Seminar Report Stealth Fighter

Seminar Report Stealth Fighter
ABSTRACT
Stealth or low observability (as it is scientifically known) is one of the most
misunderstood and misinterpreted concepts in military aviation by the common
man. Stealth aircraft are considered as invisible aircraft, which dominate the skies.
With an additional boost from Hollywood action movies, stealth is today termed as
the concept invincibility rather than invisibility. Though, the debate still continues
on whether stealth technology can make an aircraft invincible it was found that
stealth aircraft are detectable by radar.
The motive behind incorporating stealth technology in an aircraft is not ust to avoid
missiles being fired at is but also to give total deniability to covert operations. This
is very much useful to strike targets where it is impossible to reach. Thus we can
clearly say that the ob of a stealth aircraft pilot is not to let others know that he was
ever there.
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1. INTRODUCTION
Stealth means now observable. The very basic idea of Stealth Technology in the
military is to !blend! in with the background. The "uest for a stealthy plane actually
began more than #$ years ago during World War %% when &'('& was first used as
an early warning system against fleets of bombers. 's a result of that "uest, the
Stealth Technology evolved. Stealth Technology is used in the construction of
mobile military systems such as aircrafts and ships to significantly reduce their
detection by enemy, primarily by an enemy &'('&. The way most airplane
identification works is by constantly bombarding airspace with a &'('& signal.
When a plane flies into the path of the &'('&, a signal bounces back to a sensor
that determines the si)e and location of the plane.
*ther methods focus on measuring acoustic (sound) disturbances, visual contact,
and infrared (heat) signatures. Stealth technologies work by reducing or eliminating
these telltale signals. +anels on planes are angled so that radar is scattered and no
signal returns. +lanes are also covered in a layer of absorbent materials that reduce
any other signature the plane might leave. Shape also has a lot to do with the ,
invisibility
-
of stealth planes. ./treme aerodynamics keeps air turbulence to a
minimum and cut down on flying noise. Special low0noise engines are contained
inside the body of the plane. Hot fumes are then capable of being mi/ed with cool
air before leaving the plane. This fools heat sensors on the ground. This also keeps
heat0seeking missiles from getting any sort of a lock on their targets. Stealth
properties give it the uni"ue ability to penetrate an enemy!s most sophisticated
defenses and threaten its most valued and heavily defended targets. 't a cost of 12
billion each, stealth bombers are not yet available worldwide, but military forces
around the world will soon begin to attempt to mimic some of the key features of
stealth planes, making the skies much more dangerous.
2. HISTORY OF STEALTH AIRCRAFT
With the increasing use of early warning detection devices such as radar by militaries
around the world in the -34$!s the 5nited States began to research and develop aircraft
that would be undetectable to radar detection systems. The first documented stealth
prototype was built out of two layers of plywood glued together with a core of glue and
sawdust. This prototype!s surface was coated with charcoal to absorb radar signals from
being reflected back to the source, which is how radar detection systems detect items in
the air.
6ack 7orthrop built a flying wing in the -38$!s. His plane was the first wave of stealth
aircraft that actually flew. The aircraft proved to be highly unstable and hard to fly due
to design flaws. The 5nited States initially orders -9$ of these aircraft from 7orthrop
but cancelled the order after finding that the plane had stability :laws. Then in -3;8,
S&09- the first Stealth airplane launched. %t is well known as <black bird!. %t is a et
black bomber with slanted surfaces. This aircraft was built to fly high and fast to be
able to bypass radar by its altitude and speed. The =lackbird was developed primarily
for the >old War between the 5nited States and the 5.S.S.&. S&09- 'ircraft is shown
in figure 2.2.-.
Then in -3?2, the first :0--9' (:ig 2.2.2) was delivered. %t is world!s first operational
aircraft designed to e/ploit low observable Stealth Technology.
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Fig 2.2. F-117A NIGHT HAWK
4
Then world!s most advanced Stealth fighter, =02 delivered by -3??. ' =02 Spirit multi0
role bomber is shown in figure 2.2.4
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Fig 2.3. B-2 SPIRIT MULTI-ROLE BOMBER

3. HOW DOES STEALTH TECHNOLOGY WORK!
The idea is for the radar antenna to send out a burst of radio energy, which is then
reflected back by any obect it happens to encounter. The radar antenna measures the
time it takes for the reflection to arrive, and with that information can tell how far away
the obect is.
The metal body of an airplane is very good at reflecting radar signals, and this makes it
easy to find and track airplanes with radar e"uipment.
The goal of stealth technology is to make an airplane invisible to radar. There are two
different ways to create invisibility@
A The airplane can be shaped so that any radar signals it reflects are reflected away from
the radar e"uipment.
A The airplane can be covered in materials that absorb radar signals.
4. AIRCRAFT DETECTION METHODS
The most common methods used today to detect an aircraft are,
4.1 RADAR
>urrently the way to detect and even identify an aircraft is the use of &'('& (radio
detection and ranging). This system invented during World War %%, simply works by
constantly sending bursts of radio waves of certain fre"uencies and measures the echoes
of each burst. *bects are reflecting parts of the energy of radio waves. (epending on the
material the obect is made of, this echo is stronger or weaker, but there is an echo. =y
measuring the reflected energy as a function of position and time, computers can
calculate what it is that reflects the energy, where it is in 4( space and also in what
direction it moves. To get a proper overview of an area with &'('&, the transmitting
and receiving antenna should rotate in angles of 4;$ degrees. &'('& works on the
principle of echo and (oppler shift. .cho is the repetition of a note after the original note
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is dead. (oppler shift is the phenomenon of apparent change in the fre"uency of the radio
wave whenever there is a relative motion between the source and the obect.
4.1.1 SOURCES OF RADAR REFLECTION
A-1#W$%&'(g
a) Baps and breaks in surface
b) 5nshielded cockpit
c) ./ternal weapons
d) ./posed engines
e) Carge, right0angled tail surfaces
f) &ight0angle wing design
4. I .2 RADAR CROSS SECTION )RCS*+
The &adar >ross Section of a target is the area intercepting that amount of power which,
when scattered e"ually in all directions, produce an echo at radar e"ual to that from the
target.
RCS (, -$%i(./ (0123&/+
C(4&%i0.&i(4/ &( RCS ,(% $ 3(4-24&i(4$5 $i%3%$,&
&>S depends on aircraft shape, aspect angle or orientation with respect to radar line of
sight (C*S), ratio of radar wavelength to target si)e, polari)ation of transmit and receive
antennae, surface "uality of target, and constitution of the target.
The &>S of an aircraft is determined by the magnitudes of two distinctly different
contributions@
-. its si)e and shape, both overall and in detail
2. the electromagnetic properties of airframe materials aircraft shaping is useful over a
wide range of radar fre"uencies but over a limited range of aspect angles. Typically, for
fighter aircraft, a forward cone of angles is of greatest interest and hence, large returns
can be shifted aircraft can be shaped to ensure that most radar waves will be scattered and
not reflected back to the transmitter. Ceading and trailing edges of wings, control
surfaces, inlet lips, door gaps, etc. can be aligned to ensure that the energy that is
concentrated into a few spikes. This will give the opposing radar one good return when
the alignment is ideal, but a much weaker return on subse"uent sweeps.
Daor contributor to &>S for a conventional aircraft
A .ngine compressor faces (forward) and turbines (aft) due to (oppler signature.
A 'ir inlets for engines.
A ./ternal stores, including missiles seeker heads.
A Wing leading edge, especially if unswept.
A >orner reflections at intersections of hori)ontal and vertical tails.
A Wing from directly belowEabove.
A >ockpit, including cavity effect due to a large number of corner reflectors.
A .ngine no))le if viewed from rear.
A :lat, slab0sided fuselage when viewed from side.
4.2 HEAT DETECTION
'nother way of detecting if an aircraft is flying somewhere is by measuring the heat it
radiates. 7ormally this heat is produced by the plane engines. There are two significant
sources of infrared radiation from air0breathing propulsion systems@ hot parts and et
wakes. =y modern heat image sensors (%nfrared sensors) the difference can be seen
between a flying obect itself and the surrounding cold air. This is the same for the et
engine e/haust gases.
4.3 TURBULENCE DETECTION
Shape also has a lot to do with the !invisibility! of stealth planes. ./treme aerodynamics
keeps air turbulence to a minimum. Sophisticated Caser controlled turbulence sensors,
which can measure paths of disturbed air, generated by an aircraft, which ust passed.
4.4 8ISUAL DETECTION
The e/haust of aircraft i.e., the white line in the sky caused by high0 flying planes makes
it easier to detect the aircraft even with the naked eye. 'lso the color of the aircraft is an
important factor.
4. ACOUSTIC DETECTION
' very obvious source of detection is the noise, generated by et engines. Several systems
have been designed in the meantime to reduce the sound of et engine e/hausts to a
minimum, making them harder to detect by ust measuring sound waves.
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. RE9UIREMENTS TO BE STEALTHY
To make a stealthy aircraft, designers had to consider si/ key in gradients@
-. They need to reduce the imprint on the radar screen.
2. Turn down the heat of its infrared picture.
4. They need to reduce muffling noise.
8. They need to reduce the turbulence.
#. Daking the plane less visible.
;. Stifle radio emissions.
.1 RADAR ECHO REDUCTION
.1.1 SCATTERING
The airplane can be shaped so that any &'('& signals it reflects are deflected away
from the &'('& e"uipment. Dost conventional aircraft (fig2.4.-) have a rounded
shape. This shape makes them aerodynamic, but it also creates a very efficient radar
reflector. The round shape means that no matter where the radar signal hits the plane,
some of the signal gets reflected back@
Fig .1.1.1.C(4-24&i(4$5 Ai%3%$,&-82%: 2,,i3i24& %$;$% %2,523&(%
' stealth aircraft (fig.2.4.2), on the other hand, is made up of completely flat surfaces and
very sharp edges. When a radar signal hits a stealth plane, the signal reflects away at an
angle, like this@
Fig..1.1.2.S&2$5&' Ai%3%$,&-R$;$% /ig4$5 %2,523& $<$: $& $4 $4g52
%n addition, surfaces on a stealth aircraft can be treated so they absorb radar energy as
well. The overall result is that a stealth aircraft like an :0--9' can have the radar
signature of a small bird rather than an airplane. The only e/ception is when the plane
banks F there will often be a moment when one of the panels of the plane will perfectly
reflect a burst of radar energy back to the antenna.
. I .2 REDUCTION BY RAM+
' second way of stopping &'('& reflections is by coating the plane with material that
soaks up &adar energy. &adar absorbing coatings can be applied to the surface of the
body, which effectively drain the energy of the radar signal. :or e/ample, &adar
'bsorbent Daterial (&'D), coatings designed to suck in and dissipate the
electromagnetic energy of radar wave instead of reflecting it back to the source.
RADAR ABSORBENT MATERIAL )RAM*
's its name implies, &'D is intended to reduce the scattered signal by absorbing some
part of the incident radiation. Dicrowave energy is converted into heat energy with
hardly any noticeable temperature rise because the energies involved are e/tremely small.
Garious kinds of materials can be made to absorb microwave energy by impregnating
them with conducting materials such as carbon and iron.
%n the main, there are two currently used kinds of absorbers, called di0electric &'D and
magnetic &'D. 'ddition of carbon products in an insulating material introduces electric
resistance and changes the electrical properties. Hence carbon0based absorbers are called
dielectric &'D. The most familiar e/amples are pyramidal absorbers found in anechoic
chambers. (ielectric &'D is usually too bulky and fragile and not attractive where space
is limited and severe mechanical vibrations e/ist. Dagnetic &'D uses iron products such
as carbonyl iron and iron o/ides called ferrites. %ron effectively dissipates radar waves
and has been used in aircraft paint. %t is "uite effective against the high fre"uency radars
used in modern fighters. 5nlike dielectric &'D, magnetic &'D is compact, thin and of
ade"uate strength to withstand loads and an abrasive environment. 7evertheless, its
thickness does rob volume from volume limited aircraft. Some important &'D!s used
today are,
)A*SALISBURY SCREEN+
%ts construction consists of a conductive carbon coated <lossy< fabric, separated from a
conductive ground plane by a low dielectric foam core.
)B*FOAM MATERIALS+
(ifferent foam materials are,
a) single layer foam
b) multi layer foam0made of 4 single layers
c) reticulated foam
d) weather proof foam
)C*MAGNETIC ABSORBERS+
The magnetic absorbers are elastomeric moulded sheets loaded with magnetic
filler. The use of the magnetic filler provides the best performance at the minimum
thickness. (ifferent magnetic absorbers are,
a) tuned fre"uency magnetic absorbers
b) surface wave absorbers
c) multiband absorbers
)D*CORE MATERIAL+
>ore material is a broadband microwave absorbing honeycomb core. 7ormally uses
either aramid or fiberglass honeycomb core and applies a lossy coating to it
.
)E*PIFRAM )POLY CRYSTALLINE IRON FIBRE RAM*+
%t is the only electromagnetic &adar 'bsorbing Daterial that may be retrofitted to
e/isting material because of its low weight and very low thickness.
.2 ECHO CANCELLATION
Detal component such as the engine, which produces significant radar reflections, can be
shielded using a metal and plastic sandwich whose layers are spaced in such a way as to
create a standing wave, canceling out any radar reflections.
.3 HEAT RADIATION REDUCTION
%nfrared radiation (heat) should be minimi)ed by a combination of temperature reduction
and masking. The main body of the airplane has its own radiation, heavily dependent on
speed and altitude, and the et plume can be a most significant factor, particularly in after
burning operation. The engines are buried deep in the fuselage These have got shallow
!platypus! e/hausts, which cool and deflect the e/haust gases upward to minimi)e heat
emissions.
.4 TURBULENCE DETECTION REDUCTION
=y optimi)ing the aerodynamics of the stealth plane, the eye visible turbulence trail in the
air, can be kept to a minimum. This way it becomes harder for the very special laser
e"uipment to detect the trail and trace it back all the way to the plane which created it.
. 8ISUAL DETECTION REDUCTION
..1 HIDING SMOKE CONTRAILS )=ET WAKE*
&educing smoke in the e/haust is accomplished by improving the efficiency of the
combustion chambers. Tests have been done using e/otic chemicals to be inserted in to
the engine outlet gases to modify infrared signature as well as to force water molecules in
the e/haust plume to break up in to much finer particles, thus reduce or even eliminate
contrails. *ne of the chemicals used for this was chloro0fluoro0sulphonic acid.
..2 L(< 8ISIBILITY
'n aircraft at low to medium altitudes tends to be a black dot against the background of
the sky. To avoid this, the plane is given a special medium gray color. The gray, when
combined with light scattering at low to medium altitudes ensures about as low
observability as can be possible or a reduction to 4$H in visibility.
..3 L(< LE8EL FLIGHT
'nother techni"ue used by aircraft to avoid radar is to fly at very low levels where there
is a great deal of <ground clutter!...radar reflections given off by buildings and other
obects. Cow level aircraft can go undetected by most radar systems.
". THE COST OF SIGNATURE CONTROL
The re"uirement for aircraft to be stealthy results in unconventional configurations, the
producability, performance controllability and maintainability of which contain a large
number of unknowns. However, the overriding re"uirement for any future aircraft if
affordability. This affects the availability of aircraft as well as reliability, maintainability,
survivability.
The probability of a kill@
+I J +( , +'E( , +HE' , +HEI
where +( J probability of detection
+'E( J probability of ac"uisition given detection +HE' J probability of a hit given
ac"uisition +HEI J probability of kill given a hit
History shows that it is easy to turn a good idea into an unaffordable one. The :022 is a
solution to the problem but probably it is unaffordable by all e/cept the 5S. Some of the
adverse effects of the &>S reduction are
A increased cost
A additional maintenance
A added weight and volume
leading to performance penalties.
%n addition the stealth brings with it <special access! security which is costly in terms of
both time and money and if applied without careful thought, can become an impediment.
The '0-2 security was so tight that the 5S navy and (o( did not subect the program to
normal reviews and were late in learning of weight, schedule and cost problems.
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7. PERFORMANCE PENALTIES
=ecause the advantages of <stealth< technology outweigh the disadvantages, the latter are
considered necessary evils when a <stealth< aircraft is built. The aerodynamic problems
posed by stealthy aircraft, especially if they are inherently unstable, are @
-. stability and control due to reductionEremoval of control surfaces and the limited area
of control surfaces all ensuing from stealthy considerations. The need for tailless designs
places a great deal of emphasis on the flight control system(:>S) and may re"uire thrust
vector control to downsi)e the vertical tails. >urrently the :022s two dimensional e/haust
no))le, used for signature reasons, is around 2$H heavier and more e/pensive than an
e"uivalent 4( one.
2. the effect of controllability of novel considerations.
4. the effect on aircraft and engine performance of inlet duct positioning and shaping,
due to the stealth re"uirements. The loss of available installed thrust due to air inlet and
no))le shaping for %& and &>S controlled can be a maor penalty. The insistence of -$$H
C*S blockage to the engine fails to reduce &>S, with the engine face offset $.90-.2
diameters from that of the inlet throat, will via a long S0duct, mean losses in stagnation
pressure recovery that increase markedly with throat Dach number.
8. the effect of novel configurations on drag, buffet and ride "uality
#. the problems of weapon release and weapon bay aerodynamic loading caused by
internal carriage of stores.
;. %ncreased empty weights result from the addition of e/ternal radar0absorbent coatings,
from engines that are buried inside the structure to reduce the amount of heat they
generate, and from e/otic and sophisticated engine e/haust no))les that also help reduce
heat generation. :inally, a full complement of heavy and space0consuming
electronic countermeasures e"uipment, which is part of the aircraft!s defenses, adds to
its weight. 'll of these add weight that otherwise would not be an encumbranceK and
weight e"uates to penalties in speed, range, and altitude performance.
9. =ecause range is reduced by many of <stealth!s< physical constraints, <stealth<
aircraft sometimes need to be bigger than designers would like in order to carry sufficient
fuel. <Stealth< aircraft cannot be e"uipped with e/ternal fuel tanks because doing so
would increase their radar reflectivity. 'll e/ternal protrusions, such as the edges of the
landing gear doors, must be perfectly matched to prevent radar energy from being
reflected. =ecause of this, the detail work entailed in the design and construction of a
<stealth< aircraft is much more e/acting than in conventional aircraft. .ven the smallest
oversight in panel matching can make a <stealth< aircraft vulnerable to radar. Such
e/acting re"uirements increase engineering, manufacturing, and maintenance costs of the
<stealth< aircraft so that they are several times as e/pensive as conventional aircraft.
'll of these modifications, however, hurt the plane!s performance, adding weight,
affecting aerodynamics, and altering the structure of the aircraft. The advantages of
stealth technology must always be weighed against its disadvantages.
6. LIMITATIONS
There are limits to the utility of stealth techni"ues. Since the radar cross0section of an
aircraft depends on the angle from which it is viewed, an aircraft will typically have a
much smaller &>S when viewed from the front or rear than when viewed from the side or
from above. %n general stealth aircraft are designed to minimi)e their frontal &>S. =ut it
is not possible to contour the surface of an aircraft to reduce the &>S e"ually in all
directions, and reductions in the frontal &>S may lead to a larger &>S from above. Thus
while a stealth aircraft may be difficult to track when it is flying toward a ground0based
radar or another aircraft at the same altitude, a high0altitude airborne radar or a space0
based radar may have an easier time tracking it.
'nother limitation of stealth aircraft is their vulnerability to detection by bi0static radars.
The contouring of a stealth aircraft is designed to avoid reflecting a radar signal directly
back in the direction of the radar transmitter. =ut the transmitter and receiver of a bi0
static radar are in separate locations F indeed, a single transmitter may be used by radar
receivers scattered over a wide area. This greatly increases the odds that at least one of
these receivers will pickup a reflected signal. The prospects for detection of stealth
aircraft by bi0static radar are further improved if the radar transmitter is space0based, and
thus viewing the aircraft from above, the direction of its largest radar cross section.
Several analysts claim stealth aircraft such as the 'T: will be vulnerable to detection by
infrared search and track systems (%&ST). The natural heating of an aircraft!s surface
makes it visible to this type of system. The faster and aircraft flies, the warmer it gets,
and thus, the easier to detect through infrared means. *ne e/pert asserts <if an aircraft
deviates from its surroundings by only one degree centigrade, you will be able to detect it
at militarily useful ranges.< Stealth aircraft are even more vulnerable to multiple sensors
used in tandem.
7. STEALTH FEATURES OF SOME AIRCRAFT
7. I SR-71 BLACKBIRD
Fig 7.1.1 SR-71 BLACKBIRD
Thirty years after its first flight, the S&09-(:ig 2.8.-.-) =lackbird is still unmatched in
height and speed. The =lackbird can fly at an altitude of -$$,$$$ or more and can go as
fast as Dach 4.# or 2,#$$ D+H.
The S&09- is the fastest known aircraft. %t was the only aircraft that could fly its entire
mission at supersonic speeds. The only aircraft that even approaches the =lackbird!s
speed is the Dig 2#, and it can only sustain Dach 4 for a few minutes.
The =lackbird operates at the e/treme edge of .arth!s atmosphere and pilots are re"uired
to wear space suits like astronauts in the event of an emergency. The =lackbird!s paint is
highly sophisticated@ it is formulated to radiate e/cess heat as well as to disrupt incoming
radar energy. %t changes to blue at operating temperatures and altitudes. The =lackbird!s
tires are filled with nitrogen and impregnated with powdered aluminum to enable them to
withstand heat. The =lackbird!s airframe is 3$H titanium to withstand the friction
generated at Dach 4. The friction can cause the =lackbird!s skin to heat up to 8$$ degrees
:ahrenheit.
The component parts of the =lackbird fit very loosely to allow for e/pansion at high
temperatures. 't rest on the ground fuel leaks out constantly, since the large tanks in the
fuselage and wings only seal at operating temperatures. There is little danger of fire,
however, since the fuel is very stable with an e/tremely high flash point.
%t took a lot of effort to keep the =lackbird in the air, an estimate has put the cost of
flying the =lackbird at more the 12$$,$$$ per hour. The plan was taken by Cockheed
'ircraft >ompany!s genius Ielly 6ohnson.
'n aircraft at Dach 4 would have to sustain a high temperature. The =lackbird would
reach 42; degrees on the cockpit windshield and 82; degrees on the wing areas, which is
hot enough to melt lead.
The electric switches and wires were gold0plated to increase conductivity at high
temperatures. Tires were filled with nitrogen instead of air to prevent them from
e/ploding as heat builds up in flight. The =lackbird was painted black to lower the
temperature, as black is a good radiator. &adar absorbing materials were applied to the
leading edges of the wings and the fuselage sloped outwards. =y doing this, they were
creating the first stealth aircraft, nearly invisible to radar.
7.2 F- I I 7 A NIGHTHAWK STEALTH FIGHTER ATTACK AIRCRAFT
Fig.7.2.1 F-117 A NIGHTHAWK STEALTH FIGHTER
The :0--9' 7ighthawk Stealth :ighter (2.8.2.-) attack aircraft was developed by
Cockheed Dartin after work on stealth technology, and the predecessor test demonstrator
aircraft, Have =lue, was carried out in secret from -39#. (evelopment of the :0--9'
began in -39? and it was first flown in -3?-, but it was not until -3?? that its e/istence
was publicly announced. The 7ighthawk is the world!s first operational stealth aircraft.
*f the #3 7ighthawks procured by the 5S 'ir :orce, #2 are still in service.
DESIGN+
The surfaces and edge profiles are optimi)ed to reflect hostile radar into narrow beam
signals, directed away from the enemy radar detector. 'll the doors and opening panels
on the aircraft have saw0toothed forward and trailing edges to reflect radar. The aircraft is
mainly constructed of aluminum, with titanium for areas of the engine and e/haust
systems. The outer surface of the aircraft is coated with a radar0absorbent material
(&'D). The radar cross0section of the :0--9 has been estimated at between -$0-$$cm
2
.
The entire stealth fleet will be stripped of the sheet0coated, radar0absorbing materials on
the wings, rudders and fuselage. The first :0--9 to undergo modification was delivered to
Holloman 'ir :orce =ase, 7ew De/ico, in 'pril 2$$$.The 'ir :orce e/pects to have the
whole fleet resurfaced in five years.
The :0--9' has four elevens on the inboard and outboard trailing edge of the wing. The
G0shaped drag parachute is used.
ENGINES+
The :0--9' is powered by two low0bypass :8$80B.0:-(2 turbofan engines from
Beneral .lectric. The rectangular air intakes on both sides of the fuselage are covered by
gratings, which are coated with radar0absorbent material.
The wide and flat structure of the engine e/haust area reduces the infrared and radar
delectability of the aft section of the engine. The two large tail fins slant slightly outwards
to provide an obstruction to the infrared and radar returns from the engine e/haust area.
GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS+
+rimary :unction@ :ighterEattack
>ontractor@ Cockheed 'eronautical Systems >o.
+ower +lant@ Two Beneral .lectric :8$8 non0afterburning engines
Speed@ High subsonic
&ange@ 5nlimited with air refueling
7.3 B-2 SPIRIT STEALTH BOMBER
Fig 7.3.1. B-2 SPIRIT STEALTH BOMBER
The ;02(2.8.4.-.) provides the penetrating fle/ibility and effectiveness inherent in
manned bombers. %ts low0observable, or <stealth,< characteristics give it the uni"ue
ability to penetrate an enemy!s most sophisticated defenses and threaten its most valued,
and heavily defended, targets. The =02 Spirit is a multi0role bomber capable of delivering
both conventional and nuclear munitions. The saga of the =02 began in the late -39$s
when the 5nited States commenced a top secret program to construct a fleet of radar0
evading bombers dubbed <Stealth.< (evelopment of the =02 program began in -3?-.
%nitially, the +entagon sought to ac"uire -42 planes. The first =02 was publicly displayed
on 7ov. 22, -3??.
DESIGN
The revolutionary blending of low0observable technologies with high aerodynamic
efficiency and large payload gives the =02 important advantages over e/isting bombers.
%ts low0observability provides it greater freedom of action at high altitudes, thus
increasing its range and a better field of view for the aircraft!s sensors. %ts unrefueled
range is appro/imately ;,$$$ nautical miles (3,;$$ kilometers).
The =02!s low observability is derived from a combination of reduced infrared, acoustic,
electromagnetic, visual and radar signatures. These signatures make it difficult for the
sophisticated defensive systems to detect, track and engage the =02. Dany aspects of the
low0observability process remain classifiedK however, the =02!s composite materials,
special coatings and flying0wing design all contribute to its <stealthiness.<
The =02!s flat, narrow shape and black coloration help it fade into the night. .ven in the
daytime, when the =02 stands out against blue sky, it can be hard to figure out which way
the plane is going. The =02 emits minimal e/haust, so it doesn!t leave a visible trail
behind it.
's with most planes, the =02!s noisiest component is its engine system. =ut unlike a
passenger et or =0#2, the =02!s engines are buried inside the plane. This helps muffle the
noise. The efficient aerodynamic design helps keep the =02 "uiet as well, because the
engines can operate at lower power settings.
The engine system also works to minimi)e the plane!s infrared (heat) signature. %nfrared
sensors, including those on heat0seeking missiles, typically pick up on hot engine
e/haust. %n the =02, all of the e/haust passes through cooling vents before flowing out of
the rear ports. +utting the e/haust ports on the top of the plane further reduces the
infrared signature, since enemy sensors would most likely scan below the plane.
The =02 has two maor defenses against radar detection. The first element is the plane!s
radar0absorbent surface. The radio waves used in radar are electromagnetic energy, ust
like light waves. %n the same way that certain materials absorb light very well (black
paint, for e/ample), some materials are particularly good at absorbing radio waves.
The =02!s body is mainly composed of composite material F combinations of various
lightweight substances. The composite material used in the =02 bomber is specifically
designed to absorb radio energy with optimum efficiency. +arts of the =02, such as the
leading edge, are also covered in advanced radio0absorbent paint and tape. These
materials are very e/pensive, and the 'ir :orce has to reapply them regularly. 'fter every
flight, repair crews have to spend many hours e/amining the =02 to make sure it!s fit for
stealth missions.
Highly reflective metal components, such as the plane!s engines, are all housed inside the
composite body. 'ir flows into the intake ports, though an S0shaped duct and down to the
engines. The bombs are also mounted inside the plane, and the landing gear fully retracts
after take0off.
The second element in radar invisibility is the plane!s shape. &adio waves bounce off
planes in the same way light bounces off a mirror. ' flat, vertical mirror will bounce your
image straight back to you F you!ll see yourself. =ut if you tilt the mirror 8# degrees, it
will reflect your image straight upward. Lou won!t see yourselfK you!ll see an image of
the ceiling. ' curved mirror also deflects light at an angle. %f you were to aim a laser
pointer at a curved mirror, the laser beam would never bounce straight back to the
pointer, no matter how you positioned it.
The stealth bomber!s peculiar shape deflects radio beams in both ways. The large flat
areas on the top and bottom of the plane are ust like tilted mirrors. These flat areas will
deflect most radio beams away from the station, presuming the station isn!t directly
beneath the plane.
The plane itself also works like a curved mirror, particularly in the front section. The
entire plane has no sharp, angled edges F every surface is curved in order to deflect
radio waves. The curves are designed to bounce almost all radio waves away at an angle.
The =02 is designed to contain its own radio signals, the electromagnetic energy
generated by onboard electronics. The plane does emit radio energy when using its radar
www.seminarsTopics.com 2"
scanner or communicating with ground forces and other aircraft, but the radar signal is
small and highly focused, making it less susceptible to detection.
ENGINE
The aircraft is powered by four Beneral .lectric :--?0B.0-$$ turbofan engines
internally mounted in the body of the wings. The engines have an e/haust temperature
control system to minimi)e thermal signature.
GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS
+rimary function@ Dulti0role heavy bomber
+rime >ontractor@ 7orthrop Brumman >orp.
+ower +lant@ :our Beneral .lectric :0--?0B.0-$$ engines
Speed@ High subsonic
&ange@ %ntercontinental, unrefueled
>rew@ Two pilots
(ate (eployed@ (ecember -334
3.8 THE BIRD OF PREY
Fig 7.4.1. THE BIRD OF PREY
With stabili)ers smoothly blended into the wing and an inlet entirely masked from the
front, the =ird *f +rey (:ig 2.8.#.-) is clearly aimed at very low &>S levels.
%t is a single seat, single engine design and with a reported ma/imum altitude of ;-$$
metres (2$,$$$ feet). %ts top speed is a relatively sedate 8?$ kmEh (4$$ mph).
The unconventional configuration of the =ird of +rey suggests it has been designed to be
highly agile and stealthy. =ut even though the aircraft itself has been revealed to the
public, the stealth systems designed to suppress acoustic, infra0red, radar and even visual
signatures are likely to be as highly classified as ever.
Sources suggest they may include active camouflage systems to reduce visibility by using
panels or coatings that change color or luminosity. This could allow safe combat missions
in daylight, rather than being restricted to night flying. Dany features of the =ird of +rey
support the hypothesis that it was designed for unprecedented &>S levels@ possibly an
&>S of 09$d=sm, or rather smaller than a mos"uito.
The shape of the aircraft, too, is 0 accidentally or intentionally 0 laid out to avoid
shadows. This suggests strongly that the =ird of +rey is a demonstrator for visual stealth
technology.
' key aspect of the proect was that the aircraft would be ine/pensive to build. +hantom
Works engineers say they used disposable tooling and 40( virtual reality for its design
and assembly.
%t has not been confirmed whether the =ird of +rey was ultimately intended to be manned
or unmanned. The proect formally started in -332.
7 . CONCLUSION
%magine you can electronically change the color of a given surface in such a way it can
match the terrain below it. Cooking from above, the surface appears to match the terrain.
:ly over forest, and the surface takes on a green like hue. ' cloudy day adds clouds to
match what sensors see underneath and the aircraft becomes a chameleon and disappears.
This may sound like science fiction, but then think of the C>( display of notebooks and
it may not seem so far fetched all of a sudden. This is not a new ideaK in fact several
military fiction writers have already come up with the idea, in one particular instance
having the aircraft continually modifying top and bottom like a magician!s mirror bo/
making the aircraft totally invisible. Dore technologies are currently under development
and will be closely monitored. =ut likewise the :0--9, we may not hear about that until
the first smart bomb coming out of nowhere has made a successful hitM
7. REFERENCES
&'L WH%T:*&(, Designing For Stealth In Fighter Aircraft, >&'7:%.C(
57%G.&S%TL
www.fas.org
www.airforce0technology.org www.anes.com www.discovery.com

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