n^i\;.
\end{equation}
\label{��dka rozd�ly}
Nap��klad $27-1 = 2(1+3+9)$. To m�eme ps�t jako sou�et rozd�l� nekone�n� �ady
$1/n^k$. P�id�me 1 k ob�ma stran�m (\ref{��dka rozd�ly}) nap�eme to jako
\begin{equation}
n^m = (n-1)\sum_{k=1}^{\infty}n^{m-k}\;.
\end{equation}
\begin{equation}
n/(n-1) = (n-1)\sum_{i=0}^{\infty}n^{-i}
\end{equation}
\begin{equation}
\sum_{k=1}^n k^0 = n;\ \sum_{k=1}^n k^1 = { n+1 \choose 2};\
\sum_{k=1}^n k^3 = { n+1 \choose 2}^2\;.
\end{equation}
V�echny identity se snadno dok�� �plnou indukc�. Zejm�na pokud posledn� plat� pro
$n$, potom pro $(n+1)$ m�me
$$ { n+1 \choose 2}^2 + { n+1 \choose 1}^3 = { n+2 \choose 2}^2\;. $$
V�imn�te si, �e i-t� ��dka tabulky 10.2 se z�sk� postupn� n�soben�m t�to matice $
{\bf Q}$ zprava od (i-1)-t� ��dky. ${\bf Q}$ je diagon�ln� matice index�, kter� se
je�t� jednou opakuj� pod hlavn� diagon�lou jako v n�sleduj�c�m p��klad�
$$\begin{array}{cccc|cccc}
& & & & 1 & & & \\
& & & & 1 & 2 & & \\
& & & & & 2 & 3 & \\
& & & & & &3 &4\\
\hline
1 & & & & 1 & & & \\
& 1 & & & 1 & 2 & & \\
& 1 & 2 & & 1 & 6 & 6 & \\
& 1 & 6 &6 & 1 &14 &36 &24\;.\\
\end{array}$$
M�eme klasifikovat naivn� matice podobn� jak jsme to ud�lali u permuta�n�ch matic.
Takov� klasifikace vedou n�kdy k slo�it�m rekurentn�m vztah�m. Nap��klad pokud
napodob�me po�et p�em�st�n� a po��t�me po�et prvk� na hlavn� diagon�le ve
vektorov�ch �ad�ch, dostaneme pro $(3,3)$ n�sleduj�c� dv� klasifikace
$$\begin{array}{|r|c|c|c|c|c|}
\hline
& $\hbox{Rozd�l}$ & $\Sigma$ & $\hbox{Zbytek simplexu}$
& $\Sigma$ & $\Sigma$ \\
\hline
$k=0$ & bca,cab,bab,ba & 4 & ccb, bcb, caa, cc & 4 & 8\\
1 & aaa,aab,bba,acb,bac,cb & 6 &bbb, ccc, cbb, bcc, aca, cac & 6 & 12 \\
2 & aba,abb & 2 & bbc, cbc, aac, acc & 4 & 6\\
3 & abc & 1 & & 0 & 1 \\
\hline
$\Sigma$ & & 13 & & 14 & 27\\
\hline
\end{array}$$
Tabulka 10.3 ukazuje po�et p�em�st�n� v diferenc�ch simplex�, tabulka 10.4 ukazuje
tento po�et pro v�echny naivn� matice
\begin{table}
\caption{Rozd�ly po�tu p�em�st�n�}
\label{Rozd�ly po�tu p�em�st�n�}
\begin{tabular}{|r|rrrrrr|r|}
\hline
k & 0 & 1 & 2 & 3 & 4 & 5 & $\Sigma$ \\
\hline
m=0 & 1 & & & & & & 1 \\
1 & 0 & 1 & & & & & 1 \\
2 & 1 & 1 & 1 & & & & 3 \\
3 & 4 & 6 & 2 & 1 & & & 13 \\
4 & 27 & 28 & 16 & 3 & 1 & & 75 \\
5 &187 & 214 & 104 & 31 & 4 & 1 &541 \\
\hline
\end{tabular}
\end{table}
\begin{table}
\caption{Rozd�ly po�tu p�em�st�n� v mocninov� s�rii}
\label{Rozd�ly po�tu p�em�st�n� v mocninov� s�rii}
\begin{tabular}{|r|rrrrr|r|}
\hline
k & 0 & 1 & 2 & 3 & 4 & $\Sigma$ \\
\hline
m=0 & 1 & & & & & 1 \\
1 & 0 & 1 & & & & 1 \\
2 & 1 & 2 & 1 & & & 4 \\
3 & 8 & 12 & 6 & 1 & & 27 \\
4 & 85 & 104 & 54 & 12 & 1 & 256 \\
\hline
\end{tabular}
\end{table}
Nebudeme analyzovat tyto vztahy, ale uk�eme jin�. Pokud �ady v rovinn�ch
simplexech jsou klasifikov�ny podle po�tu jednotkov�ch vektor� $n_1$, dostaneme
diference, tabulka 10.5.
\begin{table}
\caption{Diference mocnin podle $n_1$}
\label{Diference mocnin podle n}
\begin{tabular}{|r|rrrrrrr|r|}
\hline
k & 0 & 1 & 2 & 3 & 4 & 5 & 6 & $\Sigma$ \\
\hline
m=0 & 1 & & & & & & & 1 \\
1 & 0 & 1 & & & & & & 1 \\
2 & 2 & 0 & 2 & & & & & 4 \\
3 & 3 & 18 & 0 & 6 & & & & 27 \\
4 & 40 & 48 & 144 & 0 & 24 & & & 256 \\
5 & 205 & 1000 & 600 & 1200 & 0 & 120 & & 3125 \\
6 & 2556 & 7380 & 18000 & 7200 &10800 & 0 &720 &46656 \\
\hline
\end{tabular}
\end{table}
Prvky prvn�ho sloupce tabulky 10.5 lze nazvat {\em podmocniny}, proto�e generuj� v
��dc�ch jin� prvky, jejich� sou�ty d�vaj� mocniny $n^n$. Rekurence je
\begin{equation}
p_{i0}=1\ p_{ij} = p_{i-j,0}\ [i!/(i-j)!]^2\times1/j! =
p_{i-j,0}j!{ i \choose j}^2
\end{equation}
\label{rekurence}
Tato rekurence se m�e rozd�lit do dvou krok�. Nejprve k naivn�m matic�m s $(i-j)$
prvky se p�id� $j$ jednotkov�ch prvk� a ��dky se permutuj� s pou�it�m binomi�ln�ho
koeficientu ${ i \choose j}^2$. Potom opakujeme permutace se sloupci s pou�it�m
stejn�ho binomi�ln�ho koeficientu. V�sledek se mus� opravit o permutace p�idan�ch
$j$ jednotkov�ch prvk� mezi sebou, to se provede faktori�ln�m �lenem 1/j!.
$$\begin{tabular}{|r|rrrrr|r|}
\hline
$m_b$ & 0 & 1 & 2 & 3 & 4 & $\Sigma$ \\
\hline
$m_a= 0$ & 16 & 32 & 24 & 8 & 1 & 81 \\
1 & 32 & 48 & 24 & 4 & & 108 \\
2 & 24 & 24 & 6 & & & 54 \\
3 & 8 & 4 & & & & 12 \\
4 & 1 & & & & & 1 \\
\hline
$\Sigma$ & 81 & 108 & 54 & 12 & 1 & 256\\
\hline
\end{tabular}$$
\begin{equation}
{ m_a+m_b \choose m_}{ m \choose m_}(n-2)^{m-m_a-m_b}
\end{equation}
\begin{equation}
{ m \choose m_}(n-1)^{m-m_a}
\end{equation}
\begin{table}
\caption{Klesaj�c� faktori�l a jeho inverzn� matice}
\label{Klesaj�c� faktori�l}
\begin{tabular}{|r|rrrrrr|r|rrrrrr|}
\hline
k & 0 & 1 & 2 & 3 & 4 & 5 & \qquad & 0 & 1 & 2 & 3
& 4 & 5 \\
\hline
m=0 & 1 & & & & & & & 1 & & & & & \\
1 & 1 & 1 & & & & & &-1 & 1 & & & & \\
2 & 2 & 2 & 1 & & & & & & -2 & 1 & & & \\
3 & 6 & 6 & 3 & 1 & & & & & & -3 & 1 & & \\
4 & 24 & 24 & 12 & 4 & 1 & & & & & & -4 & 1 & \\
5 &120 &120 & 60 & 20 & 5 & 1 & & & & & &-5 & 1 \\
\hline
\end{tabular}
\end{table}
\begin{equation}
(k! + 1)^n\ \mbox{nahrazuj�c}\ k!^j = j!\;.
\end{equation}
\begin{equation}
\sum_{k\geq0}m!n!/\prod n_k! = (m+n-1)!/(n-1)!
\end{equation}
\begin{equation}
(n+m-1)_m = (n)^m\;.
\end{equation}
\begin{equation}
(n)^m =(-1)^m(-n)_m\;.
\end{equation}
U� jsme spo��tali kvadratick� formy ${\bf N}^{\rm T}{\bf N}$. Nyn� budeme studovat
jinou kvadratickou formu ${\bf NN}^{\rm T}$. V se objevuj� bloky ${\bf JJ}_k^{\rm
T}$ z�skan� jako vn�j�� sou�iny jednotkov�ho vektoru sloupce ${\bf J}_k$.
Nap��klad blok matic
$$\left(
\begin{array}{ccccc}
1 & 1 & 1 & 0 & 0 \\
1 & 1 & 1 & 0 & 0 \\
1 & 1 & 1 & 0 & 0 \\
0 & 0 & 0 & 1 & 1 \\
0 & 0 & 0 & 1 & 1
\end{array}
\right)$$
se permutuje jako
$$\left(
\begin{array}{ccccc}
1 & 0 & 1 & 0 & 1 \\
0 & 1 & 0 & 1 & 0 \\
1 & 0 & 1 & 0 & 1 \\
0 & 1 & 0 & 1 & 0 \\
1 & 0 & 1 & 0 & 1
\end{array}
\right)\;.$$
Tyto bloky nemohou odli�it sekvence $({\bf ababa})^{\rm T}$ a $({\bf babab})^{\rm
T}$. Pouze registruj�, �e na m�stech $1,3,5$ byl jeden vektor a jin� vektor byl na
m�stech 2 a 4.
Rozd�l mezi ob�ma kvadratick�mi formami lze srovnat se dv�ma pozorovateli vlak�. $
{\bf N}^{\rm T}{\bf N}$ je pozorovatel sed�c� na vlaku. Registruje kolikr�t jeho
vlak se pohyboval, av�ak nem�e ��ci, kdy. ${\bf NN}^{\rm T}$ je pozorovatel na
kolej�ch registruj�c� intervaly, kdy byly koleje vyu�ity, av�ak nem�e ��ci, kter�m
vlakem.
\begin{equation}
m!/\prod_{k\geq0} n_k !m_k !^{n_k}
\end{equation}
Kdy� jej srovn�me se sou�inem dvou polynomi�ln�ch koeficient�, vid�me, �e ten byl
d�len �lenem $n!/n_0!$. Tento �len se objevil jako oper�tor n�sob�c� v�echna
Stirlingova ��sla druh�ho druhu, aby se dostaly rozd�ly $\Delta^m0^n$ (podkapitola
10.3). Tedy Bellovy polynomi�ly po��taj� Stirlingova ��sla druh�ho druhu a jejich
sou�ty. Po�et kvadratick�ch forem ${\bf NN}^{\rm T}$ je identick� s po�tem
naivn�ch matic v doln� troj�heln�kov� form� bez pr�zdn�ch mezisloupc�.
$$\begin{array}{cccc|rrrrr|rrrrr}
& & & & \quad & 1 & 1 & 1 & 1 &\quad & 1 & 1 & 1 & 1 \\
& & & & & & 2 & 2 & 2 & & & 1 & 2 & 3 \\
& & & & & & & 6 & 6 & & & & 2 & 6 \\
& & & & & & & & 24 & & & & & 6 \\
\hline
1 & & & & & 1 & 1 & 1 & 1 & & 1 & 1 & 1 & 1 \\
1 & 1 & & & & 1 & 3 & 3 & 3 & & 1 & 2 & 3 & 4 \\
1 & 3 & 1 & & & 1 & 7 &13 &13 & & 1 & 4 & 9 &16 \\
1 & 7 & 6 & 1 & & 1& 15 &51 &75 & & 1 & 8& 27& 64 \\
\end{array}$$
\begin{equation}
a_{ij} =ja_{i-1,j} + (i-1)a_{i-2,j-1}\ {\rm s}\ a_{00} =1\;.
\end{equation}
\begin{figure}
\caption{K�nus hlasovac�ch ��sel. Koordin�ty ${\bf a}$ jsou v�dy v�t�� ne�
koordin�ty ${\bf b}$}
\label{Balloting ��sel}
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\begin{table}
\caption{Fibonacciho a hlasovac� ��sla}
\label{Fibonacciho a hlasovac� ��sla}
\begin{tabular}{|r|rrrrrrr|c|rrrrrrr|}
\hline
& \multicolumn{7}{|c|}
{ Fibonacciho ��sla} & & \multicolumn{7}{|c|}
{Hlasovac� ��sla}\\
\hline
k & 1 & 2 & 3 & 4 & 5 & 6 & 7 & \quad
& 1 & 2 & 3 & 4 & 5 & 6 & 7 \\
\hline
m=1 & 1 & & & & & & && 1 & & & & & & \\
2 & & 1 & & & & & && & 1 & & & & & \\
3 & 1 & & 1 & & & & && -1 & & 1 & & & & \\
4& & 2 & & 1 & & & && &-2 & &1 & & & \\
5 & 1 & & 3& &1 & & && 2& &-3 & & 1 & & \\
6 & & 3 & & 4 & & 1& && & 3 & &-4 & & 1 & \\
7 & 1 & & 6 & & 5 & & 1 && -2 & & 9 & & -5 & & 1 \\
\hline
\end{tabular}
\end{table}
\begin{figure}
\caption{Fibonacciho m��ka. Lich� vektory ${\bf a}$ se netvo��. Fibonacciho ��sla
po��taj� omezen� �ady}
\label{Fibonacciho m��ka}
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\begin{equation}
f_{11} = 1;\ f_{ij} = f_{i-1,j-1} + f_{i,j-2}\;.
\end{equation}
\begin{equation}
b_{11} = 1;\ b_{ij} = b_{i-1,j-1} + b_{i-1,j+1}\;,
\end{equation}
M�eme formulovat tak� tabulku, jej� prvky po��taj� �ady, ve kter�ch $m_ \geq
m_b^2$. Jej� prvky jsou $b_{ij} = b_{i-1,j-1} + b_{i-2,j}$ a je to op�t z�ed�n�
matice binomi�ln�ch koeficient�.
$$\begin{tabular}{|r|rrrrrrrrr|}
\hline
& 1 & 2 & 3 & 4 & 5 & 6 & 7 & 8 & 9 \\
\hline
n=0 & 1 & & & & & & & & \\
1 & & 1 & & & & & & & \\
2 & & & 1 & & & & & & \\
3 & 1 & & & 1 & & & & & \\
4 & & 2 & & & 1 & & & & \\
5 & & & 3 & & & 1 & & & \\
6 & 3 & & &4 & & & 1 & & \\
7 & & 7 & & & 5 & & & 1& \\
8 & & & 12 & & & 6 & & & 1 \\
\hline
\end{tabular}$$
\begin{equation}
b_{11} = 1;\ b_{ij} = b_{i-1,j-1} + b_{i-1,j+2}\;.
\end{equation}
U v�ech bod� (prvk�) prostoru m�eme m��it vzd�lenosti (rozd�ly) od jin�ch bod�.
Tyto vzd�lenosti jsou vyvol�ny jejich speci�ln�mi funkcemi. Jako p��klad zavedeme
diference $[2^m +1] - { m \choose j}$, zobrazen� v tabulkov� form� v tabulce
ref{Diference binomi�ln�ch koeficient�}
\begin{table}
\caption{\ Diference binomi�ln�ch koeficient�}
\label{Diference binomi�ln�ch koeficient�}
\begin{tabular}{|r|rrrrrr|}
\hline
j & 0 & 1 & 2 & 3 & 4 & 5 \\
\hline
m=0& 1 & & & & & \\
1& 2 & 1 & & & & \\
2& 4& 3 & 1 & & & \\
3& 8 & 7 & 4 & 1 & & \\
4& 16& 15 &11 & 5 & 1 & \\
5& 32 &31 &26 &16 & 6 & 1 \\
\hline
\end{tabular}
\end{table}
\begin{equation}
m_{ij} = m_{i-1,j-1} - m_{i-1,j}\;,
\end{equation}
Je nesnadn� uk�zat v�echny vztahy mezi v�emi prostorov�mi funkcemi. Lahova ��sla
${\bf L}$ jsou jednodu�e zavedena jejich tabulkou \ref{Lah ��sel}
\begin{table}
\caption{\ Lahova ��sla ${\bf L}$}
\label{Lah ��sel}
\begin{tabular}{|r|rrrrr|r|}
\hline
n & 1 & 2 & 3 & 4 & 5 & $\Sigma$ \\
\hline
m=1& 1 & & & & & 1 \\
2& 2& 1 & & & & 3 \\
3& 6& 6 & 1 & & & 13 \\
4& 24& 36 & 12 & 1 & & 73 \\
5& 120& 240& 120 & 20 & 1& 501 \\
\hline
\end{tabular}
\end{table}
Ve skute�nosti p�vodn� Lahova ��sla ${\bf L}$ maj� v lich�ch ��dc�ch z�porn�
znam�nka a potom
\begin{equation}
{\bf L}^2 = {\bf I};\
{\rm nebo}\ {\bf L}^{-1} = (-1)^{i+j}{\bf L}\;.
\end{equation}
\begin{equation}
l_{ij} = i!/j!{ i-1 \choose j-1}\;.
\end{equation}
\begin{equation}
l_{i+1,j} = (i+j)l_{ij} + l_{i,j-1}
\end{equation}
Jin� mo�nost vyvolat Lahova ��sla je sou�in matic Stirlingov�ch ��sel obou druh�.
Matice Stirlingov�ch ��sel druh�ho druhu se n�sob� matic� Stirlingov�ch ��sel
prv�ho druhu zprava:
\begin{equation}
{\bf L}= {\bf S}_1{\bf S}_2\;.
\end{equation}
\begin{table}
\caption{\ Diference jako sou�in ${\bf S}_2{\bf S}_1$}
\label{Diference jako sou�in}
\begin{tabular}{|r|rrrrr|r|}
\hline
n & 1 & 2 & 3 & 4 & 5 & $\Sigma$ \\
\hline
m=1 & 1 & & & & & 1 \\
2 & 2 & 1 & & & & 3 \\
3& 6 & 6 & 1 & & & 13 \\
4 & 26 & 36 & 12 & 1 & & 75 \\
5 &150& 250 &120 &20 & 1 &541 \\
\hline
\end{tabular}
\end{table}
P�i n�soben� matice Stirlingov�ch ��sel prv�ho druhu matic� Stirlingov�ch ��sel
druh�ho druhu d�v� stejn� v�sledek jako permutace sloupc� naivn�ch matic v doln�
troj�heln�kov� form� s j sloupci s nenulov�mi prvky permuta�n� matice ${\bf P}$ s
i ��dky a sloupci a j cykly. Uspo��d�n� zaji��uje, �e pr�zdn� sloupce se
nepermutuj� z jejich polohy. Tabulka \ref{Diference jako sou�in} po��t� �ady
podle po�tu sloupc� v doln� troj�heln�kov� form�, kter� nebyly permutovan� ze sv�
polohy. Prvky jej�ho prv�ho sloupce jsou, vyjma prvn� prvek, $2\Delta^{n-1}0^{n-
1}$. Po��taj� se matice v doln� troj�heln�kov� form� s vedouc�m prv�m prvkem ${\bf
a}$ a druh�m prvkem bu� ${\bf a}$ nebo ${\bf b}$.
\chapter{Mnohorozm�rn� krychle}
\label{Mnohorozm�rn� krychle}
\section{�vod}
\label{�vod 11}
�vodem t�to kapitoly zopakujeme n�kter� fakta o krychl�ch, kter� byl u� byla d��ve
vysv�tlena. Pou��vali jsme jako vytvo�uj�c� funkci mocniny vektorov�ch mno�in $
(\Sigma{\bf e}_j)^m$. Z�skali jsme vektorov� �ady ${\bf N}$ vedouc�m k bod�m na
rovin�ch ortogon�ln�ch k jednotkov�mu diagon�ln�mu vektoru ${\bf I}$. Nalezli jsme
matematick� operace, kter� uspo��daly tyto maticov� vektory ${\bf N}$ na sf�rick�
orbity a zm�nili jsme n�kter� mo�nosti, jak vytvo�it z rovinn�ch simplex� jejich
komplexy, to je kladn� k�nusy ve vektorov�m prostoru. Tak� jsme uk�zali, �e
krychle nebo obecn� jak�koliv rovnob�n�ky se tvo�� z rovinn�ch komplex� vynech�n�m
p��li� dlouh�ch vektor�. Tradi�n� p��stup, kart�zsk� sou�in n jedno rozm�rn�ch
komplex� d�v� pouze body a ��dn� vektorov� �ady
\begin{equation}
(1 + a + a^2)\times(1 + b +b^2) =
1 + a + a^2 + b + ab + b^2 + a^2b + ab^2 + a^2b^2.
\end{equation}
Tyto n rozm�rn� krychle se tvo�� obvykle kart�zsk�mi sou�iny $n$ jedno rozm�rn�ch
komplex�, nap��klad:
\begin{equation}
(1 + a + a^2)\times(1 + b + b^2) = 1 + (a + b) + a^2 +
ab + b^2 + a^2b + ab^2 + a^2b^2.
\end{equation}
Prv� t�i simplexy jsou �pln�, av�ak posledn� dva jsou useknuty. Mimo to nevznikaj�
v�echny �ady. Nyn� se budeme zab�vat krychlemi systematicky. Zejm�na uk�eme, jak
se vektorov� �ady transformuj� a krychle body rovinn�ch simplex� do orbit. Tato
transformace je mo�n� interpretac� transponovan�ch naivn�ch matic ${\bf N}^{\rm T}
$ jako tv��� (obr. \ref{Face}), vektor� ur�uj�c�ch koordin�ty bod� v m rozm�rn�m
prostoru. Ka�d� vektorov� �ada odpov�d� jednomu bodu a v�echny �ady rovinn�ho
simplexu se mapuj� na body m rozm�rn� krychle, jej� strana je $(n-1)$. Tato
transformace nen� jednoduchou �lohou. To lze uk�zat na mapov�n� 3 rozm�rn� roviny
na 4 rozm�rnou krychli se stranami 0-2.
$$\begin{tabular}{|l|r|rrrrrrrrr|c|}
\hline
Momenty: & & 0 & 1 & 2 & 3 & 4& 5 & 6 & 7 & 8 & $\Sigma$\\
\hline
�ady roviny:& b=0& 1 & & 4 & & 6 & & 4 & & 1 & 16 \\
& 1& & 4 & & 12 & &12& & 4 & & 32 \\
& 2& & &6 & &12 & & 6 & & & 24 \\
& 3& & & & 4 & &4 & & & & 8 \\
& 4& & & & & 1 & & & & & 1 \\
\hline
Body krychle: & $\Sigma$ & 1 & 4 &10 &16 &19& 16 &10 & 4 & 1 & 81\\
\hline
\end{tabular}$$
�ady z rozd�ln�ch orbit se po��taj� dohromady, pon�vad� maj� stejn� {\em momenty}.
Nov� orbity jdou od 0 k $m(n-1)$. N�kter� ze zn�m�ch funkc� dost�vaj� novou
interpretaci, av�ak je�t� bude nutn� zav�st n�jak� nov� funkce.
Pro rovinn� simplexy jsme zavedli rozd�ly, kter� maj� pon�kud podivnou vlastnost.
Zahrnuj� jeden vrchol, jednu ne�plnou hranu a jednu ne�plnou stranu. Av�ak kdy�
transponujeme naivn� matice ${\bf N}$ a interpretujeme je jako tv��e, vid�me, �e
tyto vlastnosti znamenaj�, �e diference krychle je obsazen� sv�mi body
dot�kaj�c�mi se sv�ho povrchu nejbl�e ke st�edu koordin�t, maj�c�mi alespo� jednu
nulovou koordin�tu, alespo� jednu koordin�tu jedna a tak d�le ve v�ce rozm�rn�ch
krychl�ch (obr. 11.1).
\begin{figure}
\caption{Diference t��rozm�rn� krychle se stranami $0-2$. Rozd�l tvo�� body
dot�kaj�c� se povrchu krychle nejbli���ho ke st�edu koordin�t. Body diference
maj� koordin�ty (permutovan�): $(0,0,0)$; $(0,0,1)$; $(0,1,1)$; $(0,1,2)$}
\label{Diference t��rozm�rn� krychle}
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\section{Jednotkov� krychle}
\label{Jednotkov� krychle}
Jednotkov� krychle jsou pro za��tek nejpou�n�j��. Maj� n stran a na ka�d� stran�
existuj� pr�v� dva body, 0 a 1. Generuj� se funkc�
\begin{equation}
\prod^n_{j=1} (1 + {\bf e}_j) = 2^n\;.
\end{equation}
\begin{figure}
\caption{T�i rozm�rn� krychle se stranou 0-1}
\label{T�i rozm�rn� krychle se stranou 0-1}
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Nap��klad pro $n=3$ dostaneme body: $1, a, b, c, ab, ac, bc, abc$ (obr. \ref{T�i
rozm�rn� krychle se stranou 0-1}). Jednou z nejzaj�mav�j��ch vlastnost�
jednotkov�ch krychl�, ve kter�ch jsou mo�n� pouze cel� koordin�ty, je, �e jsou
tvo�eny pouze povrchem. Nen� tu ��dn� bod uvnit� p�edstavuj�c� jejich st�ed.
V teorii mno�in n rozm�rn� krychle jsou zn�m� jako {\em boole�ny}. Boole�ny
obsahuj� mno�inu, pr�zdnou mno�inu a v�echny podmno�iny.
V jednotkov�ch krychl�ch existuje $(m+1)$ orbit rozd�len�, z ka�d�ho rovinn�ho
simplexu existuje pr�v� jedna orbita. Po�et bod� na ka�d� orbit� je ur�en
odpov�daj�c�m binomi�ln�m koeficientem. Co se m� ur�it je po�et �ad v
jednotkov�ch krychl�ch, av�ak studovali jsme i tuto funkci a tento po�et je dan�
klesaj�c�m faktori�lem $(i)_{(i-j)}$. Op�t si jej prohl�dneme. Nap�eme jej v
inverzn�m uspo��d�n� vzhledem k tabulce 10.6
\begin{table}
\caption{�ady v jednotkov� krychli ${\bf F}$}
\label{�ady v jednotkov� krychli}
\begin{tabular}{|r|rrrrrr|r|}
\hline
k & 0 & 1 & 2 & 3 & 4 & 5 & $\Sigma$ \\
\hline
m=0 & 1 & & & & & & 1 \\
1 & 1 & 1 & & & & & 2 \\
2 & 1 & 2 & 2 & & & & 5 \\
3 & 1 & 3 & 6 & 6 & & & 16 \\
4 & 1 & 4 & 12 & 24 & 24 & & 65 \\
5 & 1 & 5 & 20 & 60 &120 &120 & 326 \\
\hline
\end{tabular}
\end{table}
Prvky tabulky 11.1 $f_{ij}$ se z�skaj� jako sou�in binomi�ln� matice ${\bf B}$ a
diagon�ln� matice faktori�l� $\Delta(j!)$:
\begin{equation}
{\bf F}={\bf B}\Delta(j!)\;.
\end{equation}
\begin{equation}
(n)_m = [(k)_i + (n-k)_i]^m\ {\rm kde}\ (k)^j_i = (k)_j\;.
\end{equation}
36 permutac� bu� s $a$ nebo $b$: $6(acd, ace, ade, bcd, bce, bde)$ a 6 permutac�
�ady $cde$. $(2)_3 = 0$; nen� mo�n� vytvo�it sekvenci t�� symbol� z pouze dvou
symbol�. ��dkov� sou�ty jsou d�ny jednodu�e jako
\begin{equation}
S_m = m(S_{m-1}) + 1
\end{equation}
Je mo�n� p�idat nov� objekt do p�edch�zej�c�ch �ad m zp�soby, vyjma nulovou �adu.
Jinou mo�nost� dosa�en� matice 11.1, je n�soben� matice po�tu p�em�st�n� ${\bf R}$
(tabulka 7.3) matic� binomi�ln�ch koeficient�
\begin{equation}
{\bf F}= {\bf RB}.
\end{equation}
Orbity rozd�len� v krychli odpov�daj� bod�m rovinn�ch simplex�. Tedy zn�me jejich
celkov� po�et. Tak� jsme shora uk�zali, jak rozd�ln� se mapuj� tyto body na
rovinn� simplexy a krychle. U� jsme zjistili, �e indexov�n� orbit v jednotkov�ch
krychl�ch je velmi jednoduch�.
\begin{table}
\caption{}
\label{Orbity rozd�len� v krychli 0-2}
\begin{tabular}{|r|rrrrrrrrrrrrr|r|}
\hline
k & 0 & 1 & 2 & 3 & 4 & 5 & 6 & 7 & 8 & 9 &10 &11 &12 & $\Sigma$\\
\hline
m=0 & 1 & & & & & & & & & & & & & 1 \\
1 & 1& 1 & 1 & & & & & & & & & & & 3 \\
2& 1 & 1 & 2 & 1 & 1 & & & & & & & & & 6 \\
3 & 1& 1 & 2 & 2 & 2 & 1 & 1 & & & & & & & 10 \\
4 & 1 & 1 & 2 & 2 & 3 & 2 & 2 & 1 & 1 & & & & & 15 \\
5 & 1 & 1 & 2 & 2 & 3 & 3 & 3 & 2 & 2 & 1 & 1 & & & 21 \\
6 & 1 & 1 & 2 & 2 & 3 & 3 & 4 & 3 & 3 & 2 & 2 & 1 & 1 & 28 \\
\hline
\end{tabular}
\end{table}
N�kter� vlastnosti rozd�len� orbit jsou jasn�. Jsou symetrick� podle parametru
$k$. To plyne ze symetrie krychle. Po�et orbit na rovin�ch bl�zko nulov�ho bodu
nen� z�visl� na rozm�rnosti krychle a z�st�v� konstantn�. Je ur�en po�tem $k$ a
nem�e b�t v�t�� ne� po�et neomezen�ch rozd�len� p(k). Pokud pou�ijeme konstantu
$c$ jako d�lku stran krychl�, diagon�la $k$ jde od 0 k $cm$.
\begin{figure}
\caption{Vznik t��rozm�rn� krychle se stranou 0-2 ze �tverce se stranou 0-2
(pr�zdn� krou�ky). P�id� se jednotkov� t��rozm�rn� krychle se stranou 0-1
(zapln�n� krou�ky) a strany se dopln�}
\label{Vznik t��rozm�rn�m krychle}
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$$\begin{tabular}{|r|ccccccc|}
\hline
& 0 $<$ & \multicolumn{4}{c}{MOMENTY} &
$>$ mc $<$ & $>$ m(c+1) \\
\hline
& \multicolumn{6}{l}{Orbity m rozm�rn� krychle s men�� velikost� (c-1)} & \\
& & \multicolumn{6}{r|}{Orbity (m-1) rozm�rn� krychle stejn� velikosti}\\
\hline
$\Sigma$: & \multicolumn{7}{c|}{Orbity m rozm�rn� krychle s velikost� c} \\
\hline
\end{tabular}$$
Pon�vad� krychle jsou symetrick� pod�l sv�ch diagon�l, lze obr�tit po�ad� poloh
s��tanc�. Nap��klad
$$\begin{tabular}{|ccccccc|c|ccccccc|}
\hline
1 & 1 & 1 & 1 & & & & & & & & 1 & 1 & 1 & 1 \\
& & 1 & 1 & 2 & 1 & 1 & = & 1 & 1 & 2 & 1 & 1 & & \\
\hline
1 & 1 & 2 & 2 & 2 & 1 & 1 & & 1 & 1 & 2 & 2 & 2 & 1 & 1 \\
\hline
\end{tabular}$$
Definuj�ce po�et orbit p(m,n,c) na rovin� $m$ n rozm�rn� krychle se stranou $c$,
m�me
\begin{equation}
p(m,n,c) = p(m,[n-1],c) + p([m-n],n,[c-1])\;.
\end{equation}
\section{Body v krychl�ch}
\label{Body v krychl�ch}
Zn�me celkov� po�et bod� s p�irozen�mi koordin�tami (jinak objem $m^n$) v krychli,
nyn� chceme ur�it jejich rozd�len� podle jejich moment� v rovinn�ch simplexech.
Pokud v�choz� simplexy nejsou useknuty, tato ��sla mus� b�t binomi�ln�
koeficienty ${ m+k-1 \choose k}$. Podobn� ��sla se objev� na ohonech rozd�len�. Z
prv�ch krychl� s $c=2$, lze snadno dedukovat rekurenci
\begin{table}
\caption{ Body v krychli s c=2}
\label{ Body v krychli s c=2}
\begin{tabular}{|r|rrrrrrrrr|r|}
\hline
k & 0 & 1 & 2 & 3 & 4 & 5 & 6 & 7 & 8 & $\Sigma$\\
\hline
n=0 & 1 & & & & & & & & & 1 \\
1 & 1 & 1 & 1 & & & & & & & 3 \\
2 & 1 & 2 & 3 & 2 & 1 & & & & & 9 \\
3 & 1 & 3 & 6 & 7 & 6 & 3 & 1 & & & 27 \\
4 & 1 & 4 & 10 & 16 & 19 & 16 & 10 & 4 & 1 & 81 \\
\hline
\end{tabular}
\end{table}
\begin{equation}
c_{ij} = \sum_{k=0}^{c} c_{i-1,j-k}\;.
\end{equation}
Jin� mo�nost, jak vyrobit krychle, je zvy�ovat rozm�r $c$ krychle. Krychle
rozd�ln�ch rozm�r� $m$ se n�sob� transponovanou matic� binomi�ln�ch koeficient�
jak n�sleduje. Po�et bod� v�t�� krychle se objevuje na diagon�le
$$\begin{tabular}{rrrr|rrrrr}
& & & &\quad& 1 & 1 & 1 & 1 \\
& & & && & 1 & 2 & 3 \\
& & & && & & 1 & 3 \\
& & & && & & & 1 \\
\hline
& & & && & & & \\
1 & & & && 1 & 1 & 1 & 1 \\
3 & 1 & & && 3 & 4 & 5 & 6 \\
9 & 3 & 1 & && 9 &12 &16 &21 \\
27& 9 & 3 & 1&&27 &36& 48 &64 \\
\end{tabular}$$
\begin{table}
\caption{Vektorov� �ady v krychli s c=2}
\label{Vektorov� �ady v krychli s c=2}
\begin{tabular}{|r|rrrrrrrrr|r|}
\hline
m & 0 & 1 & 2 & 3 & 4 & 5 & 6 & 7 & 8 & $\Sigma$\\
\hline
n=0 & 1 & & & & & & & & & 1 \\
1 & 1 & 1 & 1 & & & & & & & 3 \\
2 & 1 & 2 & 4 & 6 & 6 & & & & & 19 \\
3 & 1 & 3 & 9 & 24 & 54 & 90 & 90 & & & 271 \\
4 & 1 & 4 &16 & 60 & 204 & 600 &1440 &2520 &2520 & 7365 \\
\hline
\end{tabular}
\end{table}
Abychom uk�zali, jak jsou vytvo�eny prvky tabulky \ref{Vektorov� �ady v krychli s
c=2}, uk�eme v�sledek pro $s_{45}$: $600 = 90 + 5\times 54 + 10\times24$. Z�skali
jsme body v krychl�ch se��t�n�m $(c+1)$ prvk� m�n� rozm�rn� krychle (11.9). V
tomto p��pad� je nutn� permutovat p�idan� symboly se symboly odpov�daj�c� �ady s $
(n-1)$ symboly. To se provede n�soben�m odpov�daj�c�ch ��sel s binomi�ln�mi
koeficienty. Rekurence je tedy
\begin{equation}
s_{ij} = \sum_{k=0}^c { m \choose k}s_{i-1,j-1}\;.
\end{equation}
Jin� mo�nost jak dostat v�t�� krychli zv�t�ov�n�m stran n rozm�rn� krychle d�v�
tak� mo�nost, jak nal�zt rekurentn� vzorce po�tu �ad. Pro $n=2$ (�tverce),
dostaneme tabulku \ref{�ady v 2 rozm�rn�ch krychl�ch}.
\begin{table}
\caption{ �ady v 2 rozm�rn�ch krychl�ch}
\label{�ady v 2 rozm�rn�ch krychl�ch}
\begin{tabular}{|r|rrrrrrrrr|r|}
\hline
k & 0 & 1 & 2 & 3 & 4 & 5 & 6 & 7 & 8 & $\Sigma$\\
\hline
c=0 & 1 & & & & & & & & & 1 \\
1 & 1 & 2 & 2 & & & & & & & 5 \\
2 & 1 & 2 & 4 & 6 & 6 & & & & & 19 \\
3 & 1 & 2 & 4 & 8 &14 &20 &20 & & & 69 \\
4 & 1 & 2 & 4 & 8 &16 &30& 50 &70 &70 &201 \\
\hline
\end{tabular}
\end{table}
Rekurence je
\begin{equation}
s_{i0} = 1;\ s_{ij} = s_{i-1,j-1} + s_{i,j-1};\ s_{ij} = 0,\
\mbox{mimo krychli}\;.
\end{equation}
V�dy jsou dv� mo�nosti, jak prodlou�it �ady, vyjma �ady vedouc� k zadn�m stran�m.
Prv� odpov�d� �lenu $s_{i,j-1}$, na druhou mo�nost uvnit� �tverce se pamatuje
po��t�n�m �ad z men��ho �tverce $s_{i-1,j-1}$.
Je tak� mo�n� posunout krychli v jej�m prostoru, kdy jej� bod s nejni���m momentem
nesouhlas� s po��tkem soustavy koordin�t. Po�et orbit a bod� se nezm�nil touto
operace, av�ak po�et �ad ano.
Uk�zali jsme, �e jednotkov� krychle jsou vytvo�eny vzorcem 1.3. �len 1 v $(1+{\bf
e}_j)$ se interpretoval jako ${\bf e}_j^0$. Objem krychle z�vis� na jej� z�kladn�
$m$ a na jej� rozm�rnosti $n$. Nyn� budeme studovat, jak� m� krychle objem $e$,
pokud se jej� strana bl�� k jedn� a jej� rozm�rnost k nekone�nu. Pokus�me se
nal�zt, jakou hodnotu m� limita
\begin{equation}
e = \lim_{z\rightarrow\infty}(1 + 1/z)^z
\end{equation}
\label{e Con}
Argument v \ref{e Con} m�e b�t bu� kladn� nebo z�porn�.
Z�kladna $e$ krychle le�� mezi krychlemi s cel�mi ��sly $1 < (1+1/z) < 2$. Kdy� $z
=1$, v�sledkem je $1.5$ m�sto $2^1$. Kdy� $z =2$, v�sledkem je $1.5^2=2.25$ m�sto
$2^2$. Vyhodnocen�m binomi�ln�ho rozvoje (11.7), dostaneme nerovnosti
\begin{equation}
\sum^{\infty}_{k=0}1/k! < e = \sum^{\infty}_{k=0}{ z \choose k}1/k!
< 1 + \sum^\infty_{k=0}1/2^k = 3\;.
\end{equation}
\begin{eqnarray}
\lim_{t\rightarrow\infty}[1 - 1/(t+1)]^{-(t+1)} = \lim
[t/(t+1)]^{-(t+1)} = \\
\nonumber lim(1 + 1/z)^{t+1} \times
\lim(1 +1/z) = e\times1 = e\;.
\end{eqnarray}
\begin{equation}
\lim_{x\rightarrow\infty} (1 + a/x)^x = e^ = exp(a)
\end{equation}
je $a$-t� mocnina ��sla $e$. Tato vlastnost ��sla $e$ se vyu��v� p�i pou�it� $e$
jako z�kladny p�irozen�ch logaritm�.
\begin{equation}
\lim_{n \rightarrow \infty} n!\sum^{\infty}_{k=0} 1/k! = en!\;.
\end{equation}
Zah�jili jsme na�e studia permuta�n�mi maticemi maj�c�mi v ka�d� ��dce a sloupci
pouze jeden jednotkov� symbol. Potom jsme p�idali naivn� matice, maj�c�mi toto
omezen� pouze pro ��dky a transponovan� naivn� matice, kde se pou�ilo pro sloupce.
P��t�m krokem je dovolit, aby jednotky byly vlo�eny na jak�koliv dosa�iteln� m�sto
matice. U� v�me, �e po�et t�chto matic bude ur�en binomi�ln�m koeficientem. Pro
matice s $m$ sloupci a $n$ ��dky, s k jednotkov� prvky v matici po�et mo�n�ch
konfigurac� bude ur�en binomi�ln�m koeficientem ${ mn \choose k}$. Tyto
konfigurace se mohou spo��tat s pou�it�m tabulek maj�c�ch dv� orbity rozd�len� do
��dk� a tak� do sloupc�. Nap��klad pro $m=n=k=4$ dostaneme tabulku 12.1.
\begin{table}
\caption{Rozd�len� jednotkov�ch matic//
$m=n=k=4$}
\label{Rozd�len� jednotkov�ch matic $m=n=k=4$}
\begin{tabular}{|l|ccccc|c|}
\hline
Rozd�len� & 4 & 31 & 22& 211 &1111 & $\Sigma$ \\
& & & & & ${\bf N}$ & \\
\hline
4 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 4 & 4 \\
31 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 144 & 48 & 192 \\
22 & 0 & 0 & 36 & 144 & 36 & 216 \\
211 & 0 &144 & 144 & 720 & 144 & 1152 \\
\hline
$1^4 {\bf N}^{\rm T}$ & 4 & 48 & 36 & 144 & 24 & 256 \\
\hline
$\Sigma$ & 4 &192 & 216 &1152 & 256 & 1820 \\
\hline
\end{tabular}
\end{table}
Tabulka 12.1 d�v� p�edstavu. V prostoru se objevily nov� vektorov� �ady. Ty vedou
ke stejn�m bod�m jako naivn� matice, av�ak jejich orbity nejsou jednoduch�mi
orbitami rozd�len� av�ak {\em vzorov�mi orbitami}, kter� jsou sou�iny dvou
rozd�len�, jednoho pro ��dky a druh�ho pro sloupce.
$$\left(
\begin{array}{rrr}
1 & 1 & 1 \\
1 & 0 & 0 \\
0 & 0 & 0 \\
\end{array}
\right)\;.$$
$$\left(
\begin{array}{rrr}
1 & 1 & 0 \\
1 & 0 & 0 \\
0 & 0 & 1 \\
\end{array}
\right)$$
$$\left(
\begin{array}{rrr}
* & 1 & 1 \\
1& 0 & 0 \\
1 & 0 & 0 \\
\end{array}
\right)$$
\begin{equation}
\sum (n!/\prod n!){ m \choose k_j}^{n_j}
= { mn \choose k};\ \sum_{j=1}^n k_j = k\;.
\end{equation}
Sou�et se provede p�es v�echna mo�n� rozd�len�. Sou�in binomi�l� nen� omezen�
jak�mikoliv podm�nkami na sloupcov� sou�ty a tedy jednotky v ka�d� ��dce mohou b�t
rozd�leny nez�visle, potom se ��dky z�skan� takov�m zp�sobem permutuj� ($n=m$),
av�ak $n!$ nadhodnocuje permutace ��dk� se stejn�mi sou�ty, tedy v�sledek se mus�
pod�lit ��ste�n�mi faktori�ly.
Nyn� se p��t� krok zd� b�t snadn�. Matice je mn rozm�rn� vektor a pokud lze do n�
um�stit k jednotkov�ch prvk� bez jak�hokoliv omezen�, po�et v�ech mo�n�ch vektor�
je dan� binomi�ln� koeficientem (10.2) ${ mn+k \choose k}$. Tabulka 12.1 by m�la
b�t dopln�na 2056 nov�mi vstupy, aby se dostalo ${ 19 \choose 4}$ rozd�ln�ch matic
m�sto ${ 16 \choose 4}$ matic s jednotkov�mi prvky. Nov� vzory zapl�uj� tabulku
odli�n�, viz tabulku 12.2
\begin{table}
\caption{Matice s prvky $\geq\;1$}
\label{Matice s prvky $>$1}
\begin{tabular}{|r|ccccc|c|}
\hline
Rozd�len�& 4 & 31 & 22 & 211 &1111 & $\Sigma$\\
\hline
4 & 16 & 48 & 24 & 48 & 0 & 136 \\
31 & 48 & 288 &144 & 288 & 0 & 768 \\
22 & 24 & 144& 72 & 144 & 0 & 384 \\
211 & 48 & 288 &144 & 288 & 0 & 768 \\
\hline
$\Sigma$ &136 & 768& 384 & 768 & 0 & 2056 \\
\hline
1111 & 4 & 192 &216 &1152 & 256 & 1820 \\
\hline
$\Sigma$ &140 & 960 &600 &1920 & 256 & 3876 \\
\hline
\end{tabular}
\end{table}
Je prakticky nemo�n� sledovat v�ech mo�n� vzory maticov�ch vektor�, jak jsme to
provedli d��ve. Jedna jejich zvl�tn� t��da byla studov�na systematicky, matice
maj�c� v ka�d� ��dce p�esn� dva jednotkov� symboly. Tyto vzory se rozvinuly do
speci�ln� v�tve matematiky, teorii graf� (viz p��t� kapitolu).
Pokud diagon�ln� matice se prom�t� na jednotkov� vektor ��dku ${\bf J}^{\rm T}$,
v�sledkem je vektor ��dka odpov�daj�c� vektoru ��dce zobecn�n�ch matic s
p�irozen�mi ��sly. Je tedy mo�n� ps�t takovou matici jako �adu projekc�
kvadratick�ch forem naivn�ch �ad na n�sledn� jednotkov� vektory ��dky.
\begin{equation}
({\bf J}_1^{\rm T}{\bf N}_1^{\rm T}{\bf N}_1, \
{\bf J}_2^{\rm T}{\bf N}_2^{\rm T}{\bf N}_2, \
{\bf J}_3^{\rm T}{\bf N}_3^{\rm T}{\bf N}_3)^{\rm T}\;.
\end{equation}
Jin� mo�nosti budou uk�zan� pozd�ji. M�eme interpretovat matici ${\bf M}$ spole�n�
s jej� transponovanou matic� ${\bf M}^{\rm T}$, vzatou v blokov� form�
$$\left(
\begin{array}{cc}
{\bf 0} & {\bf M}^{\rm T} \\
{\bf M} & {\bf 0}
\end{array}
\right)\;,$$
jako matici sousedstv� ${\bf A}$ dvojd�ln�ho grafu s n�sobn�mi hranami (viz p��t�
kapitolu).
\section{Matice koordin�t}
\label{Matice koordin�t}
Interpretovali jsme ��dky v matici jako �ady n�sledn�ch vektor�. Existuje je�t�
jin� v�klad. ��dky jsou tak� simult�nn� vektory ur�uj�c� polohy rozd�ln�ch bod�
nebo objekt�. Matice
$$\left(
\begin{array}{cc}
1 & 0 \\
1 & 0 \\
\end{array}
\right)$$
d�v� pro dva rozd�ln� body (nebo objekty) stejnou adresu. To je mo�n�, pokud
adresa $(1, 0)$ je nap��klad d�m nebo box. Tedy je nutn� studovat mo�nost, �e
matice definuj� polohy $m$ bod� v prostoru, �e jsou to seznamy koordin�t v
ortogon�ln�ch os�ch. Takov� seznam tvo�� {\em matici koordin�t} ${\bf C}$, jej�
prvky $c_{ij}$ jsou koordin�ty $m$ bod� (vrchol�, objekt�) $i$ na $n$ os�ch.
Matice sloupec
$$\begin{array}{cc}
{\bf A} = (0, 1, 2, 3, 4)^{\rm T}
\end{array}$$
ur�uje koordin�ty p�ti bod� le��c�ch na p�irozen� ��seln� ose. Mezi v�emi body
jsou jednotkov� vzd�lenosti.
Matice
$$\begin{array}{cc}
ur�uje koordin�ty p�t bod� oto�en�ch do dvou rozm�rn� roviny. Jinou p��mkovou
konfigurac� p�ti bod� je rovinn� simplex
$$\begin{array}{cc}
${\bf C}$ = &
\left(
\begin{array}{ccccc}
0 & 1 & 2 & 3 & 4 \\
4 & 3 & 2 & 1 & 0
\end{array}
\right)^{\rm T}
\end{array}$$
Pokud se najdou kvadratick� formy ${\bf CC}^{\rm T}$ matic koordin�t, maj� na
sv�ch diagon�l�ch �tverce Euklidovsk�ch vzd�lenost� ka�d�ho bodu od st�edu
soustavy koordin�t
$$\begin{array}{cc}
\begin{array}{c}
${P��klad}{\bf A}$ \\
\\
\left(
\begin{array}{ccccc}
0 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 0 \\
0 & 1 & 2 & 3 & 4 \\
0 & 2 & 4 & 6 & 8 \\
0 & 3 & 6 & 9 & 12\\
0 & 4 & 8 & 12& 16
\end{array}
\right)
\end{array}
&
\begin{array}{c}
${P��klad}{\bf B}$ \\
\\
\left(
\begin{array}{ccccc}
0 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 0 \\
0 & 2 & 4 & 6 & 8 \\
0 & 4 & 8 & 12& 16\\
0 & 6 & 12& 18& 24\\
0 & 8 & 16& 24& 32
\end{array}
\right)
\end{array}
\end{array}$$
$$\begin{array}{c}
${P��klad}{\bf C}$ \\
\\
\left(
\begin{array}{ccccc}
16& 12& 8 & 4 & 0 \\
12& 10& 6 & 3 & 0 \\
8 & 6 & 4 & 2 & 0 \\
4 & 3 & 2 & 10& 0\\
0 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 16
\end{array}
\right)
\end{array}$$
$$\begin{array}{c}
${\bf D}$ \\
\\
\left(
\begin{array}{ccc}
0 & 0 & 0 \\
1 & 0 & 0 \\
1 & 1 & 0 \\
1 & 1 & 1
\end{array}
\right)\;.
\end{array}$$
Zde jsou um�st�ny �ty�i body na vrcholy t��rozm�rn� krychle. Jinou konfigurac� je
$$\begin{array}{c}
${\bf E}$ \\
\\
\left(
\begin{array}{cccc}
0 & 0 & 0 & 0 \\
0 & 1 & 0 & 0 \\
0 & 0 & 1 & 0 \\
0 & 0 & 0 & 1
\end{array}
\right)\;.
\end{array}$$
Zde v�echny �ty�i koordin�ty v prv�m sloupci jsou nuly. Ty lze tedy zanedbat.
Prvn� bod le�� ve st�edu soustavy koordin�t, druh� na konci druh�ho jednotkov�ho
vektoru, t�et� na konci t�et�ho jednotkov�ho vektoru. Body jsou ve vztahu jako v
t��rozm�rn�m rovinn�m komplexu. Vzd�lenosti mezi nimi nejsou stejn�. Prv� bod je
v jednotkov� vzd�lenosti k ostatn�m t�em bod�m, vzd�lenosti mezi t�mito t�emi body
jsou zdvojeny.
$$\begin{array}{c}
${\bf F}$ \\
\\
\left(
\begin{array}{cccc}
1 & 0 & 0 & 0 \\
0 & 1 & 0 & 0 \\
0 & 0 & 1 & 0 \\
0 & 0 & 0 & 1
\end{array}
\right)
\end{array}$$
Pokud nakresl�me diference dvou vektor� $({\bf e}_b - {\bf e}_a)$, jako na obr.
3.2, odpov�d� to p�ijat�m konvenc�m pro kreslen� orientovan�ch hran orientovan�ch
graf� (viz p��t� kapitolu). Inciden�n� matice ${\bf S}$ grafu je jen diferenc�
dvou naivn�ch matic
jak byl uk�z�no v ��sti 3.3. Je to oper�tor, kter� p�ev�d� vektorovou �adu v
jinou. Vektorov� �ada je kontinu�ln� cesta ve vektorov�m prostoru, oper�tor
p�ev�d�j�c� jednu vektorovou �adu v jinou je tak� kontinu�ln�. Zd� se, �e je to
plocha mezi dv�ma �adami vektor� ��dek, a mohli bychom si ji p�edstavit jako
plochu. Av�ak, kdy� provedeme n�sledn� rozd�ly u v�ech p�r� jednotkov�ch vektor�,
dostaneme op�t line�rn� vektor. Smy�ka p�ev�d� jednotkov� vektor v s�m sebe.
V�echny tyto vektory le�� v rovin� ortogon�ln� k jednotkov�mu diagon�ln�mu vektoru
${\bf I}$.
$$\begin{array}{cccccc}
${\bf a}$ & $\rightarrow$ & ${\bf b}$ & & & \\
& ${\bf b}$ & $\rightarrow$ & ${\bf c}$ & & \\
& & ${\bf c}$ & $\rightarrow$ & ${\bf d}$ & \\
& & & ${\bf d}$ & $\rightarrow$ & ${\bf a}$\;.
\end{array}$$
\begin{figure}
\caption{Dv� diagon�ln� �ady v t��rozm�rn� krychli 0-2. Najdi zb�vaj�c� �ty�i}
\label{Dv� diagon�la �ady v t��rozm�rn� krychli 0-2.}
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Orientovan� �pln� grafy $K_n$ tvo�� 2 rozm�rn� hrany (zn�m� jako orientovan�
hrany) rovinn�ch simplex�. NeOrientovan� grafy jsou �ady vektor� ortogon�ln�ch k
ploch�m odpov�daj�c�ch orientovan�ch graf�. Neorientovan� �pln� grafy $K_n$ jsou
vektorov� �ady jdouc� od st�edu koordin�t k nejvzd�len�j��mu konci jednotkov�
krychle, jej� strany jsou diagon�ly n rozm�rn� jednotkov� krychle, nebo jinak, k
nejvzd�len�j��mu konci krychle se stranou 0-2, jak je uk�zan� na obr. 12.1. Jin�
grafy odpov�daj� multimno�in�m z t�chto z�kladen, definovan�ch jako rozd�ly nebo
sou�ty naivn�ch matic. Hrany a orientovan� hranov� graf� tvo�� prostor, jeho�
symetrie je slo�it�j�� ne� symetrie naivn�ch matic.
\begin{equation}
\left(
\begin{array}{cc}
{\bf S}_{n-1} & {\bf 0}_{n-1} \\
-{\bf I}_{n-1} & {\bf J}_{n-1}
\end{array}
\right)
\end{equation}
kde ${\bf 0}_{n-1}$ je nulov� vektor-sloupec. Podobn� je kanonick� forma �pln�ho
neorientovan�ho grafu $K_n$
\begin{equation}
\left(
\begin{array}{cc}
{\bf G}_{n-1} & {\bf 0}_{n-1} \\
{\bf I}_{n-1}& {\bf J}_{n-1}
\end{array}
\right)\;.
\end{equation}
\begin{equation}
({\bf N}^{\rm T}_ + {\bf N})^{\rm T}_b({\bf N}_a+ {\bf N}_b)
= ({\bf N}^{\rm T}_ {\bf N}_a
+ {\bf N}_b^{\rm T} {\bf N}_b) + ({\bf N}_a^{\rm T} {\bf N}_b
+ {\bf N}_b^{\rm T} {\bf N}_a)
\end{equation}
\begin{equation}
({\bf N}^{\rm T}_ - {\bf N})^{\rm T}_b({\bf N}_ - {\bf N}_b)
= ({\bf N}^{\rm T}_ {\bf N}_a
+ {\bf N}_b^{\rm T} {\bf N}_b) - ({\bf N}_a^{\rm T} {\bf N}_b
+ {\bf N}_b^{\rm T} {\bf N}_a)
\end{equation}
Kvadratick� formy jsou slo�en� ze dvou ��sti: Diagon�ln� matice ${\bf V}$ tvo�en�
sou�tem kvadratick�ch forem dvou naivn�ch matic ${\bf N}_a$ a ${\bf N}_b$.
Diagon�ln� prvky $v_j$ jsou zn�m� jako{\em stupn�} odpov�daj�c�ch vrchol�.
tvo�� mimodiagon�ln� prvky. Je zn�m� jako matice sousedstv� ${\bf A}$ grafu. Jej�
prvky $a_{ij}$ ukazuj�, kter� vrcholy soused� a v multigrafech, tolik linek
spojuje oba vrcholy. Pro to je nutn� m�t v inciden�n� matici identick� jednotkov�
��dky nebo jednu ��dku s odmocninou n�sobnosti ��dky.
Diagon�ln� matice ${\bf V}$ a matice sousedstv� ${\bf A}$ se mohou z�skat jako
sou�et nebo rozd�l kvadratick�ch forem neorientovan�ho a orientovan�ho grafu
\begin{equation}
{\bf V}= 1/2({\bf G}^{\rm T} {\bf G}+ {\bf S}^{\rm T} {\bf S})
\label{v}
\end{equation}
\begin{equation}
{\bf A}= 1/2({\bf G}^{\rm T} {\bf G}- {\bf S}^{\rm T} {\bf S})
\label{a}
\end{equation}
\begin{figure}
\caption{Dekompozice kvadratick�ch forem ${\bf S}^{\rm T}{\bf S}$ a ${\bf G}^{\rm
T} {\bf G}$ na diagon�ln� vektor ${\bf V}$ a maticov� vektor sousedstv� ${\bf A}
$. ${\bf S}^{\rm T}{\bf S}$ a ${\bf G}^{\rm T} {\bf G}$ jsou ortogon�ln�}
\label{Dekompozice}
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Diagon�ln� prvky matice sousedstv� ${\bf A}$ jsou nuly. Je tedy mo�n� pou��t je
ned�sledn� pro z�znam smy�ek u grafu se smy�kami. U orientovan�ch graf� ��dky
odpov�daj�c� smy�k�m jsou nulov�. Av�ak u neorientovan�ch graf� ��dka odpov�daj�c�
smy�ce m� hodnotu 2, co� d�v� jako �tverec 4 a s pou�it�m vzorc� \ref{v} a \ref{a}
hodnota smy�ky 2 se objevuje automaticky.
Jin� kvadratick� formy ${\bf GG}^{\rm T}$ a ${\bf SS}^{\rm T}$ maj� na diagon�le 2
a po�et jednotkov�ch vektor� v ��dc�ch inciden�n� matice. To je v souladu s
faktem, �e ka�d� spojnice se registruje dvakr�t v matici ${\bf V}$ stejn� jako v
matici ${\bf A}$. Mimodiagon�ln� prvky jsou $\pm 1$, pokud dva ��dky soused� a
maj� spole�n� vrchol. Mimodiagon�ln� prvky tvo�� takov�m zp�sobem matice
sousedstv� liniov�ch graf�. Av�ak u orientovan�ch graf� tento v�klad je znesnadn�n
znam�nky, kter� mohou b�t kladn� i z�porn�. Tento vzor znam�nek z�vis� na vz�jemn�
orientaci orientovan�ch hran. Nelze jej p�edv�dat a mus� se ur�it odd�len�.
Jednotkov� matice ${\bf J}$ (${\bf J}^{\rm T}$) jsou oper�tory, kter� se��taj�
��dku (nebo sloupec) prvk� matice, na kterou p�sob�, nebo p�en�ej� je do
v�sledn�ho vektoru-��dky (nebo vektoru-sloupce). V kanonick� form� inciden�n�ch
matic �pln�ch graf� $K_n$ se jednotkov� matice ${\bf J}$ kombinuj� s jednotkov�mi
maticemi ${\bf I}$ se z�porn�mi znam�nky. Inciden�n� matice �pln�ch graf� $K_n$
jsou r�mcov� oper�tory\footnote{Je podivn�, �e takov� element�rn� v�ci lze objevit
na konci dvac�t�ho stolet�. Mo�n� byly jen zapomenuty.}. Operace r�mov�n� se
pou�ije na kvadratick� formy matic koordin�t dvakr�t. Nejprve se or�muje ${\bf
CC}^{\rm T}$ je or�movan�
\begin{equation}
{\bf S}(*){\bf S}^{\rm T}
\end{equation}
nebo
\begin{equation}
{\bf G}(*){\bf G}^{\rm T}\;.
\end{equation}
V�sledkem t�to operace je v�t�� matice s ${ n \choose 2}$ ��dky a sloupci. Prvky v
sou�inu jsou rozd�ly (sou�ty) v�ech p�r� prvk� or�movan� matice. Sou�in se �t�p�
na diagon�ln� a ��sti. Diagon�ln� ��st se op�t or�muje, nyn� v r�me�ku shrnuj�c�m
diagon�ln� prvky zp�t do n rozm�rn� symetrick� matice
\begin{equation}
{\bf S}^{\rm T}(*){\bf S}
\label{c}
\end{equation}
nebo
\begin{equation}
{\bf G}^{\rm T}(*){\bf G}
\label{d}
\end{equation}
Tato operace tvo�� druhou diferenci (sou�et) ${ n \choose 2}$ prvn�ch diferenc�
(sou�t�).
Jednotkov� diagon�ln� matice ${\bf I}$ d�v� ${\bf S}({\bf I}){\bf S}^{\rm T}$. To
je matice ${\bf SS}^{\rm T}$ �pln�ho grafu $K_4$. �ty�i diagon�ln� prvky ${\bf I}$
se rozvinuly do �esti diagon�ln�ch prvk� sou�inu. Diagon�ln� prvky (2) jsou
rozd�ly koordin�t (nebo �tverce vzd�lenost�, pon�vad� ${\bf I} = {\bf I}^2$) �ty�
vrchol� pravideln�ho �ty�st�nu. Diagon�ln� prvky jsou uspo��d�ny zp�t do �ty�
rozm�r� jako v \ref{c} nebo \ref{d}.
\section{Blokov� sch�mata}
\label{Blokov� sch�mata}
Jak jsme �ekli, je mo�n� studovat systematicky matice s libovoln�m po�tem
jednotkov�ch prvk� v ��dce. Z praktick�ch d�vod� tento po�et mus� b�t konstantn�
jinak by byly pouze speci�ln� konfigurace dostupn� pro v�po�ty. Z matic maj�c�ch k
jednotkov�ch prvk� v ka�d� ��dce byly studov�ny pouze matice maj�c� zvl�tn�
vlastnosti odpov�daj�c� vlastnostem �pln�ch graf�. Takov� matice jsou zvan� {\em
blokov� sch�mata} ${\bf B}$ a d�vaj� kvadratick� formy
\begin{equation}
{\bf B}^{\rm T}{\bf B}= (l -r){\bf I}+ r{\bf JJ}^{\rm T}
\end{equation}
\label{e}
\begin{equation}
{\bf B}^{\rm T}{\bf B}= {\bf BB}^{\rm T}.
\end{equation}
Neorientovan� �pln� graf $K_3$ je blok s $l = 3$, $r = 1$. Jin� $K_n$ nejsou
bloky, pon�vad� v jejich ${\bf GG}^{\rm T}$ se objevuj� nulov� prvky.
Rovnice \ref{e} ukazuje, �e ka�d� jednotkov� vektor ${\bf e}_j$ se mus� objevit v
sch�matu l-kr�t, ka�d� p�r prvk� r-kr�t. ��sla m, n, k, l,r jsou omezena
n�sleduj�c�mi podm�nkami
\begin{equation}
mk = nl \quad
\label{f}
\end{equation}
\begin{equation}
l(k-1) = r(n-1)
\label{g}
\end{equation}
$$\left(
\begin{array}{cccc}
1 & 1 & 1 & 0 \\
1 & 1 & 0 & 1 \\
1 & 0 & 1 & 1 \\
0 & 1 & 1 & 1 \\
\end{array}
\right)\;.$$
\section{\Hadamardovy matice}
\label{Hadamardovy matice}
Jinou zvl�tn� t��dou matic jsou {\em Hadamardovy matice} ${\bf H}$ s prvky $h_{ij}
= \pm 1$ a kvadratick�mi formami
\begin{equation}
{\bf H}^{\rm T}{\bf H}= {\bf HH}^{\rm T} = n{\bf I}\;.
\end{equation}
$$\begin{array}{cc}
\left(
\begin{array}{rr}
1 & 1 \\
1 & -1 \\
\end{array}
\right)
&
\left(
\begin{array}{rrrr}
1 & 1 & 1 & 1\\
1 & 1 &-1 &-1\\
1& -1 & 1& -1\\
1 &-1 &-1& 1\\
\end{array}
\right)\;.
\end{array}$$
Hadamardovy matice mohou b�t symetrick� stejn� jako asymetrick�. Existuj� n�kter�
pravidla, jak je mo�n� konstruovat Hadamardovy matice vy���ch ��d�. Konstrukce je
snadn� p�i $2n$ rozm�rn� matici, kde bloky ni��� matice se mohou pou��t jako
stavebn� kameny
$$\left(
\begin{array}{rr}
{\bf H}_n & {\bf H}_n\\
{\bf H}_n & -{\bf H}_n \\
\end{array}
\right)\;.$$
\chapter{Grafy}
\label{Grafy}
\section{Historick� pozn�mky}
\label{Historick� pozn�mky}
Teorii graf� formuloval, podobn� jako tolik jin�ch pojm� v t�to knize, Euler. P�ed
druhou sv�tovou v�lkou cel� teorie graf� mohla b�t shrnuta do pouze jedin� knihy.
Dnes existuje �ada specializovan�ch �asopis� zab�vaj�c�ch se teori� graf� a jej�mi
aplikacemi.
\begin{figure}
\caption{Sedm most� v K\"{o}nigsbergu a Eulerovo grafov� �e�en� hlavolamu}
\label{Sedm most�}
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Euler formuloval z�kladn� ideu teorie graf�, kdy� vy�e�il hlavolam o sedmi mostech
v K\"onigsbergu (obr. \ref{Sedm most�}). Je mo�n� proj�t p�es v�echny mosty a
vr�tit se zp�t do v�choz�ho m�sta, kdy� se p�ejde ka�d� most pouze jednou? Euler
uk�zal, �e ��dan� cesta existuje pouze tehdy, kdy� ve v�ech k�i�ovatk�ch se st�k�
sud� po�et cest. T�i cesty se st�kaly v n�kter�ch k�i�ovatk�ch v Eulerov� grafu.
Tedy v K\"onigsbergu jednoduch� cesta byla nemo�n�.
Doposud v�ech probl�my v t�to knize byly vy�e�eny n�soben�m rozd�ln�ch mo�nost� a
jej�ch se��t�n�m. Podstatn� by sta�� �ekov� byli schopni je roz�e�it, av�ak
zaj�mali se o geometrick� probl�my, kde probl�m a jeho �e�en� lze vid�t. Mo�nou
odpov�d� na shora danou ot�zku je, �e multidimension�ln� prostory jsou p��li�
abstraktn�, aby se s nimi za��nalo.
V�hodou teorie graf� je, �e grafy spojuj� abstraktn� pojmy s konkr�tnost�. Mohou
se nakreslit na pap�r a postupn� prohl�et jako soustava bod� a ��rek. Av�ak tato
jednoduchost je klamav�.
Grafy se obvykle pova�uj� za bin�rn� vztah dvou mno�in, {\em vrchol�} a {\em hran}
nebo {\em orientovan�ch hran}, viz obr. 3.2. Je mo�n� definovat teorii �ehokoliv a
zde se objevily velmi zaj�mav� probl�my vhodn� pro to, aby byly studov�ny mlad�mi
adepty akademick�ch stup��, jako nap��klad je teorie her. Av�ak n�kter� grafov�
probl�my nalezly velmi brzo praktick� aplikace nebo analogie ve fyzik�ln�ch
v�d�ch. Zejm�na chemie dala mnoho podn�t� pro vyu�it� teorie graf�, pon�vad� v
grafech byl nalezen p�il�hav� model konektivit atom� v molekul�ch. Zd� se b�t
nepodstatn� studovat proch�zky mezi vrcholy graf� av�ak, kdy� jsou tyto proch�zky
spojen� p��mo se slo�it�mi m��iteln�mi fyzik�ln�mi vlastnostmi chemick�ch
slou�enin, jako je bod varu, potom takov� teoretick� studie se s�vaj�
pragmatick�mi, d�vaj� n�m hluboko jdouc� n�hled, jak je n� sv�t konstruov�n.
Grafy byly spojen� s mnoha rozd�ln�mi maticemi: {\em inciden�n�mi maticemi} ${\bf
S}$ a ${\bf G}$, {\em maticemi sousedstv�} ${\bf A}$, {\em maticemi vzd�lenost�} $
{\bf D}$ a jin�mi druhy matice. V�echny tyto matice se vyu�ily pro v�po�ty
vlastn�ch hodnot a vlastn�ch vektor�, av�ak rozd�ln� matice nebyly spojen� do
sjednocen� soustavy. Matematici byli uspokojeni s faktem, �e v�echny grafy mohou
b�t stla�en� do t��rozm�rn�ho prostoru a zobrazen� na dvou rozm�rn� plo�e pap�ru.
Ignorovali probl�m rozm�rnosti graf�. R�zn� auto�i je pova�ovali za bezrozm�rn�
objekty, jednorozm�rn� objekty �i dvourozm�rn� objekty. Podle Occamovy b�itvy se
nem� zav�d�t v�ce faktor�, ne� je nutn� pro vysv�tlen� pozorovan�ch fakt�. Av�ak
p�i pojet� graf� jako multidimension�ln�ch vektor� se speci�ln� konfigurac�
sjednocuje teorii, grafy jsou jen zvl�tn� t��dou vektor�, sou�ty nebo rozd�ly dvou
vektorov�ch �ad. Tyto vektory pat�� do vektorov�ho prostoru. Vlastnosti sou�t�
nebo rozd�l� dvou vektorov�ch �ad se mohou studovat v�hodn�, pokud se p�edstav�
jako grafy, srovnaj� s existuj�c�mi objekty nebo alespo� s mal�mi vzorky v�t��ch
struktur.
Teorie graf� m� dv� z�kladn� pojmy. Prv�m je {\em vrchol}, kter� je obvykle
zobrazen jako bod, av�ak vrcholy mohou b�t ztoto�n�ny s ��mkoliv, tak� s plochou
zahrnuj�c� mnoho vrchol�, pokud se teorie graf� pou�ije k praktick�m probl�m�m.
Druh�m pojmem jsou {\em hrany} p�edstavuj�c� vztah mezi dv�ma vrcholy. Hrany mohou
b�t {\em orientovan�}, jako jsou vektory, jdouc� od vrcholu v jin�mu, potom jsou
zvan� {\em orientovan� hrany}, anebo {\em neorientovan�}, jen spojuj�c� dva
vrcholy bez jak�koliv preference sm�ru. Potom jsou zvan� {\em hrany} (obr. 3.2).
\begin{figure}
\caption{P��klady neorientovan�ch graf�. A -- strom, B -- cyklick� graf, C --
multigraf}
\label{P��klady neorientovan�ch graf�}
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Orientovan� hrana p�edstavuj� ��dku inciden�n� matice ${\bf S}$ tvo�enou diferenc�
dvou jednotkov�ch vektor� $({\bf e}_i - {\bf e}_j)$. Podle na�� konvence p�sob�
oba vektory sou�asn� a po��tek vektoru m�e b�t um�st�n na vrchol j. V�sledn�
orientovan� hranov� vektor jde p��mo z vrcholu j do vrcholu i. Hrany se zobrazuj�
jako jednoduch� hrany spojuj�c� dva vrcholy. Ve skute�nosti sou�et dvou
jednotkov�ch vektor� je ortogon�ln� k hran� spojuj�c� oba vrcholy. Je
instruktivn�j�� kreslit neorientovan� graf se spojuj�c�mi hranami. Nicm�n� z
form�ln�ch d�vod� m�eme uva�ovat neorientovan� graf jako �adu vektor�, kde ka�d�
�len je ortogon�ln� ke sv�mu orientovan�mu odpov�daj�c�mu prvku. Kdy� je
orientovan� graf vektor, potom neorientovan� graf tak� mus� b�t vektor.
Speci�ln� hranou v grafu je {\em smy�ka}, kter� spojuje vrchol s�m se sebou.
Objevuj� se form�ln� pot�e, jak spojit orientovan� smy�ky s maticemi, proto�e
odpov�daj�c� ��dky jsou nulov� $({\bf e}_j - {\bf e}_j) = {\bf 0}$. Tyto
komplikace jsou v�sledkem symetri� vy���ch ��d�. Neorientovan� smy�ka m� dvojitou
intenzitu
\begin{equation}
({\bf e}_j + {\bf e}_j) = 2{\bf e}_j\;,
\end{equation}
Vztahy mezi v�cmi mohou b�t v�ci. Nap��klad v chemii, pokud ztoto�n�me atomy v
molekule s vrcholy, potom vazby mezi atomy, dr��c� molekulu pohromad� a ur�uj�c�
strukturu molekuly, jsou vazebn� elektrony. S�ly mezi j�dry a elektrony se
modeluj� grafy pokud do ka�d� spojuj�c� hrany se vlo�� nov� vrchol a tak vznikne
{\em podrozd�len� graf}. Ka�d� hrana v graf se �t�p� do p�ru hran. Vytvo�en�
podrozd�len� graf m� (n + m) vrchol� a 2m ��dek.
\begin{figure}
\caption{Graf a jeho hranov� graf}
\label{Graf a jeho hranov� graf}
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M�eme konstruovat {\em hranov� graf} \ref{Graf a jeho hranov� graf}, z�m�nou ��dek
za vrcholy a zav�d�n�m nov�ch sousedstv� nyn� definovan�ch spole�n�mi vrcholy dvou
p�vodn�ch ��dek. Pokud p�vodn� graf m�l m hran, sou�et stup�� jeho vrchol� $v_j$
byl $2m$. Jeho hranov� graf m� m vrchol� a sou�et stup�� jeho vrchol� $v_i$ je
\begin{equation}
\Sigma(v^2_j - v_j).
\end{equation}
P�r vrchol� m�e b�t spojen� v�ce sou�asn� hranami. Potom mluv�me o {\em
multigrafech} (\ref{P��klady neorientovan�ch graf�}, C). P��t�m krokem je
pova�ovat paraleln� hrany jako jednu hranu s v�hou k. Je z�ejm�, �e hrana nemus�
b�t v�en� cel�mi ��sly, av�ak lze pou��t jak�hokoliv v�hy $w_{ij}$. Z v�po�t� se
objev� i grafy s imagin�rn�mi hranami.
\begin{figure}
\caption{Restrikce grafu. Vrcholy v kru�nici A jsou spojen� do jednoho vrcholu a}
\label{Restrikce grafu}
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Grafy jsou {\em spojen�}, pokud existuje alespo� jeda cesta nebo proch�zka mezi
v�emi p�ry vrchol�. Je nep�etr�it� �ada hran spojuj�c�ch dan� p�r vrchol�.
Vz�jemn� nespojen� ��sti grafu jsou zn�m� jako jeho {\em slo�ky}. Alespo� $(n-1)$
��dek je pot�eba ke spojen� v�ech n vrchol� grafu a n hran ke vzniku cyklu.
Spojit� grafy s $(n-1)$ hranami jsou zn�m� jako {\em stromy} (\ref{P��klady
neorientovan�ch graf�}, A) a jsou acyklick�. Graf tvo�en� v�ce stromy je {\em
les}.
M�eme nal�zt {\em st�ed} grafu, ur�en� jako jeho nejvnit�n�j�� vrchol, nebo {\em
pr�m�r} grafu, jako kdyby grafy byly n�jak�mi pevn�mi objekty. Av�ak zde se
objevuj� n�kter� pot�e. Kdy� definujeme st�ed grafu jako vrchol, kter� m� stejnou
vzd�lenost od nejvzd�len�j��ch vrchol�, potom v line�rn�ch �et�zc�ch se sud�m
po�tem vrchol�, nap��klad v line�rn�m �et�zci $L_6$
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m�me dva kandid�ty pro nominaci. Je lep�� mluvit o {\em centroidu} nebo o {\em
centr�ln� hran�}. N�kter� grafy nemaj� v�bec ��dn� st�ed.
\begin{figure}
\caption{Rozhodovac� strom. Lev� v�tev znamen� 1, prav� v�tev znamen� 0. Ko�en se
bere jako decim�ln� ��rka a n�sledn� rozhodnut� modeluj� v�ce hodnotovou logiku}
\label{Rozhodovac� strom}
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{\em Line�rn� �et�zce} $L_n$ jsou zvl�tn� t��dou strom�, jejich� v�echny vrcholy
vyjma dvou koncov�ch maj� stupe� $v_j = 2$. Stupe� vrcholu po��t� hrany
incidentn� k vrcholu. Line�rn� �et�zce maj� nejdel�� vzd�lenost mezi sv�mi
krajn�mi vrcholy a nejv�t�� pr�m�ry ze v�ech graf�. Jin� krajn� stromy jsou {\em
hv�zdy} $S_n$. V�ech $(n-1)$ jejich vrchol� je spojeno p��mo s centr�ln�m
vrcholem. Pr�m�r hv�zdy je v�dy 2. {\em Rozhodovac� stromy} jsou stromy s jedn�m
vrcholem stupn� 2 a v�emi jin�mi vrcholy se stupni 3 nebo 1. Pokud se vrchol
stupn� 2 vybere jako ko�en (obr. \ref{Rozhodovac� strom}), potom na proch�zce je
nutn� prov�d�t na ka�d�m kroku bin�rn� rozhodnut�, na kterou stranu j�t. Vrcholy
se stupni 1 jsou zn�m� jako {\em listy}. Jsou spojen� {\em v�tvemi} ke {\em
kmeni} stromu. U� zn�me rozhodovac� stromy jako �ady v jednotkov�ch krychl�ch. Ve
stromu jsou spojen� do rozv�tvuj�c�ch se v�tv�. Indexov�n� list� je zn�m� jako
bin�rn� k�dov�n�.
{\em �pln� graf} $K_n$ m� n(n-1)/2 hran, kter� spojuj� vz�jemn� v�echny jeho
vrcholy. Jeho pr�m�r je 1 a nem� ��dn� st�ed. {\em Dopl�kov�} $\overline{G}$ graf
$G$ je definov�n jako mno�ina hran grafu $G$ chyb�j�c� v �pln�m grafu $K_n$ na
stejn�ch vrcholech, nebo sou�tem
\begin{equation}
K_n = G + \overline G\;.
\end{equation}
\section{Petrieovy matice}
\label{Petrieovy matice}
$$\begin{array}{cc}
\begin{array}{c}
${\bf P}e$ \\
\\
\left(
\begin{array}{ccc}
1 & 0 & 0 \\
1 & 1 & 0 \\
0 & 1 & 0 \\
1 & 1 & 1 \\
0 & 1 & 1 \\
0 & 0 & 1
\end{array}
\right) \\
\end{array}&
\begin{array}{c}
${\bf S}$ \\
\\
\left(
\begin{array}{cccc}
-1 & 1 & 0 & 0 \\
-1 & 0 & 1 & 0 \\
0 & -1 & 1 & 0 \\
-1 & 0 & 0 & 1 \\
0 & -1& 0 & 1 \\
0 & 0 & -1& 1
\end{array}
\right)\;.
\end{array}
\end{array}$$
1. Petrieova matice ${\bf P}e$ grafu $G$ n�soben� inciden�n� matic� ${\bf S}$
line�rn�ho �et�zce $L$ d�v� inciden�n� matici dan�ho grafu:
\begin{equation}
{\bf S}(G) = {\bf P}e(G){\bf S}(L)\;.
\end{equation}
$$\begin{array}{cc}
\begin{array}{ccc|cccc}
& & & \ -1 & 1 & 0 & 0 \\
& & & 0 &-1 & 1 & 0 \\
& & & 0 & 0 &-1 & 1 \\
\hline
& & & & & & \\
1& 0& 0& -1 & 1& 0& 0 \\
0& 1 &0& 0&-1& 1 &0 \\
0 &0 &1& 0& 0&-1 &1 \\
\end{array}
&
\begin{array}{ccc|cccc}
& & &\ -1& 1& 0 & 0 \\
& & & 0&-1& 1 &0 \\
& & & 0& 0&-1 &1 \\
\hline
& & & & & & \\
1& 0 &0 & -1 &1& 0& 0 \\
1& 1 &0 & -1& 0& 1 &0 \\
1 &1 &1 & -1 &0& 0 &1 \\
\end{array}
\end{array}$$
\begin{equation}
({\bf S} + {\bf e}_{11}) = {\bf C}^{-1}\;.
\end{equation}
Pro na�e ��ely je nutn� dovolit, aby jak�kolive vrcholu se stal ko�enem bez z�m�ny
index�. Z tohoto d�vodu definujeme matici cest jako vrcholy na cest� mezi vrcholem
i ke ko�enu j. To je pouze permutace doln� troj�heln�kov� formy. Nap��klad
$$\begin{array}{cc}
\begin{array}{c}
${\bf C}$ \\
\\
\left(
\begin{array}{cccc}
0 & 1 & 0 & 0 \\
0 & 1 & 0 & 1 \\
1 & 1 & 0 & 1 \\
1 & 1 & 1 & 1 \\
\end{array}
\right)
\end{array}
&
\begin{array}{c}
{\bf C}^{-1} \\
\\
\left(
\begin{array}{cccc}
0 & -1 & 1 & 0 \\
1 & 0 & 0 & 0 \\
0 & 0 & -1 & 1 \\
-1 & 1 & 0 & 0 \\
\end{array}
\right)\;.
\end{array}
\end{array}$$
U� jsme pou�ili k�dovou matici line�rn�ho �et�zce $L_n$ a jej� inverzi jako
oper�tory ${\bf T}^{\rm T}$ a ${\bf C}^{-1}$ v podkapitole \ref{Matice rozd�len�}.
P�ipome�te si, �e
$$\begin{array}{cccc|cccc}
& & & & \ 1& 0 & 0& 0 \\
& & & & \ 1 & 1 & 0 & 0 \\
& & & & \ 1 & 1& 1 & 0 \\
& & & & \ 1 & 1 & 1 & 1 \\
\hline
& & & & \ & & & \\
1& 0& 0& 0 & \ 1 & 0& 0 & 0 \\
-1& 1& 0& 0 & \ 0 & 1& 0 & 0 \\
0& -1& 1 & 0 & \ 0 & 0 & 1 & 0 \\
0 & 0& -1& 1 & \ 0 & 0 & 0 & 1. \\
\end{array}$$
Zd� se, �e odli�nost mezi Petrieov�mi maticemi ${\bf P}e$ a k�dov�mi maticemi $
{\bf C}$ je zp�sobena jednotkov�m sloupcem ${\bf J}$, kter� transformuje $(n-1)$
�tvercovou matici na $n$ rozm�rnou �tvercovou matici. Av�ak ob� mno�iny jsou
rozd�ln�.
Inciden�n� matice strom� ${\bf G}*$ zako�en�n� jednotkov�m sloupcem ${\bf J}$ jsou
nesingul�rn� a maj� inverze ${\bf G}^{-1}$, kter� jsou op�t k�dov�mi maticemi $
{\bf C}$ neorientovan�ch strom�. Tyto k�dov� matice ${\bf C}$ mus� obsahovat
z�porn� prvky.
$$\begin{array}{cccc|cccc}
& & & & \ 1 & 0 & 0 & 0 \\
& & & & \ -1 & 1 & 0 & 0 \\
& & & & \ -1 & 0& 1 & 0 \\
& & & & \ -1 & 0& 0 & 1 \\
\hline
& & & & & & & \\
1& 0& 0& 0 & \ 1 & 0 & 0 & 0 \\
1& 1 & 0 & 0 & \ 0 & 1 & 0 & 0 \\
1 & 0 & 1 & 0 & \ 0& 0 & 1& 0 \\
1& 0 & 0 & 1 &\ 0 & 0 & 0 & 1\;. \\
\end{array}$$
\chapter{Enumerace graf�}
\label{Enumerace graf�}
\section{�vod}
\label{�vod 14}
Zab�vali jsme se podrobn� enumeracemi naivn�ch matic ${\bf N}$. Spo��tat jejich
sou�ty a rozd�ly, zn�m� jako neorientovan� a Orientovan� grafy, je slo�it�j��
probl�m. Tedy pouze n�kter� probl�my enumerace graf� budou diskutov�ny.
\section{Enumerace strom�}
\label{Enumerace strom�}
Acyklick� spojen� grafy, zn�m� jako stromy, tvo�� z�kladnu prostoru graf�.
Vysv�tl�me pozd�ji pro�, nyn� pouze uk�eme, jak slo�it� je enumerace graf� ve
srovn�n� s naivn�mi maticemi.
Tyto �ady se mohou spo��tat modifikovanou rovnic� 10.2. Strom m� $(n-1)$ hran a
sou�et stup�� vrchol� $v_j$ je $\sum v_j = 2(n-1)$. Nejmen�� mo�n� stupe�
koncov�ch vrchol� je 1. $n$ vrcholov�ch stup�� je v�zan�ch, tedy ve stromech
pouze $(n-2)$ jednotek lze rozd�lit. Proto dostaneme
\begin{equation}
{\rm Po�et\ strom�}\ = n^{n-2} = \sum (n!/\prod_k n_k!)
([n-2]!/\prod_k(v_k -1)^{n_k}\;.
\end{equation}
Rovnice 14.1 po��t� stromy �sp�n�, av�ak objevuje se jedna nev�hoda: R�zn� typy
strom� se po��taj� dohromady, kdy� maj� stejnou strukturu rozd�len�. Orbity
rozd�len� se �t�p� v grafech do podorbit. Nejmen�� p�r strom� takov�m zp�sobem
roz�t�pen� na dva rozd�ln� stromy na orbit� 322111 je na obr�zku 14.1.
\begin{figure}
\caption{Nejmen�� p�r graf� na stejn� orbit� rozd�len� (A a B) a graf s centr�ln�
hranou (C)}
\label{Nejmen�� p�r}
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\end{figure}
Orbity rozd�len� se �t�p� do grafov�ch orbit s rozd�lnou strukturou. Podobn�
vrcholy graf� jsou zn�m� jako {\em orbity grafu}. Toto pou�it� jednoho pojmu na
rozd�ln�ch �rovn�ch je pon�kud zav�d�j�c�\footnote{ Slunce m� sv� planety a
planety op�t maj� sv� trabanty v�echny se sv�mi vlastn�mi orbitami.}.
Mus�me vysv�tlit, pro� orbity rozd�len� jsou d�le�it�, a nal�zt techniky jak
spo��tat po�et neozna�en�ch strom�. D��ve v�ak zm�n�me jin� dva probl�my spojen� s
ozna�ov�n�m strom�.
Stromy, podobn� jako jin� grafy, lze vzty�it ze strom� ni���ch rozm�r�. Pokud
pou�ijeme techniku Youngov�ch tabulek, co� je vepisov�n� index� do Ferrersov�ch
graf�, dostaneme Youngem ozna�en� stromy. Kdy� se vych�z� z $K_2$, existuje v�dy $
(n-1)$ p��le�itost� jak p�ipojit n-t� vrchol k $(n-1)$ vrchol�m strom� ni���
hladiny a po�et Youngem ozna�en�ch strom� mus� b�t $(n-1)!$. Tyto stromy lze
srovn�vat s konvolucemi.
\begin{equation}
x(x + m)^{m-1}
\end{equation}
\label{polynomi�lu}
kde $m$ je po�et hran ve stromu s $(m + 1)$ vrcholy. Mocniny $x$ lze
interpretovat jako po�et hran spojen�ch s p�idan�m vrcholem tvo��c�m ko�en a �leny
polynomi�lu p�i $x^k$ lze interpretovat jako po�et strom� zako�en�n�ch v n-t�m
vrcholu maj�c�m odpov�daj�c� stupe� vrcholu k. Nap��klad pro $m=4$ dostaneme:
Tak jsme dostali novou kombinatorickou identitu, kterou lze zobrazit v tabulkov�
form� v tabulce 14.1 dohromady s jej� inverzn� matic�
\begin{table}
\caption{Stromy vytvo�en� polynomi�lem ({\ref polynomi�lu}) a inverzn� matice}
\label{Stromy vytvo�en� polynomi�lem}
\begin{tabular}{|l|rrrrr|c|rrrrrr|}
\hline
& 1 & 2 & 3 & 4 & 5 & $\sum$ & \ &
1 & 2 & 3 & 4 & 5 \\
\hline
m=1 & 1& & & & & 1 & \ & 1 &
& & & \\
2 & 2 & 1 & & & & 3 & & -2 &
1 & & & \\
3 & 9 & 6 & 1 & & & 16 & & 3 &
-6 & 1 & & \\
4 & 64 & 48 & 12 & 1 & & 125 & & -4 &
24 & -12 & 1 & \\
5 & 625 & 500 & 150 & 20 & 1 & 1296& & 5 &
-80 & 90 & -20 & 1 \\
\hline
\end{tabular}
\end{table}
Pro indexov�n� neozna�en�ch strom� je nutn� nal�zt po�et orbit zako�en�n�ch strom�
a po�et zako�en�n�ch strom� se symetrick�mi hranami.
Inciden�n� matice ${\bf G}$ �pln�ho neorientovan�ho grafu $K_n$ m� $n$ sloupc� a
$n(n-1)/2$ hran. V ka�d�m sloupci existuje $(n-1)$ jednotkov�ch prvk� a v ka�d�
��dce existuj� dva jednotkov� prvky. R�zn� kombinace p�r� jednotkov�ch vektor�
odpov�daj� rozd�ln�m hran�m grafu a lze indexovan� postupn� indexem i, jdouc�m od
1 a� k $n(n-1)/2$.
Inciden�n� matici ${\bf G}$ lze permutovat zleva permuta�n�mi maticemi ${\bf
P}_{n(n-1)/2}$ tvo��c�mi grupu cyklick�ch permutac� $S_{n(n-1)/2}$ a zprava
permuta�n�mi maticemi ${\bf P}_n$. Tyto permutace n sloupc� tvo�� grupu $S_n$
cyklick�ch permutac�, kter� m�n� permutace v�t�� levostrann� grupy $S_{n(n-1)/2}$.
Tato grupa grafov�ch hran nem�e b�t �pln�, proto�e je indukovan� men�� cyklickou
grupou $S_n$. Pou�ijeme pro grafovou grupu indukovanou permutacemi sloupc�
inciden�n� matice ${\bf G}_n$ jednoduchou notaci $G_n$. V matematick� literatu�e
se pou��vaj� rozd�ln� jm�na, jako "v�ncov� sou�in" nebo "krokov� grupa".
\begin{table}
\caption{Vztahy mezi $S_n$ a $G_n$ grupami}
\label{Vztahy mezi $S_n$ a $G_n$ grupami}
\begin{tabular}{|l|c|c|c|c|c|c|}
\hline
$S_n$ grupa & & $s_1^4$ & $s_1^2s_2^1$ & $s^1_1s_3^1$ &
$s^2_2$ & $s_4^1$ \\
\hline
${\bf P}$ & &1 0 0 0 & 0 1 0 0 & 0 1 0 0 & 0 1 0 0 & 0 1 0 0 \\
& &0 1 0 0 & 1 0 0 0 & 0 0 1 0 & 1 0 0 0 & 0 0 1 0 \\
& &0 0 1 0 & 0 0 1 0 & 1 0 0 0 & 0 0 0 1 & 0 0 0 1 \\
& &0 0 0 1 & 0 0 0 1 & 0 0 0 1 & 0 0 1 0 & 1 0 0 0 \\
\hline
Po��te�n� ��dka& ${\bf G}_{K_4}$ &
\multicolumn{5}{c|}{Permutovan� hrany (index p�vodn� ��dky)} \\
\hline
1 &1 1 0 0& 1 & 1 & 2 & 1 & 2 \\
2 &1 0 1 0& 2 & 3 & 3 & 5 & 4 \\
3 &0 1 1 0& 3 & 2 & 1 & 4 & 3 \\
4 &1 0 0 1& 4 & 4 & 6 & 3 & 6 \\
5 &0 1 0 1& 5 & 6 & 4 & 2 & 5 \\
6 &0 0 1 1& 6 & 5 & 5 & 6 & 1 \\
\hline
$G_4$ grupy & & $s^6_1$ & $s_1^2s^2_2$ & $s^2_3$ & $s_1^2s^2_2$ &
$s_2^1s_4^1\;.$ \\
\hline
\end{tabular}
\end{table}
Ov�em grupa $S_{n+1}$ obsahuje tak� jin�ho podgrupy ne� $s_1^1S_n$. Jednou z nich
je podgrupa jednoduch�ch cykl� $s_{n+1}$. Ka�d� cyklus s lichou d�lkou k
transformuje $(n+1)$-t� jednotkov� cyklus do nov�ho cyklu stejn� d�lky. V na�em
p��klad� $(s_1^1 + s_1^3)$ se transformuje do
\begin{equation}
(s_1^3 + s_1^3) = s^6_1\ {\rm a}\ (s_1^1 + s_3^1)\ {\rm do}\
(s_3^1 + s_3^1)= s_3^2\;.
\end{equation}
Cykly sud� d�lky transformuj� p�idan� jednotkov� cyklus do dvou cykl�, jednoho
maj�c�ho stejnou d�lku jako p�vodn� cyklus a druh�ho s polovi�n� d�lkou. Pro tento
p��pad m�me v na�em p��klad� cykly d�lky 2:
$$[s_1^1 + (s_1^1s^1_2)] = (s_1^1 + s_1^1s^1_2) = s_1^2s^2_2\;.$$
Ve skute�nosti ka�d� prvek cyklu d�lky $n$ p�sob� na $(n-1)/2$ indukovan�ch prvk�
grupy $G_n$. Pokud $n$ je lich�, $(n -1)/2$ je cel� ��slo, pokud $n$ je sud�,
zb�v� $n/2$ hran, kter� se permutuj� a tvo�� nov� cyklus. V na�em p��klad� $s_4$
generovalo nov� cyklus $s_2$, proto�e �pln� graf $K_4$ m� 6 hran. V $K_6$ s 15
hranami $s_6$ vytv��� cyklickou strukturu $s_4^1s_6^2$.
Kdy� existuj� dva cykly rozd�ln�ch d�lek, kter� nemaj� spole�n� d�litel, vytv���
tolik cykl�, jakou m� jejich spole�n� d�litel d�lku, d�lky rovnaj�c� se jejich
nejmen��mu n�sobku. Nap��klad p�i $n=5: 2\times3=6$ a zb�vaj� 4 prvky, aby se
permutovaly s men��mi cykly. To je mo�n� jako $s_1^1s^1_3$. Cyklus $s_1$ je
indukov�n cyklem $s_2$, kter� permutuje dva vektory pouze s jednou hranou a
zanech�v� identitu. Cyklus $s_3$ permutuje jen sloupce t�� hran a jen se
reprodukuje. N�kter� p��klady podgup $S(n)$ a odpov�daj�c� indukovan� grafov�
cykly
$$\begin{array}{cccccc}
S_6 & s_6^1\;; & S_7 & s_1^1s^1_6\;; & S_8 & s^1_2s^1_6\;; \\
& & & & & \\
G_6 & s_3s^2_6\;; & G_7 & s_3s^3_6\;; & G & s_1^1s_3^1s^4_6\;. \\
\end{array}$$
\begin{equation}
G_4 = 1/24\ (s^6_1 + 9s^2_1s^2_2 + 8s^2_3 + 6s^1_2s_4^1)\;.
\end{equation}
To d�v�
\begin{equation}
Z(G_4,\ 1+x) = 1 + x^1 + 2x^2 + 3x^3 + 2x^4 + x^5 + x^6
\end{equation}
\label{Z(G}
kde koeficienty p�i $x^k$ ur�uj� po�et rozd�ln�ch graf� se 4 vrcholy a k hranami.
Jsou uk�zan� na obr. \ref{Grafy se 4 vrcholy a k hranami}.
\begin{figure}
\caption{Grafy se 4 vrcholy a k hranami}
\label{Grafy se 4 vrcholy a k hranami}
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Vysv�tlili jsme grafov� grupy permutacemi sloupc� inciden�n� matice ${\bf G}$
�pln�ho grafu. Nyn� pou�ijeme tuto techniku a vysv�tl�me symetrii jin�ch
neorientovan�ch graf�, kter� jsou podstatn� podmno�inou k prvk� �pln�ho grafu.
Jsou pouze dv� mo�nosti, co permutace sloupc� inciden�n� matice mohou prov�st s
hranami. ��dku lze permutovat samu se sebou nebo se m�e zm�nit v ��dku
odpov�daj�c� jin� hran�. Grupa jedin� hrany m� dva prvky: (1)(2) a (12). Pokud je
hrana definov�na na mno�in� 4 vrchol�, potom existuj� 4 permutace, kter� ji
nech�vaj� nezm�n�nou: (1)(2)(3)(4), (1)(2)(34), (12)(3)(4), a (12)(34). M�eme
vybrat 6 rozd�ln�ch hran, av�ak n�kter� budou m�t stejn� grupy, jako hrana 3-4 s
hranou 1-2.
S k ��dky m�me v�dy t�i mo�nosti: Permutace p�sob�c� na vrcholy m�n� pouze po�ad�
hran, to znamen� jejich indexov�n�. Nebo m�n� je �pln� (nebo alespo� ��ste�n�) do
��dk� odpov�daj�c�ch jin�m hran�m. V�sledkem je, �e jeden ozna�en� graf je zm�nil
v jin� ozna�en� graf, kter� mus� m�t stejn� po�et hran a mus� n�le�et ke stejn�mu
typu grafu.
Po�et $b$ permutac�, kter� pouze permutuj� hrany inciden�n� matice ${\bf G}$ grafu
ur�uje symetrii grafu. Kdy� pod�l�me po�et v�ech permutac� $n!$ {\em ��slem
symetrie} $b$, dostaneme po�et rozd�ln� ozna�en�ch graf� dan�ho typu. $b$
jednoduch�ch hran na 4 vrcholech je 4 a existuje opravdu $24/4 = 6$ rozd�ln�ch
hran na mno�in� 4 vrchol�. ��slo symetrie tohoto grafu $K_4$ je 24, tedy existuje
pouze jedno rozli�iteln� ozna�en� tohoto grafu. Vztah po�tu $b$ rozli�iteln�ch
ozna�en� je zn�m� jako {\em Burnsidova lemma}.
\begin{equation}
(1+x)^6 +9(1+x)^2(1+x^2)^2 +8(1+x^3)^2 + 6(1+x^2)(1+x^4)
\end{equation}
$$\begin{tabular}{|r|rrrrrrr|}
\hline
Mocniny x & 0 & 1 & 2 & 3 & 4 & 5 & 6 \\
\hline
$s^6_1$ & 1 & 6 & 15 & 20 & 15 & 6 & 1 \\
$9s^2_1s^2_2$ & 9 & 18 & 27 & 36 & 27 & 18 & 9 \\
$8s^2_3$ & 8 & & & 16 & & & 8 \\
$6s^1_2s^1_4$ & 6 & & 6 & & 6 & & 6 \\
\hline
$\Sigma$ & 24 & 24 & 48 & 72 & 48 & 24 & 24 \\
\hline
Po�et graf� & 1 & 1 & 2 & 3 & 2 & 1 & 1 \\
\hline
\end{tabular}$$
V�echny permuta�n� matice grupy $S_4$ transformuj� pr�zdn� nebo �pln� graf na
sebe. Tedy jejich b = 24. Kdy� pod�l�me sloupcov� sou�ty 24, dostaneme po�et
rozd�ln�ch graf� s $k$ vrcholy. Po�et rozli�iteln�ch ozna�en�ch graf� je dan� v
prv� ��dce, kde se po��taj� identitn� permutace. Pro jedinou hranu to d�v� �est
rozd�ln�ch graf�. ��slo $b$ je vytvo�en� t�emi permutacemi hran typu $s^2_1s^2_2$
a jedou permutac� $s^6_1$.
U graf� s dv�ma hranami, 15, 27 a 6 permutac� n�le�� dv�ma rozd�ln�m graf�m, bu�
$L_3$ a jeden izolovan� vrchol nebo dv� $L_2$. Kdy� se pokou��me d�lit permutace
do orbit grafu, m�eme pou��t fakt, �e oba $b$ a po�et rozd�ln�ch ozna�en� grafu
mus� b�t d�liteli $n!$. 15 se m�e potom �t�pit pouze jako $12+3$. Potom 27 se m�e
rozd�lit jako $12+12+3$. M�eme pou��t tak� jin� kriterium a rozhodnout, kter� z
obou mo�nost� je spr�vn�. Vyu�ijeme mo�n� rozd�len� vrcholov�ch stup��. Grafy s
dv�ma hranami maj� sou�et vrcholov�ch stup�� 4 a pro 4 vrcholy dv� rozd�len�: 2110
a 1111. Existuje 12 rozli�iteln�ch permutac� prv�ho rozd�len� a pouze 1 permutace
druh�ho. Toto rozd�len� je st�l� u v�ech permutac�, v�etn� cyklu d�lky 4, tedy
struktura grupy je $s^1_4$. Ob� krit�ria nech�vaj� jako jedin� mo�n� �t�pen�
12+12+3. Existuje 12 line�rn�ch �et�zc� $L_4$ s $b=2$ a strukturou grupy $(s^4_1 +
s^2_2)$ a 3 grafy $2K_2$ s $b=8$. Jejich struktura grupy je $s^4_1 + 2s^2s^1_2 +
3s^2_2 + 2s_4^1$. Grafy s p�ti a �esti hranami jsou komplement�rn� grafy s ��dnou
a jedou hranou.
\section{Orientovan� grafy}
\label{Orientovan� grafy}
V jednoduch�m orientovan�m grafu mohou existovat dv� orientovan� hrany mezi ka�d�m
p�rem vrchol�. Symetrie orientovan�ch graf� tento fakt komplikuje. To lze
dokumentovat na vztahu mezi po�tem samo se dopl�uj�c�ch neorientovan�ch graf� s
4k vrcholy a po�tem samo se dopl�uj�c�ch turnaj� s 2k vrcholy. A {\em turnaj} je
spojen� orientovan� graf, kter� m�e m�t pouze jednu z obou orientac� orientovan�ch
hran.
\begin{equation}
G(t) = (1 + t)^{{ n \choose 2}}\ {\rm s}\ t=1\;.
\end{equation}
Tento fakt je vyvozen z mo�nosti, jak zaplnit matici sousedstv� ${\bf A}$
jednotkov�mi symboly. Existuje ${ n \choose 2}$ mo�nost�, kter� jsou nez�visl�.
Matice sousedstv� je symetrick�. Zapl�uj� se sou�asn� doln� a horn�
mimodiagon�ln� polohy. Polynomi�l $G(2)$ d�v� po�et ozna�en�ch orientovan�ch
graf� s pouze jednou orientovanou hranou mezi p�rem vrchol�. Toto odpov�d� matici
sousedstv�, kter� m� pouze jeden prvek v ka�d�m p�ru poloh i-j a j-i ukazuj�c�
orientaci orientovan� hrany. Polynomi�l $G(3)$ d�v� po�et orientovan�ch graf� s
ob�ma orientacemi orientovan�ch hran, nebo po�tu asymetrick�ch matic sousedstv�,
kter� mohou m�t p�r jednotkov�ch symbol� v ka�d�m p�ru odpov�daj�c�ch m�st.
\begin{equation}
n2^{n(n-1)/2} = \sum_{k=1}^n { n \choose k}C_kG_{n-k}
\label{zako�en�n� ozna�en� grafy}
\end{equation}
kde $G_{n-k}$ je po�et v�ech zako�en�n�ch graf� s $(n-k)$ vrcholy, co� znamen�
$n2^{(n-k)(n-k-1)/2}$ s $G_0 = 1$. V�znam lev� strany identity je jasn�: Ka�d�
graf m� $n$ mo�n�ch ko�en�. Prav� strana po��t� ka�d� graf podle po�tu jeho
slo�ek. Pokud m� dv� slo�ky, potom se po��t� dvakr�t, jednou s $k$ ko�eny, potom s
$(n-k)$ ko�eny. Pr�zdn� graf se po��t� $n$ kr�t v d�sledku binomi�ln�ho
koeficientu na prav� stran�.
Kdy� odd�l�me po�et spojit�ch graf� $C_n$, m�eme ur�it po�et v�ech zako�en�n�ch
ozna�en�ch graf� rekurzivn�.. Zde se pou�ije obecn� vztah mezi dv�ma vytvo�uj�c�mi
funkcemi, norm�ln� a exponenci�ln�. Po�ty spojit�ch ozna�en�ch graf� $G_n$ jsou
koeficienty exponenci�ln� vytvo�uj�c� funkce ozna�en�ch graf�
\begin{equation}
G(x) =\sum_{n=1}^{\infty}C^n(x)/n! = \exp(\sum_{n=1}^{\infty}a^nx^n)\;.
\end{equation}
\begin{equation}
G(x) = \sum_{n=1}^{\infty}A^nx^n)\;,
\end{equation}
ob� funkce lze srovn�vat. Vlo�en�m $a_0 =1$, m�eme logaritmovat ob� strany s
v�sledkem
\begin{equation}
a_n = A_n - 1/n\ \sum_{n=1}^{\infty}ka_kA_{n-k})\;.
\end{equation}
(\ref{zako�en�n� ozna�en� grafy})
$$\begin{tabular}{|r|rrrrrr|}
\hline
na & 1 & 2 & 3 & 4 & 5 & 6 \\
\hline
$C_n$& 1 & 1 & 4 & 38 & 728 & 26704 \\
\hline
\end{tabular}\;.$$
Kvadratick� forma naivn�ch matic ${\bf N}^{\rm T}{\bf N}$ je diagon�ln� matice.
Tak� �tverce Hadamardov�ch matic jsou diagon�ln� matice. Av�ak druh� kvadratick�
forma naivn�ch matic ${\bf NN}^{\rm T}$ a kvadratick� formy inciden�n�ch matic
graf� ${\bf G}$ a ${\bf S}$ maj� mimodiagon�ln� prvky. Interpretovali jsme
diagon�ln� a mimodiagon�ln� prvky jako dva ortogon�ln� maticov� vektory ud�vaj�c�
jednotkov� projekce jak�hokoliv maticov�ho vektoru ${\bf M}$ do prostoru hran a
sloupc� (viz obr. \label{Maticov� vektorov� soustava}). V t�to kapitole uk�eme
podm�nky, kdy maticov� vektor lze reprezentovat ekvivalentn� diagon�ln� matic�
{\em vlastn�ch hodnot} zaveden�ch v podkapitole \ref{Diagonalizace matic} a
vlastnosti, kter� takov� nahrazen� m�.
\begin{equation}
{\bf Z}^{\rm T} {\bf MZ}= \Delta({\bf M})
\end{equation}
$$\begin{array}{rr|rrr}
& & \ & 1/\sqrt{ 2} & 1/\sqrt{ 2} \\
& & & 1/\sqrt{ 2} &-1/\sqrt{ 2} \\
\hline
0 & 1 & & 1/\sqrt{ 2} & -1/\sqrt{ 2} \\
1 & 0 & & 1/\sqrt{ 2} & 1/\sqrt{ 2} \\
\hline
1/\sqrt{ 2} & 1/\sqrt{ 2} & & 1 & 0 \\
1/\sqrt{ 2} & -1/\sqrt{ 2} & & 0 & -1 \\
\end{array}$$
$$\begin{array}{rr|rrr}
& & \ & 1/\sqrt{ 2} & 1/\sqrt{ 2} \\
& & & 1/\sqrt{ 2} &-1/\sqrt{ 2} \\
\hline
2 & 1 & \ & 3/\sqrt{ 2} & 1/\sqrt{ 2} \\
1 & 2 & & 3/\sqrt{ 2} & -1/\sqrt{ 2} \\
\hline
1/\sqrt{ 2} & 1/\sqrt{ 2} & & 3 & 0 \\
1/\sqrt{ 2} & -1/\sqrt{ 2} & & 0 & 1 \\
\end{array}$$
\begin{equation}
{\bf Z}^{\rm T}{\bf Z}= {\bf I}
\end{equation}
Nap��klad
$$\begin{array}{rr|rrr}
& & \ & 2^{-1/2} & 2^{-1/2} \\
& & & 2^{-1/2} & -2^{-1/2} \\
\hline
2^{-1/2} & 2^{-1/2} & & 1 & 0 \\
2^{-1/2} & 2^{-1/2} & & 0 & 1 \\
\end{array}$$
\item 2. Kdy� vlastn� vektory n�sob� matici ${\bf M}$, v�echny jej� prvky se
n�sob� faktorem odpov�daj�c�m vlastn� hodnot� $\lambda_j$. Jin�mi slovy, matice $
{\bf M}$ se chov� k matic�m sv�ch vlastn�ch vektor� ${\bf Z}^{\rm T}$ a ${\bf Z}$
jako diagon�ln� matice vlastn�ch hodnot
\begin{equation}
{\bf MZ}= \lambda_j {\bf Z}
\end{equation}
\end{itemize}
V�echny shora uveden� rovnice byly naps�ny pro �tvercov� matice ${\bf M}$
p�edstavuj�c� kvadratick� formy. U obd�ln�kov�ch matic m�eme zaplnit jejich
chyb�j�c� ��dky nebo sloupce nulov�mi prvky a pro jak�koliv vektor vzat� jako
vlastn� vektor dostaneme nulovou vlastn� hodnotu. Nebudeme se zaj�mat o vlastn�
hodnoty pravo�hl�ch matic, av�ak o vlastn� hodnoty jsoujich kvadratick�ch forem,
kter� jsou zn�m� jako {\em singul�rn� hodnoty} pravo�hl�ch matic a asymetrick�ch
�tvercov�ch matic.
\section{Charakteristick� polynomi�ly}
\label{Charakteristick� polynomi�ly}
\begin{equation}
({\bf M}- \lambda{\bf I}){\bf z}= {\bf 0}
\end{equation}
Nap��klad matice
$$\left(
\begin{array}{cc}
2 & 1 \\
1 & 2
\end{array}
\right)$$
odpov�d� rovnic�m
Pokud vlo��me vlastn� vektor $x=1,\ y=1,$ dostaneme jako �e�en� $\lambda=3,$ pro
$x=1,\ y=-1,$ je vlastn� hodnota $\lambda=1$. U� zn�me vlastn� vektory jinak se
�e�en� mus� nal�zt s pou�it�m rozd�ln�ch metod. Sou�in rozd�l� vlastn�ch hodnot s
nezn�m�mi $x$ je {\em charakteristick� polynomi�l} $P(x)$ matice ${\bf M}$. V
dan�m p��pad� je to $P(x) = x^2 -4x +3$. V obecn�m p��pad� charakteristick�
polynomi�l je
\begin{equation}
P(x) = \prod^n_{j=1}(x - \lambda_j) = x^n - a_1x^{n-1}
+a_2x^{n-2} \dots \pm a_{n-1}x \pm a_nx^0\;.
\end{equation}
�len $a_1$ je jen sou�et v�ech vlastn�ch hodnot a je identick� se stopou matice,
posledn� �len je sou�inem v�ech vlastn�ch hodnot a ur�uje zda soustava vlastn�ch
hodnot m� �e�en�. Tedy se naz�v� {\em determinant}. Pokud matice m� alespo� jednu
nulovou vlastn� hodnotu, potom �e�en� maticov�ch rovnic je neur�it� a matice je
{\em singul�rn�}.
\section{Permanenty a determinanty}
\label{Permanenty a determinanty}
Doposud {\em permanenty} nebyly definov�ny a bez nich bychom m�li pot�e s popisem,
jak se z�skaj� polynomi�ly z prvk� matice. P�edpokl�dejme, �e m�me �tvercovou
matici, jej� prvky jsou bu� symboly nebo ��sla, nap��klad
$$\begin{array}{cc}
\begin{array}{c}
{\bf A}\\
\\
\left(
\begin{array}{ccc}
& b & c \\
d & e & f \\
g & h & i
\end{array}
\right)
\end{array}
&
\begin{array}{c}
{\bf B}\\
\\
\left(
\begin{array}{ccc}
1 & 1 & 2 \\
0 & 1 & 3 \\
1 & 1 & 0
\end{array}
\right)\;.
\end{array}
\end{array}$$
permanent $p({\bf M})$ je sou�et v�ech sou�in� v�ech kombinac� v�ech prvk� $m_{ij}
$ v ��dce i nebo sloupci j s prvky s jin�mi indexy ve v�ech jin�ch sloupc�ch a
��dc�ch
Pou�ijeme celou mno�inu permuta�n� matice ${\bf P}$ jako vzor� a nap�eme z matice
vybran� prvky jako sou�iny.
D��ve ne� s nimi za�neme, uk�eme alespo� jeden v�sledek z bohat� teorie
permanent�, toti� permanent matice $({\bf JJ}_n^{\rm T}+k{\bf I}_n)$:
\begin{itemize}
\item Pokud $k=0$, m�me �tvercovou jednotkovou matici. V�ech $n!$ �ad permanentu
jsou rovn� 1 a jejich sou�et d�v� faktori�l $n!$.
\item Pokud $k= -1$, potom na hlavn� diagon�le jsou nuly a v�echny �ady obsahuj�c�
alespo� jeden diagon�ln� prvek jsou nulov�. Po��t�me prvky permanentu jako
permuta�n� matice ${\bf P}$ bez prvk� na hlavn� diagon�le. Mohli byste si
vzpomenout (pokud ne, viz kapitolu 7), �e se po��taj� podle subfaktori�l�
$z_{i0}$, tabulka 7.3. To d�v� pro matice $({\bf JJ}^{\rm T}-{\bf I})$ v�sledek $
({\bf JJ}^{\rm T}_n-{\bf I}_n) = (r_n -1)^n$.
\item Pokud k=1, m�me na hlavn� diagon�le 2 a prvky permanentu obsahuj�c�
diagon�ln� prvky jsou mocniny 2. Vlo�en�m t�to hodnoty do zobecn�n�ho polynomi�lu
dostaneme $({\bf JJ}_n+{\bf I}_n) = (r_n -1)^n$. To je Apple�v polynomi�l.
\item Podobn� se naleznou permanenty pro jak�koliv k.
\end{itemize}
$$\begin{array}{c|ccc|c}
&\ & b & c &\ \\
(-) & d & e & f &\ (+)\\
ceg & g & h & i & aei\\
\hline
fah & & b & c & dhc\\
ibd & d & e & f & gbf\\
\end{array}$$
Nalezen� determinant� matic vy���ch ��d� b�valo pracnou �lohou. Byla formalizov�na
definic� {\em minor�} $A_{ij}$ prvk� matice $m_{ij}$. Minor $A_{ij}$ je
determinant matice $\delta_{ij}{\bf M}$, z�skan� z matice ${\bf M}$ vynech�n�m j-
t�ho sloupce a i--t� ��dky. Determinant se pak definoval jako sou�et sou�in�
v�ech prvk� ��dky nebo sloupce s jejich minory
\begin{equation}
Det({\bf M})=\sum_{i=1}^m m_{ij}A_{ij}=\sum_{j=1}^n m_{ij}A_{ij}
\end{equation}
\begin{equation}
Det({\bf M})= \prod_{j=1}^n\lambda_j\;.
\end{equation}
To plat� pro jakoukoliv matici a tento fakt d�v� jinou definici determinantu jako
objemu rovnob�n�ku tvo�en�ho vlastn�mi hodnotami. Pokud jedna vlastn� hodnota je
nulov�, obd�ln�k netvo�� t�leso v n-rozm�rn�m prostoru a jeho objem je nulov�.
Jinak: Pokud matice obsahuje nezn�m� $x$ na diagon�le, nem�eme vypo��tat jej�
determinant v uzav�en� form� jako ��slo. V�sledkem je polynomi�l. Nap��klad matice
${\bf M}$
$$\left(
\begin{array}{ccc}
x & & b \\
& x & c \\
b & c & x
\end{array}
\right)$$
d�v� determinant
\item 2. Determinant se nezm�n�, kdy� p�id�me nebo ode�teme k n�jak� ��dce (nebo
sloupci) matice n�sobek ��dky (nebo sloupce) matice. Pokud p�id�me v p��klad�
shora k druh� ��dce prvou ��dku a zkontrolujeme v�echny �leny, vid�me, �e co se
objev� na jedn� stran� determinantu, to se objev� tak� na druh� stran� v sou�inech
se z�porn�mi znam�nky a v�echny zm�ny se samy eliminuj� a hodnota determinantu
z�stane nezm�n�n�.
\end{itemize}
$$\begin{array}{c}
{\bf 0}\\
\\
\left(
\begin{array}{ccc}
0 & 1 & 1\\
1 & 0 & 1\\
1 & 1 & 0
\end{array}
\right)
\end{array}$$
$$\begin{array}{ccc}
\begin{array}{c}
{\bf 1}\\
\\
\left(
\begin{array}{ccc}
2 & 2 & 2\\
1 & 0 & 1\\
1 & 1 & 0
\end{array}
\right)
\end{array}
& \begin{array}{c}
{\bf 2}\\
\\
\left(
\begin{array}{ccc}
2 & 2 & 0 \\
1 & 0 & 0 \\
1 & 1 &-1
\end{array}
\right)
\end{array}
& \begin{array}{c}
{\bf 3}\\
\\
\left(
\begin{array}{ccc}
2 & 0 & 0 \\
1 &-1 & 0 \\
1 & 0 &-1
\end{array}
\right)
\end{array}
\end{array}$$
\begin{itemize}
\item 1. Sou�et druh� a t�et� ��dky 2,1,1 se p�idal k prv� ��dce.
n rozm�rn� matice $({\bf JJ}_3^{\rm T}- {\bf I})$ transformovan� t�mito t�emi
kroky do doln� troj�heln�kov� formy m� na diagon�le jednu hodnotu $(n-1)$ a $(n-
1)$ hodnot -1. V�t�� matice vy�aduj� v�ce krok�.
Nyn� determinanty naleznou obvykle po��ta�e. Av�ak k z�sk�n� n�hledu je dobr� zn�t
principy, kter� tvo�� z�kladnu pou�it�ch algoritm�.
Determinant lze interpretovat jako $1/n!$ ��st objemu n-rozm�rn�ho t�lesa opsan�ho
matic� spole�n� s po��te�n�m bodem koordin�t. Nap��klad dva body $A(5,2)$ a
$B(2,5)$ tvo�� s $O(0,0)$ troj�heln�k, viz obr. \ref{Interpretace}
\begin{figure}
\caption{Interpretace determinantu}
\label{Interpretace}
\linethickness{0.4pt}
\begin{picture}(140.00,140.00)
\put(20.20,20.00){\framebox(100.33,100.00)[cc]{0.30}}
%\emline(20.00,20.00)(60.00,120.00)
\multiput(20.00,20.00)(0.12,0.30){334}{\line(0,1){0.30}}
%\end
%\emline(60.00,120.00)(120.00,60.00)
\multiput(60.00,120.00)(0.12,-0.12){500}{\line(0,-1){0.12}}
%\end
%\emline(120.00,60.00)(20.20,20.00)
\multiput(120.00,60.00)(-0.30,-0.12){334}{\line(-1,0){0.30}}
%\end
\put(60.00,130.00){\makebox(0,0)[cc]{A(5,2)}}
\put(129.00,60.00){\makebox(0,0)[lc]{B(2,5)}}
\put(9.67,10.00){\makebox(0,0)[cc]{O(0,0)}}
\end{picture}
\end{figure}
$$\left(
\begin{array}{cc}
5 & 2 \\
2 & 5
\end{array}
\right)$$
\section{Polynomi�ly graf�}
\label{Polynomi�ly graf�}
Matice sousedstv� ${\bf A}$ jednoduch�ch graf� bez smy�ek maj� v�echny
mimodiagon�ln� prvky bu� 1 nebo 0, v�echny diagon�ln� prvky jsou nulov� a matice
jsou symetrick� $a_{ij}= a_{ji}$. Pokud se pokou��me nal�zt jejich polynomi�ly
shora popsanou metodou, najdeme pro 3 vrcholy
\begin{equation}
\hbox{Jeden mimodiagon�ln� prvek}\ P({\bf A}) = x^3 - x^1 =
\prod_{j=1}^3(x -\lambda_j)
\end{equation}
\begin{equation}
\hbox{Dva mimodiagon�ln� prvky}\ P({\bf A}) = x^3 - 2x^1\;.
\end{equation}
Polynomi�l matice sousedstv� ${\bf A}$ strom� je zn�m� jako {\em acyklick�
polynomi�l}, proto�e nen� p�izp�soben pro cykly. Je sou�asn� {\em polynomi�lem
shodnosti} acyklick�ch graf�.
\begin{table}
\caption{Polynomi�ln� koeficienty line�rn�ch �et�zc� $L_n$}
\label{Polynomi�ln� koeficienty line�rn�ch �et�zc� $L_n$}
\begin{tabular}{|r|rrrrrrr|}
\hline
k & 1 & 2 & 3 & 4 & 5 & 6 & 7 \\
\hline
m=0 & 1 & & & & & & \\
1 & 0 & 1 & & & & & \\
2 &-1 & 0 & 1 & & & & \\
3 & 0 &-2 & 0 & 1 & & & \\
4 & 1 & 0 &-3 & 0 & 1 & & \\
5 & 0 & 3 & 0 &-4 & 0 & 1 & \\
6 &-1 & 0 & 6 & 0 &-5 & 0 & 1 \\
\hline
\end{tabular}
\end{table}
\begin{figure}
\caption{�est dvojic (A) a jedna trojice (B) �et�zce $L_6$}
\label{�est dvojic a jedna trojice}
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\end{figure}
U $L_6$ m�me 5 hran. �est dvojic a jedna trojice jsou uk�zan� na obr. \ref{�est
dvojic a jedna trojice}.
Prvky tabulky 15.1 (srovnej s tabulkou 10.7) jsou binomi�ln� koeficienty a
��dkov� sou�ty absolutn�ch hodnot koeficient� jsou Fibonacciho ��sla.
Koeficienty polynomi�l� line�rn�ch �et�zc� jsou nejv�t��, kter� lze z�skat pro
stromy. Je jasn�, �e neexistuje p��li� mnoho kombinac� t�chto koeficient�.
Pon�vad� po�et strom� je rychle rostouc� funkce, a koeficienty jsou omezen�,
jejich kombinace ve srovn�n� strom� jsou �id�� a v�sledkem je, �e stromy mus� b�t
{\em isospektr�ln�}. To znamen�, �e rozd�ln� typy strom� mus� m�t identick�
spektra. Na obr. \ref{P�r nejmen��ch isospektr�ln�ch strom�} je p�r nejmen��ch
isospektr�ln�ch strom�, jeho� polynomi�l je $x^8 - 7x^6 + 9x^4$.
\begin{figure}
\caption{P�r nejmen��ch isospektr�ln�ch strom�}
\label{P�r nejmen��ch isospektr�ln�ch strom�}
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Acyklick� polynomi�ly se kombinuj� s {\em polynomi�lem cykl�}, pokud se objevuj� v
grafu cykly. ��inek cykl� lze uk�zat na p��klad� matice sousedstv� $K_3$ (obr.
\ref{�pln� graf $K_3$ a sou�asn� cyklus $C_3$}):
$$\begin{array}{ccc}
\left(
\begin{array}{ccc}
x & -1 & -1\\
-1 & x & -1\\
-1 & -1 & x
\end{array}
\right) & $=$ &
P({\bf A}) = x^3 - 3x^1 + 2
\end{array}$$
\\
\begin{figure}
\caption{�pln� graf $K_3$ a sou�asn� cyklus $C_3$}
\label{�pln� graf $K_3$ a sou�asn� cyklus $C_3$}
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objevuje koeficient 2 u �lenu $x^0$. Ten je vytvo�en� cyklem $C_3$. Tento cyklus
se po��t� dvakr�t. Tato n�sobnost se objevuje u v�ech cykl�, kter� se mus� se��tat
odd�len� od acyklick�ch �len�. Cykly sud� d�lky se ode�tou od po�tu $k/2$-tic
izolovan�ch hran. Je dosti snadn� zkonstruovat polynomi�l izolovan�ch cykl�. Pokud
odstran�me z cyklu hranu, zm�n� se na line�rn� �et�zec, jeho� acyklick� polynomi�l
u� zn�me, a p�emos�uj�c� hrana se kombinuje s k-ticemi s $(n-3)$ hranami cyklu,
jako kdyby tvo�ily rozd�ly line�rn�ho �et�zce s $(n-2)$ vrcholy. Tyto k-tice jsou
ode�teny od �len� $L_n$. Nap��klad
$$P(C_6) = P(L_6) + P(L_4) = (x^6 - 5x^4 + 6x^2 -1) - (x^4 - 3x^2 + 1) = x^6 -
6x^4 + 9x^2\;.$$
Aby se dostal cyklick� polynomi�l, mus�me ode��st koeficient 2 pro cyklus d�lky
$n=6$. V�sledkem je
Pokud matice sousedstv� je v�en� nebo graf obsahuje n�sobn� hrany, polynomi�l lze
pat�i�n� modifikovat. Uk�zali jsme, �e koeficient $a_2$ polynomi�lu p�i $x^{n-2}$
je tvo�en �tverci prvk� matice. Dal�� �leny ve v�t��ch matic�ch jsou slo�it�j��.
Nalezen� v�ech k-tic izolovan�ch hran a cykl� v grafech s mnoha vrcholy a hranami
je pracn� a v�po�et polynomi�l� touto technikou u� nen� praktick�.
\section{Clujsky v�en� matice sousedstv� line�rn�ch �et�zc�}
\label{Clujsky v�en� matice sousedstv�}
Prvky inciden�n� matice orientovan�ho grafu ${\bf S}$ jsou definovan� jako $s_{ij}
= -1$, pokud orientovan� hrana i jde od vrcholu j, $s_{ij} = 1$ pokud orientovan�
hrana i jde k vrcholu j, $s_{ij} =0$ jinak. Kvadratick� forma inciden�n� matice se
svou transponovanou matic� ${\bf S}^T$ je zn�m� jako Laplace-Kirchhoffova matice.
Je rozlo�ena do diagon�ln� matice stup�� vrchol� ${\bf V}$ a matici
mimodiagon�ln�ch prvk� zn�m� jako matice sousedstv� ${\bf A}$($a_{ij} = 1$, pokud
vrchol i soused� s vrcholem j, $a_{ij} =0$ jinak)
\begin{equation}
{\bf S}^T\ {\bf S} \label{3}\ .
\end{equation}
Druh� kvadratick� forma inciden�n� matice se svou transponovanou matic� ${\bf S}\
{\bf S}^T$ m� mimodiagon�ln� prvky odpov�daj�c� matic�m sousedstv� ${\bf A}$
hranov�ho grafu. U strom� tato matice m� rozm�r $(n-1)$ a m� pravou inverzi, co�
je kvadratick� forma matice proch�zek a cest ${\bf W}$ definovan�ch ${\bf W}$ na
orientovan�ch hran�ch (neorientovan�ch hran�ch).
Matice proch�zek a cest ${\bf P}$ jsou definov�ny pro stromy tak� na vrcholech.
Prvky ${\bf P_p}$ (cesta) jsou pro orientovan� stromy $p_{ij} = 1$, pokud vrchol
j je incidentn� s cestou i, $p_{ij} =0$ jinak. Prvky ${\bf P_w}$ (proch�zka)
jsou pro neorientovan� stromy $p_{ij} = 1$, pokud vrchol j je na konci cesty i,
$p_{ij} = -1$, pokud vrchol j je vnit�n�m vrcholem cesty i, $p_{ij} =0$ jinak.
Sou�et
\begin{equation}
{\bf P_w}\ + \ {\bf P_p}
\end{equation}
Clujsk� matice strom� jsou skal�rn� sou�iny transponovan� matice proch�zek ${\bf
P_p}^T$ s inciden�n� matic� ${\bf G}_K$ (tyto konvence lze transponovat)
\begin{equation}
{\bf C_p}\ = {\bf P_p^T}{\bf G}_K
\end{equation}
$$\begin{array}{cc}
\begin{array}{cccccc}
\ \ & \ \ & \ \ & \ \ & \ \ &\ \\
\ \ &\ \ &\ \ &\ \ &\ \ &\ \\
\ \ &\ \ & \ \ &\ \ &\ \ &\ \ \\
\ \ &\ \ &\ \ &\ \ &\ \ &
\end{array}
&
\left(
\begin{array}{cccc}
1 & 1 & 0 & 0 \\
0 & 1 & 1 & 0 \\
1 & 0 & 1 & 0 \\
0 & 0 & 1 & 1 \\
0 & 1 & 0 & 1 \\
1 & 0 & 0 & 1
\end{array}
\right)
\end{array}$$
$$\begin{array}{cc}
\left(
\begin{array}{cccccc}
1 & 0 & 1 & 0 & 0 & 1 \\
1 & 1 & 1 & 0 & 1 & 1 \\
0 & 1 & 1 & 1 & 1 & 1 \\
0 & 0 & 0 & 1 & 1 & 1
\end{array}
\right)
&
\left(
\begin{array}{cccc}
3 & 1 & 1 & 1 \\
3 & 3 & 2 & 2 \\
2 & 2 & 3 & 3 \\
1 & 1 & 1 & 3
\end{array}
\right)
\end{array}$$\.
Pon�vad� Diadudea se zaj�mal hlavn� o chemick� aspekty nov�ch matic ${\bf C}_p$,
z�staly nepov�imnut� n�kter� vlastnosti p��m�ch (Hadamardov�ch) sou�in� Clujsk�
matice s odpov�daj�c� matic� sousedstv� ${\bf A}$:
\begin{equation}
{\bf C}_e = {\bf C}_p \bullet {\bf A}
\end{equation}
co� ponech�v� pouze soused�c� prvky Clujsk� matice ${\bf C}_e$ (nebo rovnocenn�
Clujsky v�en� matice sousedstv� ${\bf A}_C$, nap��klad pro line�rn� �et�zec $L_4$
(n-butan) shora
$$\left(
\begin{array}{cccc}
0 & 1 & 0 & 0 \\
3 & 0 & 2 & 0 \\
0 & 2 & 0 & 3 \\
0 & 0 & 1 & 0
\end{array}
\right)$$\,
2) Stopa je nulov�.
\begin{equation}
Tr {\bf A}_C^2 = 2W
\end{equation}
pon�vad� na stop� ${\bf A}_C^2$ se objevuj� dvakr�t sou�iny po�tu vrchol� $N_{i,
(i,j)} \ N_{j,(i,j)}$ na obou stran�ch v�ech hran.
P�rem nejv�t��ch vlastn�ch hodnot $\pm (n-1)$ hv�zd jsou jejich jedin� nenulov�
vlastn� hodnoty. To je konsistentn� s jejich Wienerov�m ��slem $S_n$: $W_S = (n-
1)^2$.
pro lich� n:
\begin{equation}
{ n+1 \choose 3} = \sum_{k=0}^{(n-1)/2} (2k)^2 =
\sum_{k=1}^{n-1}k(n-k)
\end{equation}
pro sud� n:
\begin{equation}
{ n+1 \choose 3} = \sum_{k=1}^{n/2} (2k-1)^2 =
\sum_{k=1}^{n-1}k(n-k) \label{9}
\end{equation}
Charakteristick� polynomi�l lze vypo��tat analogicky se zn�mou metodou ur�uj�c�
charakteristick� polynomi�l nev�en� matice sousedstv� strom� po��t�n�m v�ech k-tic
izolovan�ch hran. Zde ka�d� k-tice dostane svou v�hou ur�enou v�emi sou�iny
orientovan�ch hran (neorientovan�ch hran) $N_{i,(i,j)} N_{j,(i,j)}$.
\section{Techniky o�ez�v�n�}
\label{Techniky o�ez�v�n�}
\begin{figure}
\caption{O�ez�v�n� graf�. Grafy 1A a 2A se zv�t�� p�i�ten�m jedn� hrany a jednoho
vrcholu (1B a 2B). Grafy B se o�e�ou vynech�n�m nov�ch hran dohromady se
soused�c�mi vrcholy (pr�zdn� krou�ky) a soused�c�ch hran (1C a 2C).}
\label{O�ez�v�n� graf�}
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$$\begin{array}{ccc}
\left(
\begin{array}{cc}
(x^3 - 2x) & x^2 \\
1 & x
\end{array}
\right)
& = & x^4 - 3x^2\\
\end{array}$$
$$\begin{array}{ccc}
\left(
\begin{array}{cc}
(x^3 - 2x) & (x^2 - 1)\\
1 & x
\end{array}
\right)
& = & x^4 - 3x^2 +1
\end{array}$$
V prv�m p��pad� dva voln� vrcholy $K_1$ odpov�daj� �lenu $x^2$, v druh�m p��pad�
graf $K_2$ odpov�d� �lenu $(x^2-1)$.
Grafu lze o�ezat v�ce v�tv� sou�asn� a v�tvemi nemus� b�t izolovan� vrcholy, ale
tak� grafy. Na diagon�le se zde objevuj� v�dy polynomi�ly o�ezan�ch a o�ez�van�ch
graf� a mimodiagon�ln� prvky jsou jejich odpov�daj�c�mi rozd�ly. Jedinou nutnou
podm�nkou je, �e v�echny subgrafy mus� b�t spojen� {\em mosty}, hranami nebo
orientovan�mi hranami spojuj�c�mi dva vrcholy bez cykl�. Potom se objevuj� v
matici polynomi�ly odpov�daj�c�ch subgraf� a jejich rozd�l�, polynomi�ly
odpov�daj�c�ch subgraf� bez spojuj�c�ho vrcholu
$$\left(
\begin{array}{cc}
\hbox{polynomi�l A} & \hbox{diference AB} \\
\hbox{diference BA} & \hbox{polynomi�l B}\\
\end{array}
\right)\;.$$
$$\left(
\begin{array}{cc}
x^2 - 2 & 2 \\
1 & x - 1
\end{array}
\right)$$
Diagon�ln� matice stup�� vrchol� ${\bf V}$ lze pova�ovat za matice sousedstv�
grafu, kter� se skl�d� pouze ze smy�ek. Jej� polynomi�l se z�sk� jednodu�e jako
sou�in
\begin{equation}
\prod^n_{j=1} (x - v_j) = \prod^n_{j=1} (x - \lambda_j)\;.
\end{equation}
Koeficienty polynomi�lu lze vypo��tat tak� jako sou�ty v�ech k-tic izolovan�ch
smy�ek na rozd�ln�ch vrcholech nap��klad pro $v_j = 2,1,1$:
$$\begin{tabular}{|cc|cccc|ccccc|cc|}
\hline
\multicolumn{2}{|c|}{Smy�ka} & \multicolumn{4}{c}{1-tice}
& \multicolumn{5}{|c|}{2-tice}
& \multicolumn{2}{|c|}{3-tice} \\
\hline
*& * & * 0& 0*& & & *0& *0& 0*& 0 * & &*0 & 0* \\
*& & & &* & & * & & *& & * &* & * \\
*& & & & & *& & * & & * & * & * & * \\
\hline
\multicolumn{2}{|c|}{$\Sigma$} & \multicolumn{4}{|c|}{4}
& \multicolumn{5}{|c|}{5} & \multicolumn{2}{|c|}{2} \\
\hline
\end{tabular}$$
$$\begin{tabular}{l|rrrr}
Smy�kov� polynomi�l & $x^3$ & $-4x^2$ & $+5x^1$ &$- 2$ \\
Hranov� polynomi�l & & & $-2x^1$ & \\
Cyklick� polynomi�l & & 0 & & \\
Hranov�-smy�kov� polynomi�l & & & & + 2 \\
\hline
V�sledn� polynomi�l & $x^3$ & $-4x^2$ & $+3x^1$ & \\
\end{tabular}$$
��inek diagon�ln�ch prvk� je jednoduch�, kdy� v�echny diagon�ln� prvky jsou stejn�
r, jako u {\em pravideln�ch graf�}. Nezn�m� $x$ lze nahradit substituc� $y = (x +
r)$ a matice pojednat, jako by byly bez diagon�ln�ch prvk�. To lze vyu��t v
n�kter�ch p��padech pro v�po�et determinant�, jak uvid�me pozd�ji.
Mno�ina n subgraf� grafu $G$, z�skan� z p�vodn�ho grafu vynech�n�m ka�d�ho vrcholu
se v�emi jeho incidentn�mi orientovan�mi hranami nebo neorientovan�mi hranami, je
zn�m� jako {\em Ulamovy subgrafy}. Ulam vyslovil domn�nku, �e p�vodn� graf lze
rekonstruovat z t�to mno�in�. To se zd� trivi�ln�, av�ak je nesnadn� to dok�zat
pro neozna�en� grafy, kde neexistuje ��dn� jednoduch� zp�sob, jako sp�rovat
neozna�en� vrcholy dvou graf�. Existuje jin� vztah, polynomi�ly Ulamov�ch subgraf�
jsou rozd�ly polynomi�lu p�vodn�ho grafu. To znamen�, �e vrchol vymazan� v
subgrafu $\delta_j G$ je ��ste�nou diferenc� p�vodn�ho grafu podle vymazan�ho
vrcholu $\delta_j P(G)$ nebo diferenc� odpov�daj�c� matice z�skan� odstran�n�m
odpov�daj�c� ��dky a sloupce. Pravidla diferencov�n� a integrov�n� jsou stejn�
jako v diferenci�ln�m a integr�ln�m kalkulu
\begin{equation}
\delta x^n = nx^{n-1}
\end{equation}
\begin{equation}
\int nx^{n-1} = x^n
\end{equation}
\begin{equation}
P(M) = \int \sum_{j=1}^n \delta_j P(M)
\end{equation}
$$\begin{tabular}{l|rrrr}
${\bf A}_1$ & $x^4$ & $-4x^2$ & $-2x$ & $+1$ \\
${\bf A}_2$ & $ x^4$ & $-2x^2$ & & \\
${\bf A}_3$ & $ x^4$ & $-5x^2$ & $-4x$ & \\
${\bf A}_4$ & $ x^4$ & $-3x^2$ & & \\
${\bf A}_5$ & $x^4$ & $-4x^2$ & $-2x$ & $+1$ \\
\hline
$\sum$ & $5x^4$ & $-18x^2$ & $-8x$ & $+2 $ \\
\hline
${\bf A}$ & $x^5$ & $-6x^3$ & $-4x^2$ & $2x $ \\
\end{tabular}$$
\begin{figure}
\caption{Graf A a jeho vrcholov� vymazan� subgrafy $A_1$ -- $A_5$}
\label{Graf A a jeho vrcholov� vymazan� subgrafy $A_1$ -- $A_5$}
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\end{figure}
Hranov� vymazan� strom je les s $n$ vrcholy a prv� �len jeho polynomi�lu je $x^n$.
Existuje $m$ subgraf� a tedy sou�et polynomi�l� v�ech subgraf� je d�liteln� $m$.
V�echny subgrafy obsahuj� $(m-1)$ hran a tedy koeficient druh�ho �lenu sou�tu,
kdy� se d�l� t�mto ��slem d�v� $m$. N�sleduj�c� koeficienty se mohou odvodit s
pou�it�m �pln� indukce. Pokud vztah polynomi�lu plat� pro p�vodn� strom, tak mus�
platit tak� pro jeho subgrafy (lesy), obsahuj�c� o jednu hranu m�n�, a jejich
polynomi�ly. Odpov�daj�c� koeficienty v�ech subgraf� mus� b�t $0\ {\rm mod}\ (m-k)
$. To plat� tak� pro �len $a_{n-k}$ pokud $n=(2k+1)$. Mezi subgrafy line�rn�ho
�et�zce existuje $k$ subgraf� obsahuj�c�ch �len odpov�daj�c� $(k+1)$-tici.
Nap��klad u grafu na obr. \ref{Strom B a jeho hranov� vymazan� subgrafy $B_1$ --
$B_5$} odpov�daj�c� polynomi�ly jeho hranov� vymazan�ch subgraf� jsou
$$\begin{tabular}{l|rrr}
${\bf B}_1$ &$ x^6$ & $-4x^4$ & $+2x^2$ \\
${\bf B}_2$ & $ x^6$ & $-4x^4$ & $+2x^2 $ \\
${\bf B}_3$ & $x^6$ & $-4x^4$ & $+2x^2$ \\
${\bf B}_4$ &$ x^6$ & $-4x^4$ & $+3x^2 $ \\
${\bf B}_5$ &$ x^6$ & $-4x^4$ & \\
\hline
$\sum$ & $ 5x^6$ & $-20x^2$ & $+9x^2$ \\
\hline
${\bf B}$ & $ x^6$ & $-5x^4$ & $-3x^2 $ \\
\end{tabular}$$
\begin{figure}
\caption{Strom B a jeho hranov� vymazan� subgrafy $B_1$ -- $B_5$}
\label{Strom B jeho hranov� vymazan� subgrafy $B_1$ -- $B_5$}
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\end{figure}
Seidel definoval modifikovanou matici sousedstv� ${\bf A}_S$ pro tak zvan�
schlicht\footnote{Z n�m�iny.} grafy (s jednoduch�mi orientovan�mi hranami)
n�sleduj�c�m zp�sobem: $a_{ij} = -1$ pokud i a j vrcholy soused�, $a_{ij} = 1$
pokud i a j vrcholy nesoused� a $a_{ii} = 0$. To znamen�, �e
\begin{equation}
{\bf A}_S = \overline{\bf A} - {\bf A}\;.
\end{equation}
Tuto matici lze interpretovat jako diferenci matic sousedstv� grafu $G$ a jeho
dopl�kov�ho grafu $\overline{G}$. Seidlovy matice pravideln�ch graf� se mohou
formulovat jako diference Laplace-Kirchhoffovy matic ${\bf K}= {\bf S}^{\rm T}
{\bf S}$ obou graf� opraven�ch pravideln�mi diagon�ln�mi �leny $(n - 1 - 2r)$, kde
$r$ jsou stupn� vrchol� pravideln�ho grafu.
\begin{equation}
{\bf A}_S = {\bf K} - \overline{\bf K}+ (n - 1 - 2r){\bf I}.
\end{equation}
$$\begin{tabular}{l|rrrc}
Spektrum $C_4$ & 4,& 2,& 2, & 0 \\
Spektrum $\overline{C_4}$ & 0, & -2, & -2,& 0\\
$\Delta(n - 1 - 2r)$ & -1, & -1, & -1, & -1 \\
\hline
Spektrum ${\bf A}$ & 3, & -1, & -1, & $-1\;.$
\end{tabular}$$
V�sledek je identick� se spektrem matice sousedstv� �pln�ho grafu $K_4$, p�es to,
�e Seidlova matice obsahuje jednotkov� prvky obou znam�nek. Av�ak ob� matice, $
{\bf A}(K_4)$ a ${\bf A}_S(K_4)$ jsou matice sousedstv� hranov�ho grafu
dvojhv�zdy $S_5$ s rozd�ln�mi orientacemi. Pon�vad� ob� orientace
$$\begin{tabular}{ccccccc}
&$\downarrow$ & & \qquad & & $\uparrow$ & \\
$\rightarrow$ & &$\leftarrow$ & & $\leftarrow$ &
&$\rightarrow $ \\
& $\downarrow$ & & & &$\uparrow $ & \\
\end{tabular}$$
$$\begin{tabular}{l|rrrrrr}
Spektrum ${\bf K}(3K_2)$ & 2& 2,& 2& 0,& 0,& 0 \\
Spektrum ${\bf K}(\overline{3K_2})$ &-4,&-4,&-4,&-6,&-6,& 0 \\
$\Delta(n - 1 - 2r)$ & 3,& 3,& 3,& 3,& 3,& 3 \\
\hline
Spektrum {\bf A}(3K ) &1,& 1,& 1,&-3,&-3, &3 \\
\end{tabular}$$
$$\begin{tabular}{l|rrrrrr}
Spektrum ${\bf K}(C_6)$ & 4,& 3,& 3,& 1,& 1,& 0 \\
Spektrum ${\bf K}(\overline{C_6})$ & -2,&-3,&-3,&-5,&-5, &0 \\
$\Delta(n - 1 - 2r)$ & 1,& 1,& 1,& 1,& 1,& 1 \\
\hline
Spektrum ${\bf A}(C_6)$ & 3,& 1,& 1,&-3,&-3,& 1.\\
\end{tabular}$$
Podrozd�len� graf $S(G)$ se z�sk� z grafu $G$ vlo�en�m nov�ho vrcholu do ka�d� z
jeho m hran. Matice sousedstv� neorientovan�ho podrozd�len�ho grafu ${\bf A}[S(G)]
$ se z�sk� p��mo z inciden�n� matice ${\bf G}$ p�vodn�ho grafu jeho zaps�n�m v
blokov� form�
$$\begin{array}{ccc}
{\bf A}[S(G)] & = &
\left(
\begin{array}{cc}
{\bf 0} & {\bf G} \\
{\bf G}^{\rm T} & {\bf 0}
\end{array}
\right)
\end{array}$$
Spektra matic sousedstv� podrozd�len�ch graf� s $n$ vrcholy a $m$ hranami jsou ve
vztahu se spektry kvadratick�ch forem ${\bf G}^{\rm T}{\bf G}$ p�vodn�ho grafu
jako
\begin{equation}
P_{S(G)}(\lambda_j) = (\lambda_j=0)^{\|m-n\|}
\pm P_{G^{\rm T}G}(\lambda_j)^{1/2}
\end{equation}
\label{Pe}
kde $G^{\rm T}G\lambda_j$ jsou vlastn� hodnoty kvadratick� forma inciden�n� matice
${\bf G}$ p�vodn�ho grafu. Stejn� vztah plat� tak� pro podrozd�len� orientovan�
grafy $S(G)$ s inciden�n�mi maticemi ${\bf S}$.
Matice sousedstv� ${\bf A}^2[S(G)]$ m� dva bloky ${\bf G}^{\rm T}{\bf G}$ a ${\bf
GG}^{\rm T}$. Oba bloky maj� identick� spektra. Jejich odmocniny s ob�ma znam�nky
tvo�� spektrum matice sousedstv� podrozd�len�ho grafu. Diferenci mezi po�tem
vrchol� a hran�ch zapl�uj� nulov� vlastn� hodnoty.
To lze vyu��t pro v�po�ty. Nap��klad cyklus $C_3$ m� matici sousedstv� ${\bf A}$
ekvivalentn� se svou inciden�n� matic� ${\bf G}$. Podrozd�len� graf cyklu $C_3$ je
cyklus $C_6$. Jeho matice sousedstv� ${\bf A}$ je
$$\left(
\begin{array}{cccccc}
0 & 0 & 0 & 1 & 1 & 0 \\
0 & 0 & 0 & 1 & 0 & 1 \\
0 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 1 & 1 \\
1 & 1 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 0 \\
1 & 0 & 1 & 0 & 0 & 0 \\
0 & 1 & 1 & 0 & 0 & 0
\end{array}
\right)\;.$$
$$\left(
\begin{array}{ccc}
2 & 1 & 1 \\
1 & 2 & 1 \\
1 & 1 & 2
\end{array}
\right)$$
a maj� vlastn� hodnoty: 4, 1, 1, tedy matice sousedstv� ${\bf A}$ pro $C_6$ m�
vlastn� hodnoty: $2,1,1,-1,-1,-2$.
$$\left(
\begin{array}{ccccccc}
0 & 0 & 0 & 1 & 1 & 0 & 0 \\
0 & 0 & 0 & 1 & 0 & 1 & 0 \\
0 & 0 & 0 & 1 & 0 & 0 & 1 \\
1 & 1 & 1 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 0 \\
1 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 0 \\
0 & 1 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 0 \\
0 & 0 & 1 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 0
\end{array}
\right)\;.$$
$$\begin{array}{cc}
\left(
\begin{array}{ccc}
2 & 1 & 1 \\
1 & 2 & 1 \\
1 & 1 & 2
\end{array}
\right) &
\left(
\begin{array}{cccc}
3 & 1& 1 & 1 \\
1 & 1 & 0 & 0 \\
1& 0 & 1 & 0 \\
1 & 0 & 0 & 1
\end{array}
\right)
\end{array}$$\.
V�echny podrozd�len� grafy hv�zd $S_n$ maj� spektrum odvozen� ze spekter sv�ch
hranov�ch graf� ${\bf GG}^{\rm T}= {\bf I}+ {\bf JJ}^{\rm T}$. Odpov�daj�c�
spektra jsou $n,1^{n-1}$ a snadno se naleznou jejich odmocniny. Znam�nka jsou
ur�ena nulovou stopou matice sousedstv� ${\bf A}$.
Kvadratick� forma ${\bf GG}^{\rm T}$ inciden�n� matice ${\bf G}$ definuje hranov�
graf $L(G)$ p�vodn�ho grafu $G$. Hranov� graf se z�sk� ze sv�ho p�vodn�ho grafu,
kdy� se jeho hrany transformuj� ve vrcholy, kter� jsou incidentn�, pokud maj� v
p�vodn�m grafu spole�n� vrchol. Vztah mezi kvadratickou formou ${\bf GG}^{\rm T}$
matice sousedstv� ${\bf A}[L(G)]$ hranov�ho grafu pro p�vodn� grafy s jednoduch�mi
hranami je
\begin{equation}
{\bf GG}^{\rm T} = 2{\bf I}+ {\bf A}[L(G)]\;,
\end{equation}
kde ${\bf I}$ je jednotkov� diagon�ln� matice. Tedy existuje vztah mezi vlastn�mi
hodnotami matice sousedstv� ${\bf A}[L(G)]$ hranov�ho grafu
\begin{equation}
P_{L({\bf A})}(\lambda_j) =
P_{{\bf GG}^{\rm T}}(\lambda_j -2)\;.
\end{equation}
\label{P}
$$\begin{tabular}{|r|r|r|}
\hline
$L_n$ & $\lambda_j({\bf GG}^{\rm T})$ & $\lambda_j({\bf A})$\\
\hline
n=2 & 2,\ 0 & 1,\ -1 \\
3 & 3,\ 1 & $\sqrt{2},\ 0,\ -\sqrt{2}$ \\
4 & $2+\sqrt{2},\ 2,\ 2-\sqrt{2}$ & $1.618,\ 0.618,\
-0.618,\ -1.618$ \\
5 & $3.618,\ 2.618,\ 2,\ 1.382,\ 0.382$ & $\sqrt{3},\ 1,\
-1,\ -\sqrt{3}$ \\
\hline
\end{tabular}$$
Tyto vztahy vedou ke vzorci pro vlastn� hodnoty matice sousedstv� ${\bf A}$
line�rn�ch �et�zc�
\begin{equation}
{\bf A}_{(L_n)}(\lambda_j) = 2\cos\;j\pi/(n-1)\;.
\end{equation}
Line�rn� �et�zec $L_n$ se chov� jako ty� upevn�n� ve sv�m st�edu. To je opak k
�ad�, kter� je upevn�n� na sv�ch konc�ch. Jej� vibrace popisuje sinusov� funkce.
Nejprve je nutn� vy�e�it ot�zku, v jak�m vztahu jsou vlastn� hodnoty matice
sousedstv� maj�c� prvky obou znam�nek k vlastn�m hodnot�m matice sousedstv� s
jednotn�mi znam�nky. Jednoduch� cvi�en� v n�soben� matic ukazuje, �e prvek $a_{ij}
$ matice sousedstv� hranov�ho grafu je z�porn�, pokud ob� orientovan� hrany maj�
stejnou orientaci (st�kaj� se hlavou k ocasu). Abychom udr�eli takovou orientaci,
v�echny stupn� vrchol� grafu $v_j$ mus� b�t 1 nebo 2, co� je mo�n� v line�rn�ch
�et�zc�ch a jednoduch�ch cyklech. Pokud se st�k� ve vrcholu t�i nebo v�ce
orientovan�ch hran, potom alespo� dv� mus� m�t opa�nou orientaci, a v matici
sousedstv� hranov�ho grafu se objevuje kladn� znam�nko. Pokud je graf dvojd�ln�,
potom je mo�n� vybrat orientaci orientovan�ch hran takov�m zp�sobem, �e v�echny
prvky matice sousedstv� jsou kladn�. Pon�vad� kvadratick� forma ${\bf S}^{\rm T}
{\bf S}$ je nez�visl� na orientaci orientovan�ch hran, v�echny kvadratick� formy
${\bf SS}^{\rm T}$ dvojd�ln�ch graf� mus� m�t identick� spektrum jako kvadratick�
forma ${\bf SS}^{\rm T}$ s jednotn�mi znam�nky.
Pro pravideln� orientovan� grafy plat� vztah (\ref{Pe}) pro v�echny orientace
podrozd�len�ch graf�. Pro jin� grafy je nutn� vy�e�it ��inky rozd�ln�ch orientac�
orientovan�ch hran v orientovan�m grafu na spektra odpov�daj�c�ch podrozd�len�ch
grafy individu�ln�.
\begin{equation}
Sp({\bf M}^k) = Sp(\lambda_j^k)
\end{equation}
Pokud ode�teme od matice ${\bf M}$ diagon�ln� matici hodnot stopy $Tr({\bf I})$,
ode�teme sou�et vlastn�ch hodnot od ka�d� diagon�ln� hodnoty matice ${\bf M}$.
Nazveme to diferenc� matice ${\bf B}_1$. Jej� sou�in matic� ${\bf M}$ m� vlastn�
hodnoty tvo�en� sou�ty p�r� rozd�ln�ch vlastn�ch hodnot matice ${\bf M}$
\begin{equation}
Sp[({\bf M}- Tr{\bf I}){\bf M}] = Sp({\bf B}_1{\bf M}) =
Sp(\Sigma\lambda_j^2 - \Sigma\lambda_j^2 -2\Sigma\lambda_i\lambda_j)
\end{equation}
\begin{equation}
Sp[({\bf M}- Tr({\bf M}){\bf M}- a{\bf I}){\bf M}] =
\sum (\lambda_j^3 -\lambda_j^3 -2\lambda_j^2\lambda_j
+ 2\lambda_i\lambda_j^2 - 3\lambda_i\lambda_j\lambda_k)
\end{equation}
T�mto zp�sobem pokra�ujeme $n$ kr�t nebo dokud nedostaneme v n�jak�m kroku jako
v�sledek matici ${\bf B}_k = {\bf 0}$. U� jsme pou�ili tuto techniku pro matice v
troj�heln�kov�m tvaru, kde bylo nutn� pouze prv� ode��t�n�. Nap��klad
$$\begin{array}{c}
{\bf M}\\
\\
\left(
\begin{array}{cccc}
3 & 1 & 1 & 1 \\
1 & 2 & 1 & 0 \\
1 & 1 & 2 & 0 \\
1 & 0 & 0 & 1
\end{array}
\right)
\end{array}$$
$$\begin{array}{cc}
\begin{array}{c}
{\bf B}_1\\
\\
\left(
\begin{array}{cccc}
-5 & 1 & 1 & 1 \\
1 & -6 & 1 & 0 \\
1 & 1 & -6 & 0 \\
1 & 0 & 0 & -7
\end{array}
\right)
\end{array} &
\begin{array}{c}
{\bf B}_2\\
\\
\left(
\begin{array}{cccc}
7 & -2 & -2 & -4 \\
-2 & 9 & -3 & 1 \\
-2 & -3 & 9 & 1 \\
-4 & 1 & 1 & 13
\end{array}
\right)
\end{array}
\end{array}$$
$$\begin{array}{cc}
\begin{array}{c}
{\bf B}_3\\
\\
\left(
\begin{array}{cccc}
-3 & 1 & 1 & 3 \\
1 & -3 & 1 & -1 \\
1 & 1 & -3 & -1 \\
3 & -1 & -1 & -7
\end{array}
\right)
\end{array} &
\begin{array}{c}
{\bf B}_3{\bf M}\\
\\
\left(
\begin{array}{cccc}
-4 & 0 & 0 & 0 \\
0 & -4 & 0 & 0 \\
0 & 0 & -4 & 0 \\
0 & 0 & 0 & -4
\end{array}
\right)
\end{array}
\end{array}$$
\begin{figure}
\caption{Spr�vn� (a) a nespr�vn� (b) indexov�n� cyklu $C_4$}
\label{ spr�vn� nespr�vn� indexov�n�}
\linethickness{0.6pt}
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\put(17.67,85.00){\makebox(0,0)[cc]{A}}
\put(47.67,85.00){\makebox(0,0)[cc]{B}}
\put(77.67,85.00){\makebox(0,0)[cc]{C}}
\put(107.67,85.00){\makebox(0,0)[cc]{D}}
\put(141.33,85.00){\makebox(0,0)[cc]{E}}
\end{picture}
\end{figure}
$$\begin{array}{cccc}
\begin{array}{c}
{\bf A}_A\\
\\
\left(
\begin{array}{cccc}
0 & 1 & 0 & 1 \\
1 & 0 & 1 & 0 \\
0 & 1 & 0 & 0 \\
1 & 0 & 1 & 0
\end{array}
\right)\\
\\
\\
\end{array} &
\begin{array}{c}
{\bf A}_B\\
\\
\left(
\begin{array}{ccc}
0 & 1 & 0 \\
2 & 0 & 2 \\
0 & 1 & 0
\end{array}
\right)\\
\\
\\
\\
\end{array} &
\begin{array}{c}
{\bf A}_C\\
\\
\left(
\begin{array}{cc}
0 & 2 \\
2 & 0
\end{array}
\right)\\
\\
\\
\\
\\
\end{array}
&
\begin{array}{c}
{\bf A}_D\\
\\
\left(
\begin{array}{cc}
1 & 1 \\
1 & 1
\end{array}
\right) \\
\\
{\bf A}_E\\
\\
(2)
\end{array}
\end{array}$$
Definovali jsme ekvivalenci grafov�ch vektor� jako t��dy matic, kter� se mohou
z�skat permutacemi ��dek a nebo sloupc� jednotkovou permuta�n� matic� ${\bf P}$.
Ekvivalentn� matice maj� stejn� kvadratick� formy, prom�taj� se na jeden bod ve
vektorov�m prostoru. Nyn� definujeme jin� t��dy ekvivalence vzhledem ke spole�n�
kvadratick� form� nebo obecn�ji vzhledem ke spole�n�mu sou�inu.
�ekneme, �e matice ${\bf B}$ a ${\bf C}$ jsou {\em ekvivalentn�} pokud
\begin{equation}
{\bf B}^{\rm T}{\bf B}= {\bf C}^{\rm T}{\bf C}\;,
\end{equation}
nebo matice ${\bf B}^{\rm T}$ je ekvivalentn� matici ${\bf U}$ a matice ${\bf B}$
je ekvivalentn� matici ${\bf V}$ pokud
$$\begin{array}{ccc}
\left(
\begin{array}{ccc}
\sqrt{2} & 0 & 0 \\
\sqrt{1/2} & \sqrt{3/2} & 0 \\
\sqrt{1/2} & \sqrt{1/6} & \sqrt{4/3}
\end{array}
\right)
& \equiv &
\left(
\begin{array}{ccc}
2 & 1 & 1 \\
1 & 2 & 1 \\
1 & 1 & 2
\end{array}
\right)\;.
\end{array}$$
$$\begin{array}{ccc}
\left(
\begin{array}{cccc}
\sqrt{3} & 0 & 0 & 0 \\
\sqrt{1/3} & \sqrt{8/3} & 0 & 0 \\
\sqrt{1/3} & \sqrt{1/6} & \sqrt{5/2}& 0 \\
\sqrt{1/3} & \sqrt{1/6} & \sqrt{1/10} & \sqrt{12/5}
\end{array}
\right)
& \equiv &
\left(
\begin{array}{cccc}
1 & 1 & 0 & 0 \\
1 & 0 & 1 & 0 \\
0 & 1 & 1 & 0 \\
1 & 0 & 0 & 1 \\
0 & 1 & 0 & 1 \\
0 & 0 & 1 & 1
\end{array}
\right)\;.
\end{array}$$
Existence takov�ch p�r� nebo n�sobk� m� pon�kud nep��jemn� d�sledek: Pokud zn�me
pouze skal�rn� sou�in, nem�eme si b�t jisti, zda ko�eny, kter� jsme nalezli, jsou
spr�vn� nebo jsou pouze ekvivalentn� k p�vodn�m prvk�m sou�inu.
Av�ak existuj� tak� dobr� zpr�vy o existenci ekvivalence: M�eme nahradit nezn�m�
maticov� vektor kanonickou triangul�rn� dekompozic� jeho kvadratick� formy. To
vyu��v� {\em faktorov� anal�za}, kdy� matice experiment�ln�ch v�sledk� obsahuj�c�
stochastick� chyby se nahrad� sou�ty matic maj�c�ch velk� v�hy a diference se
ponech� jako matice chyb.
\begin{eqnarray}
{\bf Z}{\bf M}^{\rm T}{\bf MZ}^{\rm T}= \Delta \lambda_j \\
\Sigma \lambda_j {\bf Z}^{\rm T}{\bf Z} = {\bf MM}^{\rm T}
\end{eqnarray}
\begin{equation}
\Sigma {\bf Z}^{\rm T}{\bf Z}^{\rm T}= {\bf I}
\end{equation}
$$\left(
\begin{array}{ccc}
1 &-1 & 0\\
-1& 2& -1\\
0 &-1 & 1
\end{array}
\right)$$
$$\begin{array}{cc}
\begin{array}{c}
{\bf A}\ \lambda_{j=0}\\
\\
\left(
\begin{array}{ccc}
1/3 & 1/3 & 1/3 \\
1/3 & 1/3 & 1/3 \\
1/3 & 1/3 & 1/3
\end{array}
\right)
\end{array}
& \begin{array}{c}
{\bf B}\ \lambda_{j=3}\\
\\
\left(
\begin{array}{ccc}
1/6 & -2/6 & 1/6 \\
-2/6 & 4/6 & -2/6 \\
1/6 & -2/6 & 1/6
\end{array}
\right)
\end{array}
\end{array}$$
$$\begin{array}{c}
{\bf C}\ \lambda_{j=1}\\
\\
\left(
\begin{array}{ccc}
1/2 & 0 & -1/2 \\
0 & 0 & 0 \\
-1/2 & 0 & 1/2
\end{array}
\right)\;.
\end{array}$$
Odpov�daj�c� sou�ty jsou ${\bf Q}= 3{\bf B}+ 1{\bf C}$ a ${\bf I}= {\bf A}+ {\bf
B}+ {\bf C}$.
Vn�j�� kvadratick� formy vlastn�ch vektor� jsou faktory korela�n� matice. Tyto
korela�n� matice jsou rozlo�eny do sv�ch faktor� maj�c�ch nejv�t�� vlastn�
hodnoty, kter� jsou normalizovan� na 1. V na�em p��klad� m�e b�t �e�eno, �e faktor
${\bf B}$ vysv�tluje 75\% matice ${\bf Q}$ a faktor ${\bf C}$ zb�vaj�c�ch 25\%.
\chapter{Inversn� matice}
\label{Inversn� matice}
\section{�vod}
\label{�vod 16}
Inverzn� matice byly zm�n�n� v�cekr�t, av�ak nyn� by m�ly b�t vysv�tleny
systemati�t�ji.
Je dosti snadn� definovat inverzn� prvek izolovan�ho prvku, jako je ��slo nebo
vektor. Av�ak tato �loha se st�v� koncep�n� nesnadnou pro cel� syst�my
reprezentovan� maticov�mi vektory. A je trochu tajemn�, jak definovat inverzn�
prvky k objekt�m. M�ete ��ci, co je va�� inverz�? Odpov�� bude z�visl� na
situaci: zda hled�te svou vnit�n� inverzi pouze jako osoba, nebo sv�j inverzn�
prvek jako ��sti n�jak� soustavy?
Nejprve si vzpome�te na sekci 3.4. Tam se popisuj� dva typy inverzn�ch prvk�,
aditivn� a multiplikativn�. Aditivn� inverze je definov�na identit $a + b = 0$, z
toho $b = -a$. Z�porn� prvek m� stejnou hodnotu a opa�n� znam�nko ke sv�mu
p�vodn�mu prvku. Multiplikativn� inverzn� prvek je definov�n jako sou�in $ab = 1$.
Z toho $b = 1/a$ a $a = 1/a$. Odli�nost mezi prvkem a jeho inverz� je ur�ena
konvenc�. U� jsme uk�zali, �e multiplikativn� inverze jsou aditivn� na
logaritmick� stupnici (obr. 3.5).
Pro matice tak� mohou b�t definovan� aditivn� a multiplikativn� inverzn� matice s
nulov�mi maticemi ${\bf 0}$ a jednotkov�mi diagon�ln�mi maticemi ${\bf I}$ jako
jednotkov�mi prvky. Aditivn� inverze pro ${\bf M}$ se zdaj� b�t trivi�ln�, maj�
pouze inverzn� znam�nka $-{\bf M}$, pon�vad� ${\bf M}-{\bf M}= {\bf 0}$.
Multiplikativn� inverze jsou mnohem v�ce zaj�mav�.
\begin{equation}
{\bf G}_n +\overline{{\bf G}_n} = {\bf G}_{K_n}\;.
\end{equation}
Dopl�kov� graf dohromady s p�vodn�m grafem d�v� �pln� graf $K_n$. Matice ${\bf
S}^{\rm T}{\bf S}$ a $\overline{{\bf S}^{\rm T}{\bf S}}$ lze pova�ovat za {\em
zobecn�nou aditivn� inverzi}, jak vid�me pozd�ji.
\begin{equation}
{\bf P}^{\rm T}{\bf P}= {\bf I}\;.
\end{equation}
Pro diagon�ln� matice $\Delta{\bf M}$ inverzn� prvky $d_{ii}$ jsou prvky $1/d_{ii}
$. Av�ak, kdy� kombinujeme diagon�ln� matici s permuta�n� matic�, jej� inverze
nen� jednoduch�m sou�tem obou ��ste�n�ch inverz�.
Probl�m inverzn�ch matic je slo�it� pro n�kter� asymetrick� matice, kter� maj� dv�
rozd�ln� inverzn� matice, jednu zleva a druhou zprava, proto�e n�soben� zleva m�
jin� ��inek ne� n�soben� zprava. A mnoho matic nemaj� ��dnou inverzn� matici,
pon�vad� jsou singul�rn�. Jejich spektrum obsahuje n�jak� nulov� vlastn� hodnoty a
jejich duha se neuzav�r�.
M�eme v t�to souvislosti upozornit na definici vlastn�ch vektor�, ${\bf Z}$, kter�
d�vaj�, kdy� se n�sob� s ${\bf Z}^{\rm T}$ jednotkovou diagon�ln� matici.
Transponovan� matice vlastn� vektor� matice ${\bf Z}^{\rm T}$ je levostrann�
inverzn� matice pro ${\bf Z}$.
\begin{equation}
{\bf MRM}^{\rm T} = {\bf I}
\end{equation}
Ty lze vyj�d�it tak� konven�n�, ${\bf MR}$ je {\em levostrannou inverzn� matic�}
pro${\bf M}^{\rm T}$ a ${\bf RM}^{\rm T}$ je {\em pravostrannou inverzn� matic�}
pro ${\bf M}$.
Pokud oprav�me sou�in vlastn�ch vektor� s jejich matic� uvnit� jej�ch inverzn�mi
vlastn�mi hodnotami, dostaneme jednotkovou diagon�ln� matici. Tedy matice ${\bf M}
$ v�en� inverzemi sv�ch vlastn�ch hodnot je vnit�n� inverzn� matic� matice sv�ch
vlastn�ch vektor�. Nap��klad
$$\begin{array}{ccccc}
\left(
\begin{array}{cc}
1/\sqrt{6} & 1/\sqrt{6} \\
1/\sqrt{2} & 1/\sqrt{2}
\end{array}
\right)\
&
\left(
\begin{array}{cc}
2 & -1 \\
-1 & 2
\end{array}
\right)
&
\left(
\begin{array}{cc}
1/\sqrt{6} & 1/\sqrt{2} \\
1/\sqrt{6} & 1/\sqrt{2}
\end{array}
\right)
& $=$\ &
\left(
\begin{array}{cc}
1 & 0 \\
0 & 1
\end{array}
\right)
\end{array}$$
\section{Invertov�n� matic}
\label{Invertov�n� matic}
\begin{equation}
{\bf I}= [{\bf M}^{n-1}- n{\bf M}^{n-2}+ (n(n-1)/2){\bf M}^{n-3}
\dots \pm n{\bf M}^1 \pm {\bf I}]{\bf M}\;.
\end{equation}
Prav� strana matice v z�vork�ch je levostrannou inverzn� matic� ${\bf M}$ matice v
doln� troj�heln�kov� form� ${\bf M}$.
Podobnou strukturu, pouze pon�kud slo�it�j��, maj� matice ${\bf B}_{n-1}$ z�skan�
La Verrier-Fad�jev-Frame technikou, kde koeficienty polynomi�lu se pou��vaj� pro
ode��t�n� n�sobk� jednotkov� diagon�ln� matice v rozd�ln�ch kroc�ch n�soben�
matic� ${\bf M}$.
Inverzn� matice ${\bf M}^{-1}$ matice ${\bf M}$ je transponovan� matice jej�ch
minor� ${\bf A}_{ij}$ d�len�ch determinantem. Pokud je determinant nulov� potom
inverzn� matice nen� definov�na ze z�ejm�ho d�vodu: Pokud d�l�me mal�mi ��sly
bl�zk�mi k nule, dostaneme neur�it� nekone�n� ��sla. To d�v� tak� odpov�� na
ot�zku, co je V� inverzn� prvek. Je to V� minor. Tem z�vis� na vlastnostech sv�ta,
ve kter�m �ijete.
$$\begin{array}{cccc}
\left(
\begin{array}{ccc}
3 & 5 & 7 \\
8 & 1 & 6 \\
4 & 9 & 2
\end{array}
\right)^{-1} & =
& 1/360
\left(
\begin{array}{ccc}
-52 & 53& 23 \\
8 & -22 & 38 \\
68 & -7 & -37
\end{array}
\right)
\end{array}$$
\begin{itemize}
\item Nejprve se pravideln� matice rozlo�� do 3 matic
\begin{equation}
{\bf M}= {\bf LUP}
\end{equation}
kde ${\bf L}$ je matic� v doln� troj�heln�kov� form�, ${\bf U}$ je matic� v horn�
troj�heln�kov� form� a ${\bf P}$ je permuta�n� matice.
\begin{equation}
{\bf M}^{-1} = {\bf P}^{-1} {\bf U}^{-1} {\bf L}^{-1}\;.
\end{equation}
\end{itemize}
N�soben� matice jej� inverzn� matic� lze transformovat na �lohu dekompozice jej�ho
determinantu podle jej� hrany nebo sloupce. Pokud ��dka minor� se n�sob�
transponovanou ��dkou odpov�daj�c�ch prvk� matice, dostaneme determinant, pon�vad�
minory v inverzn� matici se j�m d�l�, je pom�r 1. Pokud se n�sob� nesouhlas�c�
hrany, m� to stejn� ��inek, jako kdyby matice m�la dv� identick� hrany a
determinant dan� t�mto sou�inem je nulov�.
\section{Matice proch�zek a cest}
\label{Matice proch�zek a cest}
Uk�zali jsme, v jak�m vztahu jsou prvky inverzn� matice k minor�m prvk� matice.
Av�ak v n�kter�ch p��padech se m�e odvodit tato inverzn� matice p��mo ze struktury
graf� bez ��dn�ch z�ejm�ch vztah� k minor�m determinantu.
To je p��pad matic ${\bf SS}^{\rm T}$ nebo ${\bf GG}^{\rm T}$ strom�. Maj� $(n-1)$
hran a sloupc� a jsou nesingul�rn�, proto�e odpov�daj�c� kvadratick� formy ${\bf
S}^{\rm T}{\bf S}$ a ${\bf G}^{\rm T}{\bf G}$ maj� pr�v� jednu nulovou vlastn�
hodnotu. Ve stromu neexistuje ��dn� cykl, tedy existuje pouze jedna proch�zka mezi
ka�d�m p�rem vrchol� (v p��pad� neorientovan�ch graf� mluv�me o cest�ch). M�e se
definovat matice\footnote{Pouze jeden symbol se pou��v� pro ob� matice pro
�sporu.} ${\bf W}$ s hranami odpov�daj�c�mi v�em proch�zk�m nebo cest�m ve stromu,
se sloupci p�edstavuj�c�mi orientovan� hrany nebo neorientovan� hrany. Prvky
$w_{ij}$ t�chto matic jsou $\pm 1$ pokud orientovan� hrana nebo neorientovan�
hrana $j$ je ��st� cesty nebo proch�zky, $i$ 0 jinak. Definice se komplikuje,
zejm�na pro neorientovan� stromy, znam�nky nutn�mi k eliminaci ne��douc�ch prvk�,
kdy� matice proch�zek se n�sob� matic� ${\bf GG}^{\rm T}$, jej� v�echny prvky jsou
kladn�. orientovan� stromy mohou m�t konfiguraci v�ech orientovan�ch hran hlava k
ocasu, pon�vad� stromy jsou dvojd�ln� grafy. Potom v�echny mimodiagon�ln� prvky $
{\bf GG}^{\rm T}$ jsou z�porn� a v�echny prvky ${\bf W}$ kladn�. Jinak $w_{ij}$ m�
kladn� znam�nko, pokud hrana $j$ je v sud� vzd�lenosti od posledn� hrany v
proch�zce (cest�) nebo orientovan� hrana $j$ m� stejnou orientaci jako posledn�
orientovan� hrana, a m� z�porn� znam�nko, pokud odpov�daj�c� hrana je v lich�
vzd�lenosti od posledn� hrany, nebo odpov�daj�c� orientovan� hrana m� opa�nou
orientaci jako posledn� hrana.
Prav� inverzn� matice kvadratick�ch forem ${\bf GG}^{\rm T}$ a ${\bf SS}^{\rm T}$
jsou 1/n n�sobky odpov�daj�c�ch kvadratick�ch forem ${\bf W}^{\rm T}{\bf W}$,
matice ${\bf G}^{\rm T}{\bf W}^{\rm T}{\bf W}$ a ${\bf S}^{\rm}{\bf W}^{\rm T}{\bf
W}$ jsou prav�mi inverzn�mi maticemi ${\bf G}$ nebo ${\bf S}$, podobn� jako ${\bf
W}^{\rm T}{\bf WG}$ a ${\bf W}^{\rm T}{\bf WS}$ jsou lev�mi inverzn�mi maticemi $
{\bf G}$ nebo ${\bf S}$. Diagon�ln� prvky obou kvadratick�ch forem po��taj�
kolikr�t odpov�daj�c� orientovan� hrana nebo neorientovan� hrana byla pou��v�na ve
v�e proch�zk�ch nebo cest�ch, mimodiagon�ln� prvky po��taj� spole�n� vyu�it�
dan�ho p�ru hran. Takto jednodu�e z�skan� ��sla jsou sou�asn� minory odpov�daj�c�
kvadratick� formy inciden�n� matice. Stopa ${\bf W}^{\rm T}{\bf W}$ je sou�et
vzd�lenost� mezi vrcholy ve stromu. Je zn�m� jako {\em Wienerovo ��slo}, viz p��t�
kapitolu.
Matice proch�zek a cest stromy zahrnuj� v�echny proch�zky nebo cesty dan�ho
stromu, zat�m co k�dov� matice strom� zahrnuj� pouze proch�zky (nebo cesty) z
ko�enu. U orientovan�ch strom� oba druhy matic jsou ve vztahu jako
\begin{equation}
{\bf C}{\bf S}_{\rm K}^{\rm T} = -{\bf W}^{\rm T}\;.
\end{equation}
Nap��klad
$$\begin{tabular}{rrrr|rrrrrr}
& & & &\ -1 & -1 & 0 & -1 & 0 & 0 \\
& & & & 1 & 0 & -1& 0 & -1& 0 \\
& & & & 0 & 1 & 1 & 0 & 0 & -1\\
& & & & 0 & 0 & 0 & 1 & 1 & 1 \\
\hline
& & & & & & & & &\\
1 & & & & -1 & -1 & 0 & -1 & 0 & 0 \\
1 & 1 & & & 0 & -1 & -1& -1 & -1& 0 \\
1 & 1 & 1 & & 0 & 0 & 0 & -1 & -1& -1\\
1 & 1 & 1 & 1 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 0 \\
\end{tabular}$$
\begin{equation}
g_{ii} = 1,\ g_{i,i+1} = 1\ [{\rm pokud}\i=(n + 1)\ {\rm potom}\ i= 1,\ g_{ij} =
0\ {\rm jinak}\;.
\end{equation}
\begin{equation}
g^{\rm T}g_{ii} = 2,\ g^{\rm T}g_{i,i\pm 1} = 1\ [{\rm pokud}\ i = (n + 1) {\rm
potom}\ i = 1\;.
\end{equation}
Za�neme hled�n�m inverzn� matice kvadratick� formy matice cykl� ${\bf C}^{\rm T}
{\bf C}$. Je snadn� ji nal�zt pro mal� cykly, nap��klad pro 7 �lenn� cyklus tato
symetrick� matice $({\bf G}^{\rm T}{\bf G})$ za��n� jako
$$\begin{array}{cc}
{\bf G}^{\rm T}{\bf G} &
\left(
\begin{array}{rrrrrrr}
2 & 1 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 1 \\
1 & 2 & 1 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 0 \\
\vdots & \vdots & \vdots & \vdots & \vdots &
\vdots & \vdots
\end{array}
\right)\;.
\end{array}$$
Jej� inverzn� matic� $({\bf G}^{\rm T}{\bf G})^{-1}= {\bf C}^{\rm T}{\bf C} $
za��n� jako
$$\begin{array}{cc}
({\bf C}^{\rm T}{\bf C}) &
\left(
\begin{array}{rrrrrrr}
-5 & 7 & -5 & 3 & -1 & -1 & 3 \\
3 & -5 & 7 & -5 & 3 & -1 & -1 \\
\vdots & \vdots & \vdots & \vdots & \vdots &
\vdots & \vdots
\end{array}
\right)
\end{array}$$
Tato matice je kvadratickou formou z�kladn� matice ${\bf C}$ lich�ch cykl�, jej�
prvky jsou $c_{ij} = (-1)^{d(ij)}$. Horn� d(ij) indexy jsou vzd�lenosti vrchol� j
od diagon�ln�ho vrcholu i. Je tu k kladn�ch prvk� a $(k + 1)$ z�porn�ch prvk� v
ka�d� ��dce a sloupci, nap��klad
$$\begin{array}{cc}
${\bf C}$ &
\left(
\begin{array}{rrrrrrr}
+1 & -1& +1 & -1& -1 & +1& -1 \\
-1 & +1& -1& +1 & -1& -1 & +1 \\
\vdots & \vdots & \vdots & \vdots & \vdots &
\vdots & \vdots
\end{array}
\right)
\end{array}$$
\begin{equation}
{\bf C}^{\rm T}{\bf C} = {\bf CC}^{\rm T} = {\bf C}^2\;.
\end{equation}
Podobn� v�sledek se z�sk� tak� pro prost�edn� prvky $\pm(1, 1, -3)$ nebo $\pm(-3,
1, 1)$. Matice cykl� ${\bf C}$ m� po�adovanou vlastnost matice cykl�, toti� ${\bf
CG}\ \equiv {\bf 0}\ {\rm mod}\ 2$. Sousedn� prvky jsou v�t�inou $(\pm 1)$ a
pokud maj� stejn� znam�nko, potom jejich sou�et je 2. Sou�in je $2{\bf P}$, kde $
{\bf P}$ je jednotkov� permuta�n� matice cyklu. P��t� sou�in je
\begin{equation}
{\bf G}^{-1}\ \hbox{zprava}\ = 1/4{\bf G}^{\rm T}{\bf C}^2 = \pm1/2{\bf CP}^{\rm
T}
\end{equation}
\begin{equation}
{\bf G}^{-1}\ \hbox{zleva}\ = 1/4{\bf C}^2{\bf C}^{\rm T}= \pm1/2{\bf P}^{\rm T}
{\bf C}\;.
\end{equation}
Permuta�n� matice ${\bf P}^{\rm T}$ m� jednotkov� prvky $p_{i,i+(n-1)/2}$. Pokud
n�sob� matici ${\bf C}$ zprava, permutuje jej� sloupce, pokud zleva, permutuje
jej� hrany. Pon�vad� matice ${\bf C}$ je symetrick�, v�sledky obou permutac� jsou
identick� a inciden�n� matice neorientovan�ho lich�ho cyklu m� pravou inverzn�
matic�. Mimo to, pokud matice cyklu p�sob� na kvadratickou formu ${\bf G}^{\rm T}
{\bf G}$ z obou stran, tak� ji diagonalizuje:
\begin{figure}
\caption{P��klady neorientovan�ch nesingul�rn�ch cyklick�ch graf�}
\label{P��klady neorientovan�ch nesingul�rn�ch cyklick�ch graf�}
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\end{figure}
$$\begin{array}{cc}
\begin{array}{c}
{\bf G}^{\rm T}{\bf G}\\
\\
\left(
\begin{array}{cccc}
2 & 1 & 1 & 0\\
1 & 2 & 1 & 0\\
1 & 1 & 3 & 1\\
0 & 0 & 1 & 1
\end{array}
\right)
\end{array} &
\begin{array}{c}
4{\bf G}^{\rm T}{\bf G}^{-1}\\
\\
\left(
\begin{array}{cccc}
3 &-1 &-1 & 1\\
-1 & 3 &-1 & 1\\
-1 &-1 & 3 &-3\\
1 & 1 &-3 & 7
\end{array}
\right)
\end{array}
\end{array}$$
$$\begin{array}{cc}
\begin{array}{c}
{\bf GG}^{\rm T}\\
\\
\left(
\begin{array}{cccc}
2 & 1 & 1 & 0\\
1 & 2 & 1 & 1\\
1 & 1 & 2 & 1\\
0 & 1 & 1 & 2
\end{array}
\right)
\end{array} &
\begin{array}{c}
2({\bf GG}^{\rm T})^{-1}\\
\\
\left(
\begin{array}{cccc}
2& -1 & -1 & 1\\
-1 & 2 & 0 & -1\\
-1 & 0 & 2 & -1\\
1 & -1 & -1 & 1
\end{array}
\right)
\end{array}
\end{array}$$
Graf B
$$\begin{array}{cc}
\begin{array}{c}
{\bf G}^{\rm T}{\bf G}\\
\\
\left(
\begin{array}{cccc}
3 & 1 & 1 & 1\\
1 & 2 & 0 & 1\\
1 & 0 & 2 & 1\\
1 & 1 & 1 & 3
\end{array}
\right)
\end{array} &
\begin{array}{c}
4({\bf G}^{\rm T}{\bf G})^{-1}\\
\\
\left(
\begin{array}{cccc}
2 & -1 & -1 & 0\\
-1& 3 & 1 & -1\\
-1& 1 & 3 & -1\\
0 & -1 & -1 & 2
\end{array}
\right)
\end{array}
\end{array}$$
Graf C
$$\begin{array}{cc}
\begin{array}{c}
{\bf G}^{\rm T}{\bf G}\\
\\
\left(
\begin{array}{ccccc}
2 & 1 & 1 & 0 & 0\\
1 & 2 & 1 & 0 & 0\\
1 & 2 & 4 & 1 & 1\\
0 & 0 & 1 & 2 & 1\\
0 & 0 & 1 & 1 & 2
\end{array}
\right)
\end{array}
\begin{array}{c}
24({\bf G}^{\rm T}{\bf G})^{-1}\\
\\
\left(
\begin{array}{ccccc}
17 &-7 & -3 & 1 & 1\\
-7 &17 & -3 & 1 & 1\\
-3 & -3 & 9 & -3 & -3\\
1 & 1 & -3 & 17 & -7\\
1 & 1 & -3 & -7 & 17
\end{array}
\right)
\end{array}
\end{array}$$
\begin{equation}
{\bf S}^{\rm T}{\bf S}{\bf J} = {\bf 0};\
{\bf J}^{\rm T}{\bf S}^{\rm T}{\bf S}= {\bf 0}\ .
\end{equation}
\begin{equation}
{\bf S}^{\rm T}{\bf S}[({\bf S}^{\rm T}{\bf S}+
k{\bf JJ}^{\rm T})^{-1} + k{\bf JJ}^{\rm T}] =
n{\bf I}- {\bf JJ}^{\rm T}
\end{equation}
Nap��klad
$$\begin{array}{ccc}
\begin{array}{c}
{\bf S}^{\rm T}{\bf S}\\
\\
\left(
\begin{array}{ccc}
1 & -1 & 0 \\
-1 & 2 & -1 \\
0 & -1 & 1
\end{array}
\right)
\end{array} &
\begin{array}{c}
({\bf S}^{\rm T}{\bf S}+{\bf JJ}^{\rm T})\\
\\
\left(
\begin{array}{ccc}
2 & 0 & 1 \\
0 & 3 & 0 \\
1 & 0 & 2
\end{array}
\right)
\end{array} &
\begin{array}{c}
({\bf S}^{\rm T}{\bf S}+{\bf JJ}^{\rm T})^{-1}\\
\\
\left(
\begin{array}{ccc}
2 & 0 & -1 \\
0 & 1 & 0 \\
-1 & 0 & 2
\end{array}
\right)
\end{array}
\end{array}$$
$$\begin{array}{c}
({\bf S}^{\rm T}{\bf S}+{\bf JJ}^{\rm T})^{-1})
+{\bf JJ}^{\rm T}\\
\\
\left(
\begin{array}{ccc}
3 & 1 & 0\\
1 & 2 & 1\\
0 & 1 & 3
\end{array}
\right)
\end{array}$$
Mezi nekone�n� mnoha zobecn�n�mi inverzn�mi maticemi ka�d� matice ${\bf S}^{\rm T}
{\bf S}$ existuje speci�ln� zobecn�n� inverzn� matice, kter� se z�sk� Moebiusovou
inverz� matice ${\bf S}^{\rm T}{\bf S}$.
Hlavn� podmatice $\delta_{j}{\bf S}^{\rm T}{\bf S}$, kde je vypu�t�na j-t� ��dka a
j-t� sloupec, jsou nesingul�rn� a maj� inverzn� matice. Pokud se tyto inverzn�
matice se�tou s ponech�n�m pr�zdn� j-t� ��dky a sloupce, dostaneme {\em
Eichingerovy matice} ${\bf E}$, kter� tak� maj� vlastnosti zobecn�n�ch inverzn�ch
matic:
\begin{equation}
{\bf E} = \sum_{j=1}^n \delta_{j}{\bf S}^{\rm T}{\bf S}
\end{equation}
\begin{equation}
{\bf S}^{\rm T}{\bf S}{\bf E} = n{\bf I} -{\bf JJ}^{\rm T}\;.
\end{equation}
Nap��klad jako shora
$$\begin{array}{ccc}
\begin{array}{c}
{\bf S}^{\rm T}{\bf S}\\
\\
\left(
\begin{array}{ccc}
1 & -1 & 0 \\
-1 & 2 & -1 \\
0 & -1 & 1
\end{array}
\right)
\end{array}
\begin{array}{c}
(\delta_1({\bf S}^{\rm T}{\bf S})^{-1}\\
\\
\left(
\begin{array}{ccc}
0 & 0 & 0 \\
0 & 1 & 1 \\
0 & 1 & 2
\end{array}
\right)
\end{array}
\begin{array}{c}
(\delta_2{\bf S}^{\rm T}{\bf S})^{-1}\\
\\
\left(
\begin{array}{ccc}
1 & 0 & 0 \\
0 & 0 & 0 \\
0 & 0 & 1
\end{array}
\right)
\end{array} &
\begin{array}{c}
(\delta_3{\bf S}^{\rm T}{\bf S})^{-1}\\
\\
\left(
\begin{array}{ccc}
2 & 1 & 0 \\
1 & 1 & 0 \\
0 & 0 & 0
\end{array}
\right)
\end{array}
\end{array}$$
$$\begin{array}{c}
{\bf E}\\
\\
\left(
\begin{array}{ccc}
3 & 1 & 0\\
1 & 2 & 1\\
0 & 1 & 3
\end{array}
\right)
\end{array}$$
\section{Technika zako�en�n�}
\label{Technika zako�en�n�}
Zako�en�n� odstra�uje singularitu nejen matice strom� ale v�ech graf�. D�kaz je
induktivn� a je formulovan� pro pravou inverzn� matici. Matice ${\bf JJ}^{\rm T}$
je nulov� matice jak�koliv Laplace-Kirchhoffovy matice, pon�vad� jednotkov�
sloupec je jej�m nulov�m vlastn�m vektorem. Av�ak matice ${\bf JJ}^{\rm T}$
p�id�v� na m�sto perturbace 1 v dan� ��dce a nuly v odpov�daj�c�m sloupci.
Ko�enov� ��dka mus� b�t vyv�ena. V jin�ch ��dc�ch je jednotkov� sloupec nulov�m
vlastn� vektorem, 1 na diagon�le je vyvol�na dal��mi prvky ��ste�n� inverzn�
matice. Pon�vad� Laplace-Kirchhoffova matice je symetrick�, sou�in ��ste�n�
inverzn� matice se z�porn�mi mimodiagon�ln� prvky ko�enov� ��dky mus� d�vat -1. To
nech�v� nuly jako mimodiagon�ln� prvky.
\begin{equation}
{(\delta_j\bf S}^{\rm T}{\bf S})^{-1} + {\bf JJ}^{\rm T} =
({\bf S}^{\rm T}{\bf S} + 1_{jj})^{-1}\;.
\end{equation}
Nap��klad
$$\begin{array}{cc}
\begin{array}{c}
({\bf S}^{\rm T}{\bf S} + 1_{11})_{C_4}\\
\\
\left(
\begin{array}{cccc}
3 & -1 & 0 & -1\\
-1 & 2 & -1 & 0\\
0 & -1 & 2 & -1\\
-1 & 0 & -1 & 2
\end{array}
\right)
\end{array} &
\begin{array}{c}
({\bf S}^{\rm T}{\bf S} + 1_{11})_{C_4})^{-1}\\
\\
\left(
\begin{array}{cccc}
1 & 1 & 1 & 1 \\
1 & 7/4 & 6/4 & 5/4 \\
1 & 6/4 & 8/4 & 6/4 \\
1 & 5/4 & 6/4 & 7/4
\end{array}
\right)\;.
\end{array}
\end{array}$$
V�ha orientovan�ch hran se sn�ila pro cykly $C_n$. Inverzn� matic� diference $
(\delta_1{\bf S}^{\rm T}{\bf S})^{-1}$ je v�dy matice ${\bf SS}^{\rm T}$
line�rn�ho �et�zce $L_n$, jeho� inverzn� matic� je kvadratick� forma ${\bf W}^{\rm
T}{\bf W}$ matice cest. �et�zec tvo�� nap�nac� strom. Jeho �tvercov� matice se
mus� rozlo�it do troj�heln�kov�ho tvaru a p�idat k matici ${\bf JJ}^{\rm T}$.
Pon�vad� ${\bf W}^{\rm T}{\bf W}$, jak byly definov�ny, d�vaj� $n{\bf I}$ jako
sou�in s ${\bf SS}^{\rm T}$, je nutn� d�lit n. Jako p��klad troj�heln�kov�
dekompozice
$$\begin{array}{c}
{\bf W}^{\rm T} \\
\\
\left(
\begin{array}{cccccc}
1 & 1 & 1 & 0 & 0 & 0 \\
0 & 1 & 1 & 1 & 0 & 0 \\
0 & 0 & 1 & 0 & 1 & 1
\end{array}
\right)
\end{array}$$
$$\begin{array}{ccc}
\begin{array}{c}
{\bf W}^{\rm T}{\bf W}\\
\\
\left(
\begin{array}{ccc}
3 & 2 & 1 \\
2 & 4 & 2 \\
1 & 2 & 3
\end{array}
\right)
\end{array} & = &
\begin{array}{c}
Troj�heln�kov� dekompozice\\
\left(
\begin{array}{ccc}
\sqrt{3/4} & 0 & 0\\
\sqrt{1/3} & \sqrt{2/3} & 0\\
\sqrt{1/12} & \sqrt{1/6} & \sqrt{1/2}
\end{array}
\right)
\end{array}
\end{array}$$
Kdy� prvky matice ${\bf S}^{\rm T}{\bf S}$ se interpretuj� jako {\em vodivosti},
potom prvky inverzn� matice jsou {\em odpory} (nebo odporov� vzd�lenosti). Dva
soused�c� vrcholy jsou spojen� v kru�nici $C_n$ dv�ma zp�soby, bu� p��mo spojuj�c�
orientovanou hranou, nebo cestou $(n-1)$ orientovan�ch hran. Pokud v�echny
orientovan� hrany maj� odpor 1, potom vodivost obou spojen� je 1 a $1/(n-1)$.
Vodivost obvodu je $n/(n-1)$, v na�em p��klad� $4/3$. Dv� cesty mezi opa�n�mi
vrcholy v sud�ch cyklech maj� odpory $n/2$, jejich spojen� vodivost je $4/n$, v
na�em p��klad� $1$.
Technika zako�en�n� u strom� d�v� stejn� v�sledek jako k�dov� matice. N�sobnost k
orientovan�ch hran se m�e vyj�d�it jako opakov�n� hrany nebo v�en� orientovan�ch
hran. Tyto v�hy v inciden�n� matici mus� b�t odmocninami n�sobnosti k orientovan�
hrany.
\begin{figure}
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$$\begin{array}{ccc}
\begin{array}{c}
Ko�en\ 1\\
\\
\left(
\begin{array}{ccc}
1 & 0 & 0\\
1 & \sqrt{1/2} & 0 \\
1 & \sqrt{1/2} & 1
\end{array}
\right)
\end{array} &
\begin{array}{c}
Ko�en\ 2\\
\\
\left(
\begin{array}{ccc}
1 & 0 & 0 \\
1 & 1 & 0 \\
1 & 0 & \sqrt{1/2}
\end{array}
\right)
\end{array} &
\begin{array}{c}
Ko�en\ 3\\
\\
\left(
\begin{array}{ccc}
1 & 0 & 0 \\
1 & 1 & 0 \\
1 & 1 & \sqrt{1/2}
\end{array}
\right)
\end{array}
\end{array}\;.$$
\begin{equation}
{\bf S}^{\rm T}{\bf S}{\bf E}= {\bf S}^{\rm T}{\bf S}_K\;.
\end{equation}
\begin{equation}
{\bf S}^{\rm T}{\bf S} = ({\bf S}^{\rm T}{\bf S})_n
-a_1({\bf S}^{\rm T}{\bf S})^{n-1}\;,
\end{equation}
\begin{equation}
{\bf B}_{n-1} = 1/a_{n-1}({\bf S}^{\rm T}{\bf S})^{-1}\;.
\end{equation}
U Laplace-Kirchhoffovy matice $a_n = 0$, tedy $({\bf S}^{\rm T}{\bf S})_n = {\bf
0}$. Tedy ${\bf B}_{n-1} = ({\bf S}^{\rm T}{\bf S})^{-1}$, a $ a_{n-1} = n$. Z
toho plyne, �e
\begin{equation}
{\bf E}= {\bf B}_{n-2}\ {\rm a}\{\bf E}({\bf S}^{\rm T}{\bf S})^2 =
n{\bf S}^{\rm T}{\bf S}\;.
\end{equation}
Mimo to, pokud Laplace-Kirchhoffova matice ${\bf S}^{\rm T}{\bf S}_K$ grafu $G_n$
se n�sob� $({\bf E}- {\bf I})$, z�sk� se Laplace-Kirchhoffova matice dopl�kov�ho
grafu $\overline{G}$. Z t�chto v�sledk� plyne vztah vlastn�ch hodnot $\lambda_j$
odpov�daj�c� Laplace-Kirchhoffovy matice:
\begin{equation}
{\bf E}(\lambda_j ) = {\bf S}^{\rm T}{\bf S}(n/\lambda_j)\
{\rm a}\ {\bf S}^{\rm T}{\bf S}(\overline{G})(\lambda_j)
= {\bf S}^{\rm T}{\bf S}(G)(n -\lambda_j)\;.
\end{equation}
Dva grafy se pova�uj� za ekvivalentn�, pokud jejich matice mohou b�t vz�jemn�
transformovan� symetrick�mi permutacemi s jednotkov�mi permuta�n�mi maticemi ${\bf
P}$: ${\bf M}_{G_i} = {\bf PM}_{G_j}{\bf P}^{\rm T}$. Vyst�v� zaj�mav� probl�m: V
jak�m vztahu jsou vlastn� hodnoty odpov�daj�c�ch matic p�i takov�ch operac�ch. Je
obvykl� uspo��dat vlastn� hodnoty v vzestupn�m nebo sni�uj�c�m se uspo��d�n�,
av�ak pokud se matice permutuje, potom by se tak� m�ly jej� vlastn� hodnoty
permutovat, aby se dostaly rozd�ln� sou�iny a tedy nemohou b�t ve v�ech
ekvivalentn�ch grafech uspo��d�ny podobn� jako v kanonick� form� v vzestupn�m nebo
klesaj�c�m po��dku.
To znamen�, �e lze definovat {\em orbitu vlastn�ch hodnot}, jej� objem je ur�en
n�sobnostmi vlastn�ch hodnot.
$$\begin{array}{cc}
\hbox {3 spole�n� orientovan� hrany}\ &
\left(
\begin{array}{cccc}
2 & -3 & 1 & 0\\
-3 & 6 & -4 & 1\\
1 & -4 & 6& -3\\
0 & 1 & -3& 2
\end{array}
\right)\;.
\end{array}$$
$$\begin{array}{cc}
\hbox {��dn� spole�n� orientovan� hrana}\ &
\left(
\begin{array}{cccc}
2 &-1 &-1& 0 \\
-1 & 2 & 0 &-1 \\
-1 & 0 & 2& -1 \\
0 &-1 &-1 & 2
\end{array}
\right)\;.
\end{array}$$
$$\begin{tabular}{|l|rrrr|}
\hline
Spektrum $(L_4)$ & $2+2^{1/2}$ & 2 & $2-2^{1/2}$ & 0 \\
Spektrum $(L_4)$ & $2-2^{1/2}$ & 2 & $2+2^{1/2}$ & 0 \\
\hline
Spektrum $(C_4)$ & 2 & 4 & 2 & 0 \\
\hline
\end{tabular}$$
\begin{equation}
Tr({\bf S}^{\rm T}{\bf S}\overline{({\bf S}^{\rm T}{\bf S}})
= \sum_{j=1}^n [(n - v_j)- v_j^2] = \\
\sum_{j=1}^n[(n\lambda_j - \lambda_j^2)
\end{equation}
\begin{equation}
Tr([{\bf S}^{\rm T}{\bf S}]^2) = \sum_{j=1}^n (v_j^2 + v_j)
= \sum_{j=1}^n\lambda_j^2,
\end{equation}
tedy
\begin{equation}
Tr({\bf S}^{\rm T}{\bf S}\overline{{\bf S}^{\rm T}{\bf S}}) =
nTr({\bf S}^{\rm T}{\bf S}) - Tr([{\bf S}^{\rm T}{\bf S}]^2)\;.
\end{equation}
\begin{equation}
\overline{{\bf S}^{\rm T}{\bf S}}
= {\bf S}^{\rm T}{\bf S}({\bf E}- {\bf I})\;.
\end{equation}
To je diference
\begin{equation}
\overline{{\bf S}^{\rm T}{\bf S}}
= ({\bf S}^{\rm T}{\bf S})_K -{\bf S}^{\rm T}{\bf S}\;.
\end{equation}
Nap��klad
$$\begin{tabular}{cccc|ccc}
& & & &\multicolumn{3}{c}{$\overline{{\bf S}^{\rm T}{\bf S}}$}\\
& & & & & & \\
& & & &\ -1 & 1 & 0\\
& & & &\ 1 & 0 & -1\\
& & & &\ 0 & -1 & 1\\
\hline
& & & & & & \\
${\bf S}^{\rm T}{\bf S}$ & 3 & -2 & -1 & -5 & 4 & 1 \\
& -2 & 2 & 0 & 4 & -2 & -2 \\
& -1 & 0 & 1 & 1 & -2 & 1
\end{tabular}$$
$$\begin{tabular}{|l|ccc|}
\hline
Spektrum ${\bf S}^{\rm T}{\bf S}$ & $3+3^{1/2}$ &
$3- 3^{1/2}$ & 0 \\
Spektrum $\overline{{\bf S}^{\rm T}{\bf S}}$ & $-3^{1/2}$ &
$3^{1/2}$ & 0 \\
\hline
& & & \\
Spektrum ${\bf S}^{\rm T}{\bf S}\overline{{\bf S}^{\rm T}{\bf S}}$ &
$ -(3+27^{1/2})$ & $27^{1/2} -3$ & 0 \\
\hline
\end{tabular}$$
\begin{eqnarray}
[{\bf S}^{\rm T}{\bf S}]^2 + \overline{{\bf S}^{\rm T}{\bf S}} =
{\bf S}^{\rm T}{\bf S} \\
({\bf S}^{\rm T}{\bf S} + \overline{{\bf S}^{\rm T}{\bf S}}) =
{\bf S}^{\rm T}{\bf S}({\bf S}^{\rm T}{\bf S})_K = \\
{\bf S}^{\rm T}{\bf S}(n{\bf I}-{\bf JJ}^{\rm T}) = \\
n{\bf I}{\bf S}^{\rm T}{\bf S}+ {\bf 0}= n{\bf S}^{\rm T}{\bf S}\;.
\end{eqnarray}
Nebo
\begin{equation}
Sp(\lambda_j^2 + \lambda_j[n - \lambda_j]) = nSp(\lambda_j)\;.
\end{equation}
Jednotkov� vektor-sloupec ${\bf J}$ nebo jednotkov� vektor-��dka ${\bf J}^{\rm T}$
jsou nulov�mi vlastn�mi vektory Laplace-Kirchhoffov�ch matic v�ech graf� a
Laplace-Kirchhoffovy matice v�ech subgraf� �pln�ho grafu $K_n$ nejsou
ortonorm�ln� vlastn� vektory sv� Laplace-Kirchhoffovy matice.
D�sledkem vlastnost� sou�in� vlastn�ch hodnot je, �e spektra samo se dopl�uj�c�ch
graf� (jejich Laplace-Kirchhoffov�ch matic) mus� b�t symetrick�, vyjma jejich
nulovou vlastn� hodnotu:
\begin{equation}
n/2 \pm( -\lambda_jn/2)\;.
\end{equation}
Soustavu $n$ rovnic s $n$ nezn�m�mi lze zapsat v maticov� form� jako
\begin{equation}
{\bf Mx}= {\bf b}\;.
\end{equation}
Matice koeficient� se n�sob� vektorem sloupcem ${\bf x}$ a d�v� vektor sloupec $
{\bf b}$.
Soustava rovnic m� �e�en�, pokud matice ${\bf M}$ nen� singul�rn�. Potom
\begin{equation}
{\bf x} = {\bf M}^{-1}{\bf b}.
\end{equation}
Nalezneme inverzn� matici a jej�m n�soben�m s vektorem {\bf b} bychom m�li dostat
nezn�m�.
Jinou mo�nost�, jak vy�e�it soustavu v p��pad�, �e matice ${\bf M}$ nen�
singul�rn� a jej� determinant nen� nulov�, je Cramerova technika. Konstruujeme
blokovou matici ve tvaru
\begin{equation}
\left(
\begin{array}{cc}
{\bf M}& {\bf b} \\
{\bf J} & \Sigma x_j
\end{array}
\right)\;.
\end{equation}
\begin{equation}
\Sigma x_j = \Sigma A_{mj}/det(M)\;.
\end{equation}
Pokud ka�d� ��dka m� sv�j vlastn� vektor vah nebo pokud vektor ${\bf b}$ se
kombinuje s vektorem chyb, potom vektor ${\bf x}$ m�e b�t daleko od v�ech vektor�
${\bf x}_j$. Nap��klad matice
$$\left(
\begin{array}{ccccc}
12 & 4 & 3 & 2 & 1\\
14 & 5 & 5 & 3 & 2\\
14 & 5 & 5 & 4 & 1\\
16 & 6 & 6 & 6 & 3\\
16 & 6 & 8 & 4 & 3
\end{array}
\right)$$
m� dob�e definovanou inverzn� matic� a d�v� pro vektor ${\bf b} = (32, 46, 45, 64,
62)^{\rm T}$ jako �e�en� vektor ${\bf x}= (1, 1, 2, 3, 4)^{\rm T}$. Zaveden�m
vektoru chyb ${\bf r} = (2, 0, 0, 0, 0) ^{\rm T}$, kter� d�v� vektor ${\bf b} =
(34, 46, 45, 64, 62)^{\rm T}$, vektor ${\bf b}$ se zm�n� na $(8.5, -24, 4, 5,
6)^{\rm T}$. To znamen�, �e mal� chyba indukovala chybu vkl�dan�ho vektoru $(7.5,
-25, 2, 2, 2)^{\rm T}$, kter� �pln� deformovala spr�vn� vektor, nebo m�lo zm�n�n�
zvl�tn� vektor ${\bf x}$ deformoval v�sledek pro cel� svazek s identick�mi
vektory. Tato vlastnost vektorov�ch syst�m� je velmi ne��astn�, proto�e nem�eme
b�t jisti, pokud nezn�me p�esn� hodnoty, pouze s pou�it�m p�ibli�n�ch hodnot, �e
na�e rekonstrukce odpov�d� p�vodn�m hodnot�m.
\chapter{matice vzd�lenost�}
\label{matice vzd�lenost�}
\section{�vod}
\label{�vod 17}
M�eme se pohybovat mezi dv�ma body i a j po rozd�ln�ch cest�ch. D�lky cest z�vis�
na okolnostech, jako na dostupnosti cest, nebo prost�edc�ch transportu. D�lka
cesty mezi body i a j je {\em vzd�lenost} $d_{ij}$.
{\em Topologick� matice vzd�lenost�} ${\bf D}$ jsou definov�ny jako matice,
jejich� mimodiagon�ln� prvky jsou vzd�lenosti $d_{ij}$. Tyto prvky po��taj� po�et
orientovan�ch hran (neorientovan�ch hran) mezi vrcholy i a j v grafu. To je
nejmen�� po�et hran nebo orientovan�ch hran, kter� se mus� proj�t na proch�zce
nebo cest� mezi ob�ma vrcholy. To je d�le�it� v grafech s cykly, kde existuje v�ce
proch�zek nebo cest. Vzd�lenosti mezi nespojit�mi bloky jsou definovan� jako
nekone�n�.
Topologick� matice vzd�lenost� ${\bf D}$ grafu m� stejn� jednotkov� prvky jako
jeho matice sousedstv� ${\bf A}$. Ob� matice se z�skaj� stejnou operac� popsanou v
podkapitole 12.8 z matice koordin�t.
P�i n�soben� kvadratick�ch forem t�chto matic koordin�t s r�me�kem ${\bf S}^{\rm
T}(*){\bf S}$, kde ${\bf S}^{\rm T}$ je matic�
$$\left(
\begin{array}{cccccc}
-1 &-1& 0 &-1& 0 & 0 \\
1 &0& -1 & 0 &-1 & 0 \\
0 & 1& 1 & 0& 0 &-1 \\
0 & 0& 0 & 1 & 1 & 1
\end{array}
\right)\;,$$
\begin{equation}
{\bf S}^{\rm T}\Delta_D{\bf S}= {\bf Q} - {\bf D}\;,
\end{equation}
kde ${\bf Q}$ je diagon�ln� matice ��dkov�ch nebo sloupcov� sou�t� prvk�
vzd�lenost� vrcholu i ke v�em jin�m vrchol�m. Z�porn� mimodiagon�ln� prvky ukazuj�
vzd�lenosti mezi odpov�daj�c�mi p�ry vrchol�:
$$\begin{array}{cc}
\begin{array}{c}
{\bf A} \\
\\
\left(
\begin{array}{cccc}
3 & -1& -1& -1\\
-1 & 3 & -1 & -1 \\
-1 & -1 & 3 & -1 \\
-1 & -1 & -1 & 3
\end{array}
\right)
\end{array}
& \begin{array}{c}
{\bf B} \\
\\
\left(
\begin{array}{cccc}
13 & -1 & -4 & -9 \\
-1 & 6 & -1 & -4 \\
-4 & -1 & 6 & -1 \\
-9& -4& -1 & 13
\end{array}
\right)
\end{array}
\end{array}$$
$$\begin{array}{c}
${\bf C}$ \\
\\
\left(
\begin{array}{cccc}
6 & -1 & -2 & -3 \\
-1 & 4 & -1 & -2 \\
-2 & -1 & 4 & -1 \\
-3 & -2 & -1 & 6
\end{array}
\right)\;.
\end{array}$$
Topologick� matice vzd�lenost� ${\bf D}$ strom� maj� zaj�mavou vlastnost. Byla
objevena dosti ned�vno Rutherfordem. Zjistil, �e ${\bf D}$ je vnit�n� inverzn�
matic� kvadratick� formy inciden�n� matice
\begin{equation}
{\bf S}{\bf D}{\bf S}^{\rm T}= -2{\bf I}\;.
\end{equation}
\label{S}
\begin{equation}
{\bf S}_K{\bf D}{\bf S}^{\rm T}_K
\end{equation}
$$\begin{array}{c}
${\bf A}$ \\
\\
\left(
\begin{array}{rrrrrr}
-2 & -1 & 1 & -1 & -1 & 0 \\
-1 & -2 & -1 & -1 & 0 & 1 \\
1 & -1 & -2 & 0 & -1 & -1 \\
-1 & -1 & 0 & -2 & -1 & -1 \\
1 & 0 & -1 & -1 & -2 & -1\\
0 & 1 & -1 & -1 & -1 & -2
\end{array}
\right)
\end{array}$$
$$\begin{array}{c}
${\bf B}$ \\
\\
\left(
\begin{array}{rrrrrr}
-2 & -4 & -2 & -6 & -4 & -2\\
-4 & -8 & -4 & -12 & -8 & -4 \\
-2 & -4 & -2 & -6 & -4 & -2 \\
-6& -12& -6 & -18 & -12 & -6\\
-4 & -8 & -4 & -12 & -8 & -4 \\
-2 & -4 & -2 & -6 & -4 & -2
\end{array}
\right)
\end{array}$$
$$\begin{array}{c}
${\bf C}$ \\
\\
\left(
\begin{array}{rrrrrr}
-2 & -2 & 0 & -2 & 0 & 0 \\
-2 & -4 & -2 & -4 & -4 & -2 \\
0 & -2 & -2 & -2 & -2 & 0 \\
-2 & -4 & -2 & -6 & -4 & -2 \\
0 & -2 & -2 & -4 & -4 & -2 \\
0 & 0 & 0 & -2 & -2 & -2
\end{array}
\right)\;.
\end{array}$$
\begin{equation}
\cos A = (b^2 + c^2 - a^2)/2bc.
\end{equation}
\label{cos}
\section{Ulo�en� graf�}
\label{Ulo�en� graf�}
Konformace cykl� se sud�m po�tem vrchol� jsou zaj�mav�. Cykl $C_4$ tvo�� �tverec,
ka�d� z jeho �ty� orientovan�ch hran je ortogon�ln� se sv�mi ob�ma sousedkami a
koline�rn� se �tvrtou orientovanou hranou
$$\begin{array}{cc}
\begin{array}{c}
{\bf D}_{C_{4}} \\
\\
\left(
\begin{array}{cccc}
0 & 1 & 2 & 1\\
1 & 0 & 1 & 2\\
2 & 1 & 0 & 1\\
1 & 2 & 1 & 0
\end{array}
\right)
\end{array}
& \begin{array}{c}
{\bf S}{\bf D}_{C_{4}}{\bf S}^{\rm T} \\
\\
\left(
\begin{array}{cccc}
-2 & 0 & 2 & 0\\
0& -2 & 0 & 2\\
2& 0& -2 & 0\\
0 & 2 & 0& -2
\end{array}
\right)\;.
\end{array}
\end{array}$$
$$\begin{array}{cc}
\begin{array}{c}
{\bf D}_{K_{4}} \\
\\
\left(
\begin{array}{cccc}
0 & 1 & 1& 1 \\
1 & 0 & 1 & 1 \\
1 & 1 & 0 & 1 \\
1 & 1 & 1 & 0
\end{array}
\right)
\end{array}
& \begin{array}{c}
{\bf S}{\bf D}_{K_{4}}{\bf S}^{\rm T} \\
\\
\left(
\begin{array}{cccc}
-2 & 1 & 0 & 1\\
1& -2 & 1 & 0\\
0 & 1 &-2 & 1\\
1 & 0 & 1 &-2
\end{array}
\right)\;.
\end{array}
\end{array}$$
\begin{figure}
\caption{T�i um�st�n� cyklu $C_6$}
\label{T�i um�st�n� cyklu $C_6$}
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\end{figure}
Existuj� t�i um�st�n� cyklu $C_6$ na vrcholy 3 rozm�rn� krychle. Prv� je identick�
s obvyklou topologickou matic� vzd�lenost� vede ke t�em koline�rn�m p�r�m
ortogon�ln�ch orientovan�ch hran
$$\begin{array}{cc}
\begin{array}{c}
{\bf D}_{C_{6}} \\
\\
\left(
\begin{array}{cccccc}
0 & 1 & 2 & 3 & 2 & 1\\
1 & 0 & 1 & 2 & 3 & 2\\
2 & 1 & 0 & 1 & 2 & 3\\
3 & 2 & 1 & 0 & 1 & 2\\
2 & 3 & 2 & 1 & 0 & 1\\
1 & 2 & 3 & 2 & 1 & 0
\end{array}
\right)
\end{array}
& \begin{array}{c}
{\bf S}{\bf D}_{C_{6}}{\bf S}^{\rm T} \\
\\
\left(
\begin{array}{cccccc}
-2& 0 & 0 & 2 & 0 & 0\\
0& -2& 0 & 0 & 2 & 0\\
0 & 0 &-2 & 0 & 0 & 2\\
2 & 0 & 0 &-2 & 0 & 0\\
0 & 2 & 0 & 0 &-2 & 0\\
0 & 0 & 2 & 0 & 0 &-2
\end{array}
\right)
\end{array}
\end{array}$$
Dva jin� tvary $C_6$ maj� n�kter� vzd�lenosti krat�� a vedou k jin�mu uspo��d�n�
koline�rn�ch orientovan�ch hran.
$$\begin{array}{cc}
\begin{array}{c}
{\bf D}_{C_{6}} \\
\\
\left(
\begin{array}{cccccc}
0 & 1& 2& 3 & 2 & 1\\
1 & 0 & 1 & 2 & 3 & 2\\
2 & 1& 0 & 1 & 2 & 1\\
3 & 2 & 1 & 0 & 1 & 2\\
2 & 3 & 2 & 1 & 0 & 1\\
1 & 2 & 1 & 2 & 1 & 0
\end{array}
\right)
\end{array}
& \begin{array}{c}
{\bf S}{\bf D}_{C_{6}}{\bf S}^{\rm T} \\
\\
\left(
\begin{array}{cccccc}
-2 & 0& 0 & 2 & 0 & 0\\
0 &-2 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 2\\
0 & 0 &-2 & 0 & 2 & 0\\
2 & 0 & 0& -2 & 0 & 0\\
0 & 0 & 2 & 0 &-2 & 0\\
0 & 2 & 0 & 0 & 0 &-2
\end{array}
\right)\;.
\end{array}
\end{array}$$
Koline�rn� orientovan� hrany v t�et� konformaci $C_6$ jsou (1-2 -- 4-5), (2-3 --
1-6) a (3-4 -- 5-6).
$$\begin{array}{cc}
\begin{array}{c}
{\bf D}_{C_{6}} \\
\\
\left(
\begin{array}{cccccc}
0 & 1 & 3 & 4 & 3 & 1\\
1 & 0 & 1 & 3 & 4 & 3\\
3 & 1 & 0 & 1 & 3 & 4\\
4 & 3 & 1 & 0 & 1 & 3\\
3 & 4 & 3 & 1 & 0 & 1\\
1 & 3 & 4 & 3 & 1 & 0
\end{array}
\right)
\end{array}
& \begin{array}{c}
{\bf S}{\bf D}_{C_{6}}{\bf S}^{\rm T} \\
\\
\left(
\begin{array}{cccccc}
-2 &-1 & 1 & 2 & 1& -1\\
-1 &-2 &-1 & 1 & 2& 1\\
1 &-1 &-2& -1 & 1& 2\\
2 & 1 &-1 &-2& -1& 1\\
1 & 2 & 1 &-1 &-2 &-1\\
-1 & 1 & 2 & 1 &-1 &-2
\end{array}
\right)\
\end{array}
\end{array}$$
Lich� cykly maj� ka�dou orientovanou hranu ortogon�ln� ke sv�m soused�m na obou
stran�ch, av�ak p�r jej�ch protilehl�ch hran tvo�� k n� $60^0$. Tato konformace se
z�sk� oto�en�m dvou n�sledn�ch prav�ch �hl� o $60^0$ k dan� orientovan� hran�.
V�sledek se objev� u orientovan� hrany uzav�raj�c� cykl.
$$\begin{array}{cc}
\begin{array}{c}
{\bf D}_{C_7} \\
\\
\left(
\begin{array}{ccccccc}
0 & 1 & 2 & 3 & 3 & 2 & 1\\
1 & 0 & 1 & 2 & 3 & 3 & 2\\
2 & 1 & 0 & 1 & 2 & 3 & 3\\
3 & 2 & 1 & 0 & 1 & 2 & 3\\
3 & 3 & 2 & 1 & 0 & 1 & 2\\
2 & 3 & 3 & 2 & 1 & 0 & 1\\
1 & 2 & 3 & 3 & 2 & 1 & 0
\end{array}
\right)
\end{array}
& \begin{array}{c}
{\bf S}{\bf D}_{C_{7}}{\bf S}^{\rm T} \\
\\
\left(
\begin{array}{ccccccc}
-2 & 0 & 0 & 1 & 1 & 0& 0\\
0 &-2 & 0 & 0 & 1 & 1 & 0\\
0 & 0 &-2 & 0 & 0& 1 & 1\\
1 & 0 & 0 &-2 & 0 & 0 & 1\\
1 & 1 & 0 & 0 &-2 & 0 & 0\\
0 & 1 & 1 & 0 & 0 &-2 & 0\\
0 & 0 & 1 & 1 & 0 & 0 &-2
\end{array}
\right)
\end{array}
\end{array}$$
Matice vzd�lenost� �pln�ch graf� $K_n$ se mohou vyj�d�it jako ${\bf D} = n{\bf
JJ}^{\rm T}- {\bf I}$. Sou�in je ${\bf SJJ}^{\rm T}{\bf S}^{\rm T}= {\bf 0}$. Tedy
\begin{equation}
{\bf SD}_K{\bf S}^{\rm T}= -{\bf SS}^{\rm T}\;.
\end{equation}
$$\begin{tabular}{rr|rr}
& & \ ${\bf S}^{\rm T}$ & $-{\bf I}$\\
& & ${\bf 0}$ & ${\bf J}^{\rm T}$\\
\hline
& & & \\
${\bf S}$ & ${\bf 0}$ & ${\bf SS}^{\rm T}$ & $-{\bf S}$\\
-${\bf I}$ & ${\bf J}$ & ${\bf -S}^{\rm T}$ & ${\bf I + JJ}$
\end{tabular}$$
P�i zv�t�ov�n� rozm�ru �pln�ho grafu se bude objevovat $(n - 3)$ ortogon�ln�ch
orientovan�ch hran ke ka�d� p�vodn� orientovan� hran�.
\begin{equation}
\begin{array}{ccc}
{\bf S}_K{\bf DS}_K^{\rm T} & = &
\left(
\begin{array}{cc}
2{\bf SS}^{\rm T} & -2{\bf S}\\
-2{\bf S} & -2{\bf I}
\end{array}
\right)
\end{array}
\end{equation}
Orientovan� hrany hv�zdy jsou ortogon�ln�. orientovan�ch hran spojuj�c� sv� voln�
vrcholy maj� dvojit� d�lky (na diagon�le se objevuj� �ty�ky). Tyto orientovan�
hrany jsou diagon�ly odpov�daj�c�ch �tverc�. To lze zkontrolovat v�po�tem kosin�.
$2/8^{1/2}$ je kosinem $45^0$. P��m� verifikace je mo�n� pouze pro $K_5$ s t�emi
ortogon�ln�mi osami.
$$\begin{tabular}{|r|rrrrrrr|}
\hline
n & 2 & 3 & 4 & 5 & 6 & 7 & 8 \\
\hline
& 0 & 0.4495& 1.4031 & 3.0384 & 5.7272 & 9.0405 & 13.7494 \\
\hline
\end{tabular}$$
Vlastn� vektor nejmen�� vlastn� hodnoty W m� prvky $v_j = -1 + 2(j - 1)/(n - 1)$,
kter� v�� n n�sledn�ch �tverc� ��sel k od $-(n-1)$ a� po $(n - 1)$. To vede ke
kombinatorick� identit�
\begin{equation}
\sum_{k=0}^{n/2}\;[1 - 2k/(n-1)][(n-1-k-x)^2 - (k-x)^2] =
1 - 2x/(n-1)
\end{equation}
kde x jde od 0 a� k $(n - 1)$. Pokud p��r�stky �et�zce jsou dva vrcholy, potom
zm�na mezi n�sledn�mi po�ty d�v� mo�nost pou��t �plnou indukci
$$\begin{tabular}{|rr|rr|}
\hline
& & $ 7/7 \times (25 - 4) =$ & 21 \\
$5/5 \times (16 - 1) = $ & $75/5$ & $ 5/7 \times (16 - 1) =$
& $75/7$ \\
$ 3/5 \times (9 - 0) =$ & $27/5$ & $ 3/7 \times (9 - 0) =$
& $27/7$ \\
$1/5 \times (4 - 1) =$ & $ 3/5$ & $1/7 \times (4 - 1) =$
&$ 3/7$ \\
\hline
& $ 105/5 $ & & $21 + 105/7$ \\
\hline
\end{tabular}$$
\begin{equation}
\sum_{k=0}^{n/2}\;(n-1-2k)^2 = { n+1 \choose 3}\;.
\end{equation}
\begin{equation}
b = ( + W/2) = [\Sigma d^4 - 3/4W^2]^{1/2}\;.
\end{equation}
D�kaz je jednoduch�. Sou�et �tverc� vlastn�ch hodnot mus� b�t rovn� stop� �tverce
matice. To znamen�, �e s dvojit�m sou�tem hodnot $d^4$
\begin{equation}
(1/2 W + a)^2 + W^2 + ( - 1/2 W)^2 = 2\Sigma d^4
\end{equation}
M�eme porovnat t�i nenulov� vlastn� hodnoty p��m�ch line�rn�ch �et�zc� s t�emi
odli�n�mi vlastn�mi hodnotami topologick� matice vzd�lenost� hv�zd. Kladn� vlastn�
hodnoty jsou sou�tem v�ech z�porn�ch vlastn�ch hodnot. Existuje $(n - 2)$
vlastn�ch hodnot $-2$ a speci�ln� vlastn� hodnota
\begin{equation}
-a = (n - 2)/2 + [n^2 - 3n + 3]^{1/2}\;.
\end{equation}
$$\begin{array}{ccccc}
& 1 & 1 & 1 & $\ldots$ \\
0 & 1 & -1/(n-2) & -1/(n-2) & $\ldots$ \\
1 & -a/(n-1)& -a/(n-1) & -a/(n-1) & $\ldots $
\end{array}$$
\begin{equation}
a^2 + 2(n-2)a -(n-1) = 0\;.
\end{equation}
Jinou matic� p�i definov�n� grafu je matice sousedstv� ${\bf A}$, kter� m�
identick� jednotkov� prvky jako matice vzd�lenost� a nulov� prvky na m�stech, kde
$d_{ij}$ jsou v�t�� ne� 1.
Matice $({\bf JJ}^{\rm T}- {\bf I})$ (jinak matice vzd�lenost� �pln�ho grafu) je
tedy matic� vzd�lenost� ${\bf D^0}$. Zm�ny vlastn�ch hodnot a vlastn�ch vektor�
mezi matic� sousedstv� ${\bf A}$ a matic� vzd�lenost� ${\bf D}$ jsou potom
kontinu�ln� transformac� vytvo�enou mocninami dan�ch vzd�lenost� nebo v n�kter�ch
p��padech zm�nami geometrick� konformace. Budeme studovat n�kter� speci�ln�
p��klady.
Jako prvn� p��klad pou�ijeme line�rn� �et�zce, kter� existuj� ve tvaru pevn�ch
ty��. Bylo zji�t�no, �e pro vyj�d�en� t�to geometrick� vlastnosti je nutn� a
dosta�uj�c� ps�t vzd�lenosti $d_{ij}$ jako �tverce line�rn�ch vzd�lenost�.
Topologick� matice vzd�lenost� je potom pr�v� druhou mocninou geometrick� matice
vzd�lenost� line�rn�ho �et�zce ohnut�ho na vrcholy n rozm�rn� jednotkov� krychle.
Jejich line�rn� vzd�lenosti jsou �tverce odpov�daj�c� $d_{ij}$ na diagon�l�ch v n
rozm�rn� krychli. V tabulce 1 jsou zobrazeny vlastn� hodnoty rozd�ln�ch mocnin
matice vzd�lenost� $L_5$ v tabulkov� form�. Tento �et�zec je dosti dlouh�, aby se
uk�zaly hlavn� vlastnosti takov� soustavy, kde druh� mocniny geometrick� matice
vzd�lenost� maj� v�dy pouze 3 nenulov� vlastn� hodnoty.
\begin{table}
\caption{Vlastn� hodnoty d* ${\bf D}^k$ matic line�rn�ho �et�zce $L_5$}
\label{Vlastn� hodnoty d* line�rn� �et�zec}
\begin{tabular}{|c|lllll|}
\hline
Distance mocniny & & & & & \\
\hline
j &1 & 2 & 3 & 4 & 5 \\
\hline
$-\infty$ & 1.7321 & 1 & 0 & -1 & -1.7321\\
-2 & 2.1109 & 0.7376 & -0.3024 &-1.0501 & -1.4960 \\
-1 & 2.6166 & 0.3036 & -0.5607 &-1.0536 & -1.3056 \\
-1/2 & 3.1292 &-0.1686 & -0.7526 &-1.0387 & -1.1649 \\
0 & 4 &-1 & -1 &-1 & -1 \\
1/2 & 5.5279 &-0.7959 & -0.9187 &-1.3178 & -2.4955 \\
1 & 8.2882 &-0.5578 & -0.7639 &-1.7304 & -5.2361 \\
2 &23.0384 & 0 & 0 &-3.0384 & -20 \\
3 &77.1665 & 2.2099 & 0.5776 &-5.7441 &-74.2099 \\
\hline
\end{tabular}
\end{table}
V�echny diagon�ln� prvky matic vzd�lenost� jsou nulov� a tedy sou�ty vlastn�ch
hodnot mus� b�t tak� nuly. Je u� dob�e zn�mo, �e vlastn� hodnoty matic sousedstv�
line�rn� �et�zce jsou $2\cos(2k \pi/n+1)$, tvo�� vlnu. Vlastn� hodnoty matice
sousedstv� tvo�� nejni��� limitu k vlastn�m hodnot�m matice vzd�lenost� se
z�porn�mi mocninami k. Nejv�t�� vlastn� hodnota kontinu�ln� roste s rostouc�
mocninou k. Jin� vlastn� hodnoty maj� p�i $k = 0$ p�l. V�echny z�porn� vlastn�
hodnoty jsou -1. Pro nez�porn� vlastn� hodnoty je ${\bf A}$ minim�ln� vyjma
nejni��� vlastn� hodnoty. Ta m� zde sv� maximum. T�et� singularita vznik�, kdy�
mocnina $k = 2$. V�dy existuj� pouze t�� nenulov� vlastn� hodnoty. Tedy funk�n�
vztah
\begin{equation}
\lambda_j = f(k)
\end{equation}
Vlastn� vektory vzd�lenost� jsou dosti zaj�mav� p�i jak�chkoliv k. Jsou obvykle
symetrick� podle st�edu, vyjma nulov�ch vlastn�ch vektor� p�i $k = 2$, a
degenerovan�ch $-1$ vlastn�ch vektor� p�i $k = 0$, kter� jsou asymetrick�.
Symetrie m�e b�t zrcadlov� ($v_j = v_{n-j}$, zna�en� jako $\sigma$), nebo rota�n�
($v_j = v_{n-j}$, zna�en� jako C). Tyto symetrie se st��daj� pro kladn� a z�porn�
mocniny k:
$$\begin{tabular}{|l|ccccc|}
\hline
Vlastn� vektor & 1 & 2 & 3 & 4 & 5 \\
\hline
k z�porn� & $\sigma$ & C & $\sigma$ & C & $\sigma$\\
\hline
\end{tabular}$$
P�i cyklu $C_4$ je matice sousedstv� ${\bf A}$ sou�asn� matic� vzd�lenost� tohoto
cyklu, kdy� vrcholy 1 a 3 i 2 a 4 jsou ztoto�n�ny a cykl se slo��. Pokud
vzd�lenosti 1 a 3 i 2 a 4 nejsou stejn�, je tak� mo�n� srovnat v�echny
orientovan� hrany tohoto cyklu do p��mky.
\begin{table}
\caption{Vlastn� hodnoty d* cyklu $C_4$ a ${\bf D}^k$ matic}
\label{Vlastn� hodnoty d* cyklu $C_4$}
\begin{tabular}{|r|llll|}
\hline
Vlastn� hodnoty {\bf A}& 2 & 0 & 0 & -2 \\
Zm�ny vzd�lenost� & +d & -d &-d & +d \\
P��klady: $d^2_{ij}$ 0.25 & 1.75 & -0.25 & -0.25 & -1.75 \\
1 & 3 & -1 & -1 & -1 \\
1.414 & 3.414 & -1.414 &-1.414 & -0.586 \\
2 & 4 & -2 & -2 & 0 \\
4 & 6 & -4 & -4 & 2\\
8 & 10 & -8 & -8 & 6 \\
\hline
Z�porn� vzd�lenosti
-1 & 1 & 1 & 1 & -3 \\
\hline
\end{tabular}
\end{table}
Toto sch�ma vede k zm�n� po�ad� vlastn�ch hodnot. Druh� vlastn� hodnota se z�sk�
pro kladn� k jako �tvrt�. Vzd�lenost 8 je geometricky nemo�n�, mus� to tedy b�t
�est� moment vzd�lenosti $\sqrt{2}$. Z�porn� vzd�lenosti lze interpretovat jako
�tverce vzd�lenost� v komplexn� rovin�. V�echny matice vzd�lenost� $C_4$ maj�
stejnou mno�inu vlastn�ch vektor�, odpov�daj�c� Vierergruppe:
$$\left(
\begin{array}{cccc}
1 & 1 & 1 & 1 \\
1 & 1 & -1 & -1 \\
1 & -1 & -1 & 1 \\
1 & -1 & 1 & -1
\end{array}
\right)$$
Pokud slo��me $C_4$ jako romboid, dostaneme diagon�ly rozd�ln�ch d�lek. Jejich
�tverce se op�t objev� jako vlastn� hodnoty, av�ak ve slo�it�m vzoru, jako v tomto
p��klad�
\begin{table}
\caption{Vlastn� hodnoty d* ${\bf D}^k$ matic rombick�ho cyklu $C_4$}
\label{Vlastn� hodnoty d* rombick�ho cyklu}
\begin{tabular}{|ll|llll|}
\hline
\multicolumn{2}{|c|}{Vzd�lenosti}
& & & & \\
$d^2_{13}$ & $d^2_{24}$ & 1 & 2 & 3 & 4 \\
\hline
3 & 1 & $2+5^{1/2}$ & -3 & -1 & $2-5^{1/2}$ \\
4 & 0 & $2+8^{1/2}$ & -4 & 0 & $ 2-8^{1/2}$ \\
1 & 0 & $(1+17^{1/2})/2$ & -1 & 0 & $(1-17^{1/2})/2$ \\
\hline
\end{tabular}
\end{table}
Druh� p��pad je extr�mn�, v�echny vrcholy le�� na p��mce. T�et� p��pad p�edstavuje
dv� dvojn� vazby nato�en� o $60^0$, nebo matici sousedstv� grafu na obr. 13.2 b,
nebo matici vzd�lenost� jedn� jeho konformace. Vlastn� vektory jsou tak�
deformovan�, jdou op�t k ni���m hodnot�m a k vy���m hodnot�m (v t�et�m p��pad� je
to 0.7808) a maj�c� nulov� hodnoty, kter� jsou mo�n� tak� pro jin� konformace nebo
momenty:
$$\left(
\begin{array}{cccc}
0.6180 (0.4142)& 1 & 0.6180 (0.4142)& 1 \\
0 & 1 & 0 & -1 \\
1 & 0 & -1 & 0 \\
1 & - 0.6180 (0.4142) &1 & - 0.6180 (0.4142)
\end{array}
\right)$$
Existuje tak� t�et� deformace cyklu $C_4$, odpov�daj�c� zm�n�m dvou vzd�lenost�.
�tverec se transformuje v obd�ln�k nebo je cykl tvo�en ze dvou �et�zc� $L_2$.
$$\begin{tabular}{|r|rrrr|}
\hline
Vzd�lenosti $d^2$ & \multicolumn{4}{|c|}{Vlastn� hodnoty}\\
\hline
0 & 2 & 0 & -2 & 0 \\
1 & 4 & 0 & -2 & -2 \\
4 & 10 & 0 & -2 & -8 \\
8 & 18 & 0 & -2 &-16 \\
\hline
\end{tabular}$$
$$\left(
\begin{array}{cc}
{\bf C} & {\bf 0}\\
{\bf 0} & {\bf C}
\end{array}
\right)$$
$$\left(
\begin{array}{cc}
{\bf C} & {\bf I} \\
{\bf I} & {\bf C}
\end{array}
\right)$$
$$\left(
\begin{array}{cc}
{\bf D} & ({\bf D}+d{\bf JJ}^{\rm T}) \\
({\bf D}+d{\bf JJ}^{\rm T}) & {\bf D}
\end{array}
\right)$$
Odpov�daj�c� vlastn� hodnoty jsou v tabulce. Dal�� �ty�i vlastn� hodnoty jsou bu�
nulov�, nebo maj� stejn� hodnoty se z�porn�mi znam�nky
\begin{table}
\caption{Vlastn� hodnoty dvou jednotkov�ch �tverc� ve vzd�lenosti $d^2$}
\label{Vlastn� hodnoty dvou jednotkov�ch �tverc� ve vzd�lenosti $d^2$}
\begin{tabular}{|l|rrrr|}
\hline
Vlastn� hodnota & 1 & 2 & 3 & 4 \\
\hline
Vzd�lenost & & & & \\
\hline
{\bf A}(krychle) & 2.618 & 1.618 & 0.618 & 0.382\\
{\bf A}[2C(4)] & 2 & 2 & 0 & 0 \\
0 & 8 & 0 & -4 & -4 \\
1 & 12 & -4 & -4 & -4 \\
4 & 24 & -16 & -4 & -4 \\
8 & 40 & -32 & -4 & -4 \\
\hline
\end{tabular}
\end{table}
Vlastn� hodnoty dvou na sebe polo�en�ch �tverc� v nulov� vzd�lenosti jsou pr�v�
zdvojen� vlastn� hodnoty jednoho �tverce. T�et� vzd�lenost se p�id�v� �ty�ikr�t k
prvn� vlastn� hodnot� a ode��t� se �ty�ikr�t od druh�.
Zd� se, �e existuje vzor, jak se tvo�� spektrum m��kov�ho grafu. Spektrum p��m�ho
�et�zce $L_3$ je $5.416, 0, -1.416, -4$. Spektrum �tvercov� m��ky tvo�en� t�emi
$L_3$ je $25.416, -12, -1.416, -12$, zat�m co 3 ztoto�n�n� $L_3$ maj� spektrum
$13.348, -1.348, -12$. To je $3\times (4.449, -0.449, -4)$, vlastn� hodnoty $L_3$.
Vlastn� hodnoty odpov�daj�c� momentu reflexe se lehce zm�nily.
$$\begin{array}{cccc}
\left(
\begin{array}{ccc}
0 &1 &4\\
1 &0 &1\\
4 &1 &0
\end{array}
\right)
&
\left(
\begin{array}{ccc}
0 & 1& 5\\
1 & 0& 1\\
5 & 1& 0
\end{array}
\right)
&
\left(
\begin{array}{ccc}
0 & 1 & 6\\
1 & 0& 1\\
6 & 1 & 0
\end{array}
\right)
&
\left(
\begin{array}{ccc}
0 & 1 & 10\\
1 & 0 & 4\\
10 & 4 & 0
\end{array}
\right)
\end{array}$$
$$\begin{array}{cc}
\left(
\begin{array}{ccc}
-2 & -4 & -2\\
-4 & -8 & -4\\
-2 & -4 & -2
\end{array}
\right)
&
\left(
\begin{array}{ccc}
-2 & -5 & -3\\
-5 & -10& -5\\
-3 & -5& -2
\end{array}
\right)
\end{array}$$
$$\begin{array}{cc}
\left(
\begin{array}{ccc}
-2 & -6 & -4\\
-6 & -12& -6\\
-4 & -6 & -2
\end{array}
\right)
&
\left(
\begin{array}{ccc}
-2 & -7 & -5\\
-7& -20 & -13\\
-5& -13 & -8
\end{array}
\right)
\end{array}$$
$$\begin{array}{cc}
\left(
\begin{array}{ccc}
0 & 1 & -1\\
1 & 0 & 1\\
-1 & 1 & 0
\end{array}
\right) &
\left(
\begin{array}{ccc}
-2 & 1 & 3\\
1 & 2 & 1\\
3 & 1 & -2
\end{array}
\right)
\end{array}$$
\chapter{Diferenci�ln� rovnice}
\label{Diferenci�ln� rovnice}
\section{�vod}
\label{�vod 18}
Sta�� �ekov� byli velmi dobr�mi geometry a m�li jist� znalosti algebry, av�ak
nebyli schopni si p�edstavit dr�hu pohybuj�c�ho se objektu jako geometrick�
probl�m. Ka�d� zn� Zenonovy paradoxy.
Byl to kulturn� �ok, kdy� Zenon vystoupil se sv�mi objevy. P�edstavte si, Achilles
m�e nikdy chytit �elvu, pokud m� handicap. Kdy� ji Achilles doh�n�, �elva m�n�
svou polohu a z�st�v� vp�edu. Kdy� Achilles b�� druh� handicap, �elva op�t m�n�
svou polohu a tak d�le v nekone�n� mnoha intervalech. Sta�� matematikov�
nezjistili, �e sou�et nekone�n�ho po�tu st�le se sni�uj�c�ch zlomk� je kone�n�.
Av�ak je dost podivn�, �e nebyli schopni p�edstavit si situaci graficky jako
obr. \ref{Zenon plot Achilles �elvu aporea}.
\begin{figure}
\caption{Zenon�v n��rt aporey Achilla s �elvou. P��mky jsou vztahy mezi
geometrick�mi polohami obou sout��c�ch (svislice) a �as (horizont�la)}
\label{Zenon�v n��rt Aporey Achilla s �elvou}
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Tento jednoduch� n��rt dvou p��mek p�edstavuje oba sout��c�, kte�� se pohybuj�c�
konstantn� rychlost�. Jedna osa ukazuje jejich geometrick� polohy sm��uj�c� dol�
na z�vodi�ti. Horizont�ln� osa odpov�d� �asu. P�edstavit si abstraktn� �as jako
geometrickou vzd�lenost bylo inovace, kter� se zd� b�t nyn� z�ejm�. Ob� hrany lze
reprezentovat rovnicemi a bod, kde se ob� hrany k��� lze vypo��tat. Schodi�t� mezi
ob�ma hranami ukazuje, �e intervaly se sni�uj� a konverguj� . Sou�et nekone�n�
mnoho �len� je kone�n�.
\section{Analytick� geometrie}
\label{Analytick� geometrie}
Analytick� geometrie studuje nejen izolovan� body nebo vektorov� �ady, jak jsme to
doposud prov�d�li, av�ak mno�iny bod� spojen� funk�n�mi vztahy. U� jsme
konstruovali ��seln� stupnice. Jejich hrany lze se ot��et, posunovat a oh�bat.
$$\begin{tabular}{r|r|ccccccc}
x & & \ & 0 & 1 & 2 & 3 & 4 & 5 \\
\hline
y & 1 & \ & 0 & 1 & 2 & 3 & 4 & 5 \\
y' & 0.5 & & 0 & 0.5 & 1 & 1.5 & 2 & 2.5 \\
\end{tabular}$$
Av�ak tyto rovnice plat� nejen pro mno�inu �esti bod� s p�irozen�mi koordin�tami
ale pro v�echny body mezi nimi le��c�mi na p��mce. Jednotkov� vektory nejsou
nutn�. Rovnice p��mky ve dvou rozm�rech je
\begin{equation}
y = a + bx
\end{equation}
\label{y}
�len a je hodnota y, kdy� $x =0$. V dan�m p��klad� $a=0$. �len a je sklon p��mky
ur�en� jako pom�r $y/x$, je to tangens �hlu $\alpha$. Pokud zn�me y, m�eme nal�zt
x vy�e�en�m rovnice (\ref{y}) jako $x = (y - a)/b$.
Dvojrozm�rn� rovinn� Simplexy jsou p��mky maj�c� tvar $ y+x=m $, jejich sklony
jsou z�porn� $b = -1$ a jsou definov�ny pouze v kladn�m k�nusu.
V rovin� lze definovat mnoho p��mek. Ty mohou b�t paraleln� nebo se mohou k��it.
Ke k��en� dojde, kdy� ob� koordin�ty x a y obou p��mek jsou stejn�, jako nap��klad
$$ y = 2 + 3x $$
$$ y = 3 + 2x.$$
$$-3x + y = 2$$
$$-2x + y = 3 $$
$$\begin{array}{ccc}
\left(
\begin{array}{cc}
-3 & 1 \\
-2 & 1
\end{array}
\right)
& ${\rm co�\ je}$ &
\left(
\begin{array}{cc}
-1 & 1 \\
-2 & 3
\end{array}
\right)\;.
\end{array}$$
a ta d�v�, kdy� se n�sob� vektorem ${bf b} = (2, 3)^{\rm T}$ �e�en� $(1, 5)^{\rm
T}$.
\section{Zenonovy grafy}
\label{Zenonovy grafy}
Vra�me se k Zenonov� aporei. Nyn� sledujeme odd�len� polohy Achilla nebo �elvy.
Pro tento ��el nepot�ebujeme �asovou osu. Osa x je vzd�lenost ke konci trat�, y je
prob�hnut� vzd�lenost. Nap��klad:
$$\begin{tabular}{|l|ccccccccc|}
\hline
Interval& 0 & 1 & 2 & 3 & 4 & 5 & 6 & 7 & 8 \\
\hline
x & 8 & 7 & 6 & 5 & 4 & 3 & 2 & 1 & 0 \\
y & 0 & 1 & 2 & 3 & 4 & 5 & 6 & 7 & 8 \\
\hline
\end{tabular}$$
$$\begin{tabular}{|l|ccccccccc|}
\hline
Interval & 0 & 1 & 2 & 3 & 4 & 5 & 6 & 7 & 8 \\
\hline
x & 0 & 1 & 2 & 3 & 4 & 5 & 6 & 7 & 8 \\
y & 1 & 2 & 3 & 4 & 5 & 6 & 7 & 8 & 9 \\
\hline
\end{tabular}$$
$$\begin{tabular}{|l|ccccccccc|}
\hline
Interval& 0 & 1 & 2 & 3 & 4 & 5 & 6 & 7 & 8 \\
\hline
x & 258 & 128 & 64 & 32 & 16 & 8 & 4 & 2 & 1 \\
y & 0 & 128 & 192 & 224 & 240 & 248 & 252 & 254 & 255 \\
\hline
\end{tabular}$$
\begin{figure}
\caption{Exponenci�ln� k�ivka. Zmen�uj�c� se vzd�lenostn� intervaly z {\ref
Zenon�v n��rt Aporey Achilla s �elvou} jsou na vertik�ln� ose, horizont�ln� osou
je �as}
\label{Exponenci�ln� k�ivka.}
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$$\begin{tabular}{|l|ccccccccc|}
\hline
Interval& 1 & 2 & 3 & 4 & 5 & 6 & 7 & 8 & 9\\
\hline
x & 0 & 128 & 192 & 224 & 240 & 248 & 252 & 254 & 255 \\
y & 128 & 64 & 32 & 16 & 8 & 4 & 2 & 1 & ? \\
\hline
\end{tabular}$$
x hodnoty rostou, y hodnoty se sni�uj�. Ob� zm�ny nejsou line�rn�. Nicm�n� pokud
hodnoty x jsou nakresl� proti odpov�daj�c�m hodnot�m y, n��rt je line�rn�, viz
obr. \ref{Linearizace}.
\begin{figure}
\caption{Linearizace exponenci�ln� k�ivky. Sni�uj�c� se vzd�lenosti mezi body
odpov�daj� konstantn�m �asov�m interval�m}
\label{Linearizace}
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\begin{equation}
y = 2^{8-t}\;.
\end{equation}
Jsme nyn� v podobn� situaci jako byli �ekov�. Rozpad radioaktivn�ch prvk� se ��d�
exponenci�ln�m z�konem. Pom�r rozpadaj�c�ch se atom� ve stejn�ch �asov�ch
intervalech \Delta_t$ je konstantn�. Abychom si byli jisti, �e v�echny atomy se
rozpadly, pot�ebujeme nekone�n� mnoho takov�ch interval�. Podstatn� nekone�n�
mnoho interval� je pot�eba pouze pro posledn� atom, pokud po�adujeme jistotu jeho
rozpadu.
Grafov� proces je stejn� jako v p��pad� b�c�, pokud ob� osy, �asu i polohy, se
nahrad� polohami (koncentracemi) v n�sledn�ch �asov�ch intervalech $t$ a $(t+1)$,
jako kdyby ob� polohy byly na dvou rozd�ln�ch ortogon�ln�ch os�ch. Kdy� se to
ud�l�, tyto polohy se pova�uj� za ortogon�ln� a exponenci�ln� pohyb se m�n� do
line�rn�, jako kdybychom pou�ili logaritmickou stupnici\footnote{ Line�rn� pohyb
je limitou exponenci�ln�ho pohybu, kdy� konstanta je $k=0$}.
\section{Markovovy matice}
\label{Markovovy matice}
Markov bylo rusk� matematik, kter� dostal pon�kud d�tsk� n�pad studovat
uspo��d�n�, ve kter�m souhl�sky n�sleduj� samohl�sky v Pu�kinov� b�sni. Po
souhl�ska m�e n�sledovat jin� souhl�ska nebo samohl�ska s n�jakou statistickou
pravd�podobnost�, kter� je ur�ena strukturou jazyka a jeho pou�it� autorem.
\begin{center}
A vv A vc M cv A vc R cc K cv O vc V
\end{center}
Ka�d� hl�ska v textu se pova�uje za stav soustavy, kter� osciluje neust�le mezi
sv�mi mo�n�mi stavy a tvo�� tak �et�zec n�sledn�ch jev�. Existuje jin� mo�nost,
jak interpretovat jev. Text lze pova�ovat jako celek a v�echny pozorovan� p�echody
mohou tvo�it jeden p�echod do p��t�ho stavu. Nebo lze srovn�vat dva odli�n�
objekty p�edstavovan� �adami symbol�. Rozd�ly lze tedy vyj�d�it jako orientovan�
hranov� graf, nap��klad
$$\begin{tabular}{|r|rrrrrrrrr|}
\hline
& ? & A & A & M & A & R & K & O & V \\
& A & A & M & A & R & K & O & V& ? \\
\hline
& & & & & & & & & \\
c & * & 0 & 1 & -1 & 1 & 0 &-1 & 1 & * \\
v & * & 0 & -1 & 1 & -1 & 0 & 1 & -1 & * \\
\hline
\end{tabular}$$
\begin{figure}
\caption{Mo�n� p�echody dvou p�smenn� �ady. P��m� p�echody $cc \leftrightarrow vv$
jsou nemo�n�}
\label{Mo�n� p�echody dvou p�smenn� �ady}
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Dv� ��dky s ��sly tvo�� transponovanou inciden�n� matici ${\bf S}^{\rm T}$
multigrafu se smy�kami, nuly jsou na m�stech smy�ek, orientovan�ch hran
za��naj�c�ch a kon��c�ch na stejn�m m�st�, hv�zdi�kou * jsou ozna�eny neur�it�
po��te�n� a koncov� stavy. Je mo�n� spojit posledn� p�smeno s prv�m, aby se
odstranily tyto voln� konce.
�ada je tvo�ena rozd�ly $({\bf e}_i -{\bf e}_j)$ a je jasn�, �e ji m�eme napsat
jako inciden�n� matici orientovan�ho multigrafu se smy�kami. Na obr. \ref{Mo�n�
p�echody dvou p�smenn� �ady} jsou uk�zan� mo�n� p�echody dvou p�smenn� �ady, na
obr. \ref{Mo�n� p�echody dvou p�smenn� �ady} mo�n� p�echody t�� p�smenn� �ady jsou
uk�zan�.
\begin{figure}
\caption{Mo�n� p�echody t�� p�smenn� �ady}
\label{Mo�n� p�echody t�� p�smenn� �ady}
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\end{figure}
\begin{equation}
\delta x/\delta t = -kx
\label{delta}
\end{equation}
\begin{equation}
\delta x/x = \delta (logx)= -k\delta t
\end{equation}
\begin{equation}
x = Aexp(-kt)
\end{equation}
kde $A$ je po��te�n� hodnota $x$ jako integra�n� konstanta. Toto �e�en� m� shora
zm�n�n� h��ek: Nem�eme si nikdy b�t jisti s �asem, kdy se rozpadne posledn� atom v
soustav�, existuj� pouze pravd�podobnosti. To je rozd�l mezi diferenci�ln�m a
integr�ln�m kalkulem a kone�nou matematikou.
Proces lze zobrazit dv�ma rozd�ln�mi n��rty, bu� vyn��me koncentrace vzhledem k
uplynul�mu �asu jako na obr. \ref{Exponenci�ln� k�ivka.}, co� je tradi�n�
technika, nebo vyn��me koncentrace m�n�c� se substance $x_t$ p��padn� koncentrace
produktu $(1 - x)_t$ vzhledem k t�mto koncentrac�m $x_{t+1}$ nebo $(1-x_{t+1})$ v
konstantn�ch �asov�ch intervalech $\Delta t$ jako na obr. \ref{Linearizace}. Body
koncentrace na tomto grafu tvo�� p��mky, jejich� sklony jsou z�visl� na
rychlostn�ch konstant�ch k.
Je�t� jednou: Hodnoty funkce ve dvou rozd�ln�ch �asov�ch intervalech byly
pojedn�ny jako ortogon�ln� vektory. T�mto zp�sobem jsme z�skali graf line�rn�
funkce z exponenci�ln� funkce, jako kdybychom nalezli logaritmus exponenci�ln�
funkce. Ortogon�ln� projekce dala logaritmickou transformac� exponenci�ln�
rychlosti transformac� n atom� dvou druh�.
\section{Mnohorozm�rn� syst�my}
\label{Mnohorozm�rn� syst�my}
\section{Matice p�echod�}
\label{Matice p�echod�}
Matice p�echod� ${\bf P}$ je tvo�ena dv�ma ��stmi, Markovovou matic� ${\bf M}$ a
matic� identity ${\bf I}$
\begin{equation}
{\bf P}= ({\bf I} + {\bf M})\;.
\end{equation}
\begin{equation}
-{\bf S}^{\rm T}{\bf S}= {\bf P}_r + {\bf P}_c\;.
\end{equation}
Matice sousedstv� ${\bf A}$, kter� jsme pou��vali doposud, byly symetrick�. Ty se
z�skaly jako mimodiagon�ln� prvky kvadratick�ch forem inciden�n�ch matic bu�
orientovan�ho grafu ${\bf S}$, nebo neorientovan�ho grafu ${\bf G}$ (viz
podkapitolu 12.7).
Pon�vad� asymetrick� matice sousedstv� se pou��vaj� jako oper�tory, je nutn�
ur�it, jak se form�ln� vytvo��. Kdy� se vektory-hrany ${\bf c}$ n�sob� zprava,
potom $a_{ij} = k$, kdy� k orientovan�ch hran jde z vrcholu j do vrcholu i, kdy�
se vektory-sloupce ${\bf c}$ n�sob� zleva, potom $ _{ij} = k$, kdy� k
orientovan�ch hran jde z vrcholu i do vrcholu j. Pou�ijeme doln� indexy r a l pro
oba druhy matic sousedstv� ${\bf A}$.
Orientaci orientovan�ch hran lze vyj�d�it znam�nky, kde $a_{ij} = +k$, kdy� k
orientovan�ch hran jde z vrcholu i do vrcholu j, nebo kde $a_{ij} = -k$, kdy� k
orientovan�ch hran jde z vrcholu i do vrcholu j, nebo opa�n�.
\begin{equation}
{\bf c}_{t+1}^{\rm T} = {\bf c}_{t}^{\rm T}{\bf M}\;,
\end{equation}
Budi� ${\bf S}$ a ${\bf G}$ inciden�n� matice stejn� orientovan�ho multigrafu, kde
$ {\bf S}$ a ${\bf G}$ jsou identick� matice vyjma znam�nek. Neorientovan� hrana
odpov�d� ka�d� orientovan� hran�. Hrany ${\bf S}$ a ${\bf G}$ jsou vz�jemn�
ortogon�ln� vektory.
\begin{figure}
\caption{Reak�n� multigraf}
\label{Reak�n� multigraf}
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Odpov�daj�c� skal�rn� sou�iny ${\bf S}^{\rm T}{\bf G}$ a ${\bf G}^{\rm T}{\bf S}$
jsou asymetrick� matice ukazuj�c� rozd�ly v orientaci orientovan�ch hran. Jako
p��klad pou�ijeme multigraf definovan� transponovanou inciden�n� matic� ${\bf
S}^{\rm T}$ (viz obr. \ref{Reak�n� multigraf})
$$\begin{array}{cc}
{\bf S}^{\rm T} &
\left(
\begin{array}{ccccccc}
-1 & -1 & 0 & -1 & 0 & 1 & -1 \\
1 & 0 & -1 & 0 & 1 & -1 & 1 \\
0 & 1 & 1 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 0 \\
0 & 0 & 0 & 1 & -1 & 0 & 0
\end{array}
\right)\;.
\end{array}$$
$$\left(
\begin{array}{cccc}
-3 & 1 & 1 & 1\\
-1 & 1 & 1 & -1\\
-1 & -1 & 2 & 0\\
-1 & 1 & 0 & 0
\end{array}
\right)$$
$$\left(
\begin{array}{cccc}
3 &-1 & -1 & -1\\
1 & 1 & -1 & 1\\
1 & 1 & 2 & 0\\
1 &-1 & 0 & 0
\end{array}
\right)$$
$$\begin{array}{cc}
\begin{array}{c}
{\bf S}^{\rm T}{\bf S}\\
\\
\left(
\begin{array}{rrrr}
5 & -3 & -1 & -1\\
-3 & 5 & -1 & -1\\
-1 & -1 & 2 & 0\\
-1 & -1 & 0 & 2
\end{array}
\right)
\end{array} &
\begin{array}{c}
{\bf G}^{\rm T}{\bf G}\\
\\
\left(
\begin{array}{cccc}
5 & 3 & 1 & 1\\
3 & 5 & 1 & 1\\
1 & 1 & 2 & 0\\
1 & 1 & 0 & 2
\end{array}
\right)
\end{array}
\end{array}$$
$$\begin{array}{cc}
\begin{array}{c}
{\bf G}^{\rm T}{\bf S}+{\bf S}^{\rm T}{\bf S}\\
\\
\left(
\begin{array}{rrrr}
2 & -2 & 0 & 0\\
-4 & 6 & 0 & -2\\
-2 & -2 & 4 & 0\\
-2 & 0 & 0 & 2
\end{array}
\right)
\end{array} &
\begin{array}{c}
{\bf G}^{\rm T}{\bf S}-{\bf S}^{\rm T}{\bf S}\\
\\
\left(
\begin{array}{rrrr}
-8 & 4 & 2 & 2\\
2 & -4 & 2 & 0\\
0 & 0 & 0 & 0\\
0 & 2 & 0 & -2
\end{array}
\right)
\end{array}
\end{array}$$
$$\begin{array}{cc}
\begin{array}{c}
{\bf G}^{\rm T}{\bf S}+{\bf G}^{\rm T}{\bf G}\\
\\
\left(
\begin{array}{rrrr}
2 & 4 & 2 & 2\\
2 & 6 & 2 & 0\\
0 & 0 & 4 & 0\\
0 & 2 & 0 & 2
\end{array}
\right)
\end{array} &
\begin{array}{c}
{\bf G}^{\rm T}{\bf S}-{\bf G}^{\rm T}{\bf G}\\
\\
\left(
\begin{array}{rrrr}
-8 & -2 & 0& 0\\
-4 & -4 & 0 & -2\\
-2 & -2 & 0 & 0\\
-2 & 0 & 0 & -2
\end{array}
\right)
\end{array}
\end{array}$$
Skal�rn� sou�in $({\bf G}- {\bf S})^{\rm T} {\bf S}$ lze normalizovat do
levostrann�ho oper�toru ${\bf M}$. Diagon�ln� matice stup�� vrchol� (orientovan�
hrany do a ven), stejn� jako asymetrick� matice sousedstv� se mohou rozd�lit
transponov�n�m sou�t� nebo rozd�l� ${\bf G}^{\rm T}{\bf S}$ s ${\bf G}^{\rm T}{\bf
G}$ a jejich kombinov�n�m se sou�ty nebo rozd�ly ${\bf G}^{\rm T}{\bf S}$ s ${\bf
S}^{\rm T}{\bf S}$:
$$4{\bf V}_{v} = ({\bf G}^{\rm T}{\bf S}+ {\bf S}^{\rm T}{\bf S}) +
({\bf G}^{\rm T}{\bf S}+ {\bf G}^{\rm T}{\bf G})^{\rm T} $$
Skal�rn� sou�in ${\bf S}^{\rm T}({\bf G}- {\bf S})$ lze normalizovat do
pravostrann�ho oper�toru ${\bf M}$. Diagon�ln� matice stup�� vrchol� (orientovan�
hrany do a ven), stejn� jako asymetrick� matice sousedstv� se mohou rozd�lit
transponov�n�m sou�t� nebo rozd�l� ${\bf S}^{\rm T}{\bf G}$ s ${\bf G}^{\rm T}{\bf
G}$ a jejich kombinov�n�m se sou�ty nebo rozd�ly ${\bf S}^{\rm T}{\bf S}$ s ${\bf
S}^{\rm T}{\bf S}$ jako shora. Tyto transponovan� matice jsou identick� se sou�ty
nebo rozd�ly ${\bf G}^{\rm T}{\bf S}$, proto�e transponov�n� m�n� po�ad� matice v
sou�inu.
Inciden�n� matice ${\bf S}$ a ${\bf G}$, nebo jejich transponovan� matice,
pou��van� jako multiplikativn� oper�tory, p�en�ej� ka�d� prvek n�soben�ho
maticov�ho vektoru dvakr�t, jednou na diagon�le, jednou jako mimodiagon�ln� prvek.
Sou�ty nebo rozd�ly t�chto matic ${\bf S}$ a ${\bf G}$, kter� by m�ly b�t
transformovan� do kvadratick�ch matic, maj� v ka�d� ��dce p�esn� jeden prvek 2 v
kon��c�m nebo v�choz�m sloupci. V�sledky jsou tedy element�rn�. Av�ak tato fakta
nejsou vysv�tlena v u�ebnic�ch ani v b�n� literatu�e. Pokud byly studov�ny
d��ve, byly zapomenuty.
\begin{equation}
({\bf S}^{\rm T}{\bf G})_{ij} = -({\bf S}^{\rm T}{\bf G})_{ij}\;.
\end{equation}
Mimo to proudy do a ven u v�ech vrchol� mus� b�t vyv�eny, $\Sigma k_{ij} = 0$.
Pon�vad� odpory se mohou vyj�d�it jako d�lky vodi��, inverzn� probl�m se objevuje
jako odporov� vzd�lenosti.
\section{Rovnov�n� koncentrace}
\label{Rovnov�n� koncentrace}
Nalezen� diagon�ln� matice ${\bf C}$ rovnov�n�ch koncentrac� $c_j*$ pro velk�
syst�my nen� jednoduch� �loha. Vy�aduje v�po�ty determinant� v�ech submatic
sou�inu matic $\delta_j{\bf MC}$, z�skan�ch vynech�n�m j-t� ��dky a sloupce. Pro
tento ��el bylo vypracov�no mnoho variant Kirchhoffovy techniky nap�nac�ch strom�.
Dnes jsou technick� pot�e odstran�n� pou�it�m po��ta��, av�ak z�kladn� ot�zka
z�st�v� otev�en�: je sou�in ${\bf MC}$ symetrick� matice nebo nen�? Wei a
Prater \cite{[14]}, kte�� vypracovali maticovou techniku pro �e�en� soustav
exponenci�ln�ch rovnic, argumentovali principem mikroskopick� reversibility, podle
kter� by m�la b�t spr�vn� ekvivalence:
\begin{equation}
c_i^*k_{ij} = c_j^*k_{ji}
\end{equation}
Matice $({\bf I}+ {\bf M})$ maj� jednu vlastn� hodnotu p�esn� 1, jin� vlastn�
hodnoty jsou v kru�nici $0 < \lambda_j < 1$. Matice ${\bf M}$ m� p�esn� jednu
vlastn� hodnotu rovnou nule a zb�vaj�c�ch $(n-1)$ vlastn�ch hodnot v intervalu
omezen�m kru�nic� danou sou�ty rychlost� $\Sigma -k_{ij}$. Pon�vad� transformace
jak�koliv l�tky nem�e b�t v�t�� ne� jej� koncentrace, sou�et rychlostn�ch konstant
mus� b�t men�� ne� 1. Pokud se p�id� jednotkov� matice ${\bf I}$ k ${\bf M}$,
v�echny vlastn� hodnoty se zv�t�� rovnom�rn� o 1. To m� d�le�it� d�sledek, kter�
z�stal nepov�imnut�: Rovnov�n� stav oper�toru ${\bf P} = {\bf I + M}^\infty$ m�
jednu vlastn� hodnotu p�esn� 1, v�echny jin� vlastn� hodnoty jsou 0. Sou�in
jak�hokoliv koncentra�n�ho vektoru ${\bf c}$ s rovnov�n�m oper�torem $({\bf I}+
{\bf M})^{\infty}$ mus� d�t rovnov�n� koncentra�n� vektor ${\bf c}^*$. Tedy $(1/n)
{\bf I}({\bf I}+ {\bf M})^{\infty}$ m� tvar n identick�ch sloupc� rovnov�n�ch
koncentra�n�ch vektor� ${\bf c}^{\rm T}$. Pon�vad� sou�et koncentrac� je v�dy
$\Sigma_{j=1}^n = 1$, tento v�sledek souhlas� s podm�nkou ${\bf c}({\bf I}+ {\bf
M})^{\infty} = {\bf c}^{*{\rm T}}$.
$$\begin{array}{ccc}
{\bf M} & = &
\left(
\begin{array}{cccc}
-c_1^*\Sigma k_{i1} & c_2^* k_{12} & \dots & c_n^* k_{1n} \\
c_1^* k_{21} & -c_2^*\Sigma k_{i2} & \dots & c_n^* k_{2n} \\
\vdots & \vdots & \ddots & \vdots \\
c_1^* k_{n1} & c_2^* k_{n2} & \dots & -c_n^*\Sigma k_{v} \\
\end{array}
\right)\;.
\end{array}$$
$$\begin{array}{c}
{\bf M}[({\bf I}+ {\bf M})^{\infty} - {\bf C}]\\
\\
\left(
\begin{array}{cccc}
\Sigma_{i=1}c_ik_{1i} & \Sigma_{i\neq2}(c_i^* k_{i1} -c_1^* k_{i1})
& \dots & \Sigma_{i\neq n}(c_i^* k_{1n} -c_1^* k_{i1})\\
\Sigma_{i\neq1}(c_i^* k_{2i} -c_2^* k_{2i}) & \Sigma_{i=2}c_ik_{2i}
& \dots & \Sigma_{i\neq n}(c_i^* k_{2n}-c_1^*k_{i2})\\
\vdots & \vdots & \ddots & \vdots \\
\Sigma_{i\neq1}(c_i^* k_{ni} -c_n^* k_{ni}) &
\Sigma_{i\neq2}(c_i^* k_{ni} -c_n^* k_{ni})
& \dots & \Sigma_{i=n}c_ik_{ni}
\end{array}
\right)\;.
\end{array}$$
\begin{equation}
\sum_{j=n}^nc_j^*k_{ji} - \sum_{i=n}^nc_i^*k_{ij} = 0
\end{equation}
V�echny proudy do ka�d� polohy v matici mus� b�t vyv�eny v�emi proudy z polohy,
aby se udr�ela rovnov�ha. Pro to nen� nutnou podm�nkou princip mikroskopick�
reversibility, je to pouze speci�ln� p��pad ze v�ech mo�nost�, jak se m�e
dos�hnout rovnov�ha.
Pon�vad� jak�koliv rovnov�n� stav oper�toru ${\bf P}$ m� p�esn� jednu vlastn�
hodnotu 1, zbyl�ch $(n - 1)$ vlastn�ch hodnot jsou 0, snadno se naleznou
odpov�daj�c� vlastn� vektory. Jednotkov�m vlastn�m vektorem je jednotkov� ��dka $
{\bf J}^{\rm T}$ nebo jednotkov� sloupec ${\bf J}$. Nulov� vlastn� vektory lze
vybrat jako jakoukoliv z $(n -1)$ hran nebo sloupc� Markovovy matice. Ka�d�
Markovova matice je tedy soustavou vlastn�ch vektor� sv�ho rovnov�n�ho stavu.
Markovova matice popisuje sv�j vlastn� rovnov�n� stav a v�echny cesty k rovnov�ze
z jak�hokoliv bodu n rozm�rn�ho koncentra�n�ho simplexu. Tento simplex je rovina
ortogon�ln� k jednotkov�mu vektoru ${\bf I}$, nap��klad pro 3 l�tky je to
rovnostrann� troj�heln�k. Ka�d� bod simplexu m�e b�t rovnov�n�m bodem soustavy a
ke ka�d�mu rovnov�n�mu bodu vede nekone�n� mnoho cest. Tedy je nutn� klasifikovat
Markovovy matice podle charakteru cest, kter� matice vytv���. Pokud vylou��me
matice jdouc� ke koncentrac�m mimo simplex, existuj� t�i mo�nosti. Snadno je lze
nal�zt pro dvojrozm�rn� p��pad:
$$\begin{array}{ccc}
\begin{array}{c}
{\bf A} \\
p, q < 0.5 \\
\\
\left(
\begin{array}{cc}
(1-p) & p \\
q & (1-q)
\end{array}
\right)
\end{array} &
\begin{array}{c}
{\bf B} \\
p = q = 0.5\\
\\
\left(
\begin{array}{cc}
0.5 & 0.5\\
0.5 & 0.5
\end{array}
\right)
\end{array} &
\begin{array}{c}
{\bf C} \\
p, q > 0.5 \\
\\
\left(
\begin{array}{cc}
(1-p) & p \\
q & (1-q)
\end{array}
\right)
\end{array}
\end{array}$$
\begin{itemize}
\item ${\bf A}$: Hladk� p�ibl�en�. Transforma�n� linie jsou uvnit� r�mce tvo�en�ho
diagon�lou a osou x. Determinant ${\bf P}$ je v�t�� ne� 1. Prvn� krok m�e
bezprost�edn� v�st k rovnov�n� koncentraci.
\item ${\bf B}$. Osciluj�c� p�ibl�en�. To lze rozeznat jednodu�e podle reak�n�
konstanty. Pokud $k_{ij} > c^*_j$, potom soustava osciluje, kdy� reakce za��n� z
vrcholu reak�n�ho simplexu $c^i = 1$. V prv�m kroku koncentrace $c_j$ sko�� nad
rovnov�nou koncentraci. Zde by se m�ly studovat �asov� podm�nky, to je vztahy mezi
�asov�mi intervaly pot�ebn�mi pro transformaci objektu v jin�. Tyto intervaly jsou
jist� rozd�ln� pro n rozd�ln�ch objekt� a cel� reak�n� intervaly. Nem�eme
p�edpokl�dat, �e v�echny objekty reaguj� sou�asn� a tedy reak�n� intervaly mohou
b�t mnohem del�� ne� transforma�n� intervaly jednotliv�ch objekt�. Av�ak tato
diference p�sob� labilitu a m�e vest k oscilac�m jin�ch typ�.
\item ${\bf C}$. Nejstrm�j�� p��stup. Reak�n� cesta by m�la b�t p��mka jdouc� od
jak�koliv koncentra�n�ho bodu k rovnov�n�mu. To vy�aduje, aby reak�n� konstanta
ka�d� l�tky byla �m�rn� rovnov�n� koncentraci c�lov� l�tky. Nap��klad pro 3 l�tky:
$c_1k_{12} = ac^*_2$ $c_1k_{13} = ac^*_3$. Z podm�nek mikroskopick� reversibility
$c^*_2k_{23} = c^*_3k_{32}$ dostaneme vztah reak�n�ch konstant
$k_{23}/k_{13}=k_{23}/k_{12}$. Pro druh� dv� l�tky dostaneme podobn� pro $c_2$:
$k_{21}/k_{31}=k_{23}/k_{12}$ a pro $c_3$: $k_{31}/k_{21}=k_{32}/k_{12}$.
\end{itemize}
P�i srovn�n� v�ech t�� v�sledk� vid�me, �e takov� p��stup je mo�n� pouze pro
$c_j^* = 1/3$, to je pro st�ed simplexu.
\begin{equation}
k_{ij} = (k + k')/c^*_i\;,\ {\em kde}\ k' = c^*_j k_{ij}\;.
\end{equation}
Uk�zali jsme p�esn� metody pro �e�en� rovnic ${\bf Mx}= {\bf b}$ v kapitole 16,
zalo�en� na invertov�n� matice ${\bf M}$ nebo nalezen� jej�ch vlastn�ch hodnot. V
p��pad�, �e nejsme schopni prov�st takov� sofistikovan� matematick� operace,
m�eme se pokusit uh�dnout spr�vnou odpov��. Po��tali jsme matice a v�me, �e pokud
se omez�me na p�irozen� ��sla, jejich po�et nen� nekone�n�. Proto je s pou�it�m
po��ta�e mo�n� naleznout �e�en� metodou zkou�ek a omyl�, zejm�na kdy� se v�sledky
porovn�vaj� s c�lov�mi hodnotami a nemo�n� kombinacemi se vylou��. Tuto techniku
fluktuac� lze srovn�vat s procesem, jak�m soustava hled� svou rovnov�hu.
Za�n�me s vektorem odhadu {\bf y}. Po n�soben� matic� ${\bf M}$ dostaneme vektor
odhadu ${\bf g}$. P�i jeho srovn�n� s c�lov�m vektorem ${\bf b}$ dostaneme
diferenci $d({\bf g}-{\bf b})$. Pokud je nulov�, n� odhad je toto�n� s hledan�m
vektorem a m�eme na�e hled�n� skon�it. Podobn� pokud diference $d({\bf g}-{\bf b})
$ je zanedbateln�, m�eme na�e hled�n� skon�it. Jinak mus�me opravit vektor odhadu
s pou�it�m $d({\bf g}-{\bf b})$. Av�ak nem�eme pou��t celou diferenci, proto�e
p��t� odhad by mohl b�t jako kyvadlo na druh� stran� spr�vn� hodnoty. Mus�me
fluktuace zmen�ovat. Oprava mus� b�t men�� ne� diference, co� se dos�hne s
pou�it�m konstanty c: $0<c<1$. Pokud vybereme konstantu p��li� malou, pot�ebujeme
p��li� mnoho krok�, abychom na�li p�ijatelnou hodnotu ${\bf g}$, pokud c je p��li�
bl�zk� k 1, v�sledky by mohly kol�sat, podobn� jak to bylo uk�zan� pro Markovovy
matice.
\section{Vzd�lenosti a logaritmy}
\label{Vzd�lenosti a logaritmy}
\begin{equation}
H = -\Sigma p_j \log_2 p_j
\label{H}
\end{equation}
kde sou�et se prov�d� p�es v�echny pravd�podobnosti $p_j$ objekt� (symbol�). Tyto
pravd�podobnosti jsou nezn�m� a zat�m je ponech�me nedefinovan�.
Nikdo se nesna�il vysv�tlit, pro� tato funkce je vhodn� jako m�ra, byla jen
zavedena jako axiom. Te� definujeme tuto funkci jako jednoduch� v�sledek mapov�n�
$m$ objekt� na vrcholy mnohorozm�rn� jednotkov� krychle nebo rovnocenn�
indexov�n� t�chto objekt� pravideln�m k�dem sest�vaj�c�m se z 0 a 1 symbol� nebo
jednodu�e s pou�it�m bin�rn� ��seln� stupnice maj�c� stejn� po�et ��slic:
$$\begin{tabular}{|l|rrrrrrrr|}
\hline
Decim�ln� & 0 & 1 & 2 & 3 & 4 & 5 & 6 & 7 \\
\hline
Bin�rn� & 000 & 001 & 010 & 011 & 100 & 101 & 110 & 111 \\
\hline
\end{tabular}$$
\begin{figure}
\caption{Bin�rn� rozhodovac� strom je isomorfn� s indexov�n�m m objekt� bin�rn�mi
��slicemi}
\label{Bin�rn� rozhodovac� strom je isomorfn� s indexov�n�m m objekt� bin�rn�mi
��slicemi}
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\end{figure}
Nejmen�� nutn� po�et ��slic pro ka�d� objekt z m objekt� je bl�zk� k $\log_2 m$.
Tyto ��slice po��taj� hrany bin�rn�ho rozhodovac�ho grafu, na jeho� listech jsou
um�st�ny po��tan� objekty (obr. \label{Bin�rn� rozhodovac� strom je isomorfn� s
indexov�n�m m objekt� bin�rn�mi ��slicemi})\footnote{ Uspo��dejte, pros�m, listy
na vrcholy krychle a nakreslete si rozhodovac� strom sami. Zkou�el jsem to, av�ak
m�j obr�zek byl p��li� o�kliv�. Krychle stejn� jako rozhodovac� strom mus� b�t
deformovan�}.
Kdy� v�me, �e $3^5 = 243$, konstruujeme bin�rn� rozhodovac� strom s 1937 hranami
\begin{itemize}
\item 128 * 8 = 1024
\item \ 64 * 8 = \ 512
\item \ 32 * 8 = \ 256
\item \ 16 * 8 = \ 128
Sou�et vzd�lenost� list� od ko�ene je 1937. Tedy $ 1937: 243 = 7.971$. V�sledek
d�len� je pr�m�rn� vzd�lenost, kter� se rovn� $\log_2 3^4$. Odhad bin�rn�ho
logaritmu 3 je $7.971 : 5 = 1.597$. Pon�vad� $\lg_2 3 = 1.585$, p�esnost pro
takov� jednoduch� v�po�et je dobr� a mohla by se vylep�it s pou�it�m vy���ch
mocnin hledan�ho ��sla, kter� jsou bl�zk� k mocnin� z�kladn�ho ��sla.
V�po�ty lze prov�st pro jak�hokoliv p�irozen� po�et v�tv�. Jako p��klad: $5^{10} =
9765625$. Odpov�daj�c� zako�en�n� strom s 10 v�tvemi m� d�lku 7. D�leno 10
dostaneme 0.70000. Tabulkov� hodnota (z�skan� po��ta�kou) je $\log_{10}5 =
0.69897$.
\begin{equation}
H = m\log_2 m - \sum_{j=1}^n m_j \log_2 m_j = \sum m_j\log(m_j/m)
\label{H_m}
\end{equation}
$$\begin{tabular}{|l|rrrrrrrr|}
\hline
Decim�ln� & 0 & 1 & 2 & 3 & 4 & 5 & 6 & 7 \\
\hline
Bin�rn� & a00 & a01 & a10 & a11 & b0 & b1 & c & d \\
\hline
\end{tabular}$$
\begin{equation}
S = - k\ln W\;,
\end{equation}
\begin{equation}
S = C\log T + S_0\;.
\end{equation}
Funkce entropie se pova�uje za tajemnou. Nejen pro svou abstraktn� formu (nec�t�me
ji p��mo jako teplotu, tlak a objem), av�ak pro jej� vlastnosti. Zvy�uje se
samovoln�. Sn�en� entropie vy�aduje vn�j�� akci.
\begin{equation}
H_n = -\Sigma (n_k/n) \(log n_k/n)\;.
\label{H_n}
\end{equation}
Jeden paradox vznesen� proti Boltzmannovi byl spojen s �asovou inverz�. Klasick�
mechanika p�edpokl�dala, �e �as lze obr�tit. Av�ak takov� inverze �asu by m�la
v�st ke sn�en� entropie. To by se mohlo br�t jako d�kaz proti H teor�m�. Uk�zali
jsme, �e prostor nen� necitliv� ke zm�n�m znam�nka, z�porn� k�nus m� zcela
rozd�ln� vlastnosti ne� kladn�. Nicm�n� zm�ny znam�nka entropie pouze klasifikuj�
p�irozen� procesy. M�eme ��ci, �e pokud by �asov� inverze vedla ke sn�en� entropie
soustavy, potom tato �asov� inverze nen� spont�nn� jev, pon�vad� jeho p���ina by
le�ela mimo soustavu.
Hled�n� maxim�ln�ch hodnot funkce \ref{H_n} se zd� b�t snadnou �lohou. Entropie
$H_n$ je maxim�ln�, kdy� v�echny hodnoty $n_j = 1$. Tato monot�nn� �e�en� m�
chybu: Lze je uskute�nit pouze p�i speci�ln�ch hodnot�ch aritmetick�ho pr�m�ru
$m/n$. Sou�et aritmetick� �ady 1 a� n je ${ n+1 \choose 2}$, tedy aritmetick�
pr�m�r hodnoty $m_j$ nutn� pro line�rn� rozd�len� je $(n-1)/2$, jedna polovina
po�tu objekt�. Tato hodnota je p�ijateln� pouze u mal�ch syst�m�.
Rozd�len� molekul plynu nem�e b�t monot�nn�.. Nicm�n� to mus� b�t tak ploch�, jak
je to mo�n�.
P��mkov� sklony
$$\begin{tabular}{|l|rrrrrr|c|}
\hline
$n_k$ & 6 & 5 & 4 & 3 & 2 & 1 & $\sum 21={ k+ 1 \choose 2} $ \\
$m_k$ & 0 & 1 & 2 & 3 & 4 & 5 & \\
\hline
$n_k \times m_k$ & 0 &5 & 8 & 9 & 8 & 5 &
$\sum 35={ k+ 1 \choose 3}$ \\
\hline
\end{tabular}$$
Exponenci�ln� sklony
$$\begin{tabular}{|l|rrrrrr|l|}
\hline
$n_k$ & 32& 16& 8 & 4 & 2 & 1 & $\sum 63= 2^6-1= 2^{k+1}-1 $ \\
$m_k$ & 0 & 1 & 2 & 3 & 4 & 5 & \\
\hline
$n_k \times m_k$ & 0 &16 & 16 & 12 & 8 & 5 &
$\sum 57=2^6-7= 2^{k+1}-2k+1 $ \\
\hline
\end{tabular}$$
maj� aritmetick� pr�m�r pro v�echny velikosti pon�kud men�� ne� 1. Kdy� $m_k$
hodnoty vych�zej� od nejni��� hodnoty r, aritmetick� pr�m�r budou v�dy $r+1$,
pon�vad� p�id�me k z�kladn�mu rozd�len� $r\times 2^{k+1}-1 $ jednotek.
Exponenci�ln� sklony lze nap��mit kombinov�n�m n�kolika takov�ch rozd�len�:
$$\begin{tabular}{|l|rrrrrrrr|l|}
\hline
$n_k$ & 8& 8& 4 & 4 & 2 & 2 & 1 &1 & $\sum 30= 2\times(2^4-1)$ \\
$m_k$ & 0 & 1 & 2 & 3 & 4 & 5 & 6 & 7 & \\
\hline
$n_k \times m_k$ & 0 & 8 & 8 & 12 & 8 & 10 & 6 & 7 & $\sum 59$ \\
\hline
\end{tabular}$$
P��mkov� rozd�len� ve tvaru sedlov� st�echy d�v� pon�kud lep�� v�sledek ne�
monot�nn� rozd�len�: Jeho aritmetick� pr�m�r je v intervalu odmocniny n:
$$\begin{tabular}{|l|rrrrrrr|l|}
\hline
$n_k$ & 1 & 2 & 3 & 4 & 3 & 2 & 1 & $\sum 16=4^2$ \\
$m_k$ & 0 & 1 & 2 & 3 & 4 & 5 & 6 & \\
\hline
$n_k \times m_k$ & 0 &2 & 6 & 12 & 12 & 10 & 6 & $\sum 48=3\times4^2$ \\
\hline
\end{tabular}$$
$$\begin{tabular}{|l|rrrrrrr|l|}
\hline
$n_k$ & 1 & 6 & 15& 20& 15& 6 & 1 & $\sum 64=2^6$ \\
$m_k$ & 0 & 1 & 2 & 3 & 4 & 5 & 6 & \\
\hline
$n_k \times m_k$ & 0 & 6 & 30 & 60 & 60 & 30 & 6 & $\sum 192=3\times2^6$ \\
\hline
\end{tabular}$$
Pokud $n=2^k$, potom aritmetick� pr�m�r binomi�ln�ho rozd�len� je $k/2$. Pro
Avogadrovo ��slo $k\simeq79$ ($2^{79}=6.045\times10^{23}$). Aritmetick� pr�m�r je
velmi n�zk�. To znamen�, �e rozd�len� m�e b�t plo��� a obsahuje v�ce hodnot ne�
80.
$$\begin{tabular}{|l|rrrrrrrrrr|l|}
\hline
$n_k$ & 1 & 1 & 4 & 4 & 6 & 6 & 4 & 4 & 1 & 1 & $\sum 32=2\times2^4$ \\
$m_k$ & 0 & 1 & 2 & 3 & 4 & 5 & 6 & 7 & 8 & 9 & \\
\hline
$n_k \times m_k$ & 0 & 1 & 8 & 12 & 24 & 30 & 24 & 28 & 8 & 9 &
$\sum 144=9\times2^3$ \\
\hline
\end{tabular}$$
$$\begin{tabular}{|l|rrrrrrr|l|}
\hline
$n_k$ & 1 & 2 & 4 & 8 & 4 & 2 & 1 & $\sum 22=2^3-1+2^4-1$ \\
$m_k$ & 0 & 1 & 2 & 3 & 4 & 5 & 6 & \\
\hline
$n_k \times m_k$ & 0 & 2 & 8 & 24 & 16 & 10 & 12 & $\sum 72$ \\
\hline
\end{tabular}$$
Entropie $H_n$ by byla maxim�ln�, kdyby rozd�len� bylo tak ploch�, jak je to mo�n�
a bl�ilo se k monot�nn�mu rozd�len�. Pokud existuje dosti m�sta pro v�echny ��sti,
rozd�len� budou symetrick� a jinak mohou b�t �ikm� jeden.
M�eme spekulovat, kdo byl tou bludi�kou, kdo zm�nil velk� tajemstv� spojen� s
entropi� na je�t� v�t�� chybu. Jej� d�sledky jsou rozset� z matematiky do fyziky,
biologie, soci�ln�ch v�d a� k filosofii.
\begin{figure}
\caption{Rozhodov�n� ze �ty� mo�nost�}
\label{Rozhodov�n� ze �ty� mo�nost�}
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Fakt existence dvou funkc� entropie vysv�tluje tak zvanou redundanci informace,
pon�vad� ${H_m}$ v textech nen� maxim�ln�. Kdy� m entropie je maxim�ln�, n
entropie je minim�ln� a jejich sou�et nen� optim�ln�. Pokud by se v�echny symboly
objevily v na�� �e�i se stejnou �etnost�, rozd�ly mezi slovy by byly zanedbateln�
a nesnadno by se pozn�valy. Existuje 6 permutac� $aabb$ a pouze 4 permutace
$aaab$. Av�ak existuj� tak� 4 �ady $abbb$ a stejn� rozd�len� daj� dohromady 8 �ad.
Existuj� tedy dva polynomi�ln� koeficienty, jeden pro n permutace, jin� pro m
permutace. Jak� jsou vlastnosti polynomi�ln�ho koeficientu pro n permutace?
Tento koeficient ur�uje kolik �ad lze vytvo�it z m symbol� na abeced� n symbol�.
Jin�mi slovy, kolik m�st existuje pro rozd�ln� zpr�vy.
Koeficient
\begin{equation}
m!/\prod_{j=1}^n\ n_j =\prod_{k\geq1} n_k!^{m_k}
\end{equation}
\section{Vzd�lenosti a entropie}
\label{Vzd�lenosti a entropie}
Odpov�� na ot�zku, tolik and�l� se vejde na �pici jehly, nen� �lohou matematiky,
av�ak anal�za pr�ce Maxwellova d�mona je, pon�vad� tato kreatura je je�t� s n�mi
nejen ve fyzice ale tak� v teorii informace.
do �ady ve tvaru
cccccccccccccccccccchhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhh
Doposud jsme pova�ovali ob� �ady za ekvivalentn�, pon�vad� ob� �ady jsou na stejn�
orbit�. Kdy� si je p�edstav�me v dvourozm�rn�m prostoru, ob� �ady jsou
rozli�iteln�. Zapl�me dlouhou �adou dva svazky knihy. Potom pozorujeme ob� �ady
jako dva odli�n� stavy, jeden svazek s hork�mi molekulami h m� vy��� teplotu ne�
druh� s chladn�mi molekulami c. Sm�en� �ady (stavy jim odpov�daj�c�) maj�
mezilehl� teploty a vy��� fyzik�ln� entropii.
Probl�mem je naj�t zp�sob, jako zm��it jejich rozd�l. Jedna mo�nost je vyj�d�it
jej s pou�it�m vzd�lenosti mezi symboly jednoho druhu. Pro takov� kr�tk� �ady je
nutn� uzav��t je smy�kou, abychom zabr�nili probl�m�m kr�cen� spojen�mi s ob�ma
konci.
2,2,2,2,2,2,2,2,2,2,2,2,2,2,2,2,2,2,2,2,
1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,20.
\section{Logick� funkce}
\label{Logick� funkce}
Logick� rozhodov�n� p lze reprezentovat jako strom se dv�ma v�tvemi. Lev� znamen�
spr�vn� a jej� hodnota je 1. Prav� v�tev znamen� nulu. Na odpov�daj�c� v�tvi je
naroubov�n strom pro druh� predik�t q. Ke konci jeho v�tv� jsou p�i�azeny nov�
logick� hodnoty podle tabulky logick�ch funkc�.
\begin{table}
\caption{Logick� funkce}
\label{Logick� funkce}
\begin{tabular}{|lcc|ccc|}
\hline
konjunkce: & & & pokud p q,& & potom (p a q) \\
alternativa:& & & pokud p q,& & potom (p nebo q) \\
implikace:& & & pokud p q,& & potom (p je q) \\
\hline
& p & q &konjunkce & alternativa & implikace\\
\hline
& 1 & 1 & 1 & 1 & 1 \\
& 1 & 0 & 0 & 1 & 0 \\
& 0 & 1 & 0 & 1 & 0\\
& 0 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 1 \\
\hline
\end{tabular}
\end{table}
\begin{figure}
\caption{Rozhodovac� strom. Lev� v�tev znamen� 1, prav� v�tev znamen� 0. Ko�en se
bere jako desetinn� ��rka}
\label{Rozhodovac� strom}
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\end{figure}
Logick� operace m�eme nahl�et jako operace symetrie, p�i�azuj�c� rozd�ln�m bod�m
logick�ho prostoru dan� hodnoty.
\chapter{Literatura}
\begin{thebibliography}{}{}
\end{the bibliography}
\end{document}