Effective communication in science requires accurate

and precise internationally acceptable terminology and

procedures. The Abridged Version of the International
Stratigraphic Guide, like the Guide itself, was devel-
oped to promote international agreement on principles
of stratigraphic classification and to develop an
internationally acceptable stratigraphic terminology
and rules of procedure in the interest of improved accu-
racy and precision in international communication,
coordination, and understanding. It is not a revision of
the Guide but a short version that omits history,
explanatory text, and exemplication, the glossaries
and the bibliography.
Preface
The second edition of the International Stratigraphic Guide, edited
by Amos Salvador, was prepared by the International Subcommis-
sion on Stratigraphic Classication of the International Commission
on Stratigraphy and co-published in 1994 by the International Union
of Geological Sciences and the Geological Society of America. Like
the rst edition, edited by Hollis D. Hedberg and published in 1976,
the second edition of the Guide has been widely accepted and used
by stratigraphers throughout the world. Copies can be obtained from
the Geological Society of America, Publication Sales, P.O. Box
9140, Boulder, CO 80301, Fax 303-447-1133.
Despite the wide acceptance and distribution of the second edi-
tion of the Guide, stratigraphers and students of stratigraphy around
the world have commented on difficulty in gaining access to the
Guide mainly because of remote availability of copies and of cost.
The present abridged version of the second edition of the Guide is an
attempt to overcome these problems.
This abridged version is not a revision of the substance of the
Guide; all essential tenets of the full second edition concerning
stratigraphic classication, terminology, and procedure have been
retained. Moreover, the abridged version has maintained the same
organizational framework to the level of chapters, headings, and
subheadings, so that the user can readily refer to the full version of
the Guide for supplementary detail; and where non-essential discus-
sions of certain sections have been eliminated, headings have still
been retained so that the user can easily nd the corresponding sec-
tion in the full version of the Guide. The principal victims of the
abridgement have been some explanatory text, examples of strati-
graphic procedures, the Glossary of Stratigraphic Terms, the List of
National or Regional Stratigraphic Codes, and the extensive Bibli-
ography of Stratigraphic Classication, Terminology and Procedure.
The editors express their appreciation to the editor of Episodes
for helping to meet the aims of this abridged version of the Interna-
tional Stratigraphic Guide by publishing it in his journal, and for
agreeing to prepare and market covered reprints of this document at
cost. These actions ensure that the basic tenets of stratigraphic clas-
sication, terminology, and procedure can now reach stratigraphers
and students of stratigraphy everywhere in the world.
As the notice accompanying this issue of Episodes states, indi-
vidual covered reprints of the abridged version of the second edition
of the Guide can be obtained from Episodes, P.O. Box 823, 26 Bai-
wanzhuang Road, 100037 Beijing, People's Republic of China, for a
few dollars plus postage charges.
CHAPTER 1 Introduction
A. Origin and Purposes of the Guide
The purposes and spirit of this short version are the same as
those of the second edition of the Guide: to promote international
agreement on principles of stratigraphic classication and to develop
an internationally acceptable stratigraphic terminology and rules of
stratigraphic procedureall in the interest of improved accuracy and
precision in international communication, coordination, and under-
standing.
B. Composition of Subcommission
The membership of the Subcommission represents a worldwide
geographic spread of stratigraphers and stratigraphic organizations
and a wide spectrum of stratigraphic interests, traditions and philoso-
phies. Over the years, the number of members has ranged from 75 to
130 representing 30 to 45 countries.
C. Preparation and Revision of the Guide
D. Spirit of the Guide
Like the second edition of the International Stratigraphic Guide,
this abridged version is offered as a recommended approach to strati-
graphic classication, terminology, and procedure, not as a code.
E. National and Regional Stratigraphic Codes
The ISSC has always supported the development of national
and regional stratigraphic codes; these codes have helped in the past
Episodes, Vol. 22, no. 4
Edited by Michael A. Murphy
1
and Amos Salvador
2
International Subcommission on Stratigraphic Classication of IUGS
International Commission on Stratigraphy
International Stratigraphic Guide
An abridged version
1 Geology Department, University of California, Davis, California 95616, USA.
2 Department of Geological Sciences, University of Texas at Austin, Austin, Texas 78712, USA; e-mail: amos.salvador@mail.utexas.edu
Special 255
in developing principles, and providing a testing ground for various
proposals contained in the Guide.
F. Alternative or Dissenting Views
CHAPTER 2 Principles of Stratigraphic
Classication
A. General
Stratigraphic classication encompasses all rocks of the crust of
the Earth. Rocks have many tangible and measurable properties and
may be classied according to any of them. Rocks may also be clas-
sied by their time of origin or interpreted attributes, such as envi-
ronment or genesis.
The stratigraphic position of change for any property or
attribute does not necessarily coincide with that for any other. Con-
sequently, units based on one property commonly do not coincide
with those based on a different property. Therefore, it is not possible
to express the distributions in the rocks of all of the different proper-
ties with a single set of stratigraphic units. Different sets of units are
needed. However, all the different classications are closely related
because they express different aspects of the same rock bodies and
they are used to achieve the same goals of stratigraphy: to improve
our knowledge and understanding of the Earths rock bodies and
their history.
B. Categories of Stratigraphic Classication
Rock bodies may be classied according to many different
inherent properties. Each classication needs its own distinctive
nomenclature. The following kinds of formal units are best known
and most widely used:
1. Lithostratigraphic unitsunits based on the lithologic prop-
erties of the rock bodies.
2. Unconformity-bounded unitsbodies of rock bounded
above and below by signicant discontinuities in the stratigraphic
succession.
3. Biostratigraphic unitsunits based on the fossil content of
the rock bodies.
4. Magnetostratigraphic polarity unitsunits based on
changes in the orientation of the remanent magnetization of the rock
bodies.
5. Chronostratigraphic unitsunits based on the time of for-
mation of the rock bodies.
Many other properties and attributes may be used to classify
rock bodies and the way is open to use any that show promise.
Whenever this is the case, the unit-terms being used should be
dened.
Though each kind of stratigraphic unit may be particularly use-
ful in stratigraphic classication under certain conditions or in cer-
tain areas or for certain purposes, chronostratigraphic units offer the
greatest promise for formally-named units of worldwide application
because they are based on their time of formation. Lithostrati-
graphic, biostratigraphic, and unconformity-bounded units are all of
limited areal extent, and thus unsatisfactory for global synthesis.
Magnetostratigraphic polarity units, though potentially worldwide in
extent, require extrinsic data from the other units for their recogni-
tion, and dating. For these reasons, chronostratigraphic units have
been chosen for international communication among stratigraphers
with respect to position in the stratigraphic column.
C. Distinguishing Terminologies for each Category
Appropriate distinguishing terms are needed for each of the
various categories of stratigraphic units. Some of the classications
are best suited to a hierarchical classication whereas in others all
categories are of equal rank. Table 1 gives terms here recommended
for various categories of stratigraphic units.
D. Chronostratigraphic and Geochronologic Units
Chronostratigraphic units are tangible stratigraphic units because
they encompass all the rocks formed during a dened interval of time.
Geochronologic units are units of timean intangible propertyand
thus intangible units, not in themselves stratigraphic units.
E. Incompleteness of the Rock Record
The rock record of any one area is far from continuous or com-
plete. It is commonly interrupted by innumerable diastems, discon-
tinuities, and unconformities. Short interruptions of the record, in
fact, exist in layered rocks at every bedding plane. The evidence
which the rocks carry of these missing intervals is in itself a part of
stratigraphy and a very important contribution to the understanding
of Earth history.
CHAPTER 3 Denitions and Procedures
A. Denitions
1. Stratigraphy. Stratigraphy, from Latin stratum + Greek
graphia, is the description of all rock bodies forming the Earths
crust and their organization into distinctive, useful, mappable units
based on their inherent properties or attributes in order to establish
their distribution and relationship in space and their succession in
time, and to interpret geologic history.
December 1999
256
Table 1 Summary of Categories and Unit-Terms in Stratigraphic
Classication*.
2. Stratum (plural=strata). A layer of rock characterized by
particular lithologic properties and attributes that distinguish it from
adjacent layers.
3. Stratigraphic classication. The systematic organization of
the Earths rock bodies, as they are found in their original relation-
ships, into units based on any of the properties or attributes that may
be useful in stratigraphic work.
4. Stratigraphic unit. A body of rock established as a distinct
entity in the classication of the Earths rocks, based on any of the
properties or attributes or combinations thereof that rocks possess.
Stratigraphic units based on one property will not necessarily coin-
cide with those based on another.
5. Stratigraphic terminology. The total of unit-terms used in
stratigraphic classication. It may be either formal or informal.
a. Formal stratigraphic terminology uses unit-terms that are
dened and named according to guidelines conventionally estab-
lished.
b. Informal stratigraphic terminology uses unit-terms as ordi-
nary nouns in a descriptive sense, not as a part of a specic scheme
of stratigraphic classication. The use of informal terms in pub-
lished documents is strongly discouraged.
6. Stratigraphic nomenclature. The system of proper names
given to specic stratigraphic units.
7. Zone. A minor body of rock in many different categories of
stratigraphic classication. The type of zone indicated is made clear
by a prex, e.g., lithozone, biozone, chronozone.
8. Horizon. An interface indicative of a particular position in a
stratigraphic sequence. The type of horizon is indicated by a prex,
e.g., lithohorizon, biohorizon, chronohorizon.
9. Correlation. A demonstration of correspondence in charac-
ter and/or stratigraphic position. The type of correlation is indicated
by a prex, e.g., lithocorrelation, biocorrelation, chronocorrelation.
10. Geochronology. The science of dating and determining the
time sequence of the events in the history of the Earth.
11. Geochronologic unit. A subdivision of geologic time.
12. Geochronometry. A branch of geochronology that deals
with the quantitative (numerical) measurement of geologic time.
The abbreviations ka for thousand (10
3
), Ma for million (10
6
), and
Ga for billion (milliard of thousand million, 10
9
) years are used.
13. Facies. The term "facies" originally meant the lateral
change in lithologic aspect of a stratigraphic unit. Its meaning has
been broadened to express a wide range of geologic concepts: envi-
ronment of deposition, lithologic composition, geographic, climatic
or tectonic association, etc.
14. Caution against preempting general terms for special
meanings. The preempting of general terms for special restricted
meanings has been a source of much confusion. The preferable pro-
cedure is to conserve the original general meaning of a term and to
seek a more precise and less ambiguous word for the special meaning.
B. Procedures for Establishing and Revising
Stratigraphic Units.
The proposal of a new formal stratigraphic unit requires a state-
ment of intent to introduce the new unit and the reasons for the
action. A new unit must be duly proposed and duly described. This
includes:
A clear and complete definition, characterization, and
description of the unit so that any subsequent investigator can iden-
tify it.
The proposal of the kind, name, and rank of the unit.
The designation of a stratotype (type section) or type locality
on which the unit is based and which may be used by interested sci-
entists as a reference.
Publication in a recognized scientic medium.
1. Denition, characterization, and description.
a. Name (see section 3.B.5).
b. Stratotypes or other standards of reference. Gives the geo-
graphic location and geologic setting of the stratotype with an indica-
tion of accessibility, maps, and markers, both articial and natural.
For units of the type for which it is impractical to use strato-
types as standards, reliance is placed on the accurate description and
illustration of those features that constitute the diagnostic criteria of
the unit.
c. Description of unit at stratotype or type locality.
d. Regional aspects. Geographic extent; regional variations in
thickness, lithostratigraphy, biostratigraphy or other properties;
nature of boundaries away from the type; criteria to be used in iden-
tifying and extending the unit over the area of its presence.
e. Geologic age.
f. Correlation with other units.
g. Genesis (where appropriate).
h. References to the literature.
2. Special requirements for establishing subsurface units.
The same rules of procedure used for outcrop sections apply to
subsurface units established on the basis of exposures in mines, tunnels
or from sections penetrated in wells. Stratotypes in well sections are
designated by well depths and on well logs and in cores, if available.
The following data are desirable for establishing subsurface units:
a. Designation of well or mine. The name of the well or mine
and geographic location using conventional oil eld or topographic
nomenclature.
b. Geologic logs. Lithologic and paleontologic logs of the well
or wells, and maps and cross sections of the mine, in written and
graphic form with the boundaries of the new unit and its subdivisions.
c. Geophysical Logs and Proles. Electrical and/or other
wire-line logs and seismic proles with boundaries and subdivisions
of the unit shown at a scale adequate to permit appreciation of detail.
d. Depositories. A depository should be an institution with the
proper curatorial facilities and assurance of perpetuity where the
materials are available for study. The location of the depository for
materials from the stratotype well, tunnel or mine should be given.
3. Naming of stratigraphic units.
The names of most formal stratigraphic units consist of an appro-
priate geographic name combined with an appropriate term indicating
the kind and rank of the unit, e.g. La Luna Formation, except for some
terms that were established in the early history of stratigraphy.
The formal name of a biostratigraphic unit is formed from the
names of one or more appropriate fossils combined with the appro-
priate term for the kind of biostratigraphic unit, e.g., Exus albus
Assemblage Zone. (see Chapter 7).
Episodes, Vol. 22, no. 4
257
In the preparation of this short version of the Guide it was con-
sidered necessary to dene the way certain terms, listed below, are
used. There has been a tendency to use the terms dene, describe,
characterize, diagnose, and identify as virtual synonyms in much of
our literature. These words have different preferred meanings and an
attempt is made here to use each of them in one way so that the mean-
ing is always clear.
to characterize is to state what is unique, thus, a characteriza-
tion of a stratigraphic unit species its unique attributes or unique
combination of attributes.
to classify is to arrange the data in a study into a set of categories
that have dened boundaries or unit characterizations.
to dene is to set limits. A denition, thus, sets limits or bound-
aries to units in the classication.
to describe is to summarize the total content and relationships of
the unit of the classication. Thus, a description is a summary of all
the attributes of the unit.
to diagnose is to state which character or combination of char-
acters permits unambiguous identication of a unit in a classication.
to identify is to recognize a set of observations as falling within
the dened boundaries or bearing the unique attributes of a category
of a classication.
a. Geographic component of names of stratigraphic units
i. Source. Geographic names should be derived from perma-
nent natural or articial features at or near which the stratigraphic
unit is present. A name should be on standard published maps of the
pertinent political jurisdiction. Where such names are not available,
the place from which the name is derived should be described and
shown on an appropriately scaled map accompanying the description
of the new unit. Short names are preferable to long or compound
names. The name of the stratigraphic unit should be exactly the
same as the name of the geographic feature after which it is named.
ii. Spelling of Geographic Names. The spelling of the geo-
graphic component of the name of a stratigraphic unit should con-
form to the usage of the country of origin. The spelling of the geo-
graphic component, once established, should not be changed. The
rank or lithologic component may be changed when translated to a
different language.
iii. Changes in Geographic Names. The change in the name of
a geographic feature does not affect the name of the associated strati-
graphic unit nor does disappearance of the geographic feature
require a new name.
iv. Inappropriate Geographic Names. A geographic name
should not be misleading, e.g. London Formation for a unit in
Canada, although a city with that name exists in Canada.
v. Duplication of Geographic Names. The name of a new
stratigraphic unit should be unique in order to prevent ambiguity.
The IUGS Lexique Stratigraphique International and national and
regional lexicons contain lists of previously used names and inquiry
to geological surveys and other regional organizations is recom-
mended to discover previously used names not yet published in the
lexicons.
vi. Names for subdivisions of Stratigraphic Units. If a unit is
divided into two or more formal component units, the geographic
name of the original unit should not be employed for any of the sub-
divisions.
b. Unit-term Component of Names of Stratigraphic Units.
The unit-term component of a stratigraphic name indicates the kind
and rank of the unit. A stratigraphic unit-term may differ in differ-
ent languages.
c. Relation of Names to Political Boundaries. Stratigraphic
units are not limited by international boundaries and should not dif-
fer across them.
d. Reduction in number of names through correlation. If
correlation has established the identity of two differently named
stratigraphic units, the later name should be replaced by the earlier,
other considerations being equal.
e. Uncertainty in Assignment. If identication of a strati-
graphic unit is in doubt, that uncertainty should be expressed in the
nomenclature employed. The following conventions may be used:
Devonian? = doubtfully Devonian
Macoa? Formation = doubtfully Macoa Formation
Peroc-Macoa formation = strata intermediate in position
(horizontally or vertically)
between two stratigraphic units
Silurian-Devonian = one part Silurian, one part
Devonian
Silurian or Devonian = either Silurian or Devonian
Silurian and Devonian = both Silurian and Devonian, but
undifferentiated.
The name of the older or lower unit, if this distinction can be
made, should always come rst when two units are hyphenated or
used in combination.
f. Abandoned Names. The name of a stratigraphic unit, once
applied and then abandoned, should not be revived except in its orig-
inal sense. Reference to abandoned names should indicate the orig-
inal sense in which the name was used, e.g. Mornas Sandstone of
Hebert (1874).
g. Preservation of Traditional of Well-Established Names.
Traditional or well-established names that do not follow the above
procedures and conventions should not be abandoned providing they
are or may become well dened or characterized.
4. Publication
a. A Recognized Scientic Medium. Establishment or revi-
sion of a formal stratigraphic unit requires publication in a recog-
nized scientic medium. The main qualications of a recognized sci-
entic medium are that it is regularly published and reasonably
available to the scientic public on request by purchase or through a
library. Abstracts, most eldtrip guidebooks, dissertations, com-
pany reports, open le reports and similar media generally do not
meet this requirement.
b. Priority. Publication of a properly proposed, named, and
described unit has priority. However, priority alone does not justify
displacing a well-established name by one not well known or rarely
used; nor should an inadequately established name be preserved
merely because of priority.
c. Recommended Editorial Procedures. The editorial rules
and procedures enumerated below apply to the English language.
Rules of orthography of other languages may make these recom-
mendations inapplicable.
i. Capitalization. The rst letters of all words used in the names
of formal stratigraphic units are capitalized (except for the trivial
names of species and subspecies rank in the names of biostrati-
graphic units). Informal terms are not capitalized.
ii. Hyphenation. Compound terms for most kinds of strati-
graphic units, in which two common words are joined to give a spe-
cial meaning, should be hyphenated, e.g. concurrent-range zone,
normal-polarity zone. Exceptions are adjectival prexes or combin-
ing forms that are generally combined with the term-noun without a
hyphen, e.g. biozone.
iii. Repetition of the Complete Name. After the complete name
of a stratigraphic unit has been referred to once in a publication, part
of the name may be omitted for brevity if the meaning is clear, e.g.,
the Oxfordian Stage may be referred to as the Oxfordian, or the
Stage.
5. Revision or redenition of previously established strati-
graphic units
Revision or redenition of an adequately established unit without
changing its name requires a statement of intent to revise the unit, the
reasons for doing so, and as much justication and documentation as
for proposing a new unit. Change in rank of a stratigraphic unit does
not require redenition of the unit or its boundaries, or alteration of the
geographic part of the name. A stratigraphic unit may be promoted or
demoted in rank without changing the geographic part of its name.
CHAPTER 4 Stratotypes and Type
Localities
A. Stratotypes in the Denition and
Characterization of Stratigraphic Units
1. Standard denitions. Named stratigraphic units must be
dened or characterized at a specied locality where they are well
exposed and developed in order that there will be a common, mater-
ial standard of reference for their identication.
2. Reference to a specific rock section. The particular
sequence of strata chosen as a standard of reference of a layered
stratigraphic unit is called a stratotype. In the case of nonlayered
rocks the standard of reference is a type locality. It may be an area
of exposure (or well or mine) and is an essential part of the estab-
lishment of a formal stratigraphic unit. In cases where the written
description and the stratotype are not the same, the data from the
stratotype take precedence.
December 1999
258
For some stratigraphic units, such as biostratigraphic range
zones, the standard of the unit cannot be tied to a specic stratigraphic
section or area because the stratigraphic scope of the unit may vary
with increasing information. However, the characterization and
description of these and other biostratigraphic units can be enhanced
by the designation of one or more specic reference sections.
B. Denitions
1. Stratotype (type section). The designated exposure of a
named layered stratigraphic unit or of a stratigraphic boundary that
serves as the standard of reference. A stratotype is the specic stratal
sequence used for the denition and/or characterization of the strati-
graphic unit or boundary being dened.
2. Unit-stratotype. The type section of a layered stratigraphic
unit that serves as the standard of reference for the denition and
characterization of the unit.
3. Boundary-Stratotype. The specied sequence of strata that
contains the specic point that denes a boundary between two
stratigraphic units.
4. Composite-Stratotype. A unit-stratotype formed by the
combination of several specied intervals of strata combined to
make a composite standard of reference.
5. Type Locality. The specic geographic locality was the
stratotype of a layered stratigraphic unit is situated. The name also
refers to the locality where the unit was originally described and/or
named. In the case of units composed of nonlayered igneous or
metamorphic rocks, the type locality is the specic geographic local-
ity where the unit was originally dened.
6. Type Area or Type Region. The geographic area or region
that encompasses the stratotype or type locality of a stratigraphic
unit or boundary.
7. Holo-, para-, neo-, lecto-, and hypostratotypes.
C. Requirements for Stratotypes (Type Sections)
The following requirements apply to stratotypes:
1. Expression of concept. The most important requisite of a
stratotype is that it adequately represents the concept for which it is
the material type.
2. Description. The description of a stratotype is both geo-
graphic and geologic. The geographic description includes a detailed
location map and/or aerial photographs and indication of the means of
access to the type locality and the distribution of the unit in the area.
The geologic description covers the geologic, paleontologic,
geophysical, and geomorphic features of the unit at the type section.
The description contains two parts: a part that deals with the bound-
aries and a part that deals with the content of the unit.
3. Identication and marking. An important requirement of a
stratotype is that it should be clearly marked. A boundary-stratotype
is marked at a point, preferably by a permanent monument. Unit
boundaries should be clearly designated by reference to permanent
geologic and geographic features at the type locality.
4. Accessibility and assurance of preservation. Stratotypes
must be accessible to all who are interested in their study, regardless
of political or other circumstances, and there should be reasonable
assurance of their long-term preservation.
5. Subsurface stratotypes. Subsurface stratotypes are accept-
able if adequate surface sections are lacking and if adequate subsur-
face samples and logs are available.
6. Acceptability. The usefulness of the stratotypes for strati-
graphic units of international extent is directly related to the extent to
which they are generally accepted or acknowledged as the standard
of reference for the units. It is, therefore, desirable that the designa-
tion of a stratotype be submitted for approval to the geologic body
having the highest standing in any particular case. The IUGS
International Commission on Stratigraphy is the body to which pro-
posals for the designation of stratotypes of units of worldwide appli-
cation are submitted. Stratotypes of local units require the approval
from local or national surveys or stratigraphic commissions.
D. Requirements for Type Localities of Nonlayered
Igneous or Metamorphic Rock Bodies
Type localities and type areas for nonlayered igneous or metamor-
phic rock bodies should represent the material concept of the unit
and have other attributes of description, denition, location, and
accessibility that apply to layered stratigraphic units.
CHAPTER 5 Lithostratigraphic Units
A. Nature of Lithostratigraphic Units
Lithostratigraphic units are bodies of rocks, bedded or unbed-
ded, that are dened and characterized on the basis of their lithologic
properties and their stratigraphic relations. Lithostratigraphic units
are the basic units of geologic mapping.
The relationship of lithostratigraphic units to other kinds of
stratigraphic units is discussed in Chapter 10.
B. Denitions
1. Lithostratigraphy. The element of stratigraphy that deals
with the description and nomenclature of the rocks of the Earth
based on their lithology and their stratigraphic relations.
2. Lithostratigraphic classication. The organization of rock
bodies into units on the basis of their lithologic properties and their
stratigraphic relations.
3. Lithostratigraphic unit. A body of rocks that is dened and
recognized on the basis of its lithologic properties or combination of
lithologic properties and stratigraphic relations. A lithostratigraphic
unit may consist of sedimentary, or igneous, or metamorphic rocks.
Lithostratigraphic units are dened and recognized by observable
physical features and not by their inferred age, the time span they
represent, inferred geologic history, or manner of formation. The
geographic extent of a lithostratigraphic unit is controlled entirely by
the continuity and extent of its diagnostic lithologic features.
C. Kinds of lithostratigraphic Units
1. Formal lithostratigraphic units. See Table 1 and section
3.A.5. The conventional hierarchy of formal lithostratigraphic terms
is as follows:
Grouptwo or more formations
Formationprimary unit of lithostratigraphy
Membernamed lithologic subdivision of a formation
Bednamed distinctive layer in a member or formation
Flowsmallest distinctive layer in a volcanic sequence
The component units of any higher rank unit in the hierarchy
need not be everywhere the same.
2. Formation. The primary formal unit of lithostratigraphic
classication. Formations are the only formal lithostratigraphic
units into which the stratigraphic column everywhere should be
divided completely on the basis of lithology.
The contrast in lithology between formations required to justify
their establishment varies with the complexity of the geology of a
region and the detail needed for geologic mapping and to work out
its geologic history. No formation is considered justiable and use-
ful that cannot be delineated at the scale of geologic mapping prac-
ticed in the region. The thickness of formations may range from less
than a meter to several thousand meters.
3. Member. The formal lithostratigraphic unit next in rank
below a formation. It possesses lithologic properties distinguishing
it from adjacent parts of the formation. No xed standard is required
for the extent and thickness of a member.
A formation need not be divided into members unless a useful
purpose is thus served. Some formations may be completely divided
Episodes, Vol. 22, no. 4
259
into members; others may have only certain parts designated as
members. A member may extend from one formation to another.
Specially shaped forms of members (or of formations) are
lenses and tongues. A lens is a lens-shaped body of rock of different
lithology than the unit that encloses it. A tongue is a projecting part
of a lithostratigraphic unit extending out beyond its main body.
4. Bed. The smallest formal unit in the hierarchy of sedimen-
tary lithostratigraphic units, e.g. a single stratum lithologically dis-
tinguishable from other layers above and below. Customarily only
distinctive beds (key beds, marker beds) particularly useful for strati-
graphic purposes are given proper names and considered formal
lithostratigraphic units.
5. Flow. A discrete extrusive volcanic body distinguishable by
texture, composition, or other objective criteria. The designation
and naming of ows as formal lithostratigraphic units should be lim-
ited to those that are distinctive and widespread.
6. Group. A succession of two or more contiguous or associ-
ated formations with signicant and diagnostic lithologic properties
in common. Formations need not be aggregated into groups unless
doing so provides a useful means of simplifying stratigraphic classi-
cation in certain regions or certain intervals. Thickness of a strati-
graphic succession is not a valid reason for dening a unit as a group
rather than a formation. The component formations of a group need
not be everywhere the same.
7. Supergroup and subgroup. The term supergroup may be
used for several associated groups or for associated groups and for-
mations with signicant lithologic properties in common. Excep-
tionally, a group may be divided into subgroups.
8. Complex. A lithostratigraphic unit composed of diverse
types of any class or classes or rocks (sedimentary, igneous, meta-
morphic) and characterized by irregularly mixed lithology or by
highly complicated structural relations.
9. Lithostratigraphic horizon (Lithohorizon). A surface of
lithostratigraphic change, commonly the boundary of a lithostrati-
graphic unit, or a lithologically distinctive very thin marker bed
within a lithostratigraphic unit.
10. Informal lithostratigraphic units. Lithostratigraphic
units recognized in preliminary studies and not fully described and
characterized are sometimes given names. Such names should be
considered informal and should not be included in published docu-
ments. If a unit merits a formal name it merits proper formal deni-
tion and description.
D. Procedures for Establishing Lithostratigraphic
Units
1. Stratotypes and type localities as standard of denition.
Each formal lithostratigraphic unit should have a clear and precise
denition or characterization. The designation of a stratotype for a
layered unit or a type locality for a nonlayered unit is essential. Des-
ignation of auxiliary reference sections or additional type localities
may be used to supplement the denition of a lithostratigraphic unit.
Where a complete section of a unit does not crop out in an area, the
lower and upper boundary-stratotypes at specic sections are desig-
nated.
2. Boundaries. Boundaries of lithostratigraphic units are
placed at positions of lithologic change or arbitrarily within zones of
vertical or lateral lithologic gradation or intertonguing. In subsur-
face work, because of caving in drill holes, it is best to dene lithos-
tratigraphic boundaries at the highest occurrence of a particular rock
type rather than at the lowest.
Boundaries of lithostratigraphic units commonly cut across
time surfaces, across the limits of fossil ranges, and across the
boundaries of any other kind of stratigraphic units.
3. Unconformities and hiatuses. Stratigraphic sequences of
similar lithologic composition but separated by regional unconfor-
mities or major hiatuses should be mapped as separate lithostrati-
graphic units. Local or minor hiatuses, disconformities or unconfor-
mities within a sequence of similar lithologic composition should
not be considered reason for recognition of more than one lithos-
tratigraphic unit.
E. Procedures for Extending Lithostratigraphic
UnitsLithostratigraphic Correlation
A lithostratigraphic unit and its boundaries are extended away
from the type section or type locality only as far as the diagnostic
lithologic properties on which the unit is based may be identied.
1. Use of indirect evidence for identication of units and
their boundaries. Where lithologic identity is difficult to determine
because of poor or no outcrops, a lithostratigraphic unit and its
boundaries may be identied and correlated on the basis of indirect
evidence: geomorphic expression, wire-line logs, seismic reec-
tions, distinctive vegetation, etc.
2. Marker beds used as boundaries. The top or the base of a
marker bed may be used as a boundary for a formal lithostratigraphic
unit where the marker bed occurs at or near a recognizable vertical
change in lithology.
F. Naming of Lithostratigraphic Units
1. General. The name of lithostratigraphic units follows the
general rules for naming stratigraphic units (section3.B.3). In the
case of lithostratigraphic units, a simple lithologic term indicating its
dominant rock type may be used instead of the unit-term indicating
its rank (group, formation, member, bed). However, the use of the
unit-term is preferable; and the use of both the lithologic term and
the unit-term should be discouraged. The terms lower, middle,
and upper should not be used for formal subdivisions of lithos-
tratigraphic units.
2. Geographic component of name. See section 3.B.3.a.
In the case of lateral changes in lithologic composition, change
in the geographic term is desirable for important regional changes,
but the indiscriminate proposal of new names for minor lithologic
variations is undesirable.
3. Lithologic component of name. If a lithologic term is used
in the name of a lithostratigraphic unit it should be a simple, gener-
ally accepted term that indicates the predominant lithology of the
unit. Compound, combined or lithogenetic terms should not be used.
4. Some special aspects of igneous and metamorphic rocks.
Stratied volcanic rocks and bodies of metamorphic rocks that can
be recognized as of sedimentary and/or extrusive volcanic origin can
be treated as sedimentary lithostratigraphic units.
Nonlayered intrusive rocks and bodies of metamorphic rocks
that are deformed and/or recrystallized so that their original layering
and stratigraphic succession can no longer be ascertained require a
somewhat different treatment. As lithostratigraphic units, their
name should be composed of an appropriate local geographic term
combined with either a unit-term or a simple eld lithologic term.
However, since most geologists may agree that unit-terms such as
group, formation, or member imply stratication and position
within a stratied sequence, it is more appropriate to use simple eld
lithologic terms such as granite, gneiss, or schist for these
nonlayered units. Also appropriate is the use of the terms com-
plex, melange, and ophiolite. On the other hand, the use of the
term suite seems inadvisable. The term has been commonly used
for associations of comagmatic intrusive igneous rock bodies of sim-
ilar or related lithologies and close association in time, space, and
origin.
The use of adjectival qualiers such as plutonic, igneous,
or volcanic, though preferably minimized in the formal nomencla-
ture of lithostratigraphic units, may be used when they help to clar-
ify the nature of a unit, as for instance a complex, e.g., igneous
complex, volcanic complex.
Adjectives used as nouns, such as volcanics or metamor-
phics, preferably should be avoided even though they have been
used widely.
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260
The lithostratigraphic names of igneous and metamorphic rock
bodies should not include terms that express form or structure such
as dike, sill, pluton, and neck, or the more general term
intrusion. These terms do not indicate lithology, are not unit-terms
in the lithostratigraphic hierarchy, and are not, therefore, lithostrati-
graphic terms.
G. Revision of Lithostratigraphic Units
See sections 3.B.5, 5.F.2, and 5.F.3.
CHAPTER 6 Unconformity-bounded
Units
A. Nature of Unconformity-bounded Units
Unconformity-bounded units are bodies of rocks bounded
above and below by signicant unconformities. They are composed
of diverse types of any kind or kinds of rocks, but the lithologic
properties of these rocks, their fossil content, or the chronostrati-
graphic span of the rocks on either side of the bounding unconformi-
ties are signicant only to the extent that they serve to recognize the
bounding unconformities.
Unconformity-bounded units are objective stratigraphic units
established and identied without regard for the genetic or causal
interpretation of their bounding unconformities.
The relation of unconformity-bounded units to other kinds of
stratigraphic units is discussed in Chapter 10.
B. Denitions
1. Unconformity-bounded unit. A body of rocks bounded
above and below by specically designated, signicant discontinu-
ities in the stratigraphic succession preferably of regional or interre-
gional extent. The diagnostic criteria used to establish and to iden-
tify an unconformity-bounded unit are its two designated bounding
unconformities. Unconformity-bounded units may include any
number of other kinds of stratigraphic units.
2. Unconformity. A surface of erosion between rock bodies
that represents a signicant hiatus or gap in the stratigraphic succes-
sion. Some kinds of unconformities are:
a. Angular unconformity. An unconformity in which the bed-
ding planes above and below the unconformity are at an angle to
each other.
b. Disconformity. An unconformity in which the bedding
planes above and below the stratigraphic break are essentially par-
allel.
c. Diastem. A short interruption in deposition with little or no
erosion before resumption of sedimentation. Diastems are not an
appropriate basis for establishing unconformity-bounded units.
C. Kinds of Unconformity-bounded Units
The basic unconformity-bounded unit is the synthem.
D. Hierarchy of Unconformity-bounded Units
E. Procedures for establishing unconformity-
bounded units
See section 3.B. Because the presence or absence of the bound-
ing discontinuities is the single diagnostic criterion for establishing,
dening, recognizing, and extending unconformity-bounded units,
the denition of these units should emphasize the discussion of the
nature, position, and characteristics of the discontinuities.
Unconformity-bounded units should be established only where
and when they can fulll a need that other kinds of stratigraphic units
cannot meet.
F. Procedures for Extending Unconformity-
bounded Units
An unconformity-bounded unit should be extended laterally
only as far as both of its bounding unconformities are identiable.
G. Naming of Unconformity-bounded Units
See section 3.B.3.
H. Revision of Unconformity-bounded Units
See section 3.B.5.
CHAPTER 7 Biostratigraphic Units
A. Nature of Biostratigraphic Units
Biostratigraphic units (biozones) are bodies of strata that are
dened or characterized on the basis of their contained fossils.
Biostratigraphic units exist only where the particular diagnostic
feature or attribute on which they are based has been identied.
Biostratigraphic units, therefore, are objective units based on the
identication of fossil taxa. Their recognition depends on the iden-
tication of either their dening or characterizing attributes. Bios-
tratigraphic units may be enlarged to include more of the strati-
graphic record, both vertically and geographically, when additional
data are obtained. In addition, since they depend on taxonomic prac-
tice, changes in their taxonomic base may enlarge or reduce the body
of strata included in a particular biostratigraphic unit.
A biostratigraphic unit may be based on a single taxon, on com-
binations of taxa, on relative abundances, on specied morphologi-
cal features, or on variations in any of the many other features related
to the content and distribution of fossils in strata. The same interval
of strata may be zoned differently depending on the diagnostic crite-
ria or fossil group chosen. Thus, there may be several kinds of bios-
tratigraphic units in the same interval of strata that may have gaps
between them or overlaps of their vertical and horizontal ranges.
Biostratigraphic units are distinct from other kinds of strati-
graphic units in that the organisms whose fossil remains establish
them show evolutionary changes through geologic time that are not
repeated in the stratigraphic record. This makes the fossil assem-
blages of any one age distinctive from any other.
The relationship of biostratigraphic units to other kinds of
stratigraphic units is discussed in Chapter 10.
B. The Fossils
1. Value of fossils. Fossils were once living organisms and as
such are sensitive indicators of past environments, sedimentation
patterns, and their distributions. In addition, because of the irre-
versibility of evolution, fossils are particularly useful in working out
the relative times of origin of sedimentary strata.
2. Fossil assemblages. Four kinds of intervals are found in sed-
imentary rocks: strata without fossils; strata containing organisms
that lived and were buried in the area (biocoenosis); strata containing
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261
The term "synthem" as used to designate unconformity-
bounded units has received very limited acceptance and use since
rst proposed by Chang in 1975, and subsequently discussed in sev-
eral ISSC publications. It may be preferable, therefore, to discard
"synthem" and employ the widely used term "sequence" not only as
the basic unit of sequence stratigraphy, but also to designate all
stratigraphic units totally or partly bounded by unconformities.
organisms that lived somewhere else and were brought into the area
after death (thanatocoenosis); and strata that contain organisms
transported alive away from their normal environment. These may
be mixed or interbedded in any proportion. All categories of fossil-
bearing strata may be the basis for biostratigraphic zonation. Inter-
vals lacking identiable fossils or entirely without fossils are not
subject to biostratigraphic classication.
3. Reworked fossils. Fossils from rocks of one age that have
been eroded, transported, and redeposited in sediments of a younger
age. Because of the difference in their signicance with respect to
age and environment, they should be treated apart from those
believed to be indigenous.
4. Introduced or inltrated fossils. Fossils introduced into
older or younger rocks by uids, through animal burrows or root
cavities, or by sedimentary dikes or diapirs. They should be distin-
guished from indigenous fossils in biostratigraphic zonation.
5. Effects of stratigraphic condensation. Extremely low rates
of sedimentation may result in fossils of different ages and different
environments being mingled or very intimately associated in a very
thin stratigraphic interval, even in a single bed.
C. Denitions
1. Biostratigraphy. The element of stratigraphy that deals with
the distribution of fossils in the stratigraphic record and the organi-
zation of strata into units on the basis of their contained fossils.
2. Biostratigraphic Classication. The systematic subdivision
and organization of the stratigraphic section into named units based
on their fossil content.
3. Biostratigraphic zone (Biozone). A general term for any
kind of biostratigraphic unit regardless of thickness or geographic
extent. See section 3.A.7. After initial usage of a formal term, such
as the Globigerina brevis Taxon-range Biozone, a simplied version
of the formal nomenclature may be used, e.g. Globerigina brevis
Zone. Biozones vary greatly in thickness, geographic extent, and
represented time span.
4. Biostratigraphic horizon (Biohorizon). A stratigraphic
boundary, surface, or interface across which there is a signicant
change in biostratigraphic character. A biohorizon has no thickness
and should not be used to describe very thin stratigraphic units that
are especially distinctive.
5. Subbiozone (Subzone). A subdivision of a biozone.
6. Superbiozone (Superzone). A grouping of two or more bio-
zones with related biostratigraphic attributes.
7. Zonule. The use of this term is discouraged. It has received
different meanings and is now generally used as a subdivision of a
biozone or subbiozone.
8. Barren intervals. Stratigraphic intervals with no fossils
common in the stratigraphic section.
D. Kinds of Biostratigraphic Units
1. General. Five kinds of biozones are in common use: range
zones, interval zones, assemblage zones, abundance zones, and lin-
eage zones. These types of biozones have no hierarchical signi-
cance, and are not based on mutually exclusive criteria. A single
stratigraphic interval may, therefore, be divided independently into
range zones, interval zones, etc., depending on the biostratigraphic
features chosen.
2. Range Zone. The body of strata representing the known
stratigraphic and geographic range of occurrence of a particular
taxon or combination of two taxa of any rank.
There are two principal types of range zones: taxon-range zones
and concurrent-range zones.
a. Taxon-range Zone (see Figure 1).
i. Denition. The body of strata representing the known range
of stratigraphic and geographic occurrence of specimens of a partic-
ular taxon. It is the sum of the documented occurrences in all indi-
vidual sections and localities from which the particular taxon has
been identied.
ii. Boundaries. The boundaries of a taxon-range zone are bio-
horizons marking the outermost limits of known occurrence in every
local section of specimens whose range is to be represented by the
zone. The boundaries of a taxon-range zone in any one section are
the horizons of lowest stratigraphic occurrence and highest strati-
graphic occurrence of the specied taxon in that section.
iii. Name. The taxon-range zone is named from the taxon
whose range it expresses.
iv. Local Range of a Taxon. The local range of a taxon may be
specied in some local section, area, or region as long as the context
is clear.
b. Concurrent-range Zone (see Figure 2)
i. Denition. The body of strata including the overlapping parts
of the range zones of two specied taxa. This type of zone may
include taxa additional to those specied as characterizing elements
of the zone, but only the two specied taxa are used to dene the
boundaries of the zone.
ii. Boundaries. The boundaries of a concurrent-range zone are
dened in any particular stratigraphic section by the lowest strati-
graphic occurrence of the higher-ranging of the two dening taxa
and the highest stratigraphic occurrence of the lower-ranging of the
two dening taxa.
iii. Name. A concurrent-range zone is named from both the taxa
that dene and characterize the biozone by their concurrence.
3. Interval Zone (see Figures 3 and 4).
a. Denition. The body of fossiliferous strata between two
specied biohorizons. Such a zone is not itself necessarily the range
zone of a taxon or concurrence of taxa; it is dened and identied
only on the basis of its bounding biohorizons (Figure 3).
In subsurface stratigraphic work, where the section is pene-
trated from top to bottom and paleontological identication is gener-
ally made from drill cuttings, often contaminated by recirculation of
previously drilled sediments and material sloughed from the walls of
the drill hole, interval zones dened as the stratigraphic section com-
prised between the highest known occurrence (rst occurrence
downward) of two specied taxa are particularly useful (Figure 4).
This type of interval zone has been called last-occurrence zone but
should preferably be called highest-occurrence zone.
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262
Figure 1 Taxon-range Zone. The lower, upper, and lateral limits
of this zone are determined by the range of occurrence of taxon a.
Figure 2 Concurrent-range Zone. The lower, upper, and lateral
limits of this zone arer determined by the range of concurrent
occurrence of taxa a and b.
Interval zones dened as the stratigraphic section comprised
between the lowest occurrence of two specied taxa (lowest-occur-
rence zone) are also useful, preferably in surface work.
b. Boundaries. The boundaries of an interval zone are dened
by the occurrence of the biohorizons selected for its denition.
c. Name. The names given to interval zones may be derived
from the names of the boundary horizons, the name of the basal
boundary preceding that of the upper boundary; e.g. Globigeri-
noides sicanus-Orbulina suturalis Interval Zone. In the denition of
an interval zone, it is desirable to specify the criteria for the selection
of the bounding biohorizons, e.g. lowest occurrence, highest occur-
rence etc. An alternative method of naming uses a single taxon name
for the name of the zone. The taxon should be a usual component of
the zone, although not necessarily conned to it.
4. Lineage Zone (see Figure 5).
Lineage zones are discussed as a separate category because
they require for their denition and recognition not only the identi-
cation of specic taxa but the assurance that the taxa chosen for
their denition represent successive segments of an evolutionary
lineage.
a. Denition. The body of strata containing specimens repre-
senting a specic segment of an evolutionary lineage. It may repre-
sent the entire range of a taxon within a lineage (Figure 5A) or only
that part of the range of the taxon below the appearance of a descen-
dant taxon (Figure 5B).
The boundaries of lineage zones approach the boundaries of
chronostratigraphic units. However, a lineage zone differs from a
chronostratigraphic unit in being restricted, as all biostratigraphic
units are, to the actual spatial distribution of the fossils.
Lineage zones are the most reliable means of correlation of rel-
ative time by use of the biostratigraphic method.
b. Boundaries. The boundaries of a lineage zone are deter-
mined by the biohorizons representing the lowest occurrence of suc-
cessive elements of the evolutionary lineage under consideration.
c. Name. A lineage zone is named for the taxon in the lineage
whose range or partial range it represents.
5. Assemblage Zone (see Figure 6).
a. Denition. The body of strata characterized by an assem-
blage of three or more fossil taxa that, taken together, distinguishes
it in biostratigraphic character from adjacent strata.
b. Boundaries. The boundaries of an assemblage zone are
drawn at biohorizons marking the limits of occurrence of the speci-
ed assemblage that is characteristic of the unit. Not all members of
the assemblage need to occur in order for a section to be assigned to
an assemblage zone, and the total range of any of its constituents
may extend beyond the boundaries of the zone.
c. Name. The name of an assemblage zone is derived from the
name of one of the prominent and diagnostic constituents of the fos-
sil assemblage.
6. Abundance Zone (see Figure 7).
a. Denition. The body of strata in which the abundance of a
particular taxon or specied group of taxa is signicantly greater
than is usual in the adjacent parts of the section.
Unusual abundance of a taxon or taxa in the stratigraphic record
may result from a number of processes that are of local extent, but
may be repeated in different places at different times. For this rea-
son, the only sure way to identify an abundance zone is to trace it lat-
erally.
b. Boundaries. The boundaries of an abundance zone are
dened by the biohorizons across which there is notable change in
the abundance of the specied taxon or taxa that characterize the
zone.
Episodes, Vol. 22, no. 4
263
Figure 3 Interval Zone. In this example, the lower limit of the
zone is the lowermost known occurrence of taxon a, and the upper
limit is the highest known occurrence of taxon b. The zone extends
laterally as far as both of the dening biohorizons can be
recognized.
Figure 4 Interval Zone (Highest-occurrence Zone). This kind of
internal zone is particularly useful in subsurface work.
Figure 5 Examples of lineage zones. In A the lineage zone
represents the entire range of taxon b, from the highest
occurrence of its ancestor, taxon a, to the lowermost occurrence
of its descendant, taxon c. In B the lineage zone represents that
part of the range of taxon y between its lowest occurrence and the
lowest occurrence of its descendant, taxon z.
c. Name. The abundance zone takes its name from the taxon or
taxa whose signicantly greater abundance it represents.
E. Hierarchy of Biostratigraphic Units
The different kinds of biostratigraphic units described above do not
represent different ranks of a biostratigraphic hierarchy, except in
the case of subzones and superzones, where the prex indicates the
position in a hierarchy.
With respect to taxon-range zones, there is no need for a hier-
archy of biozone terms because the hierarchical system of biological
taxonomy extends also to these biostratigraphic units in the sense
that the range zone of a species is subsidiary to the range zone of the
genus to which it belongs, and so on.
F. Procedures for Establishing Biostratigraphic
Units
See Section 3.B.
It is recommended that the denition or characterization of a
biostratigraphic unit include the designation of one or more specic
reference sections that demonstrate the stratigraphic context of the
taxon or taxa diagnostic of the unit.
G. Procedures for Extending Biostratigraphic Units
Biostratigraphic Correlation
Biostratigraphic units are extended away from the areas where
they were dened or from their reference sections by biostrati-
graphic correlation, which is the establishment of correspondence in
biostratigraphic character and position between geographically sep-
arated sections or outcrops based on their fossil content. Biostrati-
graphic correlation is not necessarily time-correlation. It may
approximate time correlation, or it may be the identication of the
same biofacies, which may be diachronous.
H. Naming Biostratigraphic Units
The formal name of a biostratigraphic unit should be formed
from the names of one, or no more than two, appropriate fossils
combined with the appropriate term for the kind of unit in question.
The function of a name is to provide a unique designation for the
biozone. Thus, any taxon in the characteristic assemblage of a bio-
zone may serve as name-bearer so long as it is not already employed.
The printing of fossil names for stratigraphic units should be
guided by the rules laid down in the International Code of Zoologi-
cal Nomenclature or the International Code of Botanical Nomencla-
ture. The initial letter of the unit-term (Biozone, Zone, Assemblage
Zone) should be capitalized as well as that of the generic names; the
initial letter of the specic epithets should be in lowercase; taxo-
nomic names of genera and species should be in italics, for example
Exus albus Range Zone.
The name of the taxon chosen to designate a biozone should
include the entire name of the taxon. Thus, Exus albus is correct.
After the rst mention, the name may be abbreviated in any way
consistent with clarity.
Codication of biostratigraphic zones by letters or numbers or
a combination of both is becoming common practice. If used con-
sistently and judiciously such code designations can be extremely
useful. They are brief, generally indicate the sequence and relative
positions of the zones, and they facilitate communication between
biostratigraphers, geologists, and other professionals. However,
they do not lend themselves to insertions, combinations, deletions,
or other modications once the zonation has been published. Also,
they may be a source of confusion if more than one zonation of a
particular sequence of strata employs the same designations but in
different ways. Code designations of biostratigraphic units should
be considered informal nomenclature.
I. Revision of Biostratigraphic Units
Revision of biostratigraphic units honors priority for the sake
of stability and precision in communication. However, the rst bios-
tratigraphic zonation to be described is not necessarily the most use-
ful. Revision or new biozonations should be clearly dened and/or
characterized, be more widely applicable, offer greater precision,
and be more easily identied.
Changes in nomenclature of biostratigraphic units conform
with changes in the names of taxa as required by the International
Codes of Zoological and Botanical Nomenclature.
Named biostratigraphic units will automatically change scope
to accord with changes in the scope of taxa dening or characteriz-
ing them. A fossil name once used for a biozone is not available for
use in a different zonal sense by a later author. If it is desirable to
continue the use of a taxonomic term that is no longer valid, the term
should be placed in quotation marks, e.g. Rotalia beccari Zone.
December 1999
264
Figure 6 Assemblage zone. In this example, the assemblage diagnostic of the zone includes nine taxa with diverse stratigraphic ranges. For
this assemblage zone to be useful, it may be necessary to provide some explicit description of its boundaries: for example, the lower boundary
can be said to be placed at the lowermost occurrence of taxa a and g and the upper boundary at the highest occurrence of taxon e. Most of
the taxa of the assemblage characteristic of the zone should, however, be present.
Figure 7 Abundance zones.
CHAPTER 8 Magnetostratigraphic
Polarity Units
A. Nature of Magnetostratigraphic Polarity Units
When measurable magnetic properties of rocks vary strati-
graphically they may be the bases for related but different kinds of
stratigraphic units known collectively as magnetostratigraphic
units (magnetozones).
The magnetic property most useful in stratigraphic work is the
change in the direction of the remanent magnetization of the rocks,
caused by reversals in the polarity of the Earths magnetic eld.
Such reversals of the polarity have taken place many times during
geologic history. They are recorded in the rocks because the rocks
become magnetized in the direction of the Earths magnetic eld at
the time of their formation. The direction of the remanent magnetic
polarity recorded in the stratigraphic sequence can be used as the
basis for the subdivision of the sequence into units characterized by
their magnetic polarity. Such units are called magnetostratigraphic
polarity units. A magnetostratigraphic polarity unit is present only
where this property can be identied in the rocks.
The positive direction of magnetization of a rock is, by deni-
tion, its north-seeking magnetization (it points toward the Earths
present magnetic North Pole), and the rock is said to have normal
magnetization, or normal polarity. Conversely, if it points to the
present magnetic South Pole, the rock is said to have reversed mag-
netization, or reversed polarity. Magnetostratigraphic polarity
units are, therefore, either normal or reversed.
A problem arises because the north paleomagnetic pole is
believed to have crossed the geographic equator in Paleozoic time,
so that for some lower Paleozoic and older rocks it is unclear which
is the direction of the North Pole and which the South Pole. Polarity
must in these cases be dened with respect to the apparent polar
wander path (APWP) for the crustal plate where it is found. If the
direction of magnetization of a rock unit indicates a paleomagnetic
pole that falls on the APWP that terminates at the present North Pole,
the rock unit has normal polarity; if the magnetization is directed
180from this, it has reversed polarity.
Magnetostratigraphic polarity units have been established in
two ways: 1) combining the determination of the orientation of the
remanent magnetization of sedimentary or volcanic rocks from out-
crops or cored sections with their age determined by isotopic or bios-
tratigraphic methods; 2) through the use of shipboard magnetometer
proles from ocean surveys to identify and correlate linear magnetic
anomalies that are interpreted as reecting reversals of the Earths
magnetic eld, recorded in the lava of the sea oor during the sea-
oor-spreading process. It has been shown that the two kinds of
investigation are correlative and record the same causative process.
The rst type may be handled by using normal stratigraphic
procedures. Units of the second type, currently identied by anom-
aly numbers, are deduced from a remotely obtained record of the
overall variations of the geomagnetic eld from unseen rocks on or
below the sea oor. Marine magnetic anomalies are, thus, not true
conventional stratigraphic units. However, they are useful units in
the reconstruction of continental plate motions and in the interpreta-
tion of the geologic history of the ocean basins.
The relation of magnetostratigraphic polarity units to other
kinds of stratigraphic units is discussed in Chapter 10.
B. Denitions
1. Magnetostratigraphy. The element of stratigraphy that
deals with the magnetic characteristics of rock bodies.
2. Magnetostratigraphic classication. The organization of
rock bodies into units based on differences in magnetic character.
3. Magnetostratigraphic unit (magnetozone). A body of
rocks unied by similar magnetic characteristics which allow it to be
differentiated from adjacent rock bodies.
4. Magnetostratigraphic polarity classication. The organi-
zation of rock bodies into units based on changes in the polarity of
their remanent magnetization related to reversals in the polarity of
the Earths magnetic eld.
5. Magnetostratigraphic polarity unit. A body of rocks char-
acterized by its magnetic polarity that allows it to be differentiated
from adjacent rock bodies.
6. Magnetostratigraphic polarity-reversal horizons and
polarity-transition zones. Magnetostratigraphic polarity-reversal
horizons are surfaces or thin transition intervals across which the
magnetic polarity reverses. Where the polarity change takes place
through a substantial interval of strata, of the order of 1 m in thick-
ness, the term magnetostratigraphic polarity transition-zone
should be used. Magnetostratigraphic polarity-reversal horizons and
polarity-transition zones provide the boundaries for magnetostrati-
graphic polarity units.
C. Kinds of Magnetostratigraphic Polarity Units
The basic formal unit in magnetostratigraphic polarity classi-
cation is the magnetostratigraphic polarity zone, or simply polarity
zone. Polarity zones may be subdivided into polarity subzones and
grouped into polarity superzones.
Magnetostratigraphic polarity zones may consist of bodies of
strata unied by 1) a single polarity of magnetization; 2) an intri-
cate alternation of normal and reversed polarity of magnetization; 3)
having dominantly either normal or reversed polarity, but with minor
intervals of the opposite polarity.
D. Procedures for Establishing Magneto-
stratigraphic Polarity Units
See section 3.B. Standards of reference and stratotypes for
polarity units require special treatment. The standard of reference
for the denition and recognition of a magnetostratigraphic polarity
unit for land-based units is a designated stratotype in a continuous
sequence of strata that shows its polarity pattern throughout and
clearly denes its upper and lower limits by means of boundary stra-
totypes. These are marked with articial permanent markers to facil-
itate restudy.
The standard of reference of marine-based units is a designated
prole along a designated traverse with all instrumental and guid-
ance conditions specied. This pattern of polarity reversals from the
ocean oor should be dated by extrapolation and interpolation from
isotopic and paleontologic information.
E. Procedures for Extending Magnetostratigraphic
Polarity Units
A magnetostratigraphic polarity unit and its boundaries may be
extended away from its type locality or stratotype only as far as the
magnetic properties and stratigraphic position of the unit can be
identied.
F. Naming of Magnetostratigraphic Polarity Units
See section 3.B.3. The formal name of a magnetostratigraphic
polarity unit is formed from the name of an appropriate geographic
feature combined with a term indicating its rank and direction of
polarity, e.g. Jaramillo Normal Polarity Zone. The currently well-
established names derived from the names of distinguished contrib-
utors to the science of geomagnetism (for example, Brunhes, Gauss,
Matuyama) should not be replaced.
Numbered or lettered units may be used informally, but this is
not recommended as a general practice. However, the classic linear
magnetic anomalies of the ocean oor are excepted, because of their
historical importance and dominance in the literature.
Episodes, Vol. 22, no. 4
265
The time interval represented by a magnetostratigraphic polar-
ity unit is called a chron (superchron or subchron if necessary).
Chronozone is the term used to refer to the rocks formed anywhere
during a particular magnetostratigraphic polarity chron (Table 2).
G. Revision of Magnetostratigraphic Polarity Units
See Section 3.B.5.
CHAPTER 9 Chronostratigraphic Units
A. Nature of Chronostratigraphic Units
Chronostratigraphic units are bodies of rocks, layered or
unlayered, that were formed during a specied interval of geologic
time. The units of geologic time during which chronostratigraphic
units were formed are called geochronologic units.
The relation of chronostratigraphic units to other kinds of
stratigraphic units is discussed in Chapter 10.
B. Denitions
1. Chronostratigraphy. The element of stratigraphy that deals
with the relative time relations and ages of rock bodies.
2. Chronostratigraphic classication. The organization of
rocks into units on the basis of their age or time of origin.
The purpose of chronostratigraphic classication is to organize
systematically the rocks forming the Earths crust into named units
(chronostratigraphic units) corresponding to intervals of geologic
time (geochronologic units) to serve as a basis for time-correlation
and a reference system for recording events of geologic history.
3. Chronostratigraphic unit. A body of rocks that includes all
rocks formed during a specic interval of geologic time, and only
those rocks formed during that time span. Chronostratigraphic units
are bounded by synchronous horizons. The rank and relative magni-
tude of the units in the chronostratigraphic hierarchy are a function
of the length of the time interval that their rocks subtend, rather than
of their physical thickness.
4. Chronostratigraphic horizon (Chronohorizon). A strati-
graphic surface or interface that is synchronous, everywhere of the
same age.
C. Kinds of Chronostratigraphic Units
1.Hierarchy of formal chronostratigraphic and geochrono-
logic unit terms. The Guide recommends the following formal
chronostratigraphic terms and geochronologic equivalents to express
units of different rank or time scope (Table 3).
Position within a chronostratigraphic unit is expressed by adjec-
tives indicative of position such as: basal, lower, middle, upper, etc.;
position within a geochronologic unit is expressed by temporal
adjectives such as: early, middle, late, etc.
2. Stage (and Age). The stage has been called the basic work-
ing unit of chronostratigraphy because it is suited in scope and rank
to the practical needs and purposes of intraregional chronostrati-
graphic classication.
a. Denition. The stage includes all rocks formed during an
age. A stage is normally the lowest ranking unit in the chronostrati-
graphic hierarchy that can be recognized on a global scale. It is a
subdivision of a series.
b. Boundaries and stratotypes. A stage is dened by its
boundary stratotypes, sections that contain a designated point in a
stratigraphic sequence of essentially continuous deposition, prefer-
ably marine, chosen for its correlation potential.
The selection of the boundaries of the stages of the Standard
Global Chronostratigraphic Scale deserves particular emphasis
because such boundaries serve to dene not only the stages but also
chronostratigraphic units of higher rank, such as series and systems.
c. Time span. The lower and upper boundary stratotypes of a
stage represent specic moments in geologic time, and the time
interval between them is the time span of the stage. Currently rec-
ognized stages vary in time span, but most range between 2 and 10
million years. The thickness of the strata in a stage and its duration
in time are independent variables of widely varying magnitudes.
d. Name. The name of a stage should be derived from a geo-
graphic feature in the vicinity of its stratotype or type area. In Eng-
lish, the adjectival form of the geographic term is used with an end-
ing in ian or an. The age takes the same name as the corre-
sponding stage.
3. Substage and Superstage
A substage is a subdivision of a stage whose equivalent
geochronologic term is subage. Adjacent stages may be grouped
into a superstage. Names of substages and superstages follow the
same rules as those of stages.
4. Series (and Epoch)
a. Denition. The series is a chronostratigraphic unit ranking
above a stage and below a system. The geochronologic equivalent of
a series is an epoch . The terms superseries and subseries have been
used only infrequently.
b. Boundaries and boundary-stratotypes. Series are dened
by boundary stratotypes (see section 9.H).
c. Time span. See section 9.D. The time span of currently
accepted series ranges from 13 to 35 million years.
d. Name. A new series name should be derived from a geo-
graphic feature in the vicinity of its stratotype or type area. The
names of most currently recognized series, however, are derived
from their position within a system: lower, middle, upper. Names of
geographic origin should preferably be given the ending ian or
an. The epoch corresponding to a series takes the same name as
the series except that the terms lower and upper applied to a
series are changed to early and late when referring to an epoch.
e. Misuse of series. The use of the term series for a lithos-
tratigraphic unit more or less equivalent to a group should be dis-
continued.
5. System (and Period)
a. Denition. A system is a unit of major rank in the conven-
tional chronostratigraphic hierarchy, above a series and below an
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266
Table 3 Conventional Hierarchy of Formal Chronostratigraphic
and Geochronologic Terms.
Chronostratigraphic Geochronologic
Eonothem Eon
Erathem Era
System* period*
Series* Epoch*
Stage Age
Substage Subage or Age
* If additional ranks are needed, the prexes sub and super may be used with
these terms.
Several adjacent stages may be grouped into a superstage (see Section
9.C.3).
Table 2 Recommended Terminology for Magnetostratigraphic
Polarity Units.
Magnetostratigraphic Chronostratigraphic Geochronologic
polarity units equivalent equivalent
Polarity superzone Chronozone Chron
(or superchronozone) (or superchron)
Polarity zone Chronozone Chron
Polarity subzone Chronozone Chron
(or subchronozone) (or subchron)
erathem. The geochronologic equivalent of a system is a period.
Occasionally, the terms subsystem and supersystem have been used.
b. Boundaries and boundary-stratotypes. The boundaries of a
system are dened by boundary-stratotypes (see section 9.H).
c. Time span. The time span of the currently accepted
Phanerozoic systems ranges from 30 to 80 million years, except for
the Quaternary System that has a time span of only about 1.64 mil-
lion years.
d. Name. The names of currently recognized systems are of
diverse origin inherited from early classications: some indicate
chronologic position (Tertiary, Quaternary), others have lithologic
connotation (Carboniferous, Cretaceous), others are tribal (Ordovi-
cian, Silurian), and still others are geographic (Devonian, Permian).
Likewise, they bear a variety of endings such as an, ic, and
ous. There is no need to standardize the derivation or orthography
of the well-established system names. The period takes the same
name as the system to which it corresponds.
6. Erathem (and Era)
An erathem consists of a group of systems. The geochrono-
logic equivalent of an erathem is an era. The names of erathems
were chosen to reect major changes of the development of life on
the Earth: Paleozoic (old life), Mesozoic (intermediate life), and
Cenozoic (recent life). Eras carry the same name as their corre-
sponding erathems.
7. Eonothem (and Eon)
An eonothem is a chronostratigraphic unit greater than an
erathem. The geochronologic equivalent is an eon. Three eonothems
are generally recognized, from older to younger, the Archean, Pro-
terozoic and Phanerozoic eonothems. The combined rst two are
usually referred to as the Precambrian. The eons take the same name
as their corresponding eonothems.
8. Nonhierarchical formal chronostratigraphic unitsthe
Chronozone.
a. Denition. A chronozone is a formal chronostratigraphic
unit of unspecied rank, not part of the hierarchy of conventional
chronostratigraphic units. It is the body of rocks formed anywhere
during the time span of some designated stratigraphic unit or geo-
logic feature. The corresponding geochronologic unit is the chron.
b. Time span. The time span of a chronozone is the time span
of a previously designated stratigraphic unit or interval, such as a
lithostratigraphic, biostratigraphic, or magnetostratigraphic polarity
unit. It should be recognized, however, that while the stratigraphic
unit on which the chronozone is based extends geographically only
as far as its diagnostic properties can be recognized, the correspond-
ing chronozone includes all rocks formed everywhere during the
time span represented by the designated unit. For instance, a formal
chronozone based on the time span of a biozone includes all strata
equivalent in age to the total maximum time span of that biozone
regardless of the presence or absence of fossils diagnostic of the bio-
zone (Figure 8).
Chronozones may be of widely different time spans. The des-
ignation of the boundaries of a chronozone and of its time span can
be done in several ways depending on the nature of the stratigraphic
unit on which the chronozone is based. If the unit has a designated
stratotype, the boundaries and time span of the chronozone can be
made to correspond either to those of the unit at its stratotype or to
the total time span of the unit, which may be longer than that at the
stratotype. In this second case, the boundaries and time span of the
chronozone would vary with increasing information concerning the
time span of the unit. If the unit on which the chronozone is based is
of the type which cannot appropriately have a designated stratotype,
such as a biostratigraphic unit, its time span cannot be dened either
because the time span of the reference unit may change with increas-
ing information (see section 7.A).
c. Geographic extent. The geographic extent of a chronozone
is, in theory, worldwide, but its applicability is limited to the area
over which its time span can be identied, which is usually less.
d. Name. A chronozone takes its name from the stratigraphic
unit on which it is based, e.g., Exus albus Chronozone, based on the
Exus albus Range Zone.
D. The Standard Global Chronostratigraphic
(Geochronologic) Scale
1. Concept
A major goal of chronostratigraphic classication is the estab-
lishment of a hierarchy of chronostratigraphic units of worldwide
scope, which will serve as a standard scale of reference for the dat-
ing of all rocks everywhere and for relating all rocks everywhere to
world geologic history (See section 9.B.2). All units of the standard
chronostratigraphic hierarchy are theoretically worldwide in extent,
as are their corresponding time spans.
2. Present status
Table 4 shows the Standard Global Chronostratigraphic
(Geochronologic) Scale of common current usage. Numerical ages
taken from recently published geologic time scales are added. Only
the major units for which there is general agreement are shown.
E. Regional Chronostratigraphic Scales
The units of the Standard Global Chronostratigraphic
(Geochronologic) Scale are valid only as they are based on sound,
detailed local and regional stratigraphy. Accordingly, the route
toward recognition of uniform global units is by means of local or
regional stratigraphic scales. Moreover, regional units will probably
always be needed whether or not they can be correlated with the
standard global units. It is better to refer strata to local or regional
units with accuracy and precision rather than to strain beyond the
current limits of time correlation in assigning these strata to units of
a global scale. Local or regional chronostratigraphic units are gov-
erned by the same rules as are established for the units of the Stan-
dard Global Chronostratigraphic Scale.
F. Subdivision of the Precambrian
The Precambrian has been subdivided into arbitrary geochrono-
metric units, but it has not been subdivided into chronostratigraphic
units recognizable on a global scale.
There are prospects that chronostratigraphic subdivision of
much of the Precambrian may eventually be attained through iso-
topic dating and through other means of time correlation. However,
the basic principles to be used in subdividing the Precambrian into
major chronostratigraphic units should be the same as for Phanero-
zoic rocks, even though different emphasis may be placed on various
means of time correlation, predominantly isotopic dating.
Episodes, Vol. 22, no. 4
267
Figure 8 Relation between Exus albus Chronozone and Exus albus
Biozone. (Distribution of specimens of Exus albus shown by dot-
pattern.
G. Quaternary Chronostratigraphic Units
The basic principles used in subdividing the Quaternary into
chronostratigraphic units are the same as for other Phanerozoic
chronostratigraphic units, although the methods of time correlation
may have a different emphasis. As in the case of other chronostrati-
graphic units, those of the Quaternary require boundary denitions
and designation of boundary stratotypes.
H. Procedures for Establishing Chronostratigraphic
Units
See also section 3.B.
1. Boundary stratotypes as standards
The essential part of the denition of a chronostratigraphic unit
is the time span during which the unit described was formed. Since
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268
Table 4 Major Units of the STandard Global Chronolstratigraphic (Geochronologic) Scale (1)
the only record of geologic time and of the events of geologic history
lies in the rocks themselves, the best standard for a chronostrati-
graphic unit is a body of rocks formed between two designated
instants of geologic time.
For these reasons, the boundaries of a chronostratigraphic unit
of any rank are dened by two designated reference points in the
rock sequence. The two points are located in the boundary-strato-
types of the chronostratigraphic unit which need not be part of a sin-
gle section. Both, however, should be chosen in sequences of essen-
tially continuous deposition since the reference points for the bound-
aries should represent points in time as specic as possible (see sec-
tion 9.H.3).
2. Advantage of dening chronostratigraphic units by
their lower boundary stratotypes
The denition of a chronostratigraphic unit places emphasis in
the selection of the boundary-stratotype of its lower boundary; its
upper boundary is dened as the lower boundary of the succeeding
unit. This procedure avoids gaps and overlaps in the Standard
Global Chronostratigraphic Scale. For example, should it be shown
that the selected horizon is at the level of an undetected break in the
sequence, then the missing span of geologic history would belong to
the lower unit by denition and ambiguity is avoided.
3. Requirements for the selection of boundary stratotypes
of chronostratigraphic units
Chronostratigraphic units offer the best promise of being iden-
tied, accepted, and used globally and of being, therefore, the basis
for international communication and understanding because they are
dened on the basis of their time of formation, a universal property.
Particularly important in this respect are the units of the Standard
Global Chronostratigraphic (Geochronologic) Scale. The term
Global Boundary Stratotype Section and Point (GSSP) has been
proposed for the standard boundary-stratotypes of the units of this
scale.
In addition to the general requirements for the selection and
description of stratotypes (section 4.C), boundary-stratotypes of
chronostratigraphic units should fulll the following requirements:
The boundary-stratotypes must be selected in sections rep-
resenting essentially continuous deposition. The worst possible
choice for a boundary-stratotype of a chronostratigraphic unit is at an
unconformity.
The boundary-stratotypes of Standard Global Chronostrati-
graphic Units should be in marine, fossiliferous sections without
major vertical lithofacies or biofacies changes. Boundary strato-
types of chronostratigraphic units of local application may need to be
in a nonmarine section.
The fossil content should be abundant, distinctive, well pre-
served, and represent a fauna and/or ora as cosmopolitan and as
diverse as possible.
The section should be well exposed and in an area of mini-
mal structural deformation or surcial disturbance, metamorphism
and diagenetic alteration, and with ample thickness of strata below,
above and laterally from the selected boundary-stratotype.
Boundary stratotypes of the units of the Standard Global
Chronostratigraphic Scale should be selected in easily accessible
sections that offer reasonable assurance of free study, collection, and
long-range preservation. Permanent eld markers are desirable.
The selected section should be well studied and collected and
the results of the investigations published, and the fossils collected
from the section securely stored and easily accessible for study in a
permanent facility.
The selection of the boundary stratotype, where possible,
should take account of historical priority and usage and should
approximate traditional boundaries.
To insure its acceptance and use in the Earth sciences, a
boundary stratotype should be selected to contain as many specic
marker horizons or other attributes favorable for long-distance time
correlation as possible.
The IUGS International Commission on Stratigraphy is the
body responsible for coordinating the selection and approval of
GSSPs of the units of the Standard Global Chronostratigraphic
(Geochronologic) Scale.
I. Procedures for Extending Chronostratigraphic
UnitsChronocorrelation (Time Correlation)
The boundaries of chronostratigraphic units are synchronous
horizons by denition. In practice, the boundaries are synchronous
only so far as the resolving power of existing methods of time corre-
lation can prove them to be so. All possible lines of evidence should
be utilized to extend chronostratigraphic units and their boundaries.
Some of the most commonly used are:
1. Physical Interrelations of strata
The Law of Superposition states that in an undisturbed
sequence of sedimentary strata the uppermost strata are younger than
those on which they rest. The determination of the order of super-
position provides unequivocal evidence for relative age relations.
All other methods of relative age determination are dependent on the
observed physical sequence of strata as a check on their validity. For
a sufficiently limited distance, the trace of a bedding plane is the best
indicator of synchroneity.
2. Lithology
Lithologic properties are commonly inuenced more strongly
by local environment than by age, the boundaries of lithostrati-
graphic units eventually cut across synchronous surfaces, and simi-
lar lithologic features occur repeatedly in the stratigraphic sequence.
Even so, a lithostratigraphic unit always has some chronostrati-
graphic connotation and is useful as an approximate guide to
chronostratigraphic position, especially locally. Distinctive and
widespread lithologic units also may be diagnostic of chronostrati-
graphic position.
3. Paleontology
The orderly and progressive course of organic evolution is irre-
versible with respect to geologic time and the remains of life are
widespread and distinctive. For these reasons, fossil taxa, and par-
ticularly their evolutionary sequences, constitute one of the best and
most widely used means of tracing and correlating beds and deter-
mining their relative age.
Biostratigraphic correlation, however, is not time correlation
because homotaxy between samples may result from other causes
than that the samples are equal in age.
4. Isotopic age determinations
Isotopic dating methods (U-Pb, Rb-Sr, K-Ar, Ar-Ar) based on
the radioactive decay of certain parent nuclides at a rate that is con-
stant and suitable for measuring geologic time provide chronostrati-
graphic data of high precision with analytical errors in the range of
0.1 to 2 percent. However, not all rock types and minerals are
amenable to isotopic age determination.
Isotopic dating contributes age values expressed in years and it
provides the major hope for working out the ages and age relation-
ships of Precambrian rocks. In some circumstances, isotopic age
determinations provide the most accurate or even the only basis for
age determination and chronostratigraphic classication of sedimen-
tary, volcanic and other igneous rocks.
Discrepancies in age results may arise from the use of different
decay constants. It is important to geological comparisons, there-
fore, that the uniform sets of decay constants recommended by the
IUGS Subcommission on Geochronology be used.
A method of age determination through radioactivity differing
from those mentioned above is that based on the proportion of the
Episodes, Vol. 22, no. 4
269
radiocarbon isotope (
14
C) to normal carbon in the organic matter of
sediments. This method has been extremely valuable but is limited
in application to the dating of upper Quaternary strata.
5. Geomagnetic polarity reversals
Periodic reversals of the polarity of the Earths magnetic eld
are utilized in chronostratigraphy, particularly in upper Mesozoic
and Cenozoic rocks where a magnetic time scale has been devel-
oped. Polarity reversals are, however, binary and specic ones can-
not be identied without assistance from some other method of dat-
ing such as biostratigraphy or isotopic dating.
6. Paleoclimatic change
Climatic changes leave imprints on the geological record in the
form of glacial deposits, evaporites, red beds, coal deposits, faunal
changes, etc. Their effects on the rocks may be local or widespread
and provide valuable information for chronocorrelation, but they
must be used in combination with other specic methods.
7. Paleogeography and eustatic changes in sea level
As a result of either epeirogenic movements of the land masses
or eustatic rises and lowerings of the sea level, certain periods of
Earth history are characterized worldwide by a general high or low
stand of the continents with respect to sea level. The evidence in the
rocks of the resulting transgressions, regressions, and unconformi-
ties can furnish an excellent basis for establishing a worldwide
chronostratigraphic framework. The identication of a particular
event, however, is complicated by local vertical movements and so
the method requires auxiliary help in order to identify the events cor-
rectly.
8. Unconformities
Even though a surface of unconformity varies in age and time-
value from place to place and is never universal in extent, certain
unconformities may serve as useful guides to the approximate place-
ment of chronostratigraphic boundaries. Unconformities, however,
cannot fulll the requirements for the selection of such boundaries
(see section 9.H.3).
9. Orogenies
Crustal disturbances have a recognizable effect on the strati-
graphic record. However, the considerable duration of many oroge-
nies, their local rather than worldwide nature, and the difficulty of
precise identication make them unsatisfactory indicators of world-
wide chronostratigraphic correlation.
10. Other indicators
Many other lines of evidence may in some circumstances be
helpful as guides to time-correlation and as indicators of chronos-
tratigraphic position. Some are more used than others, but none
should be rejected.
J. Naming of Chronostratigraphic Units
A formal chronostratigraphic unit is given a binomial designa-
tion - a proper name plus a term-word - and the initial letters of both
are capitalized. Its geochronologic equivalent uses the same proper
name combined with the equivalent geochronologic term, e.g., Cre-
taceous System - Cretaceous Period. The proper name of a chronos-
tratigraphic or geochronologic unit may be used alone where there is
no danger of confusion, e.g. the Aquitanian in place of the Aqui-
tanian Stage. See sections 3.B.3 and 3.B.4.
K. Revision of Chronostratigraphic Units
See sections 3.B and 9.H.
CHAPTER 10 Relation Between Different
Kinds of Stratigraphic Units
The categories within stratigraphic classication are all closely
related. All deal with the rocks of the Earths crust, with the picture
of the stratied Earth, and with the history of the Earth as interpreted
from its rock bodies. Each category, however, is concerned with a
different property or attribute of the rocks and a different aspect of
Earth history. The relative importance of the different categories
varies with the circumstances. Each is important for particular pur-
poses.
Lithostratigraphic units are the basic units of geologic map-
ping. Wherever there are rocks, it is possible to develop a lithos-
tratigraphic classication. Lithostratigraphic units are based on the
lithologic character of rocks. Fossils may be an important distin-
guishing element in their recognition, but only because of their diag-
nostic lithologic characterization.
Inasmuch as each lithostratigraphic unit was formed during a
specic interval of geologic time, it has chronostratigraphic signi-
cance. The concept of time, however, plays little part in establishing
or identifying lithostratigraphic units and their boundaries. Litho-
logic character is inuenced more strongly by conditions of forma-
tion than by time of origin; nearly identical rock types are repeated
time and again in the stratigraphic sequence, and the boundaries of
almost all lithostratigraphic units cut across synchronous surfaces
when traced laterally.
Biostratigraphic classication is also an early step in working
out the stratigraphy of a region. Biostratigraphic units are based on
the fossil content of the rocks. The selection and establishment of
biostratigraphic units are not determined by the lithologic composi-
tion of the strata, except that the presence or absence of fossils and
the kind of fossils present, may be related to the type and lithofacies
of the rocks in which they are found.
Biostratigraphic units are distinct from other kinds of strati-
graphic units in that the organisms whose fossil remains dene them
show evolutionary changes through geologic time that are not
repeated in the stratigraphic record. This makes the fossil assem-
blages of any one age distinctive from any other.
Lithostratigraphic and biostratigraphic units are fundamentally
different kinds of stratigraphic units based on different distinguish-
ing criteria. Their boundaries may coincide locally, but commonly
they lie at different stratigraphic horizons or cross each other.
Whereas lithostratigraphic classication is possible for any body of
rock, biostratigraphic classication is possible only for fossiliferous
rocks that bear identiable fossils.
Both lithostratigraphic and biostratigraphic units reect the
environment of deposition, but biostratigraphic units are more inu-
enced by, and indicative of, geologic age. They are also less repeti-
tive in character because they are based on irreversible evolutionary
change.
Lithostratigraphic and biostratigraphic units are indispensable
objective units, essential in picturing the lithologic constitution and
geometry of the rocks of the Earths crust and the development of
life and past environments on the Earth.
Unconformity-bounded units and magnetostratigraphic polar-
ity units, like biostratigraphic units, can be established only when the
diagnostic properties on which they are based are present in the
rocks.
Unconformity-bounded units may include a number of other
kinds of stratigraphic units, both in vertical and lateral succession.
Similarly, an unconformity-bounded unit may represent all or parts
of several chronostratigraphic units. In special cases, the boundaries
of an unconformity-bounded unit may coincide with the boundaries
of other kinds of stratigraphic units. However, the boundaries of
unconformity-bounded units are always diachronous to a lesser or
greater extent, and so never correspond with the boundaries of
chronostratigraphic units.
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270
Magnetostratigraphic polarity units while similar to lithostrati-
graphic and biostratigraphic units in that they are based only on a
directly determinable property of the rocks, their magnetic polarity,
are different from them because magnetostratigraphic polarity units
are potentially recognizable globally and, in this respect, they are
similar to chronostratigraphic units.
The changes in magnetic polarity are the result of very rapid
worldwide reversals of the Earths magnetic eld, generally occur-
ring through a time span of no more than about 5,000 years. The
magnetic-polarity-reversal horizons produced as a result of these
events do not, therefore, constitute synchronous horizons. Conse-
quently, the body of rocks lying between magnetic-polarity reversals
horizons produced by two successive polarity reversals constitutes a
polarity unit containing everywhere strata representing essentially,
but not exactly, the same time span. Such units may closely approx-
imate chronostratigraphic units, but they are not chronostratigraphic
units because they are dened primarily not by the record of time but
by a specic physical character, the change in the polarity of rema-
nent magnetization, which is not instantaneous.
Moreover, because of the variability in the distinctness of the
imprint or in the preservation of the polarity record, because of
unconformities in the section, because of the effects of bioturbation,
or because of possibilities of subsequent remagnetization, or for
other reasons, the boundaries of a polarity unit depart from syn-
chroneity.
Although magnetostratigraphic-polarity horizons and units
may be useful guides to chronostratigraphic position, they have rel-
atively little individuality, one reversal looks like another, and can
usually be identied only by supporting age evidence, such as pale-
ontologic or isotopic data.
Chronostratigraphic units are dened as encompassing all
rocks formed within certain time spans of Earth history regardless of
their compositions or properties. By denition, these units every-
where include rocks of only a certain age and their boundaries are
everywhere synchronous. This is in contrast with lithostratigraphic
units that can be objectively recognized wherever there are rocks,
and with biostratigraphic, magnetostratigraphic polarity, and uncon-
formity-bounded units that are limited by the occurrence of specic
properties or attributes of the rocks. Whereas other kinds of strati-
graphic units are distinguished, established, and identied on the
basis of observable physical features, chronostratigraphic units are
distinguished, established, and identied on the basis of their time of
formationan abstract characteras interpreted from these observ-
able properties.
Biostratigraphic units may approximate chronostratigraphic
units even over wide areas, but the boundaries of biostratigraphic
units may diverge from those of a chronostratigraphic unit for many
reasons. Principal among these are changes in depositional facies,
variations in conditions for fossilization and preservation of fossils,
vagaries of fossil discovery, and biogeographic differences. Bios-
tratigraphic units cannot be recognized in rocks where there are no
fossils.
Some lithostratigraphic units are excellent guides to approxi-
mate time correlation over large areas, as in the case of volcanic ash
beds, but they, like biostratigraphic units, are not chronostrati-
graphic units because they are not bounded everywhere by synchro-
nous surfaces.
Unconformity-bounded units and magnetostratigraphic polar-
ity units also provide valuable support for the development of
chronostratigraphic classication. Especially, the boundaries of
magnetostratigraphic polarity units because they record the very
rapid reversal of the Earths magnetic eld, approach synchronous
surfaces closer than any other kind of objective stratigraphic unit. If
properly identied, they offer a sound foundation for global time
correlation and chronostratigraphic classication.
Chronostratigraphic classication stands out as the basis to
reach the ultimate goal of stratigraphy. Chronostratigraphic units, as
divisions of rock bodies based on geologic time, are in principle
worldwide in extent, and important in providing a worldwide basis
for communication and understanding.
The above-mentioned kinds of stratigraphic units and their cor-
responding elds of stratigraphic investigation are the most com-
monly used. However, there are many other fruitful lines of strati-
graphic endeavor and many other kinds of stratigraphic units which,
under appropriate circumstances and for certain objectives, are use-
ful. Thus, we may nd it useful to recognize stratigraphic units or
horizons based on electric-log characters, seismic properties, chem-
ical changes, stable isotope analyses, or any of many other proper-
ties of rock bodies. No one can or need use all the possible kinds of
stratigraphic tools or units that are potentially available, but the way
should be kept open within the denition and scope of stratigraphy
to apply any that give promise of being useful.
Episodes, Vol. 22, no. 4
271
Michael A. Murphy is Professor
Emeritus, now at the University of
California, Davis. His research has
centered on Silurian, Devonian, and
Cretaceous biostratigraphy and
evolutionary patterns of conodonts,
graptolites, and ammonites and the
techniques of sequencing and
correlating stratigraphic data. He is
Past-Chairman of the International
Subcommission on Stratigraphic
Classication of the IUGS International
Commission on Stratigraphy.
Amos Salvador was Chairman of
the International Subcommission on
Stratigraphic Classication of the
IUGS International Commission on
Stratigraphy from 1976 to 1992, and
Editor of the Subcommission's
second edition of the International
Stratigraphic Guide (1994). After a
35-year career in the petroleum
industry, he joined the University of
Texas at Austin in 1980 to teach
petroleum geology, energy resources,
and various aspects of stratigraphy.
Since 1993, as Professor Emeritus,
his research has been dedicated to
the estimation of energy demand and
supply and to matters of stratigraphic
classication and terminology.
Episodes, Vol. 20, nos. 1 March 1998
272 272