FUNDAMENTALS OF

GAS SOLIDS/LIQUIDS
SEPARATION
Fundamentals of Gas Solids/Liquids Separation
Particle Formation
Non gas particles are generated and entrained in the gas stream (spray regime) or are converted
to a sheet flow (annular regime) and carried on the fluid stream boundary. These liquid non-gas
particles can be generated from a pure gas due to a gas-liquid phase change occurring within
a state change of the gas. This change of state is commonly known as condensation. The
following graphic is the pressure-volume chart for a typical vapor.
It is only in the gas liquid multi-phase
zone that liquid non gas particles can
exist.
The critical point "C" (See Pressure-
Volume Chart Graphic) is the state point
at which the liquid and gas phases are
identical. At higher pressures along the
critical isotherm, a slight increase or
decr ease i n t emper at ur e wi l l
instantaneously produce a complete
phase change. At a temperature higher
than the critical isotherm, no liquid phase
will be encountered. At temperatures
below the critical isotherm gas can exist
as both a gas or liquid. The amount of
liquid per unit volume of mixture can be
estimated using the known physical
properties of the mixture.
Liquid particles can be formed in mid
stream by condensing initially at the
molecular size level. These particles then
can be carried by the fluid stream.
Condensation on cool surfaces will
produce a liquid film which is swept off
the surface by drag force due to the gas
stream velocity being greater than the
surface tension on the liquid.
Liquids injected into the stream may be
borne along in the stream if in small
Figure 1 Pressure - Volume Relation For Typical Real Gas
A to C Liquid Line
B to C Saturated Gas Line
SPECIFIC VOLUME
C
CRITICAL
POINT
Critical
Isotherm
(Constant Temperature)
ISOTHERMS
GAS REGION
(Also called Superheat Region)
L
I
Q
U
I
D
DEW POINT
GAS-LIQUID
MULTI-PHASE ZONE
BUBBLE
POINT
130
120
110
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
0 100 200
B
A
300
P
R
E
S
S
U
R
E
TEMP.
INCREASE
Many process operations require the removal of entrained non-gas particles from multi-phase gas
streams. The removal of these non-gas particles is the process in itself (capture of a valuable
product) or the process of cleaning a gas stream in order to protect either stationary or rotating
equipment from the harmful effects due to non-gas particles entering those devices.
The removal of entrained non-gas particles from a multi-phase gas stream is a separation process
involving the removal of:
Liquid particles from a gas or vapor stream;
Solid particles from a gas or vapor stream;
Combination of both liquid and solid particles from a gas or vapor stream.
In order to understand mechanical separation concepts, a basic understanding of particle formation,
physics and motion is required.
X
GAS
Flow Regimes
(e) Slug
GAS
GAS
GAS
GAS
GAS GAS
(a) Bubble
(b) Plug
(c) Stratified
(d) Wavy
(f) Semi-annular
(g) Annular
(h) Spray
carried in suspension with significant amounts along the pipe wall. Spray flow regime is
characterized by particles in suspension in the gas with negligible amounts of liquids on the pipe
wall. Slug flow regime is often encountered in gas streams with greater liquid to gas weight ratio
than annular or spray regimes.
Liquid particles are generally idealized as being spherical in shape since this is the shape surface
tension forces impart. Liquid particles might have shapes other than this depending on other
forces such as gravity and drag. Solid particles are also idealized as being spherical, though
in reality have irregular shapes.
Figure 2
What is it? Black powder is a catchall term that describes material that collects in gas pipe
lines and creates wear and reduced compressor efficiency, clogged instrumentation and
valves, and flow losses in long pipe lines. The material can be wet, with a tar-like appearance,
or dry and be a fine powder. Chemical analyses reveal it is any of several forms of iron sulfide
and iron oxide. Further, it can be mechanically mixed or chemically combined with any number
of contaminants, such as water, liquid hydrocarbons, salts, chlorides, sand or dirt. Some pipe
lines have black-powder problems and others do not. It appears those lines closer to the gas
gathering end of the system have problems, while those at the distribution end, with relatively
small systems, do not. Black powder is found in both "dry" and "wet" lines. One parallel line
can have a problem while the other does not. No pipe line has been identified to date that
has been able to eliminate the problem once it starts.
Black Powder
particle form. The liquid stream injected will be
disbursed initially due to that force overcoming
the surface tension forces. The liquid will become
part of the mixture and has the potential to also
change state.
Small liquid particles of like substances will join
with one another upon collision in what is called
coalescence. The rate at which the particles with
no net movement will join together is dependent
on gas viscosity and temperature and the number
of particles present. Higher temperatures, lower
viscosities, and flow stream agitation will provide
higher coalescence rate. Liquid present within
the gas stream will flow in one of several flow
regimes.
Figure 2 depicts the various flow regimes that
occur within multi-phase gas streams. The two
flow regimes that provide the lowest liquid to gas
weight ratio are annular and spray flow. Annular
flow is characterized by finite liquid amounts
Particle Physics
A
x
i
s
Fg
Fd
Fc
Gas Rotation
F
Particle being propelled by gas, with the gas velocity
exceeding the particle velocity.
Particle Motion Gas Motion
The particle is said to drag behind the gas, and this
retarding (slippage) is caused by the drag force being slightly
l ess than the gas i mpact force on the parti cl e.
Note:
Fc - Centrifugal
Fd - Drag
Fg - Gravity
F - Total
Forces acting on a particle due to circular acceleration
generates particle motion along vector F.
The forces imposed on particles in
mechanical separators are gravity, drag
and inertial forces.
Gravity forces act vertically downward.
Drag forces are resistive forces. Inertial
forces are a result of particle circular
motion. Particle circular motion generates
centripetal force; a force that is directed
towards the center of the circular motion.
Opposite to centripetal force is centrifugal
force and is due to a forced turning of the
gas stream, and acts at right angles to the
particle angular motion.
Cent ri f ugal f orce i s t he pri nci pl e
determinant in the operation of cyclone
and impingement type separators. This
action is best described in a rectangular
vector coordinates as shown in figure 3.
The particle in motion, if not at the wall,
will accelerate radially to the wall, and in
the process absorb some of the centrifugal
force.
The particle drag forces act in the direction
of the particle motion. Drag forces are in
response to the viscous effects of the gas
Figure 3
opposing the particle motion. Drag forces are composed of pressure differences and shearing
stresses on the surface of the particle.
Additionally, a buoyant force is present due to displacement of the gas by the particle. This force
is insignificant on particles greater than 0.1 microns. Particles 0.1 microns and smaller approach
molecular size where buoyant forces become considerable in relation to particle size and become
a factor in Brownian Movement. Brownian Movement is the motion exhibited by small particles
that move non-uniformly along the gas streamlines due to collisions with gas molecules (additional
information regarding Brownian Movement will follow) .
Significant complex particle motion (rectilinear and curvilinear) translation exists about the axis
of the particle. Pure particle motion about the rotational axis exists but is not as significant as
the complex particle motion translation.
On the particle boundary layer shear stresses of the gas stream are opposed by the surface
tension of the gas-liquid interface. The liquid particle system may change relative to the magnitude
of the shear stress and surface tension; such as in the instance of liquid particles may be
generated from sheet flow (stream of liquid) and large particles may be broken into smaller
particles if the shear stress is larger than the surface tension.
As previously established, the physics that govern separator operation are those which determine
the forces and stresses acting on particles in the gas stream. The physical phenomena that
generate drag forces are dependent on particle size, shape, velocity, and on the gas stream's
density and viscosity.
For small particles or low velocities, viscous forces are dominant. For larger particles and higher
velocities inertial forces are dominant. This dynamic ratio of inertial to viscous forces is a
dimensionless number referred to as the Reynolds Number abbreviated - Re. The Reynolds
Number provides a determination of which regime, inertial or viscous, is dominant. This dynamic
ratio is graphically depicted in Figure 4.
u
t
= g
L

D
p
2
(
s
- )
18
u
t
= Terminal Settling Velocity of Particle Under Action
of Gravity, ft/sec.
g
L
= Local Acceleration due to Gravity,(ft.)/(sec.) (sec.)
D
p
= Diameter of Spherical Particle, ft.
= Fluid Density, lb.mass/cu.ft.
= Fluid Viscosity, (lb.mass)/(ft.)(sec.)
Drag force on spherical particles 3 to 100 micron is directly proportional to velocity in low Reynold's
number region. The applicable physical law is Stokes' Law and at Re < 2.0 the flow is laminar
and streamlines are smooth, it is considered to be "creeping flow" around the spherical particle.
Particles less than 3 microns in the Re < 2.0 regime are subject to Brownian Movement and
Stokes' - Cunningham Law. See Figure 5.
Figure 4
Figure 5
When a particle falls under the influence of gravity it will accelerate until the frictional drag in the
fluid balances the gravitational forces. At this point it will continue to fall at a constant velocity.
This is the terminal velocity. For spherical particles between 3 and 100 microns and
0.0001 < Re < 2 the applicable physical law that applies is Stokes'. The formula is stated in
Figure 6.
At Re < 2 flow is laminar and streamlines smooth
Creeping Flow
Figure 6
0.1
1.0
10
100
1,000
10,000
100,000
0.0001 0.001 0.01 0.1 1.0 10 100 1,000 10,000 100,000 1,000,000
Symbols and Legend
A
p
= Area of Particle Projected on Plane Normal to
direction of Flow or Motion, sq. ft.
C = Overall Drag Coefficient, Dimensionless
D
p
= Diameter of Particle, ft.
F
d
= Drag or Resistance to Motion of Body in Fluid, Poundals
N
Re
= Reynolds Number, Dimensionless
u = Relative Velocity Between Particle and Main Body of
Fluid, ft./sec.
= Fluid Viscosity, (lb.mass)/(ft.)(sec.)=Centiposis 1488
= Fluid Density, (lb.mass)/(cu.ft.)
(any Consistent System of Units may be Employed in
Place of the English Units Specified)
Spheres
Disks
Cylinders
Reynolds Number, N
Re
=
D
p
u
D
r
a
g

C
o
e
f
f
i
c
i
e
n
t
,

C

=
F
d
(


u
2
/
2
)
A
p
Gas Velocity Exceeds Particle Velocity
Drag Coefficients for Spheres, Disks, And Cylinders and Any Fluid. From Perry, R. H., Ed., Chemical Engineers Handbook, 7th. ed., 1997,
McGraw Hill Company, Inc.
Stokes Law Intermediate Law Newtons Law
1 Micron is = 1/25,400 of an inch (3.937 x 10
-5
inches)
318 Human Hairs
Pin Head
84,667 Smoke Particles
33 Smoke Particles
= 1 inch
= 1500 microns
= 1 inch
= 10 microns
How Small is a Micron?
For proper separator design, particle size analysis is important for correct equipment selection.
A convenient index for determination of particle size spectrum is the Reynolds number. These
dimensionless numbers provide a measure of the ratio between viscous forces and inertial forces.
Three equations are generally used to describe the action of mechanical separation, each being
limited to definite particle spectrum. These equations have the following ranges of particle
spect rum when appl i ed t o wat er dropl ets i n ai r at at mospheri c condi t i ons:
The following examples illustrate the extremes in particle sizes and velocities in relation to the
Reynolds Number:
Particles with a Reynolds Number of 1.7
An 80 micron particle in air at 70 F and 14.7 PSIA with a density of 100 lbs / cu. ft. has terminal
velocity of 62 FPM. While a 1 micron particle in air at 70 F and 14.7 PSIA with a density of 100
lbs / cu. ft. has terminal velocity of 5,0000 FPM.
Particles with a Reynolds Number of 3.24 X 10-3
A10 micron particle in air at 70 F and 14.7 PSIA with a density of 100 lbs / cu. ft. has terminal
velocity of 0.96 FPM. While a particle less than 1 micron (1.9 X 10-3 to be exact) in air at 70 F
and 14.7 PSIA with a density of 100 lbs / cu. ft. has terminal velocity of 5,0000 FPM.
1. Newtons Law has a particle spectrum from 15,000 to 100,000 microns.
2. The Intermediate Law particle spectrum ranges from 100 to 15,000 microns.
3. Stokes Law encompasses particles from 3 to 100 microns.
Below 3 micron particle size, Stokes-Cunningham Law applies. Below 0.1 micron, Brownian
Movement becomes dominant. Brownian Movement is a random motion of particles caused by
collisions with gas molecules. Particles within Brownian Movement range approach molecular
size. Newtons and the Intermediate Law equations are generally applied to knock out drums
and gravity settling separators. Whereas Stokes and Cunninghams Law equations apply to
centrifugal, impingement, and filtering type separators.
Determination of particle size in a system is relatively easy with solids. However, with liquids it
is not. Liquids are in continuous change of state, subsequently particle size of liquids will vary
depending upon the source and nature of the operation generating the particular particles.
For the applicable physical law for particles in relation to the Reynolds Number see Table 1.
Particle Size
Particle size is commonly defined by its diameter in micrometers, more commonly called microns.
Particle
Diameter
General
Classification
Microns
Common Methods
of Measuring
Particle Size
Commercial
Equipment for
Collection or
Removal of
Particles from
a Gas
Spheres of
Unit Density
in Air
Diameter,
Microns
100,000
Spheres of
Any Density
in Any Fluid
Gravity Settling of Spheres in Still Fluid
Laws of Settling
Critical Particle Diameter
Above Which Law Will Not
Apply
100,000
5
2
10,000
5
2
1,000
Newtons Law
K
cr
=2,360 for Newtons Law
5
2
100
5
2
Intermediate Law
Stokes Law = 33 for Stokes Law
K
cr
= 43.5 for
Intermediate Law
The Cunningham Correction on Stokes
Law Becomes Important for Particles of
Diameters Under 3 Microns for Settling
in Gases and Under 0.01 Micron for
Settling in liquids.
Stokes - Cunningham Law
10
5
2
1.0
5
2
0.1
5
Brownian Movement
The Value K
me
has Experimentally been shown to lie between 1.3 and
2.3 for Different Gases, Particle Sizes, and Materials (Wasser,
Physik.Z.,34,257-278[1933]). An Approximate Average Value Based on
the Data of Millikon is Empirically Given by
Brownian Movement is a Random
Motion Superimposed upon the
Gravitational Settling Velocity of the
Particle it Becomes Appreciobe for
Particles under 3 Microns Diameter
and Becomes Entirely Predominant
for Particles Under 0.1 Micron
P
a
r
t
i
c
l
e
s

M
o
v
e

L
i
k
e

G
a
s

M
o
l
e
c
u
l
e
s
2
0.01
5
2
0.001
Nomenclature: (Any Self-Consistant System of Units may be Employed; English Units are given by
way of Example.)
C = Overall drag Coefficient, Dimensionless
D
p
= Diameter of Spherical Particle, ft.
D
p crit
= Critical Particle Diameter Above Which Law will
Not Apply, ft.
g
c
= Conversion Factor, 32.17(lb.mass/lb.Force)/
(ft./sec.)
g
L
= Local Acceleration due to Gravity,(ft.)/(sec.) (sec.)
K
cr
= Proportionality Factor, Dimensionless
K
m
= Stokes-Cunningham Correction Factor
Dimensionless
K
me
= Proportionality Factor, Dimensionless
M = Molecular Weight, lb./mole
N = Number of Gas Molecules in a mole,
2.76 x 10
26
Molecules/lb mole.
From Kinetic Theory of Gases:
* Furnishes Average Particle Diameter, but no Size Distribution
x Size Distribution may be Obtained by Special Calibration
Characteristics of dispersed particles. Perry, J. H., Ed., Chemical Engineers Handbook, 3rd. ed., 1950, McGraw Hill company, Inc.
K
cr
N
Re
= Reynolds Number, Dimensionless =D
p
E/
R = Gas Constant, 1,546(ft-lb.Force)(lb. mole)(F)
t = Time, sec
T = Absolute Gas Temperature. F abs., or R
u
t
= Terminal Settling Velocity of Particle Under Action
of Gravity, ft/sec.
u
ts
= Terminal Settling Velocity of Particle as Calculated
from Stokes Law, ft./sec.
= Mean Molecular Speed, ft./sec.
x = Average Linear Amplitude of Displacement of
Particle in Time t, ft.
= Fluid Density, lb.mass/cu.ft.

s
= True Density of Particle, lb.mass/cu.ft.
= Fluid Viscosity, (lb.mass)/(ft.)(sec.)
m = Mean Free Path of Gas Molecules, ft.
Characteristics Of Dispersed Particles
Table 1
8g
c
RT / M
D
p,crit

= K
cr
g
L
(
s
- )
2
1
3
u
t
=1.74
g
L
D
p
(
s
- )
0.153 g
L

D
p
0.71 1.14 0.7
u
t
=
0.29 0.43
(
s
)
g
L

D
p
2
= u
ts
u
t
=
18
(
s
- )
u
t
= K
m
u
ts
K
m

= 1 + K
me
(
m
/ D
p
)
x =
4g
c
RTK
m
t
3
2
N D
p
K
me
=1.644+0.552
e

-(0.656 Dp/ m)
m
= 3 /
=
C = 24 N
Re
-1
C = 18.5 N
Re
-0.6
C = 0.44
1 in.
1 cm.
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Number
N
Re
200,000
10,000
100A
LLC
LLC
Gravity or Knock Out Drums
A gravity or knockout drum typically has
the inlet and outlet connections located
on the upper portion of the vessel. The
force used to separate the solids/liquids
from the gas is gravity. The primary
physics involved is the terminal velocity
of the particulate. It can be seen that the
gas velocity must be very low in order
for separation to occur.
Mechanical separators utilize particle motion in two ways:
wPrimary separation of solids/liquids
wCarry off of separated solids/liquids
All separators have more that one generative force providing particle separation, however, they
are typically classified by the dominant separation process - gravity settling, impingement,
centrifugal action, coalescing, or filtering.
All mechanical separators rely on the principle of impingement. Impingement is the action of
particles colliding with other particles and/or surfaces.
All mechanical separators use gravity force to assist in the carry off of separated solids/liquids.
This force is normally considered the maximum agent available for carry off in mechanical type
separators with the exception of cyclone type separators.
There are four basic concepts of mechanical separation:
wGravity or Knock Out Drums
wCentrifugal (Cyclone)
wImpingement
wFilters
Mechanical Separator Limitations
Mechanical separators are limited in primary separation by geometry, by velocity required to
induce inertial fields, or by pressure differential due to drag losses.
Mechanical separators are limited in carry off capabilities of separated solids/liquids due to re-
entrainment and creeping flow. Re-entrainment is due to drag force pulling solid/liquid off surfaces
to form globs/droplets which are re-injected into the gas stream. Re-entrainment (carry over)
can occur in all types of separators, and in the case of cyclone types is due to an intense inner
vortex creating a velocity field to pull solids/liquids out of the drain sump area and re-inject the
separated particulate into the gas steam.
Creeping solid/liquid flow is caused by drag force on solids/liquids deposited on surfaces
overcoming gravity drain forces and causing a flow of solid/liquid out of the separator into the
clean gas side.
Both re-entrainment and creeping flow can be eliminated by correct sizing techniques and product
design, that control the velocity in relation to the fluid density, viscosity, through the separating
element.
The basic information regarding particle formation, physics, motion and limitations have been
presented. The following information details the four concepts of mechanical separation.
Gravity or Knock Out Drum
Particle Motion
Pocket
Hook
Centrifugal Separator
LLC
Wire Mesh Separator
LLC
Centrifugal Separator
Velocity is the primary factor in the performance
of a centrifugal separator. For a given size
centrifugal separator, the size of the separated
particulate is inversely proportional to the square
root of the gas velocity. Consequently, the
success of a centrifugal separator is dependent
on the gas velocity obtained. The minimum
particle size to be separated is dependent on
the particulate viscosity, number of turns the
particulate makes within the separator, and the
velocity of the gas at the inlet to the separator.
Impingement Separator
An impingement separator is in the category of separators that
provide targets for the particulate to be intercepted. The wire mesh
separator and vane type separator are two of the most commonly
used impingement separators.
The wire mesh separator consists of wire knitted into a pad having
a number of unaligned isometrical openings. It has 97% to 99%
free voids and collects the particles primarily by impingement. The
principal of operation of a wire mesh pad is change of direction.
The gas flowing through the pad is forced to change direction a
number of times. Centrifugal action is to a minimum. Impingement,
therefore, is the primary separation mechanism. A liquid particle
striking the metal surfaces of a mesh pad, flows downward where
adjacent wires provide capillary space. At this point, liquid collects
and continues to flow downward. Surface tension tends to hold
this drop on the lower base of the pad until they are large enough
for the downward force of gravity to exceed that of the upward gas
velocity and surface tension.
In a mesh pad separator the impingement efficiency falls off rapidly
at low velocities because the droplets will tend to drift between
the wires. At high velocities, the element tends to flood. Liquid
cannot flow downward against the increased upward gas velocity
force and therefore accumulates. As the voids become full of liquid,
a portion is re-entrained and discharges with the outlet gas.
The wire mesh separator is considered primarily a liquid separator;
dirt, solids, or very viscous liquids of sticky nature will plug the
voids resulting in poor performance.
Vane type separators consist of labyrinth
form of parallel metal sheets with pockets
to collect separated moisture. The gas
between plates is agitated and has to
change direction a number of times. Some
degree of centrifugal action is introduced
as the gas changes direction. The heavier
particles then are thrown to the outside and
are caught in the drain pockets.
Filter Media
Hollow Filter Core
To Vane
Gas Flow Path
Solids
Vane Type Separator
Filter Separator
Vane Pack
A vane type separator with pockets functions as follows; when liquid
laden gas vapor approaches the vane plates it is forced to change
direction, moving the liquid droplets to the plate walls converting the
liquid to sheet flow in what is called coalescence. This mechanism
is a function of the path distance and the free stream velocity. Liquid
sheet flow approaches the vane pocket where it is collected and
removed from the gas stream and ultimately drains to the liquid
holding sump due to gravity.
Sizing of a vane type separator is dependent on relative density of
the liquid and gas, relative size of liquid droplets, and relative weight
ratio of the liquid to gas stream. In most instances the maximum
liquid to gas weight ratio of vane type separators is 10%.
In any case, impingement type separators that employ wire mesh
or vane type elements are limited to liquid particle separation,
ultimately dirt or solid particulate, and viscous liquids will plug the
voids in mesh pads or pockets in vane separators resulting in poor
performance.
Mechanical separators such as vanes,
centrifugal or wire mesh, are effective
for removal of particles above 6
microns, where the liquid to gas
weight ratio is greater than 1% by
weight, light liquid loads (less than1%)
characteristically have particle size
distribution of less than 6 microns and
therefore, mechanical separators with
vane, centrifugal, or wire mesh
elements are not effective.
To collect liquid particles less than 6
micron require particle conditioning.
One of the most practical methods of
particle conditioning is coalescence.
Vane type separators fall into two categories - pocket style and hook style. Vane separators
which incorporate corrugations or hooks protruding into the flow path create pressure drop and
flow turbulence resulting in potential re-entrainment of separated liquid. Flow within pocket type
vane separators is sinusoidal and separation is accomplished by both impingement and
coalescence. Even though the hook style incorporates the same impingement separation
characteristics, the pocket style vane separator accomplishes the separation function at higher
velocities without re-entrainment.
Filter Separator
Filter separators are designed to provide optimum
performance in mechanical separation, and are used
i n separati ng aerosol s and sol i d parti cl es.
The removal of solids is accomplished by interception
of the particles and its efficiency is dependent on the
depth of the filter media density and size of the fiber.
The primary function of a filter separator is the removal
of small liquid particles that will have a detrimental
effect on downstream equipment.
Filter Separator Cartridge Filter
DIFFUSION
AIR FLOW
PATH
O
F
P
A
R
T
I
C
L
E
FIBER
PARTICLE
IMPINGEMENT
AIR FLOW
FIBER
PARTICLE
PATH OF PARTICLE
STRAINING
AIR FLOW
FIBER
PARTICLE
PATH OF PARTICLE
Inertial impaction (impingement) is the
aerodynamic behavior of a particle within the
fibrous media of the filter. If the particle has
sufficient inertia and low enough surface drag
characteristics, it will be attracted and held to
fiber in the media due to Van Der Waals Force.
Diffusion is the random movement of particles
called Brownian Motion. Brownian Motion will
manifest itself as a wobbling, erratic motion
of the particles about the steady aerodynamic
gas path. This motion would not of itself result
in additional collection of particles by fibers if
the particle concentration were everywhere
identical. But since the motion is totally random,
the transfer of particles across any surface
near a fiber will be proportional to the
concentration on opposite sides of that surface.
It can be shown that there is a net transfer of
particles across a surface and that this transfer
is in the direction of the fiber surface itself.
The rate at which such transfer takes place is
proportional to a diffusion coefficient.
A third mechanism is that of direct interception
(straining). A particle of large enough size,
relative to the size of the fiber will be collected
even if it has no mass and can follow gas
flow path. For this reason fiber diameter and
density are a major consideration in the design
of filter elements.
Coalescence is the mechanism where small droplets are agglomerated on a fiber mat or surface,
and forms a continuous liquid film which periodically shears and releases large droplets back
into the gas stream. The size of these droplets depend on the surface tension and viscosity of
the liquid and the velocity of the gas relative to the liquid.
The filter separator uses cylindrical coalescing elements for particle conditioning. The design
of these elements is the most important component in the design of a filter separator. The first
step in the design of the elements is an analysis of the liquid particle size and concentration in
the gas stream.
There are three mechanisms of particle collection to be considered in the design of filter elements
for mist elimination. These are inertial impaction, diffusion, and direct interception.
E
D
-DIFFUSION EFFICIENCY
E
I
-IMPACTION EFFICIENCY
E
T
-TOTAL EFFICIENCY
A -POINT OF MINIMUM EFFICIENCY
E
F
F
I
C
I
E
N
C
Y
PARTICLE SIZE OR VELOCITY
E
D
E
I
E
T
A
The combined properties of inertial impaction
(impingement), diffusion and direct interception
(straining) enable us to state qualitatively, at least,
how aerosol (suspended particles in gases) filtration
will be effected. The graph depicts the effect which,
would result if aerodynamic collection alone were
operative and if Brownian diffusion alone were
operative. The top curve depicts the sum of these
two effects.
It is apparent that the Brownian diffusion curve falls
toward zero for particles approaching molecular size
(an aerosol filter does not filter out gases). In addition,
it is not at all unusual for filter efficiency to drop
somewhat toward zero for large particles because
of their poor retention after capture by some filter
media. The mere transport of particles to the fiber
surface is not sufficient of itself to ensure their
collection. They also have to remain on the fiber
surface.
Blow-off is the term referring to the process of re-entrainment of the liquid collected by the fibrous
pad in the gas flowing from the pad. It is effected by several factors - inlet aerosol concentration,
gas flow velocity, viscosities and densities of the gas and liquid, pad surface area and porosity
and interfacial and surface tension forces.
Blow-off efficiency is a function of the
velocity of the gas and the velocity of
the liquid through the fiber. At low
velocities, less than 6 feet per minute,
the efficiency of collection of the filter
decreases until the effect of the diffusion
mechanism becomes apparent whereby
the smaller particles, by their random
motion, will again be collected. At the
blow-off velocity large droplets are
shearing away from the film of collected
liquids on the filter fibers. The small
droplets appear again as a secondary
product of the larger droplet formation.
This then, is a velocity region of low
filtration efficiency. If the filter is to be
used as a mist eliminator it should be
designed so that the aerosol velocity
through the filter is less than the critical blow-off velocity. If however, the filter is to be used as
an agglomerator element the velocity must be greater than the critical blow-off velocity.
The ideal operating conditions of an agglomerator filter, is at a velocity just beyond the initial
blow-off velocity. At this condition more of the smaller droplets entering the pad would be impacted
because of the higher velocity and the droplets leaving the pad are at its larger size. At higher
velocities more droplets will be impacted but the blow-off droplets will be smaller in size.
A very important use of the blow-off characteristics of fibrous mat type eliminator element is that
of particle agglomeration. Fiberglass or similar materials with fine fibers can be used to collect
the very small aerosol particles at aerosol velocity which will produce blow-off drainage of the
collected liquid from the pad. The larger droplets can then be collected by another mechanical
separator such as vane, wire mesh or a centrifugal unit.
From Gas Processors Supplers Association, Tulsa
Hydrocarbon Gas Viscosity
-400 -300 -200 -100 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000
Temperature F
0.002
0.003
0.004
0.005
0.006
0.007
0.008
0.009
0.01
0.02
0.03
0.04
0.05
0.06
0.07
0.08
0.09
0.10
V
i
s
c
o
s
i
t
y

-

C
e
n
t
i
p
o
i
s
e
s
.0125
0.015
3000
2000
1000
750
1500
500
14.7
Sp. gr
.6 .7 .8 .9 1.0
Pressure, psia
.55
sp. gr.
.55
sp. gr.
1.0
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
1.0
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
PROPERTY
Properties at 14.696 PSIA and 60F
COMPOUND
MOLECULAR
WEIGHT
SYMBOL
LIQUID
(Lbs/Ft.
3
)
GAS
(Lbs/Ft
3
) LIQUID
VISCOSITY (Centipoises) DENSITY
GAS
LIQUID TEMP
COEFFICIENT
OF DENSITY
GAS SPECIFIC
GRAVITY
AIR=1.0
--
H
2
0
NH
3
A
CO
CO
2
C1
2
He
H
2
HC1
H
2
S
CH
3
C
1
N
2
O
2
S0
2
CH
4
C
2
H
6
C
3
H
8
C
4
H
10
C
5
H
12
C
6
H
14
C
7
H
16
C
8
H
18
C
9
H
2O
C
10
H
22
C
5
H
10
C
6
H
12
C
2
H
4
C
3
H
6
C
4
H
8
C
5
H
10
C
4
H
6
C
2
H
2
C
6
H
6
C
7
H
8
C
8
H
8
C
9
H
12
C
3
H
6
0
C
4
H
8
0
2
C
2
H
6
0
CH
4
0
C
3
H
8
0
C
5
H
4
0
2
C
2
H
7
N
0
C
2
H
6
0
2
C
4
H
10
0
3
C
6
H
14
0
4
C
8
H
18
0
5
C
3
H
8
0
2
C
6
H
14
0
3
C
9
H
20
0
4
--
AIR
WATER
AMMONIA
ARGON
CARBON MONOXIDE
CARBON DIOXIDE
CHLORINE
HELIUM
HYDROGEN
HYDROGEN CHLORIDE
HYDROGEN SULFIDE
METHYLCHLORIDE
NITROGEN
OXYGEN
SULFUR DIOXIDE
METHANE
ETHANE
PROPANE
n - BUTANE
n - PENTANE
n - HEXANE
n - HEPTANE
n - OCTANE
n - NONANE
n - DECANE
CYCLOPENTANE
METHYLCYCLOPENTANE
ETHENE (ETHYLENE)
PROPENE
1 - BUTENE
1 - PENTENE
1, 2 - BUTADIENE
ETHYNE (ACETYLENE)
BENZENE
TOLUENE
STYRENE
ISOPROPL BENZENE
ACETONE
ETHYL ACETATE
ETHYL ALCOHOL
METHYL ALCOHOL
n-PROPL ALCOHOL
FURFURAL
MONOETHANOLAMINE (MEA)
ETHYLENE GLYCOL
DIETHYLENE GLYCOL
TRIETHYLENE GLYCOL
TETRAETHYLENE GLYCOL
PROPYLENE GLYCOL
DIPROPYLENE GLYCOL
TRIPROPYLENE GLYCOL
TYPICAL CYLINDER
LUBRICATING OIL, (DTE-105)
28.966
18.016
17.032
39.944
28.010
44.010
70.914
4.003
2.016
36.465
34.076
50.49
28.016
32.000
64.060
16.042
30.068
44.094
58.120
72.146
86.172
100.198
114.224
128.250
142.276
70.130
84.156
28.052
42.078
56.104
70.130
54.088
26.036
78.108
92.134
104.144
120.186
58.08
88.10
46.069
32.042
60.09
96.08
61.08
62.07
106.12
150.17
194.2
76.09
134.17
192.3
--
--
62.365
38.502 at 106.3 psia
--
--
50.882 at 741 psia
88.719 at 85.9 psia
--
--
53.311 at 427 psia
49.222 at 235 psia
61.9 at -13F
--
--
86.923 at 40.6 psia
--
--
31.598at Sat.Pr.
36.378 at Sat.Pr.
39.29
41.345
42.851
44.010
44.942
45.736
46.737
46.927
21.25 at 32F
32.465 at Sat. Pr.
37.410 at Sat.Pr.
40.223
40.963 at Sat.Pr.
38.285 at 578 psia
55.101
54.310
56.756
53.967
49.4
56.6
49.513
49.648
50.2 at 68F
74.7
63.5
69.6
70.0
70.4
70.5
64.9
64.2
64.1
56.9
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
0.00171
0.00111
0.00086
0.00077
0.00069
0.00063
0.00059
0.00055
0.000730
0.000693
--
0.00177
0.00113
0.00087
0.00114
--
0.000686
0.000592
0.000584
0.000550
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
0.00039
0.00041
0.00044
0.00043
0.000425
0.0004
0.00048
--
0.07640
--
0.04492
0.10530
0.07388
0.11608
0.18704
0.01055
0.00532
0.09688
0.08988
0.13292
0.07389
0.0844
0.16897
0.04240
0.07991
0.11819
0.15822
0.19028
0.22728
0.26428
0.30126
0.33826
0.37526
0.18497
0.22196
0.07399
0.11098
0.14797
0.18496
0.14266
0.06867
0.20601
0.24301
3.27469
3.31700
--
--
0.12151
0.84514
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
1.0000
--
0.5880
1.3783
0.9670
1.5194
2.4482
0.1381
0.0696
1.268
1.1764
1.7398
0.9672
1.1047
2.2116
0.555
1.046
1.547
2.071
2.4906
2.9749
3.4591
3.9432
4.4275
4.9118
2.4211
2.9053
0.9684
1.4526
1.9368
2.4210
1.8673
0.8988
2.6965
3.1808
3.5954
4.1492
--
--
1.5905
1.1062
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
0.172 at -314F
1.1404
0.276 at -40F
--
--
0.077 at 107.6 psia
0.385 at 32F
--
0.011 at -434F
--
--
--
--
--
0.3936 at 32F
--
--
0.108
0.180
0.251
0.337
0.425
0.555
0.676
0.92 at 68F
0.493 at 56F
--
0.07 at 32F
--
0.16
--
--
--
0.700
0.624
--
--
0.336
0.471
1.220
0.620
2.494
1.49 at 77F
37
23
47
51
60
77
150
100
1735
0.01817
0.01255 at 212F
0.00968
0.02190
0.01723
0.01460
0.01309
0.01923
0.00866
0.01402
0.01234
0.01043
0.01728
0.01971
0.01230
0.01073
0.00896
0.0078
0.0073
0.00656
--
--
0.00675 at 213F
0.00675 at 212F
--
--
--
0.0098
--
0.0074
--
--
0.00935 at 32F
0.00738 at 57.6F
--
--
--
0.00931 at 212F
0.00684 at 32F
0.0108 at 212F
0.0135 at 152.2F
0.0093 at 212F
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
Unless Otherwise Noted
TABLE
LIQUID TO
VAPOR
CRITICAL CONSTANTS
Freezing
Point
at 14.696
PSIA (F)
Boiling
Point
at 14.696
PSIA (F)
REDUCED
CONDITIONS
LIQUID TO
AIR
RATIO OF
SPECIFIC
HEATS
FOR GAS
Surface Tension
(Dynes/Cm.)
TEMP-
ERATURE
T
C
(F)
PRESSURE
P
C
(PSIA)
COMPRESSIBILITY
FACTOR
(CRITICAL)
T
s
(60F)
T
c
P
s
(14.696)
P
c
-221.3
705.4
271.4
-187.7
-218
88.0
291
-450.2
-399.8
124.5
212.7
289.6
-232.8
-181.8
315
-116.5
90.1
206.3
305.6
385.9
454.5
512.6
565.2
613
655
461.5
499.3
49.8
197.4
295.6
394
339
97.4
553
609.5
706
685
455
482.2
469.6
464
506.7
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
547
3206
1657
705
510
1073
1120
33.2
188
1199
1306
968
492
730
1142
673.1
708.3
617.4
550.7
489.5
439.7
396.9
362.1
345
320
654.7
549.1
742.1
667
583
586
653
905
714
611
580
473
690
555
927
1157
734
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
0.29
0.232
0.25
0.29
0.29
0.29
0.29
---
0.29
0.29
0.29
0.27
0.29
0.29
0.29
0.29
0.288
0.278
0.274
0.286
0.264
0.260
0.256
0.250
0.246
0.276
0.273
0.269
0.274
0.277
0.27
0.27
0.274
0.274
0.260
0.27
0.27
0.25
0.25
0.25
0.25
0.25
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
2.180
0.446
0.711
1.911
2.150
0.949
0.692
54.705
8.676
0.890
0.773
0.694
2.290
1.870
0.671
1.514
0.945
0.780
0.679
0.615
0.568
0.535
0.507
0.484
0.466
0.564
0.542
1.020
0.791
0.688
0.609
0.651
0.933
0.513
0.486
0.446
0.454
0.568
0.552
0.559
0.563
0.538
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
0.027
0.005
0.009
0.021
0.029
0.014
0.013
0.443
0.078
0.012
0.011
0.015
0.030
0.020
0.013
0.022
0.021
0.024
0.027
0.030
0.033
0.037
0.041
0.043
0.046
0.022
0.027
0.020
0.022
0.025
0.025
0.023
0.016
0.021
0.024
0.025
0.031
0.021
0.026
0.016
0.013
0.020
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
32
-107.9
-308.6
-340.6
--
-150.9
-458 at 382 psia
-434.4
-173.6
-121.9
-126.1
-345.6
-361.1
-98.9
-296.5
-297.9
-305.8
-217.0
-201.5
-139.6
-131.1
-70.2
-64.4
-21.5
-137.0
-224.4
-272.5
-301.5
-301.6
-265.4
-213.3
-114
42.0
-139.0
-23.1
-140.9
-139
-118.4
-179.1
-144
-196.6
-33.7
50.9
8
17
19
22
--
--
--
--
-317.7
212
-28.1
-302.3
-313.6
-109.3
30.3
-452
-422.9
-121
-76.5
-10.3
-320.4
-297.4
14
-258.7
-127.5
-43.7
31.1
96.9
155.7
209.2
258.2
303.4
345.2
120.7
161.3
-154.7
-53.9
20.7
86.0
50.5
-119
176.2
231.1
293.4
306.3
-133
171
173.3
148.1
207
323.3
342
387.1
472.6
545.9
597.2
369
447.8
514.4
--
--
--
23 at 52F
--
9.8 at -315.4F
1.2 at 68F
18 at 68F
--
1.91 at -423F
--
--
--
10.53 at -333.4F
13.2 at -297.4F
--
2.8 at -150F
1.6
7.8
13.1
16.6
8.9
20.8
21.8 at 68F
--
--
--
--
1.1 at 32F
--
13.5
--
--
--
28.89 at 68F
28.5 at 68F
--
--
23.7 at 68F
--
22.75 at 68F
20.14 at 122F
23.78 at 68F
43.5 at 68F
--
47 at 77F
44 at 77F
45 at 77F
45 at 77F
36 at 77F
33 at 77F
34 at 77F
--
73.42
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
66 at 68 F
--
16.2 at 68F
-_
--
--
-
--
--
--
--
18.43 at 68F
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
28.85 at 68F
--
32.14 at 66F
--
23.7 at 68F
23.9 at 68F
22 at 77F
22.61 at 68F
--
43.5 at 68F
--
47.7 at 68F
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
1.40
-
1.31
1.67
1.40
1.30
1.37
1.66
1.41
1.41
1.32
1.20
1.40
1.40
1.25
1.31
1.19
1.14
1.09
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
1.24
1.15
1.11
--
1.12
1.24
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
200-059
References :
Chemical Engineers Handbook, Perry, R. H., Don W. Green, 7th. ed., 1997, McGraw Hill Company, Inc.
Engineering Thermodynamics Francis F. Huang, 1976, Macmillan Publishing Co. Inc.
Handbook of Separation Techniques for Chemical Engineers, Philip A Schweitzer, 3rd ed, 1997 McGraw Hill
Company, Inc.
Fundamentals of Fluid Mechanics, Bruce R. Munson, Donald F. Young, Theodore H. Okiishi, 4th ed, 2002 John
Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Gas Engineers Handbook, 1st ed, 1965 Industrial Press Inc.
Petroleum Fluid Flow Systems, O.W. Boyd, 1st ed., 1983, Campbell Petroleum Series
Separation Handbook, E. J. Halter, 1st ed., 1966, Burgess Manning Company
Applied Process Design, Ernest E. Ludwig, Volume 1, 3rd ed., Gulf Publishing Company
Engineering Data Book, Gas Processors Suppliers Association, Volumes 1 and 2, 11th ed., 1998, Gas Processors
Suppliers Association.
Flow of Fluids, Engineering Department, Crane Valves, 1988, Crane Co.